EP 320

Process Instrumentation
and Instrumental Analysis
January April, 2015
1. Introduction Instrument characteristics.

Class Revision
Describe about deflection type and null type
instruments with the help of an example (one
example for each type)
[8 marks]

Teaching Plan: EP320

(W1 to W4)

Introduction
The most obvious way to make observations is to use
the human senses of seeing, feeling, and hearing.
In many cases, however, sensors are used that have
been devised by man to enhance or replace our
natural sensors.
The process of sensing is often called transduction
that being made with transducers.
These man-made sensor assemblies, when coupled
with the means to process the data into knowledge.

Introduction
When a fever thermometer
is used to measure a
persons body temperature.

we are looking to see if the person

is at the normally expected value.

if it is not, to then look for

changes over time as an indicator
of his or her health.

Introduction
if the thermometer gives errors in its use, wrong
conclusions could be drawn.
It could be in error due:
to incorrect calibration of the thermometer or
because no allowance for the dynamic response of the
body temperature.

Therefore, adequate/correct information can be

obtained if we understand the static and dynamic
characteristics of both the measurand and the
instrumentation.

A patients temperature chart shows changes taking place over time.

Measurand (Process)
Characteristic
Fig. Temperature profile

Dynamic
Static
(Steady-State)

Instrument Characteristic
Indication of the capabilities and limitation of the
instrument for particular application.
It is important as it enables us to have quantitative
estimate of pros/cons of instrument
Instrument performance Characteristic
1. Static Characteristic
2. Dynamic Characteristic

NOTE: Measurement outcomes are rarely static over time.

Instrument Characteristic
A mercury-in-glass fever thermometer is placed in a patients
mouth.
The indication slowly rises along the glass tube to reach the final
value, the body temperature of the person.
The slow rise seen in the indication is due to the time it takes for
the mercury to heat up and expand up the tube.
The static Sensitivity will be expressed as so many scale divisions
per degree and is all that is of interest in this application.
The dynamic characteristic will be a time varying function that
settles to unity after the transient effects have settled.
This is merely an annoyance in this application but has to be
allowed by waiting long enough before taking a reading. The wrong
value will be viewed if taken before the transient has settled.

Temperature, oC

Instrument Characteristic

Time, s

Dynamic Characteristic
Instrument rarely respond instantaneously to changes in
the measured variables
It exhibit a characteristic slowness/sluggishness due to
mass, thermal capacitance, fluid capacitance or electric
capacitance.
Pure delay in time is often encountered where the
instrument are wait for some reaction to take place.
The dynamic behavior of an instrument is determined by
subjecting its primary element to some known and
predetermined variation in measured quantity.

Static characteristics
When the desired input (process response) to the
instrument constant/varying slowly with time, the
dynamic characteristic is not important.

The various quantitative description of the static

performance instrument parameters like:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Accuracy
Precision
Resolution
Sensitivity

5.
6.
7.
8.

Linearity
Hysteresis
Drift
Over load

9. Capacity
10. impedance
loading

Static Characteristic
1. Error and uncertainties
2. Static performance parameters

Error and uncertainties

The degree of perfection of a measurement can only
be determined if the goal of the measurement can
be defined without error.
Practically,
Measuring instrumentation cannot give ideal sensing
performance
Select the allowable error based on a given situation.

ERROR & UNCERTAINTIES

The static performance parameters of the
instrument are obtained by performing certain
specified tests depending the type of instrument,
nature of application etc.
Some salient static performance parameters are
tested periodically by means of a static calibration.
No measurement can be made with perfect
accuracy and precision. Therefore, it is instructive
to know the various types of errors and
uncertainties that are in general, associated with
measurement system.

Types of error
Error the difference between the measured and the
true value (as per standard)
Diff. types of error:

Error

Systematic/
Cumulative

Errors that tend to have the same

magnitude and sign for a given
set of condition

Accidental /
Randomly

These errors are caused due to

random variations in the
parameters/systems
measurement

Miscellaneous

Errors that can not be strictly

classified as either
systematic/random

Systematic /Cumulative Errors

Known as instrument bias
Can be eliminated/alternatively instrument
calibration
Instrument errors

Inherent in the instruments systems

Caused by poor design / construction of the instrument
Example:
Divisions of graduated scales
Inequality of the balance arm
irregular spring tension

Can be avoided if select the suitable instrument, apply

suitable correction and calibrate the instrument

 Environment errors

Caused due to variation of conditions external to the measuring

device, including the condition in the area surrounding the
instrument
Commonly occurring change on environment conditions
Effect the instrument characteristics T, barometric P, humidity,
wind forces, magnetic & electrostatic field
Example:

Change in ambient T causes errors due to expansion of the measuring

tape
Buoyant effect of the wind causes errors on weight of the chemical
balance

Loading errors

Caused by the act of measurement on the physical system being

test
Example
Introduction of additional resistance in the circuit by measuring
milliammeter which may alter the circuit current by significant
amount
Obstruction type flow meter may partially block/disturb the flow
conditions, consequently flowrate shown by the meter may not be
same as before the meter installation

Accidental / Random error

Caused due to random variations in the parameter or
system of measurement
Vary in magnitude & may be either +/- on the basis
chance alone
tend to compensate one another- also known as
change/compensate error
Detected by a lack of consistency in measured value
when the same input is imposed repeatedly
Main contributing factors:
Inconsistencies associated with accurate measurement of
small quantities
Presence of certain system defects
Effect of unrestrained and randomly varying parameters

Miscellaneous
Mainly cause by:
A. Human error
Due to limitations in the human senses
Necessary to exercise extreme care with mature & considered
judgement in recording the observations

B. Error due to faulty component/adjustments

Misalignment of moving parts, electrical leakage, poor optics
etc. in measurement systems

C. Improper application of the instrument

caused due to the use of the instrument in conditions which
do not conform to the desired design/operating conditions

STATIC PERFORMANCE
PARAMETERS
Accuracy
Static
sensitivity

Precision

Resolution

Threshold

Linearity

Range &
Span

Hysteresis

Dead
band

Backlash

Drift

Accuracy
The closeness of the instrument output to the true value of the
measured quantity (as per standard)
It is specified as the % deviation or inaccuracy of the measurement
from true value
Depends on inherent limitations of the instrument & on the various
systematic error involved in measurement
%
The accuracy of the instrument can be specified:

% =
100


% =
100

# accuracy specification of the instrument as % of fsd less accurate than % of TV

Accuracy (inaccuracy) appear in

several forms:
1. Measured variable; the accuracy is 20C in some T
measurement. Thus, there would be an uncertainty of
20C in any value of T measured
2. Percentage of the instrument full-scale (FS) reading.
Thus an accuracy of 0.5 % FS in a 5-V full scale range
meter would mean the inaccuracy/uncertainty in any
measurement is 0.025 V

Accuracy (inaccuracy) appear in

several forms:
3. Percentage of instrument span (% of the range of
instrument measurement capability). For device
measuring 3% of span for a 20 to 50 psi range of P,
the accuracy is (0.03) (50-20) = 0.9 psi

4. Percentage of the actual reading. Thus, for a 2 % of

reading voltmeter, an inaccuracy of 0.04 V for a
reading of 2 V

Precision
The ability of the instrument to reproduce a certain
set of readings within a given accuracy
Dependent on repeatability (ability of the
instrument to reproduce a groups of
measurements of the same measured quantity)

High precision
with poor accuracy

Poor precision with

average accuracy

High precision
with high accuracy

Poor precision
with poor accuracy

Resolution / Discrimination
The smallest increment in the measured value that can
be detected with certainly by the instrument
It is the degree if fineness with which a measurement
can be made
The least count of any instrument is taken as the
resolution of the instrument. A high resolution is one
can detect smallest possible variation in the input
Example:
A ruler with a least count of 1 mm may be used to measure
to nearest 0.5 mm by interpolation. Its resolution is
considered 0.5 mm

Threshold
The minimum/maximum value of the input below
which no output can be detected
It is particular case of resolution.
Both threshold & resolution can either be specified
as absolute quantities in term of input units/ as %
of full scale deflection.

Statistic Sensitivity
The ratio of the magnitude of response (output signal)
to the magnitude of the quantity being measured
(input signal)
Also termed as scale factor /gain of the instrument
Determined from result of static calibration
Static Sensitivity, K =

Sensitivity is represented by the slope of the input

output curve if the ordinate are represented in actual
units

Linearity
A linear indicating scale is one of most desirable
features of any instrument
Linearity is never completely achieved and the
deviations from the ideal are termed as Linearity
error
In commercial instruments, the max departure
from linearity is specified by this following way:
Independent of the input
Proportional to input
combined

Independent of the input

If the deviations of the output of the instrument
from the best fitting straight line (drawn through
the calibration points) does not vary with the input
then non-linearity is specified in the terms of
higher value of the maximum deviation that occurs
on the positive and negative sides of the best
fitting or idealised straight line.

This value is usually

expressed as percentage
of scale deflection.

Proportional to input
If the deviation of the output of the instrument
from idealized straight line vary with the input,
then non-linearity is specified as function of the
input
The max deviation point on the + and sides of
idealized straight line are join with the origin and
their slope are determined
The higher value of % change slope with respect to
the idealized line is expressed as % non linearity
with respect to the magnitude of input values

This value is usually

expressed as percentage
with respect to input values

Range and Span

The range of the instrument is specified by the
lower & upper limits
The algebraic difference between lower & upper
range values is termed as span of the instrument
The range of the instrument can either be
unidirectional (0-100 0c) or bidirectional (-10 to 100
0C)

Hysteresis
The magnitude of the error caused in the output
for a given value of the input, when this value is
approached from opposite directions

This is caused by backlash, elastic deformations,

magnetic characteristics, but mainly caused due to
frictional effects.

 Dead band
The largest change of measurand to which the
instrument does not respond

Backlash
The max distance / angle through which any part of
the mechanical system may be moved in one
direction w/o causing motion of the next part
Can be minimized if the component are made to
very close tolerances

Drift
the variation of the output for a given input caused
due to change in the sensitivity

Example:
A load cell calibrated at a T of 200C has the following output/input
characteristic

When it is used in an environment of 400C, its characteristic change to

the following:
Load in KN

0.4

0.8

0.12

0.16

0.20

Deflection of meter in
mm

14

25

36

47

58

Determine: (i) zero drift (ii) sensitivity drift (iii) sensitivity drift per 0C
change in ambient T
If 0.5 mm of scale division can be read with a fair degree of certainty,
determine the resolution od the instrument in both case

Solution
65
60

y = 27.5x + 3
55
50
45

40
o/p 20C

y = 25x

35

o/p 40C
30

Linear (o/p 20C)

25

Linear (o/p 40C)

20
15
10
5
0
0

0.5

1.5

2.5

Solution
a-i) load cell at 400C. The zero drift which represents no load
deflection & considered the instrument bias/systematic
error is found to be 3 mm. A systematic error of 0.109 kN at
400C output-input characteristic
ii) at 200C
Static Sensitivity, K =

10
0.4

= 25 mm/kN

at 400C
Static Sensitivity, K =

11
=
0.4

Sensitivity drift of the instrument =

27.5 25 = 2.5 mm/kN

27.5 mm/kN

iii) Sensitivity drift /0C = 2.5/20 = 0.125 (mm/kN)/ 0C

 b) inverse sensitivity 1/K or deflection factor at 200C =

1/25 = 0.04 kN/mm
Resolution of load cell corresponding to 0.5mm meter
scale reading = 0.5mm x 0.04 kN/mm
= 0.02 kN = 20 N
inverse sensitivity 1/K or deflection factor at 400C =
1/27.5 = 0.036 kN/mm
Resolution of load cell corresponding to 0.5mm meter
scale reading = 0.5mm x 0.036 kN/mm
= 0.018kN = 18 N