Machining Processes

Machining processes work on the principle that the tool is harder than

the work piece. Some materials, are too hard or too brittle to be

machined by conventional methods. The use of very hard nickel-based and titanium

alloys by the aircraft engine industry, for example, has stimulated nonconventional

machining methods.
Single Point Machining

1.Turning: is a machining operation for generating external surfaces of revolution and is

used for producing cylindrical parts with the cutting tool feeding parallel to the axis of

the work piece and at a distance that will remove the outer surface of the work.

2.Boring: Internal surfaces of revolution are machined.

3.Facing: when the feed motion of the tool is given radial that is normal to the axis of

rotation, an end face is produced.

4.Shaping: is a machining operation for generating flat surfaces by means of single point

cutting tool. Work-piece is kept stationary and cutting tool is given a reciprocating

motion.

5.Planing: Work-piece is reciprocated and the cutting tool is imparted the feed motion.

Multi-Point Machining

6.Drilling: is a machining operation in which a hole is produced or enlarged by the use of

a special cutting tool.

7.Reaming: is a hole finishing operation. The cutting tool is a multi-edged cutting tool.

Reaming is also defined as a machining operation in which a rotary tool takes a light cut

to improve the accuracy of a round hole and to reduce the roughness of the whole

surface. Under optimum conditions, it is possible to obtain finishes of 1.00µm or less.

When extremely smooth surfaces are required, honing process is used.

Honing is generally used to produce surface finishes in the range of .80 to .20µm.

8.Milling: is an operation in which surfaces are machined by rotating multi-edged cutting

tools.

9.Broaching: is a machining operation in which a multi-tooth cutter called a broach is

pushed or pulled over an external flat surface of a stationary work-piece to remove metal

by axial cutting.

Applications:

1.For the production of die cavities where the shape permits and where several similar

cavities are required and also for machining internal keyways.

2.It is used in the mass production machining of various surfaces such as cylindrical,

semi-cylindrical surfaces.

10.Sawing: is a process of cutting a work piece with power band saw, hacksaw and

circular saw.

11.Tapping: is a machining operation in which internal & the helical cutting motion of

the multi-point cutting tools produce external screw threads.

FINISHING PROCESSES

12.Cylindrical grinding: is defined as the grinding of round parts between centers. This
process is performed either by traversing the surface to be ground. In this process, work-

piece is held between centers or by means of chuck.

13.Internal grinding: is a operation which involves the grinding of inside diameter or

bore of a part.

14.Surface grinding: is a high conformity grinding operation requiring relatively free

cutting, open wheels to remove material. The sub-segments are defined by wheel type

and fixture type.

15.Centreless grinding: It is a process in which work-piece is supported against the

grinding wheel by a rest and regulating wheel. It is the grinding of the outside diameters

of round parts but not between centers.

It is used in the grinding of long thin parts without having to use steady rests for support,

lessened taper problems and higher productivity.

16.Honing: is a finishing process in which metal is removed with the help of slow

moving (rotating & reciprocating) abrasive sticks which are kept pressed against the

surface to be finished.

17.Lapping: is a finishing process for obtaining very high accuracy in size which

includes small removal of material with the help of abrasive particles which cut under the

action of force and motion provided by a lap.

18.Buffing: This process consists in applying a very fine abrasive with a rotating wheel.

Buffing is used to give a much higher, lustrous, reflective finish that cannot be obtained

by polishing.

E.g:Nozzle cone tip of a rocket.

19.Polishing: is a surface finishing operation performed by a polishing wheel for the

purpose of removing metal to take out scratches, pits and other defects from rough

surfaces.

20.Super finishing: is an operation using bonded abrasive stones in a particular way to

produce an extremely high quality of surface finish in conjunction with a complete

absence of defects in the surface layer.

21.Ultrasonic machining: Metal removal is effected with the help of abrasive grains

which are made to impinge repeatedly upon the work-piece surface by a tool oscillating

at a high frequency.e.g: wiredrawing dies of diamond, silicon wafers, etc. Another

variant is Rotary ultrasonic machining where a metal bonded diamond tool is rotated and

vibrated (ultrasonically) simultaneously. The advantage of this process is that long holes

up to 400 mm can be drilled unlike conventional ultrasonic machining where the depth of

the hole is limited to 20 mm (because of taper formation and reduction in MRR). E.g.

laser rods, ceramic components, quartz crystals, etc.

22.Water jet machining: uses a high velocity stream of water as a cutting tool. This

process is limited to the cutting of non-metallic materials when the jet stream consists

solely of water. It is also called as hydrodynamic machining.

Applications:

1.Cutting of light weight re-inforced plastics.

2.Cutting of printed circuit boards.

23.Abrasive water jet machining: Material is removed by the erosive action of high
velocity abrasive particles impinging on the work-piece.
Applications:
1.Cutting of tool-steel.

2.Cutting of Inconel.
24.Electric discharge machining: Electro erosion is a process of material removal based

on the principle of erosion of metals by an interrupted spark discharge between the

electrode tool (usually cathode) and the work (anode). The tool is made as same as that

of the workpiece. Metal removal is due to metal erosion by interrupted electrical

discharges.

When tool wear is greater than the work piece wear than tool acts as anode and work

piece acts as cathode. Work piece gets hold on to the spindle and tool into the

Vice.e.g: nozzle of GSLV.

e.g.: Drilling of micro hole, thread cutting, helical profile milling, for drilling fine deep

holes.

25.Electron beam machining: A high velocity electron beam is made to impinge on the

surface of the work –piece. In this process, a stream of electrons strike the object and

cause rapid melting and vapourisation of the material.

26.Electric discharge wire cutting: An endless wire acts as an electrode, which removes

the metal. The wire materials used are brass with zinc coated, brass with brass coated,

copper.

27.Electro chemical grinding: Metal is removed by anodic dissolution and abrasion by

the grinding wheel. Cathode is an electrically conductive abrasive grinding wheel.

Oxidation occurs when a metallic work-piece passes an electric current in the presence of

an electrolyte.

Examples: Grinding of carbide cutting tools,

Machining of stellite materials and is used in the re manufacturing of

turbine components.
Advantages:

1.Absence of work hardening

2.Absence of distortion of thin, fragile parts.

28.Electro chemical machining: is the controlled removal of metal by anodic

dissolution in an electrolytic cell in which the work piece is the anode and tool is the

cathode and a direct current is passed through them.

Applications:

1.It is used to rough machine massive forgings.

2.For machining of spiral grooves and turbine blades.

3.It is used in deburring of automated high production applications.

29.Plasma arc machining: is a process used to perform straight cuts of tough materials

at high speed. When a gas is superheated, it breaks into free electrons and positively

charged ions.(An ion is a part of an atom or molecule with an electrical charge). It is

called plasma.

Deformation Processes
30.Hot working: Plastic deformation of metals above recrystallisation temperature.

31.Cold working: Plastic deformation of metals below recrystallisation temperature.

32.Extrusion: A block of metal is reduced in cross-section by forcing it to blow through

a die-orifice under high pressure.

33.wire-drawing:It is a process of reducing diameter by drawing them through conical

opening in die-blocks.
34.Blanking: A process of cutting or shearing a blank from a sheet or strip material.

35.Spinning: A process of shaping a metal blank as it revolves at high speed.

36.Swaging: is a forging operation in which two halves of a die open and close rapidly

while impacting the end of the heated tube or shell.

37.Rotary swaging: This is a cold forming process for reducing cross sections on metal

bar and tube, using dies made up of two or more segments. The work piece on which the

cross section is to be reduced is moved into or placed between the segments. The dies are

rotated around the work piece and apply radial forces in rapid succession. These

movements with controlled kinematics results in high specific forming forces being

applied on the work piece.

38.Upset forging: is used to force the end of a heated bar into a desired shape.

39.Upsetting: is a process of increasing the cross-section of a bar and reducing its length.

40.Liqud bulge forming: is a cold press working technique in which a tubular blank is

deformed in a die by pressurizing liquid within the blank. The liquid used in this process

is a low melting point metal(Lead,Aluminium) or organic liquid.

Application:

It is done on parts such as bi-cycle frame joints and rear axle transmission housings,bi-

cycle hanger frame.

41.Magnetic pulse Forming: involves shallow forming, bulging and embossing

operations on relatively low strength sheets. This operation is most suitable for tubular

shapes. This operation requires special tooling. Write applications and include fig

42.Peen Forming: This Process involves production of shallow contours on large sheets.

This process is also used for straightening parts.

Applications:

Peen forming is used in the manufacturing of aircraft engines, engine blades.

43.Deep drawing: work-piece between blank-holder and die is subjected to pure radial

drawing whereas portion of the work-piece around the punch corners and die are

subjected to bending operation.

44.Explosive Forming: This operation involves very large sheets with relatively

complex shapes, although usually axi symmetric. It requires long cycle times. It is

suitable for low quantity production.

45.Rubber Forming: This process involves the drawing and embossing of simple or

complex shapes. The sheet surface is protected by rubber membranes.

46.Lancing: Cutting in a single line across a part of metal strip to allow bending or

forming in progressive die operation while the part remains attached to the strip.
 47.Bulging: is a process employed to expand a tubular or cylindrical part.

48.Trimming: Cutting of excess metal at the edge during press-working operation.

49.Hemming: is a process in which sheet edges are turned over to provide smooth and

stiff edge.

50.Flattening: A process in which metal strip is bent over 18 degree and then pressed.

It is also defined as the operation of straightening a sheet metal, which is a curved one.

Applications:

It is used in composite fan blades, hull panels for boats, protective and anti

glare films.

51.Slugging: Punching in which punch is stopped as soon as the metal fracture is

completed and metal is not removed but held in hole.

Applications:

Slugging wrenches are designed for use with hammers where impact or

shock loading is required for loosening of frozen and rusty nuts and bolts. Slugging

wrenches are also used in refineries,petrochemicals,iron and steel manufacturing plants.

52.Stretch forming: is a process producing contours in sheet metal end of bending

previously roll formed sections. This process involves the production of large parts with

shallow contours. This process is suitable for low quantity production. It also involves
high tooling and equipment costs.

** Deep drawing is an extension of forming. It stretches the sheet metal into shape

instead of bending it. Deep drawn shapes are either cylinders or squares and can be cut

with ordinary milling and turning techniques.

53.Calendering: is a highly specialized process used for the manufacture of sheet

and one, which requires a high capital outlay. With rigid PVC production

approaching a billion pounds annually, 95 percent of all calendered production is

PVC. Only about 25 of the 150 PVC calenders now operating are used for rigid

production.

54.Thermo-forming: is a process used for the operations in which the polymer is

warmed to the rubbery rather than molten state.

55.Vacuum Forming: This process involves heating a plastic sheet until it gets soft and
then draping it over a mould. A vacuum is applied sucking the sheet into the mould. The

sheet is then ejected from the mould.

Applications:

Vacuum forming is used in the manufacturing of machinery guards, refrigerator

liners, ski-boxes, vehicle door liners.

56.Tube Piercing: is an operation used for the production of seamless tubes. It is the

operation of production of hole in a sheet metal by the punch and the die. The material

punched out to form the hole constitutes the waste.

57.Rubber Pad Forming: In this process, metal blank is positioned on top of the

forming die and is shaped as the pad descends. This process is best for parts that are

moderately shallow and simple in shape.

Hydraulic portal presses are used in which they have wire wound frames and can form

heavy plate into simple or compound curvatures.

METAL JOINING PROCESSES

58.Thermit welding: In this welding process, a mixture of iron oxide and aluminum iron

oxide are used in the ratio of 3:1.

59.Flash Welding: is a process of joining together the end of sheets in which the parts

are brought together into light contact, a voltage high to cause arcing between the ends.

60.Butt-welding: In this process, the heat is being produced by electrical resistance at

the abutting surfaces to the passage of a current.

61.Projection welding: In this process, the current flow and heating are localized to a

restricted area by embossing one of the parts to be joined.

62.Percussion welding: In this process, the electric arc is used to heat the welding
members and only a pressure is used to affect a weld.

63.Plasma arc welding: In this process, ionization of gas takes place and plasma is

formed.

64.Metallic arc welding: In this process, metal electrode serves to carry the arc to act as

the form filler rod, which deposits molten metal into the joint.

65.Carbon arc welding: In this process, metal electrode serves to carry the carbon arc to

act as the form filler rod, which deposits molten metal into the joint. It is used for

welding steel sheet.

66.Submerged arc welding: It is a process used in straight line joining of metals and is a

form of metallic arc welding.

e.g.: welding of low and medium carbon steel.

67.Flux cored arc welding: In this process, flux is carried inside electrode, which

consists of a tube around the flux.

68.Eletro-slag welding: Heavy sections can be joined in a single run by placing the

plates to be welded in vertical position so that molten metal is delivered progressively to

vertical gap.

69.Ultrasonic welding: This process depends on the friction developed by high

frequency vibratory energy for welding. When two pieces of metal are clamped together

under moderately low pressure and ultrasonic energy is transmitted into them for a brief

interval, a metallurgical bond is produced without the use of welding current. This

process is used to produce seam or spot welds.

70.Friction welding: In this process, heat is obtained by rotating friction. Friction

welding is a complex process. The changing progressive stages of the interactions

involved are a function of the instantaneous mechanical, physical and adhesive properties

of the contacting surfaces and the mechanical and physical properties of the solid beneath

the surface.

71.Stud welding: The stud acts as an electrode and is held in a hand tool at right angles

to the plate.

e.g.: It is used for welding studs to plate material.

72.Atomic Hydrogen welding: This process involves the possibility of obtaining atomic

hydrogen by means of an electric arc between two tungsten electrodes in the atmosphere

of oxygen at high pressure. It is used in welding alloy steels.

73.Friction stir welding: is a metal joining technique, which has tremendous potential to

join low melting point materials such as aluminum, copper and its alloys. This process

can be applied for the fabrication of long butt and lap joints with excellent quality.

Friction heating takes place at the tool-work pieces junction, which is a function of

coefficient of friction between tool and work pieces at the junction, diameter of the tool

shoulder, linear velocity of the tool and intensity of pressure applied.

Applications:

This process is used in the fabrication of external fuel tanks of rockets, large light alloy

structures, rolling stock of railways, high-speed vessels and aluminium bridges.

74.Shaving:It is a process of removing burrs and is used for improving accuracy.

75.Slitting:It is a process of cutting wide coils into coils of smaller width. It is also an

operation of cutting a sheet metal in a straight line along the length.

76.Perforating:It is a process of producing a group of punched holes.

77.Thread milling: is a method of cutting screw threads with a milling cutter in a thread

mill.

78.Thread rolling: is a cold forming process for producing threads.

79.Cold rolling: In this process, the steel is first hot rolled near the finished size and then

pickled in acid to remove the scale. It is then passed through a four high mill, which

provides additional pressure.

80.Die threading: is a machining process for cutting external threads in cylindrical

surfaces by the use of solid dies. Die threading is a process for cutting threads by the use

of dies. Thread Rolling is a process through which threads are formed by rolling.

81.Spot-facing: is done to provide a contoured work-piece with a flat surface in order to

facilitate centering and starting of drilled hole.

82.Counter-sinking:In this process, a conical reamer like tool is used to cut a tapered

enlargement at the opening of a hole for receiving the head of a fastener.

83.Electro-stream drilling: is a high voltage process in which a voltage is applied

between the work piece and an acid electrolyte that flows through a manifold and nozzle

shaped glass tubes. The voltage must range from 600 to 900v,drives a current through an

electrolyte column measuring 50 to 100mm.It also requires an extra tank in the

electrolyte system. The acid is pumped from one tank after travelling through the

machine, overflows into a separate tank, which is electrically insulated from the first.

Thus current is prevented from making complete circuits around the system. The

disadvantage is that periodically one tank must be emptied and other refilled.

e.g.:Drilling small rows of cooling holes in gas turbine blades.

84.Hot rolling: It is a process of rolling steel with white-hot high mills.

85.Roll forging: is a forging method for reducing the diameter of a bar and in the process

making it longer.

86.Bulge Forming: is a process in which a tube is expanded under simultaneous axial

compression and internal hydrostatic pressure until it conforms to the internal

configuration of a die within which the work piece is enclosed.

87.Roller Burnishing: is a method of working a metal surface to improve its finish and

dimensional accuracy and can provide some degree of work hardening. Using this

process, hole diameter can be increased by .013 to .051mm.This process is used for metal

softer than 40 HRC.This process increases surface hardening to a depth of.13mm.Asingle

roller burnishing tool is used for NC machines.

POWDER METALLURGY

88.Sintering: is a process of welding the particles of metal powder together to form a

rigid component. It is a powder metallurgy manufacturing method.

89.In-filtration:It is a method of producing non-porous components quickly and cheaply,

which is now of considerable commercial importance, that of impregnating the porous

metal part with a molten metal or alloy of low melting point.

90.Impregnation: Bearings and parts, which are made deliberately porous for self-

lubrication, are impregnated with oil. This is carried out under vaccum to assist the

removal of air from pores.

91.Plating: Dry bearings are produced by impregnating the pores with

polytetrafluoroethylene.surface coatings of zinc, cadmium and lead are applied to porous

parts by the plating process, which avoids the problem of electrolyte absorption.

92.Pickling:It is a process, which requires special solutions of strong acids to remove

surface scale and tarnishing. This operation is done on rolled shapes, wires sheets.

93.Dropforging: In dropforging, forging is done by dropping the die with hammer at

high velocity.

94.Die-forging:In this process, the material is formed between the two dies having

impressions corresponding to the finished shape of the article.

95.Cold drawing: The process consists of descaling hot rolled bar and after suitable

preparation reducing the cross section of the bar by pulling through a die of smaller

dimension.

96.Brazing: This process is used for steel components, which are invariably joined by

means of a fusible alloy or metal called spelter. The common brazing metals used are:

copper which melts at 1080°C,tobinbronze which melts at 885°C and silver solder which

melts at 700°C.Melting of braze in this case is usually achieved indirectly by

conduction through one of the surfaces to be joined.

Large spot sizes are employed.

97.Soldering: In this process, a liquid film of metal is interposed between the two

surfaces to be joined giving on solidification, a joining compound between the

metals. Typical applications are in soldering of thermally sensitive high density

packages .Excellent mechanical properties due to the small grain size associated with

rapid heating and cooling cycles.

98.Riveting: This process can be considered as a permanent method of joining metals

together and is equivalent to nailing in woodwork.

99.Sweating: This is the soft soldering process used when large areas require joining, for

which the heat given off by a poker is insufficient.

100.Slotting: is a cutting operation during which the punch does not cut on all the sides.

It is mainly a milling operation. It can also be said as a operation used for producing

rectangle holes. Slotting cutters are used to produce slots. A slotter is a shaper in which

the job is kept on the worktable and slots are produced on it.

101.Shearing: is a process which uses shear forces of sufficient magnitude to rupture the

metal in the plane of shear. This operation occurs between a punch and a die. As the

clearance between the punch and the die is very small, the deformation takes place in a

localized area and the metal adjacent to the cutting edges of the punch and the die

becomes highly stressed.

102.Stripping:It is a process, which involves ejecting or slugging the part from the die,

so that the punch is set to travel a little further for pushing the part out of the opening.

Applications:

It is used in deflashing of plastics, stripping the paints.

METAL CASTING PROCESSES

103.Invesment casting: This process involves investing a wax, which is melted or

burned out without leaving any residue after which molten metal is poured into the mould

cavity and is allowed to cool slowly to atmospheric temperature when the investment is

broken away freeing the casting.

104.Centrifugal casting: In this process, the mould will consist of a hollow water-cooled
metal tube capable of being revolved at a speed about its axis. This process is used for the

casting of large diameter hollow pipes.

105.Die-casting:It is a process of pouring molten metal under high pressure into mould.

106.Pressed casting: It is a process of making a hollow casting from a permanent mould

by a close fitting core.

107.Slush casting: It is a process of making a hollow casting of desired thickness by a

permanent mould.

108.Gravity casting: is a casting that is produced by pouring molten metal into the

mould.

109.Centrifuge casting: In this process, filling the separate mould cavities with molten

metal produces several small castings.

Application:

It is used for producing large diameter water pipes having high sound

density structure.

110.Plaster casting: If the sand casting process is changed, so that Plaster of Paris is

substituted for sand as the moulding material, that process is said to be plaster casting.

Applications:
Plaster casting is used in the manufacturing of plaster glass, fibrous plaster sheets.
111.Coining: is a sizing operation performed in dies. It is done on surfaces that are

parallel to the forging’s parting line.

Applications:

In making ornaments, toys.

112.Squeezing: This operation requires a tremendous amount of pressure, which is

required to squeeze a metal which is made to flow in a cold state within the cavity of the

die and the punch to attain the desired shape.

113.Curling: is the operation of forming the edges of a component into a roll or a curl by

bending the sheet metal in order to strengthen the edges and to provide smoothness to its

surface.

114.Plunging: is the operation of bending a sheet metal to the desired shape for

accommodating a screw or a rod through the plunged hole.

115.Angle Bending: is the operation of bending a sheet metal to the sharp angle.

116.Cupping: is the operation of production of a cup shaped component by drawing

operation.

117.Tumbling: produces a slight peening on the surface of the parts. It takes place in

revolving drum.

118.Ring rolling: The wall of a ring shaped blank is reduced by progressive

compression, forming it to the shape desired and elongating it so that the ring grows in

diameter and to the dimension wanted.

119.Injection moulding:In this process, thermo plastic material is fed as a powder into a

hopper when a piston through a heated orifice into a mould forces it.

120.Compression moulding: Thermosetting moulding powders are usually prepared by

mixing fillers with resin, which is only partly condensed, that is the material can still be

softened with heat. The resin and filler are mixed together on heated rolls to continue

cure until the desired characteristics of the moulding powder are attained. Asbestos may

be used where special resistance to heat is required.Moulds are usually filled and presses

operated by hand.

e.g: It is used for the production of a large number of identical

particles.

121.Shell moulding: is a method of metal casting in which the conventional rammed

sand moulds are replaced by thin rigid shells of uniform wall thickness.

122.Reaction moulding: is a process in which chemical reaction occur during the mould

process.

Applications:

1. Large parts such as housings or car automotive components.

2.To produce small series of production parts.

3.In the production of metrical housings.

123.Green sand moulding:In this process, the sand is mixed with water suitable

proportions of bonding agents and this mixture in the undried state is used for the making

of the moulds.

124.Photochemical machining: It is a metal etching process that uses a photo resist to

define the locations where the metal will be etched.

Application:

It is used in the etching of printed circuit cards.

125.Fettling: is a process, which involves the removal of adherent sand, cores, gates, and
flash from the rough castings as received from the sand. Castings made from alloy of

high melting point such as steel require more cleaning. It is an operation performed after

casting.

126.Becking: An ingot or billet pierced either by hot punching or cold machine

trepanning with a comparatively small hole and the wall of this hollow billet is pressed

end of long component between a bar inserted through the bore and a specially shaped

tool which bears on a narrow strip only along the whole length. The displacement of the

metal is circumferential with no lengthening. For comparatively narrow rings, becking

alone is used.

127.Spring winding: is the process of making a coiled spring by passing a wire around a

mandrel, which is revolved, on a chuck or between centers.

128.Counter boring: is the operation of enlarging a hole through a certain distance from

one end instead of enlarging the whole drilled surface.

129.Snagging: is done where a considerable amount of metal is removed without regard

to the accuracy of the finished surface.

e.g: Trimming the surface left by sprues and risers.

130.Worm rolling: is the creation of the spiral groove by the penetration of properly

designed and hardened steel dies into a properly prepared cylindrical blank.

131.Spun pipe casting: Large quantities of iron pipes are produced by spin casting in

machines in which molten metal is introduced into a revolving water-cooled mould,

centrifugal force serving to hold the metal against the sides of the mould.

132.Electron Beam-Physical Vapor Deposition (EB-PVD): is a material coating

technology whereby coating materials including metal, alloy, or ceramic are melted within
a vacuum and then deposited on a component or part requiring the surface properties
inherent in the coating. A strong mechanical vapor bond, uniform microstructure, and

relatively high deposition rates make it an attractive and versatile coating process. Since

it is performed in a vacuum, it is an environmentally friendly technology, suitable as a

replacement for other coating processes in many applications.

Advanced Coatings include: Electron Beam-Physical Vapor Deposition

Gear Ausforming

133.Ausform finishing: is a low-temperature thermo mechanical process integrating

ausform strengthening process with precision gear-roll finishing. Power-driven, precision

gear-rolling dies made of hot hardness tool steel are used to precision roll finish gears.

The process involves contour austenization of casehardened gear teeth and quenching

to metastable austenite, followed by plastic deformation of the gear-tooth surface layers

to final dimensions and then quenching to martensite.

134. Spray metal forming (S/F): is a rapid solidification metal-forming process that

involves the conversion of a molten metal stream into a spray of droplets by inert gas

atomization. The droplets cool rapidly in flight and while in a semi-solid condition, are

deposited on a plate or mandrel producing a preform (billet, plate/strip, or tube). The

resulting preform has very fine grain size and evenly distributed second-phase

precipitates. These desired characteristics, made possible through the spray metal
forming process, provide for a better alloy microstructure that results in superior

mechanical properties.

135.Brush Plating: is the technique by which electro- deposits are made from

electrolytes held in some absorbent material attached to a portable electrode. The main

advantage of this process is that it has the ability to deposit metal over small controlled

areas.

136.Die sinking: In this process, two half dies are required, each containing a half cavity

of the spanner. These dies are made from blocks of medium carbon steel. The cavities

are then machined.

137.Cropping: It is not possible to obtain the exact size of the blank required to fill the

cavity completely and to ensure absolute filling the blank must possess a greater volume

than the finished spanner. The gutter provides an outlet for this excess metal, known as

flash. Thus on removal from the dies the spanner will be surrounded with this flash and a

further operation will be required to remove this excess metal.

138.Seaming:If during rolling, the work-metal flows up the flanks of the die-threads

faster than it does at the center of the thread form, the displaced metal may fold together

to form a seam as the metal fills the full crest of thread form.

139.Chemical Milling: is a method of processing structural metal parts by controlled

chemical etching. This process either thins the parts in specific areas or removes metal

from all surfaces.

Application:

It is used for producing parts with high-strength to weight ratio.

140.Chemical Blanking: This process involves the etching of very thin metal parts in

spray chambers. Chemical Blanking etchants are mild compared to chemical milling.
141.Cold Heading: is a process, which uses forces greater than a metal’s elastic limit to

form shapes without causing scrap material.

142.Multi Die Cold forming process: In this process, assemblies of two or more pieces

can be assembled into one part, eliminating assembly or welding operations of

minimizing part handling.

143.Eletro Hydraulic forming: An electric arc discharge is used to convert electrical

energy to mechanical energy. A capacitor bank delivers a pulse of high current across

two electrodes, which are positioned at a short distance apart while submerged in a fluid

(water or oil). The electric arc discharge rapidly vaporizes the surrounding fluid creating

a shock wave. The work-piece is deformed into an evacuated die.

Advantages: Only one die is needed.

Tubular designs are possible.

Closer thickness tolerances can be achieved.

144. Electro Magnetic forming: High Velocity Forming technique is used in

commercial metalworking. It is used for joining and assembly of concentric parts. Electro

magnetic forces are used to form the material.

Applications:
Compression crimp sealing and assembly of axi-symmetric components

such as automotive oil filter canisters.

145. Draw-Bending: In this process, both bending die and clamping die rotate and pull

or draw the work-piece. This process is particularly used for light gauge tubular stock.

146. Explosive Forming or HERF (High Energy Rate Forming): can be utilized to

form a wide variety of metals, from aluminium to high strength alloys. In this process the

punch is replaced by an explosive charge.The charge used is very small, but is capable

of exerting tremendous forces on the work piece. In Explosive Forming chemical energy

from the explosives is used to generate shock waves through a medium (mostly water),

which are directed to deform the work piece at very high velocities Work piece is placed

on the die and blank holder placed above. A vacuum is then created in the die cavity.

The explosive charge is placed in position over the centre of the work piece. The

explosive charge is suspended over the blank at a predetermined distance. The

complete assembly is immersed in a tank of water.

Applications:Explosive forming is employed in Aerospace and aircraft industries and

has been successfully employed in the production of automotive-related components.

147.Fluid Forming: is a process used for making deep drawn parts. The machine

incorporates two rams-One for controlling the upward drawing motion of the punch and

the other for regulating the oil pressure trapped inside the dome of the press.

148.Electro polishing: The process is reverse of electroplating. The job is made the
anode. The cathode, which may be copper, lead or stainless steel, serve merely to conduct
the current to the solution.
Electro polishing process is being employed for super finishing and for the removal of
stressed surfaces.
149.Painting: Painting is generally carried out for protecting the metal and also to make
it aesthetically acceptable. Enamel, Epoxy & Etch primer type of paints are used.

150.Sand/Shot Blasting: This process consists of blowing abrasive particles with

compressed air through a nozzle to clean the surface, whilst at the same time imparting a
roughened, matt finish. The particles can be silicon, steel shot or other hard material.

151.Bearingizing: In this process, metal surfaces are finished by a combined rolling and
peening action. Hardened rollers rotating around and bearing on cams and falls rapidly
delivering as many as 200000 blows per minute. This action produces smooth surface.

152. Electroforming: is a valuable technique for fabricating parts that cannot be

produced by other existing methods and can offer a more economic alternative to other
manufacturing methods.

153. Chromating: This process is used for temporary protection of parts that may require
further machining after some time.
Chromating of Aluminium and its alloys give a conversion coating (of yellow colour) of
excellent corrosion resistance with low electrical resistivity. The conductivity of this
coating is also extremely high.

154. Spin forming: used for forming axially symmetrical parts over a mandrel. A power
driven rigid tool deforms and shapes the material.

155.Cladding: is an operation done by fusing an alloy to produce a metallurgically

bonded surface with improved wear friction and corrosion performance.

Cheaper base materials can be used, and costly alloying additions reduced.

Application: Worn dies, moulds can be built up using this technique

.
156.Pultrusion: is a continuous process for manufacturing composites in rods, tubes and

structural shapes having constant cross-sections. After the reinforcement is passed

through the resin impregnation path, it is drawn through a shaping die to form a desired

Cross-section. Curing takes place before the lamination can depart from the cross section.

HSS, HSS-CO, WC and ceramic tools are coated to increase tool life and

allowable cutting speeds. Coatings act as a chemical and thermal barrier between tool

and work piece .They increase the wear resistance of tool and prevent chemical

reactions between tool and work piece material, reduce built up edge formation

, decrease friction between the tool and chip and prevent deformation of cutting edge

due to excessive heating. Coated tools provide longer tool life.

Factors affecting the coating performance:

• Coating Thickness

• Hardness

• Chemical compatibility

• Thermal stability

Coating Methods:

The two most common coating processes are Chemical Vapor Deposition and

Physical Vapor Deposition. Both are used for single and multilayer coatings.

Chemical Vapor Deposition:

Chemical vapor deposition are applied at much higher temperature (1000°C). CVD

coatings are typically between 7&8µm thick.CVD coatings are harder and provide

longer tool life.CVD techniques reduce the range of substrate materials to which these

coatings can be applied.

A thin brittle glassy layer is formed at the interface between the coating and

substrate(Eta Phase).It is due to high temperature used in the CVD process. It also

uses temperature to melt the brazed joints.

Physical Vapor Deposition: can be applied only to substrate shapes. It is impossible

to coat the inner surface of a hole by PVD. This coating is better suited for precision

HSS,HSS-CO. It is the only method for coating brazed tools. Thin PVD coatings are

used for milling applications because they provide greater shock resistance. PVD

coating layers provide a fine grained micro-structure with better wear resistance and

toughness.

• Composition

• Gas Pressure

• Substrate temperature

• Coating time

• Bias

• Cleanliness

• Titanium Nitride (TiN)

General purpose PVD coating that increases hardness and has a high oxidation

temperature. This coating works high, while cutting or forming with HSS tooling.
• Titanium Carbo-Nitride (TiCN)

The addition of carbon adds more hardness and better surface lubricity. This coating

is ideal for HSS cutting tools.

• Titanium Aluminum Nitride (TiAlN or AlTiN)

A formed layer of aluminum oxide gives this tool better life in high heat applications.

This coating is primarily selected for carbide tooling where little to no coolant is

being used. AlTiN offers a higher surface hardness than that of TiAlN, along with

different percentages of aluminum and titanium. It is another viable option in the

world of HSM.

• Chromium Nitride (CrN)

The anti-seizure properties of this coating makes it preferred in situations where BUE

is common. HSS or carbide cutting and forming tools will be seen with this almost

invisible coating.

• Diamond

A CVD process that offers the highest performance available in non-ferrous materials.

Ideal for cutting graphite, MMC (Metal Matrix Composites), high silicon aluminium

and many other abrasive materials (Note: True diamond coatings should not be used

while machining steels. More heat is generated while cutting steels and thus causes

chemical reactions that break down the bonds that hold this coating to the tool).

Coatings for hard milling, tapping and drilling all vary and are application-specific.

Also available are multi-layer coatings that chip to the next layer instead of the
tooling substrate, providing a further increase in tool life.

TiAlN coated end mills. Photos courtesy of OSG Tap & Die.

Oxidation Temperature:

Performance, reliability, and manufacturing costs can be

improved if surface finishing and strengthening are accomplished in an integrated

operation. Ausform finishing, a low-temperature thermo mechanical process

integrating ausform strengthening with precision gear-roll finishing, has been

developed at Penn State. Power-driven, precision gear-rolling dies made of hot

hardened tool steel are used to precision roll finish gears. The process involves

contour austenization of case-hardened gear teeth and quenching to metastable

austentite, followed by plastic deformation of the gear-tooth surface layers to final

dimensions, and then quenching to martensite. Ausform finishing integrates the heat

treatment and the hard finishing processes into a single in-line automated

manufacturing operation, thus eliminating grinding and refrigeration.

The Case For Optimized Inserts

Users of carbide inserts often fall into two distinct categories. On one side,

there are those shops that are looking for a "universal" insert grade that will
effectively handle a wide variety of applications, even if it means tolerating less than

maximum metal removal rates in certain cases. The advantages are reduced tooling

inventory, standardized programming routines, simplified setup procedures, among

other sought-after benefits. Unfortunately, this universal insert grade is an elusive

goal for cutting tool manufacturers, although considerable R&D efforts are still being

devoted to this quest.

On the other side, there are those shops that strive to find the perfect match between

the insert and the application, a match-up that will give them the highest possible

metal removal rates, best surface finish, longest tool life, maximum

productivity and optimal results .

As a matter of fact, most shops are caught somewhere in the middle of these two

categories, being pulled in both directions at once.

But if you look at recent developments emerging from cutting tool manufacturers, the

trend is decidedly toward the optimized insert. With today's understanding of the

sophisticated factors and forces at work in a successful application, it is apparent that

certain vendors are able to deliver an extremely productive solution for a very specific

set of machining conditions. And they should be able to provide highly reliable

information about using these tools to get the intended results.

Knowing something about the complex interactions of the critical components that

unite to produce an optimized cutting system will help you understand why this

systematized approach can be so effective. It will also help explain how vendors can

guide you to the best insert with more confidence and certainty than ever before.

Every successful cutting tool application represents a combination of:

 1. a substrate

2. one or more coatings in most, but not all, cases

3. a chip breaker, or "top form" geometry,

4. a specific edge preparation,

5. a specific style and nose radius,

6. a tool holder and a cutting fluid.

Figure 1. An insert is a system of interacting elements. These elements must be

matched to the cutting conditions.

See Figure A quick glance at any manufacturer's catalog will clearly demonstrate that

the potential combinations of these elements run into the millions finding a way to

make sense out of such a variety of choices is the major challenge facing both cutting

tool producers and cutting tool consumers in the coming years. Material-based color

codes and selection procedures built on them are a step in the right direction, but only

a first step.

As insert systems become more and more application specific, new selection

paradigms must be created to guide consumer choices. Regardless of the shape these
may take, they must necessarily be grounded in a thorough understanding of the

individual role of each of the seven elements, and of their interactions while in the

cut.

• The Substrate

In a coated insert, the substrate is the "foundation" for the cutting system, but it never

actually comes into contact with the work piece. This fact permits cutting tool

manufacturers to tailor substrate properties over a much broader range than was

possible when the uncoated substrate was the cutting tool.

Nearly all substrates are made from tungsten carbide (WC), which is still the only

material available with the combination of hardness and toughness required to handle

a broad range of cutting applications. Other materials such as ceramics and cermets

provide a useful complement to WC at the high-speed end of the application range,

but these are rarely used with coatings. The first substrates were simply traditional,

straight WC grades that were coated to improve their performance. Some of these

combinations proved so useful that they are still in production today.

Improved processing capabilities have led to the production of "enriched" substrates

in which the cobalt content of a layer near the surface is significantly enhanced while

the formation of cubic carbides is prevented. This provides substantially more edge

strength than a straight grade substrate and is widely applied in inserts intended for

roughing and interrupted cutting applications, as well as on some hard-to-machine

materials. A more recent development is the family of "fine grain" substrates in which

the size of individual WC grains is controlled. These are primarily used in insert

systems designed for machining very tough materials such as aerospace and high
temperature alloys. Finally, substrate performance can be "enhanced" by selectively

adding other types of carbide to the straight WC mixture. The most common "alloys"

consist of Tungsten Carbide(WC) plus titanium carbide (TiC), tantalum carbide

(TaC), vanadium carbide (VC) and niobium carbide (NbC), or some mixture of them.

Each of these additional carbide materials produces specific properties that are useful

in a range of common applications.

Substrate requirements vary from one work piece material to another. Take steel as an

example. Because of the continuous chip formation and the heat generated at the

cutting tip, an insert requires a lot more deformation resistance as well as wear and

crater resistance than a substrate required for, say, gray cast iron. That's because the

cast iron does not generate as much heat, and the chips are more naturally broken

anyway.

Some of the cubic carbides, such as the TiC, TaC, NbC and VC, would be

critical additions to a substrate designed for steel, but not as critical for gray cast iron.

For a gummy material like stainless steel, wear or crater resistance isn't as critical as

toughness because of the build-up and chipping that is encountered. Consequently, a

substrate resistant to chipping contains less cubic carbide and is high in

cobalt and has a finer grain better for stainless steels and high temperature alloys.

Coatings

There are two factors to be considered in evaluating insert coatings:

1. The material or materials used and

2. The process by which they are applied.

 Both impact insert system performance.

The coating itself acts as the interface between the work

piece and the cutting tool. Depending on the application,

coatings can provide wear resistance, abrasive and crater

resistance, build-up edge resistance, chemical resistance, or

a simple reduction in friction that lowers cutting

temperatures. Figure 2 shows an example of coatings

engineered for a specific application.

The most commonly used coating materials and the

properties they provide are:

• TiC: abrasive, flank and nose wear resistance,

• TiCN (titanium carbonitride): abrasive and some

crater wear resistance,

• TiN (titanium nitride): some crater resistance, friction

reduction, gold color, and a diffusion barrier,

 • Al203 (aluminum oxide): crater and wear resistance,

plus abrasive wear resistance at high cutting temperatures and

• Al2O3/ZrO2 (aluminum oxide/zirconium oxide): best crater resistance, but

softer than Al203.

There are four major coating technologies used in the cutting

tool industry today. These are differentiated primarily by the temperature at which

they operate. This is important because the coating temperature directly impacts

substrate properties performance.

The most common coating technology is chemical vapor deposition, or CVD, which

operates at a temperature of roughly 1,000°C. Nearly as common is physical vapor

deposition, or PVD, which operates at the other end of the temperature spectrum in

the 400°C range.

Between these two extremes are two other emerging coating processes that promise to

enhance insert system performance. Plasma assisted chemical vapor deposition, or

PCVD, is well accepted in Europe and is being explored in North America. PCVD

operates in the 600°C range. Finally, medium temperature chemical vapor deposition,

or MTCVD, is an emerging and promising technology that operates in the 800°C

range.

The key factor to bear in mind is that the properties of both the coating and the

substrate is changed by the application process. The same coating applied to the

same substrate by different processes may in fact provide very different performance

in the cut.

Different coatings are required for different materials. For example, it is critical to
have a smooth coating—one that is more than simply wear- or crater-resistant—for

hard-to-machine stainless steels and high temperature alloys. A smooth, thick coating

is required when running steel and cast iron, too, because of the heat and wear. The

PVD coating process produces a very smooth surface, while CVD coatings can be

polished to achieve a smoother surface finish. Coating thickness is critical for steel

and cast iron because of the higher speeds at which they run. For high speeds, an

oxide coating in combination with TiCN and proper thickness makes an ideal

combination. On the other hand, coating thickness is not as critical as smoothness for

stainless steel and high temperature alloys.

Chip breakers Or Top Form Geometries

With today's sophisticated insert shapes, the term "chip breaker" no longer

describes the contribution of this element to the insert systems. "Top form geometry"

is a more precise term for the very complex shape seen on the cutting surface of a

modern insert.

While chip control is still a major function, the top form geometry also serves to

reduce cutting forces. Lower forces mean less heat, deformation and friction which

enhance tool life and often improve work piece size control and finish. Perhaps the

best example of this is the use of "chip breakers" on milling inserts. Generally

speaking, milling chips tend to break themselves, but the other benefits of well-

engineered top form geometry are easily seen in reduced horsepower requirements

and better parts. Many of today's high speed milling applications on relatively low

horsepower machines would not be possible without effective top form geometries on

the inserts.
Matching the chip breaker to the application is very important.

.Specialty geometries exist for certain metals, such

as high temperature alloys and stainless steels. A very fine geometry is necessary to
take

very light cuts and controls the chips in these types of materials.

Many shops think they don't need a chip breaker for certain materials, such as gray

cast iron and nodular cast iron, because the chips break on their own. These shops

typically use flat top geometry for these materials because they have a lot of edge

strength. However, we often recommend using a top form geometry for cast iron and

nodular iron to reduce the cutting forces and minimize edge build-up.

Edge Preparation

In the past, most manufacturers offered only one or two standard edge

preparations, or "hones," for any particular insert size and geometry. Today,

however, it is recognized that the "hone" is really determined by the

application for which the insert system is intended.

An insert system intended for high speed finishing of steel has very different edge

preparation requirements than one to be used for roughing, even though both may

share the same basic geometry.

Ceramic and cermet materials also require edge preparation in the form of a "T-Land"

geometry. Testing shows that very subtle variations in the width and angle of the "T-

Land" can have substantial impact on tool life.

As a general rule, a heavier hone is necessary for continuous turning and milling of

most steels and irons. Stainless steels and high temperature alloys, on the other hand,
require a small hone or an up-sharp insert because of the build-up generated.

Similarly, aluminum requires an up-sharp insert, also because of build-up. For cases

involving a severe interrupted cut such as occurs in milling, a heavier hone or a "T-

Land" is necessary.

Style And Nose Radius

Selecting a style with the greatest included angle will provide the strongest possible

insert for the application. In general, a large nose radius provides better surface finish.

These geometric factors, in conjunction with the tool holder, determine the effective

lead angle, which impacts cutting force and the resultant heat and wear that shorten

tool life.

It takes more than just the right insert to get optimum

Figure 3. Cutting fluid

is an often overlooked
factor in cutting
performance.

performance. The tool holder and the cutting fluid should also

be considered part of the insert "system," even though these

elements cannot be built in by the insert manufacturer.

In turning, the tool holder is the primary determinant of lead

and rake angle, both of which can influence chip thickness,

horsepower requirements, cutting forces and tool life. In

milling the critical tool holder-related factors are radial and

axial rake, which have the same effects found in turning applications.

Choice of cutting fluids is one of the most overlooked factors in the performance of

any metal cutting application. Recent testing has shown that the

choice of cutting fluid can have a substantial influence on both insert life and cutting

system performance, especially on hard-to-machine materials like stainless steels and

high temperature alloys.

It is extremely important, therefore, to follow the insert manufacturer's advice and

instructions regarding tool holder selection and cutting fluids because the systems

approach relies on a synergy between all of the elements.

Direction Of The Future

Laboratory testing and field experience have clearly demonstrated that the very subtle

interaction of the seven elements of an insert cutting system can have an extremely

large impact on application performance.

Selection of insert

Insert shape: In general, inserts with larger included angles should be preferred to

those with smaller angles in the following order.

S(90º)-C and W(80º)-T(60º)-D(55º)-V(35º) .

Negative rake inserts, which are usable on both sides, are more cost-effective than

one sided positive rake inserts.

Positive rake inserts offer advantages in ID turning operations and for thin-walled

Parts and soft work materials.

Cutting Edge Length: The size of an indexable insert is governed by the maximum

depth of cut d, the approach angle ,insert shape and geometry.

Corner Radius: The insert corner radius determines the strength of the cutting point,

the maximum admissible feed and the surface finish of the work piece.

Simplifying Insert Selection

Cutting tool manufacturers have been working to solve this

problem by developing various selection systems to guide users to the right insert for

an application. A good selection system brings order and logic to insert use and

makes the growing range of insert choices a powerful resource for manufacturers.

This system breaks work piece materials into three general color categories:

The blue category contains carbon and alloy steels; the yellow category includes

stainless steels, titanium, and high temperature alloys; and gray and ductile irons,

aluminum and non-ferrous materials are listed in the red category. The system then

breaks down each general category into more specific groups of similar materials. For

a new application, the user needs to do the following steps to develop a successful

application.
P - Steel
M - Stainless steel
K - Cast iron
N - Aluminium
S - Super Alloys
H - Hardened Steel
•
 Tooling System

Modular components can be assembled in different configurations to make a variety

of tooling systems that can be shared by multiple machines. Modular tooling provides

a weaker mounting system than an integral tool.

Modular and quick change tooling system

Modular holding system consists of stationary or rotating adapters in a variety of

configurations to fit various machines with a common coupling. Modular holding

system connections can provide precision equivalent to H8/H9 ISO tolerance class.

The connection between modular system components in which one component is

preloaded into another may produce a damping effect that inhibits vibration because

their segmented design tends to damp or break up harmonic vibrations induced during

machining. Modular tooling system tends to lose accuracy with extended use due dirt

and chip contamination and wear.

Radial and angular errors caused by the machine spindle itself can be corrected by an

adapter located between the cutting tool and tool holder.

Hydraulic tool holders can be equipped with similar adjustment bolts on the face to

minimize radial errors.

Slim-Fit Modular System

Two ways to hold tools

1.Slim-Fit is the most affordable shrink-fit solution available and you can
perform tool changes in only seconds.

2.Slim-Fit collets provide maximum holding power on the tool shank.

3.Tool changes in only seconds using hex wrench to actuate drawbar.

4.Slim-Fit holder is easy on your spindle because it is made from 8620 steel. Taper

ground to AT3 standards.

5.T.I.R. 0.0002" MAX @ 4 x diameter.

6.Shrink-fit collet is made of H13 steel for the rigidity of shrink-fit "in the cut".

7.Using shrink-fit doubles carbide tool life.

All the advantages in one system.

• Rigidity
• Accuracy
• Flexibility
• Holding Power
Slim-Fit collets have more contact with bore & tool

Slim-Fit Toolholders

Slim-Fit Tool holders are

• Balanced to 18,000 RPM.

• 0.0001" runout from taper to collet pocket.

• Certification with each holder documents accuracy, and balance

measurements.
Slim-Fit 20 collets fit SBL20 chucks

Integral tool holders

Integral tool holders are used in dedicated machines and transfer lines, which

produce components that will not change. Application for integral tool holders

include tools that recur in several tooling setups such as face mill arbors and end mill

holders of fixed gauge length.

When run out is very critical and is used for tooling packages.

Integral tooling is not versatile because it can be used only for specific applications.

Tool holding system

The important structural and dynamic characteristics of a

tooling structure interface are the manufacturing tolerances, static and dynamic

runout, radial axial positioning accuracy and repeatability, connection rigidity, force
transmission capacity, momentum torque characteristics, clamping forces, balance

requirements, fatigue life and durability,retention force requirement, safety,

locking/unlocking forces ,coolant capability, chemical and thermal stability,

maintenance requirement and sensitivity to contamination and cost.

Curvic coupling interface

A curvic coupling interface (consisting of a set of mirror image flat precision helical

gears permanently attached to the spindle and to tool holder) is mounted directly to

the spindle shaft through a bolt on tool connection and it provides good radial and

axial accuracy with a repeatability of 1 micronmetre.

A curvic coupling interface has a higher damping capacity and lower

natural frequency than a flat joint. The stiffness of the tool holder interface is a

function of the contact pressure applied by tightening of the flange bolts and the axial

force. The axial force and contact pressure acting on contact surfaces can be

calculated using the formula

F=5.n.t/D,P=F/A

T-Tightening torque-Bolt diameter, A-contact area(Flange surface area minus bolt

holes) and n-no: of bolts.

HSK tool holder (hollow shaft with tapered cylinder)

HSK tool holders operate with a modified draw-bar the clamping system is composed
of 2 to 7 fingers that go hollow taper and are spread outward by retracing draw-bar.
The draw-bar is more complicated.
In CAT-V tool-holder, the drawbar fills on a knob at the back of the holder
placing the entire spindle under stress. HSK’s main applications are in high speed
machining.
 HSK interface system has a no. of shortcomings. One concern with HSK
connections is that they may require tool-clamping devices with increased over-hang,
since the segment of HSK tool holder which mates with spindle is hollow and is used
by draw-bar. The transitional area fix the thin walled segment and the flange
contacting the spindle face is prone to stress concentrations during elastic deformation
and must be carefully processed in order to prevent cracking especially at higher
speeds. Balancing the HSK holder can be challenging because its shank is deformed
to the geometry of spindle cone and also the balancing the draw bar is difficult
because it contains moving parts. The HSK system has been successfully used in
rotary application in machining centers but is not well suited for stationary heavy duty
applications in turning centres. Keeping the environment very clean is very important
because HSK connection is very sensitive to dirt on contacting surfaces especially
taper.

The torque that the HSK coupling can carry is relatively low since it is carried

by a single key and the friction generated between the taper and face contact areas.

The key element of the design is dual surface location of the tool holder when it is

engaged in the receiving member of the spindle. The holder is located radially by

the fit of the tool holder’s 1:10 ratio tapered shank O.D. with the receiver’s matching

taper inside diameter. the holder's flange comes face to face with the spindle nose's

front flange for positive axial location. This positive seating of the flanges sets the

HSK system apart from the CAT/SK/BT products, which locate on the 7:24

ratio taper alone.

 A belt-driven block spindle with an HSK 50 Mapal tool
interface
Form A, C, E - Smaller face contact area
Form A & C - 2 side-actuating holes for manual clamping
Form D - does not have match in flange
Form A & B - can be used in one spindle
Form B tool - higher Torque required and provides 25% larger load capacity
than form A
Form A - Coolant enters centrally
Form B - Coolant enters decentrally
Other advanced tool holder systems include the Kennametal KM, Sandvik
capto and Komet ABS – C systems.
Kennametal KM (Krupp Widia – Widiaflex/UTS)
System uses a 1/10 taper connection which provides max stiffness and require locking

and unlocking forces. It has a ball track clamping mechanism with locking balls and

uses large flange contact. High clamping forces are produced with input draw bar

forces and by pushing the draw bar, it releases the ball lock mechanism and thus the

tool-holder.
The Sandvik Coromant Capto system uses 1/20 tapered in-polygon
connection. It provides self centering and self aligning properties and high torque
stiffness due to the harmonic tri-polygon shape.
 It provides better bending stiffness than HSK or KM interface. It also
transmits high torque (capto interface) and provides superior performance in turning
applications.
The Komet ABS-C system provides simultaneous fit using a draw bar that
pulls the cylindrical shank inside the spindle for centering purposes and supports it by
a flat-flange. It is based on a 7/24 taper and it require different spindle design.
Curvic coupling interface has slightly lower bending stiffness and provides
higher clamping. Due to high axial forces, friction in flange/face contact is very high.
The monoflex used with standard spindle uses 2 conical slotted ring type springs on
both ends of 7/24 taper shank. These springs are axially preloaded to app 1500 to
2800 N depending on taper size and mounted to a pre-determined position.The RB
design is also used in standard spindles. In this design the taper slides in relation to
cylindrical stem of tool holder to which it is axially connected by stiff Belleville
springs.
The TCL design has been used as an enhancer to increase the draw bar force
and produce face contact with a standard CAT-V tool-holder. It has a wedge
mechanism built into the taper body of tool holder.
The most recent system design, the WSU-1 system developed, uses numerous
contact points that are generated by precision balls defining a tapered surface which is
in connection with a tapered spindle hole.
The run out of this tool holder is less, since there is no clearance between tool
holder and spindle hole. The tool holder (WSU-2) has standard taper 7/24 taper and a
machined groove at back. The co-axial groove contains one or more rows of
precision balls which protrude out of groove. The balls deform during the process of
inserting the tool-holder.

Tool holders for turning machines

Tool blocks are used in turning centers which has taken several forms which are
combined in different machine adaptable clamping units such as the VDI system, the
standard MTP adapter plate, customer bolt on blocks.
 Quick change tool holders /Adapters
A variety of quick-change tool holding or adapter systems are available. The
most significant difference between the systems is in the design of the connection
between the adapter head(male) and the base receiver(female head).In some cases,
adapter is removed by depressing the adapter bushing back towards shank.
e.g:Collic magic chuck is used mainly for taps.
QUICK CHANGE TOOL HOLDER
The center bolt system can provide 75-80 KN clamping force which may be
upto 3 to 4 times greater than for front side locking systems. The performance of all
front side-locking systems suffers due to extra length needed to incorporate the
locking mechanism, which brings cutting edge from gage line.

CUTTING TOOL CLAMPING SYSTEM

Collets are cylindrical fixtures with one or more slots to generate flexible fingers
designed to grip smooth cylindrical elements. The most popular collets are TG and
ER types.
e.g:TG8◦ provides twice the holding power of a ER16.

TYPES OF COLLET
Single angle collet and double angle collets are the two types of collet.Single included
angle have a lower included angle which results in higher grip power. Collets are
designed with several thin elastic deformation areas. Double angle collet systems are
used when maximum rigidity and close tolerances are not required.
ER Collets achieve greater grip strength and higher precision than do double
angle collets. To use, first insert the collet into the chuck nut by squeezing the collet
and pressing its face into the chuck nut collar ring until the collet collar is fully
seated. Then load the collet into the chuck, insert a
 WORK MATERIAL
ISO GROUP MATERIAL

C=0.1-0.25% EN8 AISI 1140

P C=0.25-0.55% 0.25-0.55%C
STEEL UNALLOYED C=0.55-0.80% STRUCTURED
STEEL STEELS

LOW ALLOY STEEL NON HARDENED AISI 4340

(ALLOYING ELEMENTS BALL BEARING STEEL EN 24
LESS THAN OR EQUAL TO 5%) HARDENED WROUGHT
AND TEMPERED

EN19A,EN24

15CDV6
ASTM A 182

HIGH ALLOY STEEL

(ALLOYING ELEMENTS GREATER MARAGING STEEL ANNEALED
THAN OR EQUAL TO 5%) M250 HARDENED TOOL STEEL

M
STAINLESS STEEL NON-HARDENED
STAINLESS STEEL BARS/FORGED PH-HARDENED
FERRITIC/MARTENSITIC HARDENED

STAINLESS STEEL AUSTENITIC

BARS/FORGED PH-HARDENED
AUSTENITIC SUPER-AUSTENITIC

STAINLESS STEEL NON-WELDABLE GREATER

AUSTENITIC THAN OR EQUAL TO 0.05%C
FERRITIC WELDABLE LESS THAN
(DUPLEX) OR EQUAL TO 0.05%C

Alloying Elements Types Of Steel Purpose Of addition

1 Aluminium
2 Bismuth
3 Boron
4 Chromium
5 Nickel
6 Tungsten
7 Phosphorous
Selenium
Sulphur
17-7 PH For improving age-
405-406 hardening & to improve
High cutting speed scaling resistance
Special Types Improves machinability
Special types Provides elevated strength
All types Increases resistance to
oxidation & corrosion
All austenitic types Increases corrosion
414,431 resistance
Special types Grain refiner
Increases machinability
8 Silicon All types high in Increases resistance to
5028,314 sealing
9 Nitrogen 201,202,446 Austenite former, grain
refiner
10 Columbium (niobium) 347 Strong grain refiner
11 Molybdenum 316,317,440A,B.C, 501,502 Improves corrosion
resistance
12 Titanium 321 Grain refiner, improves
high temperature strength
13 Tantalum 347,348 Grain refiner, produces age
hardening properties
14 copper 17-4PH Increases corrosion
resistance
15 Manganese All types high in 200 series Promotes austenizing
stability

MATERIAL COMPOSITION

Chromium Nickel Manganese Silicon Carbon M Vanadium

ol
yb
de
nu
m
 AISI-304 18% 10% 2% 1% 0.08% __ _______
__
__
_
EN-24 1.1% 1.5% 0.5% 0.2% 0.4% 0. _______
8
%
15CDV6 1.5% ____ 0.9% ____ 0.15% 0. 0.3%
9
%
Maragaging steel _____ 18% _____ ____ .03% 5 ______
%
AA2014(B26SWP) _____ ____ 0.8% .8% ____ __ ______
__
__
AA6351(B51SWP) 0.3% ____ 0.7% 1.2% ____ __ _______
__
__

INTRODUCTION

Electrical Discharge Machining---EDM---is a machining method primarily used for

hard metals or those that would be impossible to machine with traditional
techniques. One critical limitation, however is that EDM only works with materials
that are ELECTRICALLY CONDUCTIVE. EDM or Electrical Discharge Machining is
especially well suited for cutting intricate contours or delicate cavities that would
be difficult to produce with a grinder , an end mill or other cutting tool . Metals
that can be machined with EDM include Haste alloy, Hardened tool steel, Titanium,
Carbide, Inconel etc.

EDM is some times called “spark machining” because it removes metals by

producing a rapid series of repetitive electrical discharges . These electrical
discharges are passed between an electrode and the piece of metal being machined .
The small amount of material that is removed from the work piece is flushed away
with a continuously flowing fluid . The repetitive discharges create a set of
successively deeper craters in the work piece until the final shape is produced
 There are two primary EDM methods Die-sinking EDM and Wire EDM .
The primary difference between the two involves the electrode that is used to
perform the machining . In a typical Die-sinking EDM application electrode is
machined with traditional tools . The specially shaped electrode is connected to
the power source , attached to a ram , and slowly fed into the work piece . The
entire machining operation is usually performed while submerged in a fluid bath .

E DM EQUIPMENTS

The main components of E D M Machine are,

Work tank
Tool holder
Servo control system
Dielectric tank
D C Power
 E D M Machine is usually vertical “C” type construction , it’s various parts
being Base , Column , Head , Table . The head which supports the servo – controlled
tool, is mounted on the column, fixed to the base. The table is mounted on the base and
has dielectric tank over it .

In Electro discharge machining ( EDM ) process , the control of erosion of

the metal is achieved by the rapidly recurring spark discharges produced between
two electrodes , one tool and other work , the spark impinging against the surface
of the work piece which must be a electrically conducting body . A suitable gap
( 0.01 to 0.5 mm ) known as spark gap , is maintained between the tool and the
work by a servo motor which is actuated by the difference between reference
voltage and the gap breakdown voltage , which feed the tool downwards towards
the work piece. The metal removal rate depends on the spark gap maintained . If
both electrodes are made of same material , it has been found that greatest erosion
takes place up on the positive electrode (anode ) . Therefore in order to remove
maximum metal and have minimum wear on the tool , the tool is made cathode
and work piece as anode . The two electrodes are separated by a dielectric fluid
medium such as Paraffin ,White sprit or Transformer oil which is pumped through
the tool or workpiece at a pressure of 2 kg /cm 2 or less . The current may vary
from 0.5 to 400 Ampere (40 –300 VDC ) . The pulse duration can be varied from
2 –200 micro second .

The moment spark occurs , sufficient pressure is developed between work and
tool . The repetitive sparks release their energy in the form of local heat , as result
of which , local temperature of the order of 10,000º C is reached at the spot hit
by electrons . At such a high pressure and temperature some metal is melted
and eroded . Some of it is vaporized away by dielectric medium ( liquid )
circulated around it forming a crater on the work piece . In this, a true replica of
the tool surface is produced on the work piece .
 SPARK GENERATOR

A spark generator performs the important functions of supplying adequate

voltage to indicate and maintain the discharge , incorporates provisions for varying
current intensity and the duration and controls the recurring rhythm of the
discharge . The various types of power supply circuit used for EDM are R.C.circuit,
Rotary – impulse generator, controlled pulsar, vacuum tube and transformer circuit,
vacuum tube and transistor pulsed circuit .

The simplest system used is the Relaxation or R C generator

Tool-electrode
(-ve)

Voltage
d.c Capacitor Gap filled dielectric
Vc
Voltage
Workpiece-electrode
Source
(+ve)

In this D.C. source of supply is used in effect , is a resistance capacitance

type of circuit . The range of voltage for pulse generator is between 40 and 300 v
and the frequency of sparks at the rate of 10,000 sparks per second can be
achieved . The system operates on the principle of self oscillation . The working of
the circuit is explained below .

Value of V ( voltage gradient set up between the tool and the work piece )
depends upon gap between tool and work material and the dielectric media .

When voltage is applied across C , first it keeps on rising and when it is

U. ie sufficient enough to break down the dielectric medium due to development
of a strong electrostatics field between the electrodes , medium between tool and
work is ionized and spark takes place . Millions of electrons are developed in each
spark. During sparking period , voltage immediately falls and it again starts rising
as shown figure .

Capacitor
Voltage ,V

Breakdown
Voltage Vc

Time
DIELECTRIC FLUID

E D M Machining utilizes a voltage across the two electrodes which is

greater than the breakdown voltage across the gap between the work and the
tool . This breakdown voltage is a function of the distance between the tool and
work piece . The
insulating properties of the dielectric (fluid separating the electrodes ) and the degree of
pollution of the gap .

FUNCTIONS

• To be de- ionized rapidly after the discharge .

• To provide insulation in the gap between the electrode and the work
piece .
• To cool the section that was heated by the discharge machining .
• It carries away the eroded metal along with it .
• It concentrates energy to a very narrow region

Liquid hydro carbon products such as paraffin or light transformer oils and
more recently de-ionized water are mainly used as the electric fluids in
EDM . The oils should have a high viscosity and density . These oils have
the proper effects of concentrating the discharge energy but they might
have a difficulty in flushing the discharge products .
OF
PROPERTIES

ood e
g g charg
vin
Ha cal dis y ost
ctri enc
wc
ele effici
Lo
Adequate Viscosity

Minimum odour
DIELECTRIC
int
Po
sh ion
F la idat
d ox y
Hi
gh Goo ilit
stab
TOOL MATERIAL

The tool (electrode ) material is the main part of the EDM process ,
which is connected to the DC power source and is immersed , in the die-
electric fluid . Metals with a high melting point and good electrical
conductivity are usually chosen as tool materials for EDM . They should be
cheap and readily shaped by conventional methods . Copper and Graphite
are two main types tool material used in EDM . Brass is also used as the
electrode material . It was inexpensive and easily available .

The selection of proper tool material is influenced by ,

• Size of electrode and volume of material to be removed

• Surface finished required
• Tolerance designed
• Cost of material

As the advances in EDM technology progressed , it was note worthy to

point out that EDM spark had a temperature of around 3800 °c . While copper melted
at around 1800 °c, this limitation along with the high wear rate made the use of
copper unacceptable .

Graphite like most metals does not melt but sublimation at around 3350 °c ,
Which is near to the temperature of the spark . This is the reason why graphite
shows less wear than copper , as there is less thermal damage . Graphite also has
superior fabrication capabilities. During the grinding of copper too the wheel shows a lot
of wear. Usually wheels with “ open’’ grain have to be used when flat grinding
copper . One of the most negative aspects of machining graphite was that of black
dust is not exactly toxic , it can came some respiratory problems and allergic
reactions . When powered graphite used for the electrodes is synthetic and very
abrasive . That is the reason why carbide tipped tools with coating are used .
Raw material cost is another consideration . A premium grade of graphite is
on average three time more expensive than copper . Logic would tell us to go in
for the
cheaper material . But seldom is this done as the complexities and the difficulties
faced during fabrication quickly offset this advantage .

ELECTRODE WEAR

There are several parameters that have to be considered when deciding

about electrode wear . Primarily it is the ability of the material to resist thermal
wear , but electrode density polarity and frequencies must also be considered .
Graphite usually gives less wear at low frequencies , but during negative polarity
and high frequency applications the wear is very high .

There are four different types of wear .

1 Volumetric wear
2 Corner wear
3 End wear
4 Side wear

Wear ratio = Volume of work material removed / volume of electrode

consumed .

This is often simplified to

Wear ratio = Depth of cut /Decrease in usable length of electrode .

Electrode

Corner Wear

Shape
After Cut

End Wear
Original Electrode Shape

Depth of Cut Workpiece

 METAL REMOVAL RATES (M R R)

1000
µin Ra
Surface roughness,

500

250 [ 6.3 µ m]

100

50

25
0.005 0.01 0.02 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1.0 2.0
[ 16.4 cm3/hr]
Material removal rate, in3 /hr

The metal removal rate is generally described as the volume of

metal removed per unit time . The machining during roughing of steel with the
graphite electrode and 50 A generator is about 400 mm³ / min and with a 400
A generator it is about 4800 mm³ / min . For precision machining with low
amperage and high frequency the material removal rate is as low as 2 mm³/ min .
It is there fore , evident that the MRR is proportional to the working current
value .

The material being cut will effect the MRR . Experiments indicate that the
MRR varies inversely as the melting point of the metal .
The approximate value i.e ,

M R R = 2.4 / (Melting point in °C) 1.2

 Not only are metal machining rates quoted , but also effects of machining
conditions on surface finish , for a range of currents used in practice . Thus EDM
will cut Aluminium much faster than Steel .

SOFTWARE AND EQUIPMENT USED FOR DIE SINKING EDM

CAD / CAM are acronyms that stand for separate but closely related
disciplines . Both have a common goal of using the huge memory space , fast
processing capacity of user friendly graphics to automate and tie together the
other wise cumber some and separate production tasks . Thus the cost and the
production time are reduced .
CAD or Computer aided design is a concept, which on composes any use of
computer to enhance or aid in the design process. It is used to define some kind of
geometry for the part. Features like calculation, analysis review and modeling make
them valuable aids to the designers, one of the best assets of CAD is that the models
developed in CAD, can be used as a basis for performing functions in CAM.
CAM (Computer Aided Manufacturing) is the business end of CAD, Where all
the Physical work is done on the factory floor to produce the parts designed by CAD.
The two
widely applications of CAM are in robotics and CNC. CAM helps users do away with
tedious manual programming.
CAD/CAM used together represents a goal of automation phase of development,
viz, the elimination of the wall between design and manufacturing. The true CAD/CAM
system offers instant a continuous communication between design and manufacturing
system. These communicators are electronic rather than by paper.
Computer integrated manufacturing is aimed at tying these separate areas of
automation together into a smoothly running efficient enterprise. It is an umbrella
technology concerned with the overall sharing of data and flow of information and work
through the Company. The integration of the CIM and EDM process has progressed
much slower than the integration with other conventional manufacturing process. Howe
ever EDM is well suited to CIM because
 1. The level of automation currently used on the EDM units.
2. The relatively Low production rate of EDM as Compared to other Conventional
manufacturing process
3. The availability of advanced software in the areas of CAD, CAPP and production.
4. A growing shortage of highly skilled EDM operators. The project is an attempt to
incorporate the EDM process in the CIM environment.

EQUIPMENT AND SOFTWARE USED

The 3-axis CNC machine of the Crusacler series is manufactured by EDM

solutions. It is equipped with HEIDENHAIN TNC 300 Series CNC control
The TNC 306 is a shop floor programmable contouring control with three axes for
ram-type EDM. It is conceived for the man at the machine, featuring Conversational
programming and excellent graphic. Simulation of work piece machining., the
Conversation programming is highly used friendly. Its background programming
features permits a new program to be created while another programme is being
executed. Besides fixed cycles, co-ordinate transformations and parametric
programming. The control also includes path functions for spark erosion functions for
work piece alignment with the electrode. Multiple orbit programs and eroding
parameters are also present. Files (part programme, erosion tables etc) can be out-put to
peripheral devices and read into the control via the RS-232 data inference, allowing
programs to be created and stored externally.

SURFACE FINISH

E D M normally leaves a workpiece with a malt surface , which is

covered in small craters of a diameter -- to – depth ratio of about 5 to 50 . At low
power of E D M . These craters can be about 25 x 10ֿ4mm in depth , with a
diameter of approximately 125 x 10 ֿ4 mm . When higher powers are used , the size
of the craters can be increased by more than 30 fold , to typical depth and
diameters of respectively 12and 60 microns.
The formation of these craters is a consequence mainly of the discharge
action , although it is also effected by dielectric fluid used and by the electrode
materials with the temperatures of the discharges reaching 8000 to 12000°c ,
metallurgical changes occur in the surface layers of the work piece .

APPLICATION OF E D M

1. This process is used for shaping alloy steel and tungsten carbide , used for

moulding, forging , extrusion , wire drawing or suitable mould cavities , press

tools and to give any intricate shape or profile.

2. Fine slits can be made by using a wire electrode.

3. By this method a hole as small as 0.1 mm in diameter can be made.

4. This process very useful for making holes of nozzles, other hole shapes,

profiles and embossing, engraving operations on harder materials.

5. It is also used for production work for special applications where the oil

retention properties of the work surface are important.

6. Accuracy up to 0.005 mm can be obtained.

ADVANTAGES

1. Any complicated shape that can be made on the tool can be reproduced on the
work piece.
2. The process can be applied to all electrically conducting metals and alloys
irrespective of their melting point , hardness , toughness or brittleness.
3. Highly complicated shapes can be made by fabricating the tool with split
sectioned shapes by welding, tracing or by applying quick setting conductive
expoxy.
4. Time of machining is less than conventional machining process.
5. EDM can be employed for extremely hardened work piece. Hence the distortion
of the work piece arising out of the heat treatment process can be eliminated.
6. No mechanical stress is present in the process. It is due to the fact that the
physical contact between the tool and the work piece is eliminated.
7. Creating type of surface finish automatically creates accommodation for
lubricants causing the die life to improve.
8. Hard and corrosion resistant surfaces , essentially needed for die making can be
developed.
9. Operator strain can be so less if to combine with conventional machining.

DISADVANTAGES

1 Profile machining of complex sentries not possible at required tolerance.

2 Machining time are too long.
3 Machining heats the work piece considerably and hence causes change in
surface and metallurgical properties.
4 Excessive tool wear.
5 High specific power consumption.
6 High cost of machine.
7 Only for electrically conducting materials.
WIRE ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE MACHINE (WEDM)

Wire Electrical Discharge Machine is a method to cut conductive materials with a

thin continuously moving electrode that follows a programmed path. The electrode is
thin wire of copper or brass. Typical diameters of 0.05 to 0.33 mm. The hardness of the
work piece material no detrimental effect on the cutting speed. There is no physical
contact between the wire and the part being machined. Rather, the wire is charged to a
voltage very rapidly.
The dielectric which is, usually de-ionized water , is often injected into the
machining
zone, coaxially with the wire, the major advantage of water is formed by its better
cooling qualities, which were needed for the energy transmission during the cutting
process. By the continuous feeding of the wire, a fresh portion of the tool-electrode is
always presented to the work piece. Which is usually clamped on the machine table.
 THE BASIC PARTS OF WEDM

WEDM, Machine consist of a wire, a working table, a servo control system, a

power supply and dielectric supply system. The WEDM allows the operator to choose
input parameters according to the material and height of work piece and the tool material
from the manual given by the WEDM manufactures.
 Diameter of
Wire Wire
EDM
Spool gap
Dielectric width

Workpiece

width
of
machined
slot
Wire-electrode
after EDM
Used
wire
Guide spool
Pulley

SERVO CONTROL SYSTEM IN WEDM

The purpose of the servo control mechanism is to keep the inter-electrode gap
with in a small range of variations of a desired setting during machining. As noted earlier
gap size control is vital to the WEDM process. A large gaps leads to an open circuit
without discharge, while a small gap leads to arcing or short circuit. Typical values of a
gap range from 0.010 to 0.050 mm. The gap size depends on the voltage, the current
and the dielectric media. To maintain a proper gap size, the tool feed rate should equal
to the material removal rate in the feed direction. This is not easy to implement because
the removal rate is not a constant and it varies with the changes in the gap condition,
such as machining area and flushing condition.
Therefore, a constant tool feed is rate cannot be used. To overcome this
difficulty, a servo controller is used to change the tool feed rate according to the gap
condition.

PROCESS PARAMETERS AND THEIR INFLUENCE

WIRE MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS

As WEDM use a thin wire as single electrode, it is not necessary to make

different shape of tool electrode to achieve the complex contours. However to prevent
the wire break becomes critical to obtain a continuous machining.

Basic Properties of a Wire Material

• Adequate tensile strength with high fracture toughness.

• High electrical conductivity.

• Good flushability
• Low melting point.
• Low energy requirement to melt a vaporize.

According to the component of the wire electrode, there are basically two
different types of wire, Single component wires and Multi- component wires.
Single Component Wire.
The conventional wire type used in WEDM is a
single component metal. Such as Copper, Brass,
Molybdenum e.t.c.
Multi – Component Wires
Brass has proven to be a very reliable wire type for WEDM, because its good
Compromise between strength / toughness, conductivity, and flushability. However
single component wires are still limited by a compromise among properties. Multi-
component composite wires have been used to addressed each requirement
independently. Zinc coated wires have considerably better flushability than uncoated
Brass.

The coating applied to improved flushability will be consumed during the

machining the effectiveness of the coated wires is limited by the coating thickness, which
is relatively, thin (about 5 to 10 microns.)

EEFECT OF CURRENT AND FREQUENCY ON SURFACE

FINISH AND METAL REMOVAL RATE

At high frequencies, the Amperage is reduced due to Inductance, there by

reducing the metal removal rate. The economics involved therefore, set a practical limit
on surface finish. The relationship between Current and Frequency on surface finish is
shown in figure.

1 Heat Affect Zone

 The wire EDM process is a thermal process and therefore, some Annealing of the
workpiece can be excepted in a zone just below the machined surface. In addition not all
of the
workpiece material melted by the discharge is expelled in the dielectric. The remaining
melted material is quickly chilled. Primarily by heat condition into the bulk of the
workpiece, resulting in an exceeding hard surface. The depth of the annealed layer is
proportional to the amount of power used in the cutting operations. It will range from
0.005 mm for finish cutting, to approximately 0.05 mm for high metal removal rates.

2 Thickness Of The Workpiece.

In the WEDM process, cutting speed decreases as the thickness of the

workpiece increases. Normally WEDM uses a Transistor Controlled Capacitor
Circuit in which the cutting speed is controlled by a capacitor value. When using
a fixed capacitor to machine a thicker workpiece, the cutting speed is decreased.

3 Material Of The Workpiece.

Specific properties of the workpiece material also influence the process. These
properties include how well the metal is polished, its magnetic condition and how the
material was removed from the heat treatment process, when it was produced. One must
also consider expansion and contraction according to the temperature of the material. A
low melting point in the material increases the MRR, and improper heat treatment of the
metal results in distortion and breakage of the mould.
 CRITERIA FOR USING WEDM

The Process of wire electrical discharge machining offers many advantages,

which are unattainable using other methods. Over the last fifteen years, Wire EDM
technology has developed into a standard and popular machining technology. In many
operations formally performed by conventional manufacturing processes, the process of
Wire EDM is regularly less expensive, infinitely more accurate, and considerably
timesaving.

Listed below are ten areas where Wire EDM offers a distinct advantage for CNC
production machine shops. This is not an exclusive list; it is simply intended to give
ideas and insights into the wide range of possibilities offered by Wire EDM.

1. Exotic Metals Capabilities:-

Wire EDM process can cut any material that conducts electricity such as
Inconel, Titanium, Hastealloy Carbide and more. A simple geometry in other
materials, such as 0.75 mm wide 7.5mm long slot through 25mm Inconel, is no
longer a simple slot unless you are using wire EDM.

2.Complex Geometries:-
Wire EDM is especially beneficial when shapes such as Splines, gears and
long thin slots are required. In the majority of these cases you have an excellent
wire EDM candidate

3.Stacking Plates:-
 If your part can be wire cut from plate, multiple plates of specified material can be
stacked and welded together to get multiple parts from one wire pass. For example:- A
complex spline shaped geometry is required from 6mm thick Hastelloy. Hastelloy Plates
6mm thick can be stacked upto 250mm high to produce 40 pieces from just one wire
pass.

4.Raching of Parts: -
This application can be used when only a particular portion of your work piece
needs a complex geometry wire cut into or through it.

5.Raw materials:-
The ability to use raw materials in the condition it comes in from the mill saves
time and money. Bar stock, Plates and Round Stock can all be used with very limited
manpower to prepare it for the Wire EDM process. For example:- A 500 Piece order of
Components for an aerospace application has been determined to be an excellent
candidate for the stacked plate method. Preparation for the job Consists of blanchard
grinding plates to finished thickness. The plates are welded together, one wire EDM start
hole is drilled and the job is ready.

6.Hardness:-
The ability of wire cutting hardened or unhardened material is one of the many
benefits of wire EDM technology. Wire cutting can be done to parts with finished
dimensions before or after hear treating. The hardness of the part does not affect our
speed or ability in wire cutting material.

7.Burr Free:-
Wire EDM eliminates secondary deburring operations therefore creating a cost
savings even before it leaves the designer’s hands.

8.EDM Delivery:-
Production Wire EDM delivery is extremely fast since little or no tooling and
fixturing is required in most cases.
9. CNC 5 Axis Wire Cutting Capability:-

Complex three dimensional programming systems enable us to independently

control the top and bottom contour when wire cutting CNC 5 axis wire. Example:- A 2”
high part can have an octagonal shape on the top contour and a triangular shape on the
bottom contour.

10. Flexibility: -

Since Programs are easily adjusted, proto types or single parts are especially
suited for Wire EDM machining. A part is manufactured very easily since no hard
tooling is involved, so changes are equally simple and fast for the same reasons.
In today’s stringent economy, manufactures are forced to look for alternatives to
lower production costs, shorten delivery time and improve quality and with advance
EDM, wire EDM delivery will be extremely fast. At advantage EDM Inc., We see an
increasing number of CNC productions Machine Shops are finding that Wire EDM is a
viable alternative. And due to the large overhead involved in supporting Wire EDM, a
number of these manufactures are turning to Wire EDM job Shops.