CONSERVATION ACTION SERIES 20040602

BIODIVERSITY,
LIVELIHOODS & THE LAW

The case of the Jogi-Nath snake charmers of India

BIODIVERSITY,
LIVELIHOODS & THE LAW
The case of the Jogi-Nath snake charmers of India

Bahar Dutt

PROJECT TEAM

Bahar Dutt
Ramesh Kumar
Vikram Hoshing
Rachel Kaletta
Rishipal Nath

Copyright Wildlife Trust of India

Wildlife Trust of India (WTI)

C 644, New Friends Colony, 1st Floor
New Delhi 110 065, India

The Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) is a non-profit

conservation organization committed to initiate
and catalyse actions that prevent destruction of
India's wildlife and its habitat. In the long run, it
aims to achieve, through proactive reforms in
policy and management, an atmosphere
conducive to conservation.

WTI works through building partnerships and

alliances and its strengths lie in its professional
multi-disciplinary team, quick reactions, and its
willingness to work with so far neglected issues
like acquiring land for wildlife and rescue and
rehabilitation.

Citation: Dutt, Bahar (2004), Biodiversity,

livelihoods & the law: The case of the Jogi-Nath
snake charmers of India, Wildlife Trust of India,
Delhi.
Cover photograph
Back cover
Title page
Contents page

:
:
:
:

Vikram Hoshing
Vikram Hoshing
Vikram Hoshing
Red spotted royal snake by
Vikram Hoshing

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD

PREFACE

Author's note

Acknowledgements

Executive Summary

Map of India showing Jogi-Nath presence

Map showing areas visited by Jogi-Nath healers

10

CHAPTER 1:

INTRODUCTION

11

CHAPTER 2:

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE OF THE JOGI-NATH SAPERAS

15

CHAPTER 3:

RESULTS OF THE MULTI-DISCIPLINARY SURVEY

19

SECTION A
SECTION B
SECTION C

Socio-economic status of the Jogi-Naths

Herpetology and condition of snakes in captivity
Ethnobotanical information

CHAPTER 4:

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS

42

CHAPTER 5:

COMMUNITY INITIATIVES

45

CHAPTER 6:

RECOMMENDATIONS TO POLICY MAKERS

49

Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix
Appendix

Questionnaire for traditional healers

Questionnaire for herpetological information
Questionnaire for socio-economic survey
Inventory of medicinal plants used by snake charmers
Ailments treated by snake charmers
What do the experts say?

53
54
55
57
61
62
64

I
II
III
IV
V
VI

REFERENCES

FOREWORD

PREFACE

he Wildlife Trust of India (WTI) was set up in 1998 in

order to catalyze conservation actions that would
positively affect wild species and their habitats.
Although the clear focus of the organisation is its
conservation of non-human life and the ecosystems in which
they survive, it is clear that human beings play a vital and
compelling role in this, thereby necessitating addressal of
their needs as well. Human beings utilise an ecosystem in
many ways that are similar to other life forms i.e. they
extract resources from it for food, shelter, providing means
of occupation and other survival needs. They also, unlike
many other life forms, impact the world they live in for non
subsistence needs based on greed, development based on
human aspirations and luxury. They also impact other
species and ecosystems in wanton way for sports, pleasure
and life style that are in no way connected with subsistence.
While the latter two categories are morally indefensible if
they impact the survival of other species or individual
animals, the subsistence needs of humanity can not be
overlooked. This is especially so when a community draws
on wildlife resources because their subsistence and identity
has been based on such a lifestyle for many centuries. It is
incumbent on modern day conservationists and policy
makers to understand the needs of the local community as
well.
Keeping this rationale in mind, WTI has worked with the
shahtoosh weavers of the Jammu & Kashmir (see the report
"Beyond the Ban"), the hornbill beak utilising Nyshis of
Arunachal Pradesh and the Jogi-Nath Saperas among
others. The project on Jogi-Nath Saperas focused on
providing this community, which was inextricably linked
with snake trapping and charming, with alternate livelihood
models that preserved their identity but addressed the
conservation and welfare concepts of snakes. The author of
this current report, Ms. Bahar Dutt has worked with this
community for over three years. "Biodiversity, livelihoods
and the law" is a comprehensive report that documents the
livelihoods of the Jogi-Nath Saperas and the alternate
options that are present for this community. The
recommendations need to be implemented both by the
government and the NGO sector to ensure that the
conservation and welfare of snakes go hand-in-hand with
the smooth transition of the Jogi-Nath community to
alternate livelihoods.
Vivek Menon
Executive Director
Wildlife Trust of India

AUTHOR'S NOTE

first became curious about snake charmers in

1999 when I visited Mollarbandh, a small
settlement of 150 snake charmers on the
outskirts of Delhi. Armed with a degree in wildlife
conservation, I was sure that the only way to tackle
problems of wildlife conservation, animal welfare
and biodiversity issues was to work with the people
who use wild animals, and, in some cases, exploit
them to earn a living.
In the initial days, the going was tough. When I
first visited the community of Jogi-Naths all I
encountered was hostility. They were suspicious
and they tried every method possible to drive me
away - from being openly rude to putting snakes in
my bag.
The Jogi-Naths are not an easy community to work
with. Alcoholism and drug addiction are common
among them and they do not accept outsiders
easily. The process of getting to know the
community has been slow, but today I have friends
in snake charmer villages across India. Now, when I
travel, I have a place to stay in hundreds of tiny
hamlets of snake charmers.
Over the past one year I have been travelling - some

times alone, some times with other members of our

project team - interacting with snake charmer
families and living their lives with them. Perhaps,
the most poignant picture that comes to mind is
that of 70-year-old
Mishrinath, whom we came
across perched on the sand dunes of Rajasthan.
Once a snake charmer, Mishrinath today weaves
colourful bags, which he sells to members of the
community for carrying snakes. Mishrinath cannot
see very well, but he gave me some surma - a
special herbal medicine made by the snake
charmers - to improve my eyesight.
No community is perfect. The snake charmers, too,
have their personal rivalries. Some look after their
snakes well, some do not. This report is not an
attempt to paint a romantic picture of a community.
There are serious animal welfare concerns as well
as poverty issues involved, both of which need to be
addressed. I hope we have been able to give some
suggestions for both stakeholders: the snakes and
the snake charmer.
Bahar Dutt
April 2004

70 year old Mishrinath sapera from Rajasthan weaves bags for other saperas

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

r. Thomas Mathew, Chairperson, Board of Trustees of the

Wildlife Trust of India (WTI), first encouraged me to take
up work with the snake charmer community. I am
immensely grateful for all the support he has given me over the
years.
Fieldwork for the project was done under extremely tough
conditions, especially since the villages of the snake charmers are
usually tucked away deep in the interiors of agricultural fields at
least 50 km from the nearest motorable road. The snake charmers
were initially hostile and suspicious of our presence. But that
gradually changed and I am grateful to the many families who let
us into their lives and shared their food and homes with us. I am
especially grateful to Guru Roshannath who kept vigil one whole
night when dacoits entered the village where our team was staying.
The project team worked under tough conditions, often with only
one meal a day and walking miles in the desert sands of Rajasthan.
I would like to thank Nilanjana Nag for assisting us with
translations, Ramesh Kumar for his ability to handle difficult
situations, Rachel Kaletta for her knowledge of plants and long
hours of work without complaint, Rishipal Nath from the
community who made sure we were fed and looked after and
Vikram Hoshing who became so close to the snake charmers that
they treated him like family.
I would like to thank Dr. C.R. Babu, Head of the Department of
Botany at Delhi University, and Dr. Sanjay Kshirsagar, of the same
department, for their advise and support in putting together the
ethnobotanical section of this report. I am grateful to Suresh Babu
for his inputs and assistance in the identification of plant species.
I am grateful to all my colleagues at the WTI, especially Dr. N.V.K
Ashraf; Arvind Krishnan for technical help; Rupa Gandhi for her
advice on the layout and design of the report and Aniruddha
Mookerjee for editorial inputs. I am grateful to Dr. Suresh Kumar
for assistance in making the maps. I am extremely grateful to
Sunrita Sen for her editorial skills and helping us in putting the
document together and Surendra Varma Scientist, Indian Institute
of Science, Bangalore
Romulus Whitaker and Harry Andrews at the Centre for
Herpetology, Chennai, were a constant guiding force in this
project. Rupali Ghose, Kedar Bhide and Gowri Mallapukar gave
valuable recommendations.
I would like to thank Ms. Shiela Dikshit, Chief Minister of Delhi
and Mr. Targe at the Delhi Scheduled Caste Financial Corporation
for approving the loans under which snake charmers have started
their own micro-credit business.
I would like to thank the Rufford Maurice Laing Foundation, UK,
for facilitating a grant for me to undertake this project.
Last but not the least, I am grateful to Mr. Vivek Menon, Executive
Director, WTI, for his guidance and organisational support for the
project.

Bahar Dutt
April 2004

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

n India there are many communities who are

dependent on wild resources for their life and
livelihood. The Jogi-Nath snake charmers are
one such community. Spread across tiny village
hamlets in five states of northern India, the
community today is at a crossroads. In 1972, the
Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act was introduced in
an effort to protect India's fast depleting wildlife.
The Act imposed a strict ban on any use of wild
fauna for commercial or subsistence purposes.
While this has led to a very positive scenario for
wildlife conservation in the country, the livelihood
of thousands of snake charmers was rendered
illegal.
The Wildlife Trust of India decided to research how
modern conservation laws were affecting the
livelihoods of the snake charmers and, conversely,
how their use of snakes was affecting conservation
of various species. The project also responded on a
small scale to the livelihood needs of the saperas, a
synopsis of which is presented in Chapter 5 of this
report.
For the research component first hand data was
collected by a multi-disciplinary project team. The
data presented in this report has been generated
over a period of one year, although informal contact
with the snake charmer community has been
ongoing for three years.
The research findings are organised under three
heads:
l Socio-economic status of the Jogi-Nath saperas:
Nearly three-quarters of the community members
continue to use snakes to earn a livelihood. The
average income per day from snake charming
exceeds the minimum wage rates prescribed by the
government in the states in which they reside. Thus,
the snake charmers are still able to earn a major
proportion of their household income from snake
charming. Traditional knowledge related to the
profession is still quite high: nearly four-fifth of the
community members know how to catch a snake as
they believe it is related to their caste identity.
l Herpetology and condition of the snakes: On an
average seven snakes per year were caught by one
snake charmer. In the absence of any baseline data
on number of snakes found in the wild, we were
unable to estimate if this use is at sustainable levels
or not. Eight species of snakes were found to be
kept in captivity by the Jogi-Nath saperas of which
the maximum number were Common cobras
followed by Rat snakes. Two species of conservation
concern were also found, namely the Royal snake
and the Indian python, but these were observed
8

only in a small percentage of the households

sampled. Animal welfare concerns are high, as body
condition of all species of snakes kept for more than
one month in captivity was weak
l Ethnobotanical information: Snake charmers
prepare their own herbal medicines and as many as
110 species of plants were mentioned. None of the
plants mentioned are rare or threatened and most
were common weed species. The snake charmers
thus provide informal health services, in a country
where access to primary health care facilities is low.
But the efficacy of many methods used by them
needs further research. Snakebite treatments were
among the most frequently mentioned ailments,
with any one healer treating up to fifty patients per
year. However in the case of snakebites by
venomous species the role of the traditional healer
is limited to the psychological support that it may
give to a victim especially in areas where anti-venom
is not available
Key recommendations: The main results of this
report have shown that snake charming, despite
introduction of regulatory conservation laws, is
thriving. The Jogi-Naths have over generations
been able to create their own niche in village life:
one of catching snakes, dispensing herbal medicines
and of entertaining audiences with snakes. In a
country, where unemployment rates are high and
thousands of educated persons compete for jobs,
snake charmers have carved their own niche in the
employment sector. This niche is of relevance,
especially in an agricultural economy where
pressure on land is tremendous.
There is thus a disbalance between conservation
regulatory laws and the traditional occupation of
the snake charmers. In the final chapter,
recommendations have been made to policy makers
on how this conflict can be addressed. Amongst a
number of recommendations it is urged that the
skills of the community be used through the
employment of snake charmers as 'bare feet
conservation educators' to educate people on
venomous and non-venomous species of snakes.
This would not only protect their culture and
identity but also assist in the protection of snakes
killed by ignorant people. It is also suggested that
their musical culture be promoted through the
formation of musical bands, sale of music
instruments handcrafted by the community, and
their role as traditional healers. A combination of
these interventions can help in keeping the identity
of the community intact without endangering the
lives of snakes in the wild.

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.0 Community use of wildlife in India

According to one estimate,

about 300 million people are
dependent on forests and
their products, of which 200
million people live below the
poverty line

Wild resources play a major, and often critical, role in the

livelihoods of a high proportion of the world's population
(Pimental et al., 1997). More than 70 percent of India's
population is rural (Census 2001, GoI), but not all of them
practice agriculture for a livelihood. A substantial
proportion of the rural households depend on forest
resources - both plants and animals - for subsistence and
income generation. Some communities are directly
dependent on wildlife for their livelihood, while a
significant number depend on wildlife habitats for natural
resources such as fuel-wood and fodder. According to one
estimate, about 300 million people are dependent on
forests and their products, of which 200 million people
live below the poverty line (Saxena et al., 2000). Despite
the obvious contribution of wildlife to the life of people,
there life of people, there are currently no reliable
estimates on total supply, subsistence, trade and
consumption of wildlife across India.
Even though accurate information does not exist on the
exact scale of use of wildlife, the identity of some
communities in Indian society is traditionally centered
around the use of one or many wild faunal species. For
instance, the Baheliyas in northern Uttar Pradesh are
famed for their skills of trapping birds, the Madaris for
trapping macaques, the Badhiyas for civets, foxes and
jackals and the Irulas in Tamil Nadu for trapping snakes
and rodents. (See Table 1). According to the
Anthropological Survey of India there are as many as 196
communities in the country that are engaged in trapping
of birds and animals for their livelihood (Singh, 1991).
This report looks at how modern conservation laws have
affected the livelihoods of one such traditional
community: the Jogi-Nath saperas (snake charmers).

1.1 Who are the Jogi-Naths?

A traditional healer with plants collected from

the forest

Every morning 45-year-old Aryanath sets out with a flute

and two cane baskets flung across his shoulder on a
bamboo pole. In the basket are snakes he has trapped: a
cobra and an earth boa. As soon as he spots a busy
corner of the street he sets up his wares. He plays his
flute to draw the attention of passers-by, and once a
group gathers, the snakes are let out of the basket.
For their ability to charm deadly snakes, members of the
Jogi-Nath community came to be known as the snake
charmers or saperas. Different snake species are used by

11

Table 1: Some examples of traditional communities using wild animals

Community
Badhiyas

Wild animals hunted

Jackals, civets, mongoose

Jogi-Naths

Snakes, hedgehogs,
spiny-tailed lizards

Bawarias

Partridge, quails,
small mammals
Primarily snakes

Irulas
Sapuakelas
Kanjars

Baheliyas

Snakes, primarily
King cobras
Jackals, lizards and
small mammal species
Various species of birds

States
Uttaranchal, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan
Rajasthan, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat,
Madhya Pradesh
Rajasthan, Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh, Delhi, Bihar
Andhra Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu
Bihar, Orissa
Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Bihar,
West Bengal
Uttar Pradesh

Note: This is not a comprehensive list but only indicative of the number of communities whose caste identity and livelihood is
linked closely with wild animals.

them to entertain street audiences and earn a living. This

skill not only gave them an occupation but also a god-like
respect in society. The skill to handle snakes is not new to
the Jogi-Naths but is embedded in their caste identity. The
knowledge of trapping and handling of different species of
snakes is passed down over generations.
This reference to caste is crucial in our understanding of
the Jogi-Nath community. Each caste in Indian society is
a self-governing social unit with a hereditary prescribed
mode of subsistence. Indian society comprises of 45,000
endogamous groups. Over 37,000 groups are structured
in a system called the Hindu caste system. (Malhotra,
1984). Individually each group is called a jati or caste. The
division by caste is the reason why the ancient profession
of snake charmers survives till today with the knowledge
and skills of the profession being passed down over
generations from generation. To this day, snakes are
intricately woven into all aspects of their lives - from the
herbal medicines they prepare to treat snakebites to their
marriage ceremonies in which snakes are offered as gifts.
The Jogi-Naths are found in small village hamlets across
the country. Map A shows the geographical spread of the
community while Map B shows how far the Jogi-Naths
travel for their livelihood. More details about the
community and their demographic status are given in
Chapter 2.

1.2 Existing conservation scenario in India and

status of snakes
The use of wild animals for trade or subsistence purposes
by communities was deemed illegal in the mid 20th
century. A multiplicity of factors led to the introduction of
regulatory conservation laws which aimed at putting an
end to the use of wildlife, whether by local communities
or organized industries. Till 1972, when the Wildlife
12

Protection Act (WPA) came into being, India was a major

player in the international trade in reptile skins, cat skins,
ivory, live birds, frog legs and live mammals like rhesus
macaques. It was in response to the rapidly depleting
wildlife that strict conservation laws, which sought to
reverse this trend, were introduced.
The WPA is a comprehensive piece of legislation that lays
down rules and regulations for the protection of India's
biodiversity. Not surprisingly, the Act, with large-scale
prohibitions on hunting and trade, was restrictive but in
tune with the requirements of time (Misra, 2001). The Act
prohibits any hunting of wild animals and trade in
trophies, animal articles and derivatives.
As a result of tough conservation measures, the depletion
of crucial wildlife resources has been slowed, though
problems of poaching and habitat destruction still persist.
Around 23 percent of the country's area is officially
classified as forest land and India is recognized as one of
the 10 mega-diverse countries of the world. With 45,000
plants (i.e 7 percent of the world's known plants) and
81,000 animal species (6.4 percent of the world's known
fauna), India boasts of a rich biodiversity heritage.

1.3 The Jogi-Naths persecuted: Episodes of arrest

and a fear pyschosis in the community
In the effort to clamp down on rampant trade, the JogiNaths, who did not by tradition, trade in snakeskins but
used snakes nonetheless, had to pay a price. A complete
ban on trade of wildlife species and its derivatives
impacted the livelihood of the Jogi-Naths but this fact was
not addressed adequately by the state which focused on a
complete clampdown on illegal trade.
l In 1991 Pappunath was arrested from outside
Surajkund, a tourist hotspot near Delhi. His crime:
trapping of snakes from the wild in violation of the

Trade in snakes and the snakeskin industry in India

The Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, tough as it was, was much needed, given that in the past millions of
snake species were killed for the snakeskin trade. Statistics for 1968 indicate that no less than 10 million
snakes valued at Rs. 107 million were slaughtered for trade. It has been estimated that in 1932 about 2.5
million skins were exported from India. It was much later that conservation restrictions were introduced
and finally a total ban was imposed on wildlife exports in 1976. The species commonly used in the
snakeskin trade were the Rat snakes (Ptyas mucosus), the Common cobra (Naja naja), the Checkered
keelback (Xenochropis piscator), the Russells viper (Vipera russellii), the Indian sand boa (Eryx conicus)
and the Olive keelback (Atretium schistosum) (Inskipp, 1981). According to one estimate, the number of
snakes that were caught for the snakeskin trade was so large that a tannery in southern India was
handling 9000 skins in one day, which was reduced to 3000 by 1970 (Daniel, 1970).

Wildlife (Protection) Act. Pappu's snake was seized, he

does not know what happened to it. In the morning,
people from his village secured his release in return for
a bribe. Pappu is still fearful of the officials, but soon
after he was freed he went out and caught another snake
as he knows no other skills. (Interview with Pappunath
sapera from a village in Haryana, in May 2003)
l In 2002, Jitanath was returning to his village in Uttar
Pradesh after performing with his snakes in Agra. He
was caught by the Forest Department who released his
snakes in the wild and let him go after a stern warning.
Jitanath now wanders in nearby villages with his
snakes, as he is too scared of being caught by the
enforcement authorities. (Interview with Jitanath sapera
from a village in Uttar Pradesh, in May 2003)
l In 1998, a camera team arrived in a village near
Delhi on the pretext of shooting a film on snake
charmers. As the snake charmers displayed their snakes
for the film, the camerapersons revealed their identity.
They were from the Forest Department and arrested five
snake charmers from the village for illegal possession of
a python and a cobra. (Interview with residents of a
snake charmers village near Delhi, January, 2004)
The job of preventing illegal trade is monumental. Forest
and wildlife authorities across India have been active in
conducting raids on unlicensed dealers. Tribal and rural
people, however, rarely understand the law and, in some
cases, continue to flout it despite being aware of the
repercussions. The Jogi-Naths, for instance, continue to
use snakes more than three decades after the WPA was
enacted despite the fact that sections of the WPA
rendered this illegal.
Under Section 9 of the Wildlife (Protection) Act,1972: 'No
person shall hunt any wild animal as specified in
Schedules I, II, III and IV of the Act.' Almost all the
species of snakes used by the snake charmers are
included in the above mentioned schedules of the Act,
thus virtually rendering any trapping of snakes from the
wild as illegal.
Further, under Section 39 of the WPA ' wild animals are
government property' and
'No person shall without the previous permission in

writing of the Chief Wildlife Warden or the authorized

officer- acquire or keep in his possession, custody or
control, or transfer to any person by way of gift, sale or
otherwise or destroy or damage such government
property.'
Given these provisions of the WPA, the Jogi-Naths can no
longer use snakes to practice their traditional occupation.
Today the Sapera Samaj (snake-charmer community), a
conglomeration of thousands of Jogi-Nath saperas from
across the country, is worried. The raids against them
continue but many of them still depend on charming for
survival, practicing their craft even after serving jail
sentences or paying fines. On the one hand the caste
divisions in the country, their nomadic lifestyle and low
levels of education have made it impossible for the
saperas to shift to new occupations, on the other, strict
enforcement of laws has made it difficult for them to
practice their traditional occupation using snakes.

1.4 Scope of the project: Addressing the

knowledge gap
Given this background, the Wildlife Trust of India decided
to research how modern conservation laws were affecting
the livelihoods of the snake charmers and, conversely,
how their use of snakes was affecting conservation of
various species. Queries central to the project were: How
many people were still practicing snake charming, what
were the snake species used by them and at what scale?
Secondary literature, if any, was minimal, whether about
the Jogi-Naths or the snakes they keep. First hand data
was collected by the project team. The data presented in
this report has been generated over a period of one year,
although informal contact with the snake charmer
community has been ongoing for three years.
Our work with the community had a strong research
component, but it was difficult to collect data without
responding to the needs of the saperas. Therefore, along
with the study, the project aimed in small ways to promote
their livelihoods and culture. We also wanted to make
policy makers aware of the plight of the saperas and
organized extensive meetings and dialogues between the
community and government officials. Some aspects of our
work with them is presented in Chapter 5.

13

The aims and objectives of the project are as follows:

1. To study existing livelihood strategies of the saperas
and the impact of the ban on snake charming on their
way of life.
2. To implement, on a small scale, the livelihood needs
of select snake charmer families.
3. To examine the snake species being used, the scale of
capture and the husbandry practices used by the
saperas and how this affects the survival of the captive
individual and long-term survival of the species.
4. To document the indigenous knowledge of the JogiNaths in relation to trapping and handling of snakes,
ethnobotany and culture and traditions related to the
use of wild resources.
5. Through workshops, meetings at local regional and
national levels influence policy makers, government and
nongovernment organizations about the plight of the
saperas as a result of wildlife laws which have banned
their occupation.
6. To create awareness
amongst leaders in the
sapera community about the
need for conservation and
protecting wild species and
the reasons wildlife laws had
been introduced.

1.5 Methodology
Research for this project was
carried out in two parts. In the
first half, contact was
established with the snake
charmer communities within
Delhi to identify their
counterparts in other states of
India. On the basis of the
villages that were identified, a
reconnaissance survey was
conducted in the months of
A monocellate cobra
May-June 2003. This helped
the project team to physically verify snake charmer
villages, estimate the number of people still engaged in
this occupation and compare the problems of the snake
charmers in rural and urban areas.
In the second phase of fieldwork, one village each in the
states of Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh was
identified for a more comprehensive, multi-disciplinary
survey which was conducted in January-March 2004.
Two criteria were used in the selection of the village - that
it should be remote (at least 50 km away from a city
centre) and the saperas should be willing to have the
project team stay with them and share information
openly. This was crucial as snake charming is illegal and,
therefore, the snake charmers are extremely skeptical of
outsiders.
More details on the bio-geographical profile of the areas
covered and the population of each village are given in
Chapter 3. Once in the village, data was collected through
a combination of questionnaires, community
consultations, transect walks and extensive night halts
14

with families which helped us authenticate the primary

data being collected.
Three types of information were collected: socioeconomic, herpetological and ethnobotanical. For each
type of information, a person skilled in that discipline was
in charge of leading the survey and a separate
questionnaire was devised for each subject. A sample of
the questionnaire from each discipline is given in
Appendix I, II and III. For the socio-economic survey,
members of 100 households in all three states of Haryana,
Uttar Pradesh and Rajasthan were interviewed. In the
case of ethnobotanical information, ten key informants
were selected from five of the study villages, to provide
information concerning the traditional knowledge, social
structure, and economics of the profession related to
traditional medicines. Two generations of healers were
sampled by interviewing at least one older (over 35 years
of age) and one younger healer (under 35 yeras of age) in
each state. Due to the sensitive
nature of the information
gathered,
informal
semistructured
interview
techniques were used, and
interviews were often carried
out over a period of several
days (Bernard, H.R. 2001,
Martin, G.J. 1997). This study
focused on the wild harvested
plant species used in herbal
medicine. Two methods were
used (see Martin, G.J. 1997 for
methodology).
Firstly,
informants were requested to
freelist the plant species they
use for medicinal purposes.
Information was then gathered
on the source, preparation and
utilisation of the plant.
Secondly, the informants were
accompanied on a walk in the
vicinity of the village. The informants led this walk,
choosing the areas where they usually collected plants.
Each walk lasted approximately two hours. Botanical
specimens were collected of all the medicinal plants
encountered which are used by the snake charmers. A
total of 58 botanical specimens were collected. These
specimens were identified by Dr. Sanjay Kshirsagar of the
Department of Botany, University of Delhi, and have been
deposited in their herbarium.
For the herpetological information, 50 households in the
three states were interviewed and 135 snakes of different
species were examined for their health conditions.
The survey was thus multi-disciplinary in nature in order
to study all aspects of the lives of the saperas related to
conservation.

CHAPTER 2

SOCIAL AND CULTURAL LIFE

OF THE JOGI-NATH SAPERAS

he Jogi-Naths follow a culture of their own, unique to their

community. This uniqueness is reflected in all aspects of
their life, from the occupation they follow, to the local
institutions that operate within the community. This chapter
discusses the origin of the community and its close links with
different religions and why the Jogis are perceived as god-men in
Indian society

2.0 A short history of the Jogi-Nath saperas

The Jogi-Nath saperas are considered to be descendants of Guru
Gorakhnath (Singh, 1991). There are innumerable legends about
Guru Gorakhnath, though there are no records of when he was
Guru Gorakhnath
born, where he hails from, or any historical facts associated with
had nav (nine)
events in his life. Gorakhnath is considered to be an avatar
Naths and 84
(incarnation) of the Hindu god Lord Shiva. Till today, Shiva is
Siddhas
the predominant god that the saperas worship. Guru Gorakhnath
had nav (nine) Naths and 84 Siddhas (accomplished beings as
(accomplished
disciples). They are considered to be human forms created by
beings as
Gorakhnath's yogic powers to spread his message of yoga and
disciples). They
meditation to the world. (Briggs, 1938).
are considered to
Guru Gorakhnath is mentioned in reference to Adi
be human forms
Shankaracharya who lived in the eighth century 1. He is also
created by
associated with Kabir in the 15th century. References to him
have been found in the Vedas (5000-year-old Hindu scriptures);
Gorakhnath's
the prophet Mohammad is reported to have met him; so
yogic powers.
reportedly has Lord Buddha (6th to 7th century). While he does
not seem to have a samadhi (tomb), the caves where he
meditated - Gorakh Gufa (in Nepal), Gorakh Tilla (in
Pakistan), and Girnar (in India) still exist - are places of
worship.
Different legends account for his birth (Eliade, 1987). In
Bengal, the legend goes that he emerged from the matted
hair of Mahadeva (Shiva). One account gives his place of
birth as the Punjab, another Kathiawar, while Nepalese
tradition says he lived in a cave at Gorakhnath, the cave
and town being named after him. The name Gurkha is
sometimes said to be derived from Gorakhnath. Another
account claims he was an inhabitant of Gorakhpur in
Uttar Pradesh.
In his life, Gorakhnath is said to have traversed the
length and breadth of South Asia - from Afghanistan,
parts of Pakistan, Nepal, Sri Lanka and within India the
states
of
Uttar Pradesh, Assam, West Bengal,
A Jogi-Nath sapera teaches his child how to
Maharashtra.
This,
perhaps, explains the nomadic nature
handle snakes
1Guru

Gorakhnath is thought to have authored several books including the Goraksha Samhita, Goraksha Gita,
Siddha Siddhanta Paddhati, Yoga Martanada, Yoga Siddhanta Paddhati, Yoga-Bija, Yoga Chintamani.

15

Relevance of snakes in Indian religion and scriptures

Fascinating, frightening, sleek and virtually deathless, snakes have a role in almost every culture
and religion. In Jainism and Buddhism, the snake is
regarded as sacred and having divine qualities. It is
believed that a cobra saved the life of Buddha and
another protected the Jain saint Parshwanath. In
medieval India, figures of snakes were carved or
painted on the walls of many Hindu temples. In the
caves at Ajanta in central India, the walls have
images of the rituals of snake worship. Kautilya, in
his Arthashastra has given detailed description of
the cobra.
Nag-Panchami is an important Indian festival and is
celebrated on the fifth day of the moonlit-fortnight in
the Indian calendar month of Shravan
(July/August). This is also the time of the monsoon
rains, when snakes invariably come out of holes
inundated with rain-water to seek shelter in
gardens and, often, houses.

their flutes.
In Punjab, Nag-Panchami is known by the name of
Guga-Navami. A huge snake is shaped from
dough, which is kneaded from a contribution of
flour and butter from every household. The doughsnake is then placed on a winnowing basket and
taken round the village in a colourful procession in
which women and children sing and dance and
onlookers shower flowers. When the procession
reaches the main square of the village, religious
rites are performed to invoke the blessings of the
snake

The most fantastic celebrations of Nag-Panchami

are seen in the village of Battis Shirale, about 400
kms from the city of Mumbai in Maharashtra. Here
people pray to live cobras that they catch on the
eve of this pre-harvest festival. About a week
before the festival, people dig out live snakes from
holes and keep them in covered earthen pots.
In ancient India, there lived a clan by the name of These snakes are fed with rats and milk. Their
Naga whose culture was highly developed. The poison-containing fangs are not removed because
Indus Valley civilisation of
the people of this village
3000 BC gives ample proof
believe that to hurt the
of the popularity of snakesnakes is sacrilegious. On
worship
amongst
the
the day of the festival,
Nagas, whose culture was
villagers, dancing to the
fairly widespread in India,
tune of a musical band,
even before the Aryans
carry the pots on their
came. After the Naga
heads in a long procession
culture got incorporated
to the sacred temple of
into Hinduism, the Indogoddess Amba. After the
Aryans
themselves
ritual worship, the snakes
accepted many of the
are taken out of the pots
snake deities of the Nagas
and set free in the temple
in their pantheon and some
courtyard. Then every
of them even enjoyed a
cobra is made to raise its
pride of place in Puranic
head by swinging in front
Hinduism. The prominent
of it a white-painted bowl
cobra snakes mentioned in
filled with pebbles. The
the Puranas are A nant,
priest sprinkles haldi
Vasuki, Shesh, Padma,
(turmeric) and flowers on
Kanwal, Karkotak, Kalia,
their raised heads. After
Aswatar,
Takshak,
the puja, the snakes are
Sankhpal,
Dhritarashtra A cobra kept in a mud pot
offered milk and honey.
and
Pingal.
Some
historians hold that these were not snakes but After the rituals are completed, the snakes are put
Naga Kings of various regions with immense back in the pots and carried in bullock-carts in a
procession through the 32 hamlets of Shirala
power.
village where women eagerly wait outside their
In Bengal and parts of Assam and Orissa, houses for a darshan (glimpse of a holy one) of the
protection from snakes is sought by worshipping sacred cobras. Vast crowds arrive from Kolhapur,
Mansa, the queen of serpents. During Mansa puja Sangli, Pune, and even from foreign countries to
(worship), snake-charmers are requisitioned to see this wonderful spectacle. The following day the
invoke the Snake Queen by playing lilting tunes on snakes are released in the jungle.

16

of the community. The religious association of their

founder also explains why the Jogis wear saffroncoloured clothes usually worn by holy men in the
Hindu religion. Till this day, Jogi-Nath saperas travel
to different parts of the country, or beyond, to Nepal
and Myanmar, on pilgrimages displaying their snakes
along the way. The connection between the Jogis and
snake worship is a close one and on the festival of
Nag-Panchami people come to the homes of the JogiNaths to offer prayer and food to captive snakes.

2.1 Demographic status of the Jogi-Naths in

contemporary India
The Jogi-Nath saperas refer to themselves by various
regional names. In Rajasthan they are
the
kalbeliyas, in Punjab jogis and in Haryana, simply
saperas. If we club these different names together
the total population of the Jogi-Nath snake charmers
is 48,838 persons according to the 'People of India'
project of the Anthropological Survey of India.
(Singh, 1991) However, it must be stated here that
these figures are over 20 years old and the
population of the community would have increased
manifold since then. Further, due to their nomadic
way of life it is difficult to estimate their exact
numbers. Perhaps, this may be the reason why, when
we shared these population estimates with the snake
charmers, they considered them very low. According
to the snake charmers, their population is at least 2300,000 persons spread across the states of Haryana,
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and some
pockets of Gujarat and Punjab.

2.2 The modern day Jogi-Nath: Old

traditions, new laws
What was snake charming all about before
conservation laws were introduced? Or when modern
means of entertainment like television or radio did
not exist?
A snake charmer's tools were his snake basket, a
been (flute) made from bottle gourd, and he could be
distinguished by his saffron-coloured garments and
turban. The snake charmer would set out in the
morning with the snake basket flung over his
shoulder and find a bustling street corner to set up
shop. The flute was used to gather the attention of
passers-by. Once a large-enough audience had
gathered, the snakes were let out of the basket. The
creatures seemed to be hypnotized by the music of
the flute and would raise their hoods. The snakes
were also useful for gathering the attention of
potential clients for the herbal medicines that the
Jogi-Naths prepare and sell. A sapera would carry
tiny bottles of liquids, ointments and powders which
he had prepared himself. (See Chapter 3 for
ethnobotanical knowledge gathered from snake
charmers). These would be sold at the end of the
performance to the audience that had gathered.
Performance over, the snake charmer would head
back home. In addition to the money from the

performances, people would offer them foodgrains as

alms. While the saperas could not be called rich, they
earned enough from this profession to sustain
themselves and their family.
Today, however the situation is quite different. The
Jogi-Naths have settled down near villages or on the
fringes of agricultural fields. Women and children no
longer travel and usually stay back in the village
while the men tour extensively to return only at the
end of the month, or sometimes after two to three
months.
Before the introduction of the Wildlife (Protection)
Act in 1972, the snake charmers would roam freely in
big cities like Delhi, Mumbai, Mathura and Meerut
with their snakes. With increasing awareness of
wildlife laws, snake charmers found their snakes
being seized and many were even arrested. Today, a
fear psychosis has gripped the community. As
Dinanath sapera states: "We dare not venture out
into the big cities, we go to nearby villages and
streets far from the watchful eye of the Forest

The Jogi-Naths have settled

down near villages or on the
fringes of agricultural fields.
Women and children no
longer travel and usually stay
back in the village while the
men tour extensively to
return only at the end of the
month, or sometimes after
two to three months.
Department or animal welfare people found in big
cities." (Interview conducted with Dinanath sapera
on impact of laws on snake charmers in Haryana .)

2.3 Jogi-Nath culture and other livelihoods

The Jogi-Nath community has responded in its own
way to changing times. While some have adapted well
by turning to new livelihoods, many still continue to
practice their old occupation that is snake charming.
Some of the new livelihoods they have taken up are
close to their culture and traditional skills. In this
section we present some of the features that are
unique to the culture of the saperas.

2.3.1 The Been Party: A unique musical

ensemble
A been party usually consists of a musical band of
seven snake charmers, with each person playing a
specific musical instrument. The been party is
popular not just in rural, but also in urban areas, and
people come from far to make bookings for the
sapera to play at weddings and social functions. The
phenomenon of the been party is quite recent and
according to the community has become more
popular only in the last 20-30 years. The snake

17

charmers have increasingly started relying on the

been party as a source of income especially due to
the ban on snake charming. The different
instruments used, are handcrafted by the saperas.
These are the been (flute), the tumba (small drumlike object with one string), the khanjari
(tambourine) and the dhol (big drums). The been,
tumba and khanjari are all made by the snake
charmers themselves after drying the fruit of the
bottle gourd plant that they grow close to their
homes.
The wedding season lasts for almost seven months of
the year and the snake charmers are able to earn a
reasonable amount of money from their
performances. The been party has thus emerged as
the community's attempt to adapt to changing times
as it utilizes their musical skills and does not require
the use of the snakes. The better-off members of the
community have developed the concept into big
business with loudspeakers, horses and a carriage
which is hired out during weddings. The musical
bands provide only seasonal employment and are
popular only in specific states. For instance, in

The Jogi-Naths with their traditional medicines

Rajasthan this project found no been party in any of

the villages. The snake charmers continue to practice
snake charming.

2.3.2 Snake charmers as traditional healers

A little-known fact about snake charmers is their
extensive knowledge of herbal medicines which they
dispense to customers as they travel from village to
village. A detailed listing of the plants collected by
the snake charmers and the medicines prepared by
them is given in the section on ethnobotany in
Chapter 3.
The role of snake charmers as traditional healers is
still intact in rural areas and during stay of the
project teamwith members of the community, they
found many people from other castes coming to them
for treatment of their ailments. A snake charmer in
one village in Haryana has even opened a clinic
where he sits surrounded by rows of bottles and
powders much like a modern-day doctor. Of
particular relevance are the medicines prepared for
treating snakebites. These are especially useful
18

during the monsoons when snakebites are common

and in far-flung areas where the nearest hospital is
hundreds of kilometres away and primary health
centres are not equipped with anti-venom injections.
The local snake charmer, in such cases, takes on the
role of neighbourhood doctor and treats snake bite
victims. The efficacy of the medicines has been
examined in the next chapter

2.3.3 Community-based institutions:

The Sapera Panchayat
"The members of the Sapera Panchayat will sit and
deliberate on a matter, sometimes for many days, or
may dispense with a case within a few hours. They
are very much like your courts. The verdict of the
Panchayat is respected by all the saperas. We never
go the police or the courts to resolve our problems.
Institutions like the court and the police came much
later. Our panchayat is much older. Even the
younger saperas don't dare defy the decision of the
Panchayat." (As told by Pritamnath sapera in a
personal interview)
As unique as their livelihoods are the communitybased institutions of the saperas. The Sapera
Panchayat usually consists of the elders of the
village. While many villages in rural India have a
panchayat (local self-government), the role that the
Sapera Panchayat assumes is far greater than any
formal institutions of government. The Panchayat
consists of five male members of the village, who are
from the Jogi-Nath community, whose advice and
expertise is used to resolve disputes. The structure of
the Panchayat is as follows: Each sapera village will
have five leaders or Panch who constitute the
Panchayat. From the Panchayat one person will be
selected as the leader or the Sarpanch. The role of
the Sarpanch is not restricted to one village. He is
often called to another sapera village as a neutral
observer if their own Panchayat is not able to resolve
local disputes. The expense for his travel and stay is
paid by the host village. Quite often we found that a
Sarpanch would travel quite far from his own village,
even to another state, to resolve disputes of the JogiNaths. His skills in settling disputes may thus be
used by saperas from another village.
All kinds of disputes are brought to the Panchayat:
they may be disputes between two families over
property, personal disputes or altercations which
may have resulted in physical violence between two
individuals, or even cases where a snake charmer has
run away with the wife of another snake charmer.
Punishments meted out by the Panchayat usually
consist of a public apology or a monetary fine
depending on the seriousness of a crime. For a
sapera, in case of a dispute, the first institution to
approach would be the Sapera Panchayat. The role
performed by the Panchayat shows how strong the
caste affiliations are and how they have not been
weakened by geographical space or by the
introduction of modern institutions.

CHAPTER 3

RESULTS OF THE
MULTI-DISCIPLINARY SURVEY

n this chapter we present the findings of the multi-disciplinary survey conducted

in the three states of Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh of the Jogi-Nath
community. The research conducted with the snake charmers was of three types
and has been presented in the following three sections:
Section A:
Section B:
Section C:

Socio-economic status of the Jogi-Nath saperas

Herpetological information and condition of
snakes in captivity
Ethnobotany and role of traditional healers

3.0 Administrative and bio-geographical profile of the area surveyed

We start this section with an introduction to the area where the primary data was
collected, the climatic condition and the bio-geographical profile of each district and
state.

HANUMANGARH
RAJASTHAN
Rajasthan is the second largest state in India, covering an area of around 342,274 km.
Geographically, the north-western region of the state represents the eastern extent of

Shifting sand dunes of Rajasthan

19

Forests of Hastinapur, Uttar Pradesh

the Thar desert and is characterized by shifting and fixed

sand dunes. The monsoon months are July to September,
when over 90 percent of rainfall occurs. Annual rainfall is
highest in the south-east at 500-600mm/year, and
decreases to less than 250mm in the western desert areas.
Hanumangarh, the northernmost district of Rajasthan,
lies in a region of unstable to stabilised dunes, with a
sparse vegetation cover of mostly stunted, drought
resistant thorny shrubs and perennial herbs. Average
annual temperatures vary widely, ranging from -5 C in
December/January, to 47 C in June. Construction of
irrigation facilities has permitted the spread and
intensification of agriculture in the area, but this
occupation is still marginal.

MEERUT
UTTAR PRADESH
Slightly smaller than Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh covers an
area of 294,411 km. It is India's most populous state, with
around 166 million inhabitants. The climate of the state
is tropical monsoon, with average temperatures in the
plains ranging from 30 0C in January to 45 0C in
May/June. The monsoon season runs from June to
September and is responsible for widespread flooding in
many areas of the state.
The villages surveyed lie in Meerut district in the
Gangetic plains region of Uttar Pradesh. While Meerut is
a bustling industrial town, the villages of the snake
charmers were far from the urban centre, in the interiors
of agricultural fields. Two of the three villages surveyed
were surrounded by the Hastinapur wildlife sanctuary.
The Hastinapur sanctuary is home to the chital (Axis
axis), nilgai (Bocephalus tragocamelus), wolf (Canis
lupus), leopard (Panthera pardus ), ), swamp deer
(Cervus duvauceli) and wild boar (Sus scrofa).
20

PANIPAT
HARYANA
Haryana is a small state covering an area of 44,212 km.
Largely situated in the Gangetic plains, the state is
bordered to the north by the Shivalik Hills and to the
southwest by the Aravalli Hills. The temperatures range
from 45C in the summer months to -1C in winter.
Rainfall is low and erratic over most of the state, and
around 80 percent of the annual rainfall occurs in the
monsoon season from July to September.
More than 80 percent of the land in this district is under
cultivation. The villages surveyed were in the district of
Panipat, which is an area of intensive agriculture with
wild flora largely restricted to field edges and roadsides.
Today Panipat is an industrial town and is known for its
handloom products. The villages of the snake charmers
were found away from the industrial town, in the interiors
of of agricultural fields.

Agricultural fields of Haryana

SECTION A

SOCIO-ECONOMIC STATUS OF THE JOGI-NATH SAPERAS

Education levels

Total population surveyed

57%

58%
60%
50%
Number of
persons

42%

60%

29%

40%

50%

30%
20%

40%
Number of
30%
persons
20%

10%
0%
Adults

10%

Children in school
going age

0%
Males

Age category

Females
Sex

Figure: 3.2: Education levels in

surveyed households

Figure 3.1: Percentage of males

and females (N=537)

he results of the socio-economic survey are presented

in this section. Primary data was collected using the
questionnaire method (see Appendix I) and 105
households of Jogi-Nath saperas, across three states of
Rajasthan, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh were surveyed.

3.1 Average size of a family was five persons

The total population surveyed was 537 individuals. The
sex ratio was biased in favour of the males who formed
58 percent of the population while females constituted
42 percent. The average size of a snake charmer family
was 5.1 persons.

3.2 Education levels are higher in the

current generation
Persons who were in the age group of 14 and below were
considered as being in the 'school-going age' bracket.
Persons who were above the age of 18 were considered
adults. A comparison of these two age groups shows that

as many as 57 percent of children in the age group of 14

and below were enrolled in schools. This was higher in
the adult population of which only 29 percent had gone
to school. The education level among females was
significantly lower. In the case of adults who had gone to
school, 96 percent were males while only 4 percent were
females. In the current generation too, only 15% of those
enrolled in schools were females.

3.3 Traditional knowledge about catching

snakes was high but that of playing the been
(flute) was low
Along with education, the snake charmers were also
questioned about their traditional knowledge. Two
indicators were used to gauge how much they knew
about their traditional occupation. The first indicator was
whether they knew how to play the been (flute) which is
the traditional instrument of the Jogi-Naths. The second
indicator used was whether they knew how to catch

Traditional knowledge levels

82%

100%
80%
Number of
persons

60%

54%

46%
18%

40%

Yes

20%

No

0%
Snake charmers
who know the flute

Figure 3.3:
Traditional
knowledge
levels

Yes
No

Snake charmers
who can catch
snakes

Knowledge type

21

Occupational
profile of
of current
generation
Occupational
profile
current
generation
Snake charming

Agriculture

10%

6%

2%

Others (shop keeping, government

service)

7%

Unemployed

2%
73%

Traditional medicine

Figure 3.4.1 :
Occupational
profile of
current
generation

Begging

snakes. These questions were asked specifically of those

in the age group of 18-35 in order to find out how much
of the traditional knowledge was being passed on to the
next generation. While only 54 percent knew how to play
the been, as many as 82 percent of the saperas who are
still practising snake charming could catch snakes. The
rest said they could catch snakes with the assistance of
the elders in the community.

3.4 Snake charming is the main occupation for a

majority of the population surveyed
An occupation was considered to be the main occupation
of a person if he/she was practising it for more than six
months in a year. It should be mentioned here that since
the questionnaire was administered to persons in the agegroup of 18-35, they were representing the current
generation. In the current generation, it was found that
as many as 64 percent were practising snake charming as
their main occupation. Further, as many as 10 percent of
the population surveyed were supplementing snake

charming with the business of preparing herbal

medicines and selling these in urban and rural markets.
If we add these two categories, nearly 73 percent of the
population surveyed was dependent on snakes to earn a
living. The rest was engaged in other occupations such as
shop-keeping or selling semi-precious stones (7 percent),
selling herbal medicines (10 percent) while 6 percent
recorded 'begging' as their main occupation. Nearly 2
percent of persons interviewed said they were
unemployed and another 2 percent were engaged in
agriculture
The occupational profile of the previous generation was
quite different with less diversification in livelihood
strategies. None from the previous generation reported
to be unemployed or involved only in the sale of
traditional medicines. Nearly 95 percent of the persons
from the past generation were practising snake charming
and supplemented snake charming with selling
traditional medicines. The rest were engaged in other
occupations such as agriculture (1 percent), government

Occupational profile of previous generation

Occupational
profile of previous generation

Snake charming
2%
2%
1%
Agriculture

Others (shop keeping, government

service)

Figure 3.4.2:
Occupational
profile of
previous
generation

22

95%
Begging

Income
Incomefrom
fromdifferent
differentsources
sources
86
75.3

90
80
70
60
Average per50
day in Rs 40
30
20
10
0

70
52

Snake Medicinal trade Begging

charming

Figure 3.5:
Average
income from
different
sources

Others (selling
stones, shop,
driving)

Source of income

service (2 percent), while 2 percent recorded begging as

their main occupation.
Many snake charmers supplemented their main
occupation with other livelihoods. These included
occupations like: been party, daily wage work on
agricultural fields or construction sites and selling semiprecious stones.

3.5 Average income from snake charming

was more than the minimum wage rates in
many states
The income of the snake charmers on a daily basis was
recorded. It may be noted that while income may differ
from day to day, the results below show an average.
Income of the snake charmers may increase on days of
festivals such as Nag-Panchami (festival of snakes). The
graph shows the daily income from different sources. The
maximum income per day was from those engaged in
shop-keeping (about Rs. 86 per day). It may be noted that
only a small percentage of the population was engaged in
shop-keeping. The average income per day from snake

charming was Rs. 75, from selling herbal medicines was

Rs. 70 and from going out in their saffron clothes and
begging for alms was Rs. 52. These figures can be
compared with the minimum wage rate of many states
that is the wage rate applicable to workers in the
unorganised sector. The minimum wage in Haryana for
instance ranged between Rs. 51-55 per day in 1995.
(Subrahmanya, 1995). Thus, the snake charmers are able
to earn a much higher amount from snake charming,
than they would if they turned to daily wage labour, for
instance.

3.6 Majority of snake charmers feel snake

charming as a profession has lost relevance
In this section we asked the Jogi-Naths a series of
questions related to their perception of their traditional
occupation that is snake charming. Nearly 94 percent of
the population surveyed felt that the scope of snake
charming as an occupation had declined. This question
was used to gauge the relevance of the traditional
occupation for the younger generation. Of those who

Number of persons

Has snake charming as an occupation lost

relevance?
100%

94%

80%
60%
40%
20%

6%

0%
Yes

No
Categories

Figure 3.6:
Relevance of snake
charming as an
occupation

23

Reasons why snake charming as a profession

has declined

15%

3%

Strict laws
Other forms of
entertainment
Any other reasons

Figure 3.6.1:
Reasons why
snake charming
as a profession
had declined

82%

said yes to the previous question, we asked further the

reasons why they thought the profession was no longer
relevant or a viable one. As many as 82 percent felt that
the ban on the profession was the reason, while 15
percent felt that the development of other means of
entertainment had resulted in a decline in the relevance
of their occupation, while 3 percent gave other reasons
such as embarrassment in following an archaic
occupation.

3.6.1 Snake charming continues as snake

charmers know no other skill
We asked those who were still practising snake charming
why they were in this profession. As many as 58 percent
said they were still following their traditional occupation
despite a ban on it, as they did not know anything else,
30 percent said they did it because it was part of their
caste identity, while 12 percent said they engaged in
snake charming because they liked their job.
Those who were not practising snake charming gave
several reasons for not doing so. While 68 percent cited

not knowing the traditions related to their occupation

such as catching snakes as a reason for not practising
snake charming, others cited embarrassment (21
percent) and fear of getting caught by the police (18
percent).

3.7 Only a small percentage of snake charmers

felt unaffected by the ban on their occupation

In this section we asked the Jogi-Naths how the ban on

snake charming had impacted their profession. We first
asked them the reason why this ban had been
introduced. While 47 percent felt that an eminent
politician who is an animal activist had directed the
police to arrest them, 30 percent had no idea why the ban
had been introduced. As many as 19 percent stated that
snake species were dwindling as the reason behind the
ban, 4 percent stated there was no ban and this was just
an excuse for the police to harass them and extract
money from them.

3.7.1 Loss of income as a result of the ban

Finally we asked the Jogi-Naths how the ban had affected

Reasons
why
you are
still practising
snake
Reasons
why
snake
charmers
are still
practising
snake
charming
charming

12%
I dont know anything
else
It is part of our caste
identity
I like my job

30%
58%

24

Figure 3.6.2
Reasons why
snake charmers
are practising
their profession

for ban
on snake
charming
WhyReasons
do you think
snake
charming
has been
banned?

Reasons for not practising snake charming

I dont know the flute
how to catch
or
snakes
I feel
embarassed
Feel scared of
caught
getting

Species are dwindling

There is no ban the police

just harasses us

17%
Animal activists have told the
police to arrest us

19%
30%
4%

I dont know

63%

20%

47%

Figure 3.6.3: Reasons why you do not practise

snake charming

Figure 3.7 Reasons why snake charming has

been banned

Perceived impact of the ban on snake charming

Snake charmers who have been caught

The laws have not

affected us at all
I was asked to pay a
bribe
My snakes were seized

Income has become

less

20%

I dont go to big cities

like Delhi

5%

28%

The police just harassed

me

52%
75%

20%

Figure 3.7.1: Impact of the ban on snake charming

on your profession

Figure 3.7.2: Consequences of being caught by

enforcement authorities

their occupation. While 75 percent of the population

surveyed reported a fall in their income levels as a result
of the ban, 20 percent stated that they had stopped going
to big cities like Delhi where the chances of being caught
were more. A mere 5 percent of the population surveyed
felt that the ban on snake charming had not affected
their occupation at all.

3. Average income from snake charming is Rs. 75 a day,

which is more than the minimum wage rate in most
states. Snake charming, then, despite all restrictions is
still quite economically viable.
4. Education levels were high when compared with the
previous generation with as many as 57 percent of
children in the age-group of 14 and below enrolled in
school. It should be added that enrolment did not
necessarily indicate regular attendance in school.
Interviews with school teachers in fact indicate a high
drop-out rate for children from this community.
5. Only 54 percent of those who were still practising
snake charming knew how to play the been while 82
percent of those who were practising snake charming,
were able to catch snakes with confidence.
6. As many as 75 percent of the people interviewed
admitted that the ban on snake charming had led to a fall
in their income levels, 20 percent no longer went to big
cities for fear of being caught and 5 percent said the ban
had not impacted them at all.
7. Less than one-third of the respondents knew the
reasons why the ban has been imposed
8. Levels of corruption as reported by respondents by
enforcement agencies was high.

3.7.2 Corruption amongst enforcement agencies

was rampant
Of those who had been caught by the enforcement
agencies, 52 percent were let off after paying a bribe, 28
percent were roughed up or questioned by the police and
20 percent had their snakes seized from them. None of
the snake charmers knew what happened to their snakes
after they had been seized by the police.

To sum up this section:

1. The average size of a sapera family was 5 persons,
with the sex ratio biased in favour of males
2. Nearly 73 percent of the snake charmers in the age
group of 18-35 are still dependent on snakes to earn a
living. In the case of the previous generation, as many as
95 percent were practising snake charming.

25

SECTION B

HERPETOLOGICAL INFORMATION
3.8 Introduction
In this section we analyse the species of snakes kept by
the snake charmers, their health in captivity and the area
from where the trapping is done. It should be mentioned
that information about the snakes and physical
verification was extremely difficult to obtain given the ban
on snake charming. Nonetheless, a total of 135 snakes
were observed in 50 households.

3.9 An average of seven snakes per snake

charmer were caught annually with as many as
eight species snakes observed in captivity
The total number of snakes observed in captivity was 135
in 50 households spread across different villages in the
three states of Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh.
Thus on an average, the number of snakes per household
was 2.7. In addition to the snakes observed by the project
team during data collection, the snake charmers admitted
that many snakes were caught by them and released in
the wild periodically. Therefore, using the recall method,
we additionally recorded how many snakes they caught in
one year. By this method, on an average, the results show
a snake charmer caught 7 snakes per year although
species-wise information was not available for this.
Of the snakes physically observed, there were eight
species that were observed in captivity and, for each, the
snake charmers had a local name. These are shown in
Table 2.
The three most commonly observed species was the
Common cobra, Naja naja (57%), the Earth boa, Eryx
johnii (16%) and the Rat snake, Ptyas mucosa (13%).
These are species that are efficient rodent killers and
found quite close to human habitations (Whitaker, 1978).
Other species observed were the Sand boa, Eryx conicus
(1%) and Royal snakes, Spalerosophis diadema (5%). Less
common species such as pythons, Python molurus
bivittatus and Red spotted royal snakes, Spalerosophis

A Red-spotted royal snake in captivity

arenerius were observed only in 2% of the households.

The King cobra, Ophiophagus hannah was also observed
in 3% of the households surveyed

3.10 Trapping occurs in all seasons

There was no fixed time period chosen by the charmers to
trap snakes. No specific traps were laid or bait set. Snakes
were trapped as and when the charmers encountered
them especially during their travels to different regions of
the country. They did admit that the monsoon season
from July -September was more favourable for trapping
due to easy sightings of snakes at this time of the year.
The commonly trapped snakes were the Common cobra
(Naja naja), Rat snake (Ptyas mucosa) and Earth boa
(Eryx johnii).
The snake charmers in Haryana described the following
method for trapping snakes: "When the women go out
early in the morning to the fields for their ablutions they
spot the snakes. The entrances to the burrows are
blocked by using bricks and stones. The period between
spotting the snake and actual trapping can vary (could

Table 2: Percentage of snakes of different species in captivity

26

COMMON NAME

LOCAL NAME

SCIENTIFIC NAME

% IN CAPTIVITY
(N=135)

Common Cobra

Kala saanp

Naja naja

57%

Monocellate cobra

Pondarai

Naja kaouthia

1%

Rat snakes

Ghoda pachad

Ptyas mucosa

13%

Earth boa

Dumai

Eryx johnii

16%

Sand boa

Dhusan

Eryx conicus

1%

Royal snake

Ghurav

Spalerosophis diadema

5%

Red spotted royal snake

Ghurav

Spalerosophis arenerius

2%

King cobra

Elahad

Ophiophagus hannah

3%

Python

Ajgar

Python molurus bivittatus

2%

Area for trapping different species

River beds

Percentage of snakes
trapped

100%
80%

Sand dunes

60%
Purchased
40%
20%

Waste land

0%
Cobra M cobra King
cobra

Figure 3.11: Area

for trapping of
different snake
species

be a few hours to days). The snake is dug out from the

marked spot. It is immobilized by placing a stick on the
head and restrained by grasping its head in one hand
and then the rest of the snake is dug out from the
burrow. Implements like shovels and baisakhi (stick with
an iron spade at one end) are used for digging. If it is
venomous, the snake is defanged at the site of capture
with the blade of the baisakhi. We then place it in a
cotton bag and carry it home." (Interview with Rajunath
sapera Haryana, January 2004).
In Rajasthan the snake charmers trap snakes by following
the trail of the reptile on the sand dunes. The trails were
used to locate the burrow and the snake was then dug out
using a spade or a baisakhi.
We further observed in all three states that hunting dogs
were kept by the snake charmers who accompanied them
during their hunting trips. The hunting dogs in addition
to sniffing out trails were used to catch smaller mammals
such as rodents or hares or hedgehogs for the evening
meal.

3.11 Trapping location varied according to

species and micro-habitat

The areas for trapping varied according to the microhabitat: from agricultural fields in Uttar Pradesh and
Haryana to sand dunes in Rajasthan. Rat snakes were

An example of a weak cobra

Rat
snake

Earth
boa

Royal Red Python

snake spotted
royal
snake

Species

Sand
boa

Forest land

Crop Fields

generally caught from wastelands on the outskirts of

agricultural fields in Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. The
maximum number of snakes (58%) were caught from
agricultural fields which included species such as the
Common cobra and the Rat snake. As many as 16% of the
snakes were trapped from wastelands or village commons
which were ideal for species such as the Earth boa. The
sand dunes and river beds were ideal for species such as
the Royal snakes from where 7% of this species were
caught. From forest land the species that were caught
were Indian pythons and Common cobra. About 10% of
the snakes were not trapped by the snake charmers but
purchased. These included species like the Common
cobra and the King cobras. The King cobras were
purchased from a community in Cuttack in Orissa known
as the Jhulias.

3.12 Snakes kept for more than one month were

unhealthy
For a rapid assessment of the health of the snakes in
captivity, three criteria were used as shown in Table 3. On
the basis of these criteria the snakes were classified as
'healthy' or 'unhealthy'. If even one of the indicators
mentioned were present then the snake was classified as
being 'unhealthy'. The health of the snake was further
related to time spent in captivity. If it was more than one
month, the snake was classified as 'old' and if it had been
caught less than a month ago it was classified as 'recently
caught'. One month was chosen as the cut-off period as
this was the time after which the body condition of a
snake caught from the wild is likely to deteriorate,
although there may be inter-species or intra-species
differences.
Based on this classification, we found that across all
species, the general trend was that the snakes were
unhealthy if they had spent more than one month in
captivity. Especially in the case of venomous snakes, like
the Common cobra, we found that 80 percent of the
snakes that had been caught more than a month ago were
weak and only 20 percent were healthy. Since the venom
apparatus has been removed, the ability of such snakes to
survive in the wild is significantly reduced. In the case of

27

Table 3: Indicators of health of the captive snakes

Indicator

Type of condition

If the snake had a tent like appearance,

showing prominent ribs or

Poor body condition

The snake had not shed its skin properly or

Poor housing conditions

The snake was passing smelly stools

with yellow-green bile or

Indicator of probable digestive

disorder

The snake was showing mucous in nose

and mouth

Indicator of mouth rot or removal of venom

apparatus

the Rat snake, 89 percent of the snakes kept in captivity

for more than a month were weak while only 11 percent
were healthy. For the Earth boa it was observed that 63
percent of those who had spent more than a month in
captivity were weak and only 37 percent were healthy. For
the ones that had been recently caught, the trend was
reversed. None of the cobras or the earth boas that had
been recently caught were unhealthy. In the case of the
Rat snake, too, only 11 percent of those recently caught
were unhealthy.
Information on how many snakes die in captivity was not
attained as the snake charmers follow a customary law by
which a fine is imposed by the Panchayat on any sapera
caught with a dead snake in his house. The tendency
therefore was to release the snake back in the wild as
soon as a sapera observed it was too weak to perform.

3.13 Procedures for removal of venom apparatus

In two venomous species of snakes (Common cobra and
King cobra), the venom apparatus was removed by the
snake charmers. At the time of trapping, the snake is

defanged with a baisakhi. The removal of the venom

apparatus is done once the snake has been brought back
to the house with the help of a sharp needle. As many as
39 percent of the cobras had an infection in the mouth
due to the removal of the venom apparatus. The infections
may have occurred because of harsh practises of removal
with a needle (which may or may not be sterilised) leading
to inflammations and open wounds in the mouth. With
King cobras, the procedure was to break the venom fangs
and sever the venom duct, as the fangs can grow back.
One possible reason why the venom duct was not
completely removed in the case of King cobras was that
the venom glands are big, so when it is removed its mouth
looks smaller, thus reducing the attraction of the snake.
In Common cobras, the practise is to break the fangs and
remove the duct completely. In other non-venomous
snakes, such as the Rat snake, the teeth are not broken,
but they maybe deprived of food and water for the first
few days after trapping so that the snake becomes dull
and loses its aggression.
Nearly 72 percent of the snake charmers have knowledge

Species and time-wise health condition of snakes

120%
100%

Recently caught
Unhealthy

80%

Recently caught
Healthy

60%

Old Unhealthy

40%
Old Healthy

20%
Figure 3.12:
Health condition
of snakes in
captivity

28

0%
Cobra

Rat snake

Earth boa

Time period for basking of captive snakes

39%
49%

0 hrs
Half hour in winter
One hour in winter

12%
Figure 3.15: Time
period for basking
of captive snakes

of how to remove the venom apparatus. Others rely on the

elders in the community for this. The knowledge about
removal of the venom apparatus was thus quite commonly
known by the snake charmers.

In winter each basket was lined with blankets to protect

the snake from cold weather and also to prevent injuries.
In Rajasthan, where night temperature tends to dip, we
observed that the baskets were wrapped in two to four
blankets throughout the winter nights. The baskets were
3.14 Snake charmers retrieved snakes from
kept in sunlight for four to five hours during the winter
human habitation or agricultural fields
months.
We observed that snake charmers were often called by In summers, the charmers keep the snakes in the baskets
local farmers to remove snakes from agricultural fields or without a lining and this leads to injuries to the snout and
their homes. The most commonly rescued snakes are skin. The water sprayed to reduce the temperature may
cobras and Rat snakes. While these two species were kept also lead to increase in humidity. The charmers force-fed
by the snake charmers for performances, species such as the snakes with uncooked chicken and mutton. In almost
the Krait (B ungarus sp) and the Russels viper (Vipera 80 percent or more of the houses, the snake charmer
russelii) were generally killed. The reason may be a lack himself fed the snakes. Feeding was repeated after the
of expertise in catching these snakes.
snake had defecated at least two to
Especially in the case of the Russels
three times. As per availability, the
viper, the danger is that the fangs are
snakes, except King cobras, were fed
long and can penetrate the skin of the
with chicks, rats and squirrels. The
snake handler through the lower jaw,
chicks, rats and squirrels were killed
during
trapping.
Nevertheless,
first and their feet were disarticulated
retrieving snakes from human
before being fed to the snakes. The
habitation was a frequent service
Monocellate cobras (N aja kaouthia)
performed by the snake charmers and
were an exception as they were force-fed
as many as 71 percent of the snake
solely with sole fish, a variety of fish
charmers said they responded to such
available locally. In winter they were not
calls from nearby villagers
fed due to the unavailability of this fish.
The King cobras were force-fed with
3.15 Feeding and husbandry
snakes like Checkered keelbacks
Only a few snakes were well
conditions
(Xenochropis piscator) and Rat snakes,
looked after
All the snakes were kept in round
which were first killed.
baskets called topris. These were made out of dry bamboo In winter, the snakes were fed less frequently and with
or stems of Typha sp. The snakes of different species were raw eggs. Force-feeding was done with the help of a
kept together, except for King cobras, which were kept in rubber tube or a hollow bone. A charmer in Uttar Pradesh
separate baskets. Basking in natural sunlight was carried force-fed his snakes with whiskey to raise its body
out for a maximum of an hour as and when possible. We temperature. Water was given to the snakes to drink only
found that 39 percent of the snake charmers did not let during summer months and just prior to moulting. In
the snakes out of the basket at all for basking while 49 winter no water was offered to the snakes as the snake
percent let the snakes out of the basket for one hour and charmers believe that the drop in temperature in winter
12 percent let them out of the basket for half-an-hour. The prevents dehydration of snakes in captivity.
snakes were kept in baskets all the time, except when they
were being fed or had been put out in the sun for basking. 3.16 Captive snakes are usually fed once a week
Basking is an essential activity for reptiles especially in Out of the total households surveyed, 65 percent people
winter for thermoregulation.
said they fed the snakes once a week, 24 percent said after

29

Table 4: Health status of snakes according to time spent in captivity

Recently caught
SPECIES

Old

Unhealthy

Healthy

Unhealthy

Healthy

Cobra

0%

100%

80%

20%

Rat snake

11%

89%

89%

11%

Earth boa

0%

100%

63%

37%

Table 5: Percentage of snakes rescued in 2002-2003 from

agricultural fields (N=355)
Species

Percentage of snakes

Cobras

48%,

Rat snakes

31%,

Earth boas

2%,

Royal snakes

3%,

Kraits

15%,

Russels viper

1%.

two weeks and 10 percent said that they followed no

regular pattern for feeding i.e. the time interval of feeding
was changed according to the season: in summer the time
interval was less and in winter more.

3.17 The Common cobra is the most favoured

species
The snake charmers were asked to rank the snake species
that they favoured for their occupation on a scale of 1 to
5 with 1 representing favourable and 5 representing least
favourable. Nearly 71 percent of the persons ranked the
Common cobra at number one, and 29 percent the King
cobra. The King cobra, though larger and more
impressive in appearance, was more difficult and
expensive to procure. Earth boas as a species are hardy
and can be easily trapped due to their sluggish behaviour,

but they lacked the magnificence and size of either the

cobra or the Rat snake. Perhaps, that is the reason why 43
percent of the persons gave this species a ranking of two.
The Rat snakes were large in size but the magnificence of
the hood was absent. This explains why it was given a
rank of two by 16 percent of the persons, rank three by 29
percent and rank four by 31 percent. The graph thus
shows that the Common cobra was the snake most
favoured by the snake charmers.

To sum up this section:

1. In one year, on an average, one snake charmer caught
seven snakes. Eight species of snakes were kept in
captivity, of which the maximum numbers was the
Common cobra followed by Rat snakes. Two rare species
were also found, namely the Royal snake and the Python,

Frequency of feeding snakes in captivity

10%

Once a week

24%

Once in two weeks

66%

Figure 3.16:
Frequency of
feeding

30

Varies in summer and

winter

Ranking of species of snakes

Royal snake

Percentage of persons

100

Figure 3.17:
Ranking of
snake species
preferred by
snake charmers

Earth boa

80
60

Rat snake

40
King cobra

20
0

Rank 1

Rank 2

Rank 3

Rank 4

Rank 5

Cobra

Ranking

but these were observed only in 2 percent of the

households sampled.
2. Across all species, the general trend was that the
snakes were unhealthy if they had spent more than
one month in captivity and, therefore, had less
chance of survival when released back in the wild.
3. The death rate of the snakes in captivity could not
be measured as the tendency for the snake charmer
was to release the snake back in the wild if it was too
weak to perform. Obviously there was not much
chance for survival of the weak snake in the wild
4. A small percentage of snakes were observed to be
healthy and good husbandry practises were being
followed.
5. In the case of venomous species, the venom
apparatus was removed or damaged. As many as 39
percent of the snakes had an infection in the mouth
due to removal of the venom apparatus. This greatly
reduced the ability of the snake to survive in the
wild.
6. The species that were favoured for performances
were generally the cobra, which was considered to
be a charismatic species because of its hood.
7. The snakes are fed usually once a week when in
captive condition
8. 71 percent of the snake charmers responded to
calls by local farmers to remove snakes from
agricultural fields or human habitation with the
cobra and the rat snake being the most common
species encountered.

Team member Vikram Hoshing assessing the condition

of a cobra

31

SECTION C

ETHNOBOTANICAL KNOWLEDGE OF THE JOGI-NATH SAPERAS

3.18 Snake Charmers as Traditional Healers
The image of the snake charmer and his snakes is a
familiar one. Less familiar is the role of the snake charmer
as a medicinal healer. When a snake charmer sets out for
a performance, he also takes with him a briefcase
containing dried herbs, roots and animal parts, prepared
medicines, and lucky stones. At the end of a snake
performance, once an audience has gathered, the charmer
will sell herbal remedies for common ailments. Many
snake charmers also have an established client base,
consisting of individual patients who contact the snake
charmer if they require treatment for an illness. These
clients may live in the snake charmers' home village, or in
distant states, and one snake charmer in Haryana had
even set up a clinic where patients could visit him.
To date, no attention has been paid to this practice of
traditional medicine and its importance to the snake
charmers' livelihood. Moreover, it is not known how the
recent changes in the law have affected this profession, if
at all. Studies of other nomadic tribes have revealed the
impact of changing lifestyles on traditional occupations.
One example is the Vaidus, a nomadic tribe in
Maharashtra who practice traditional medicine. Over 50
percent of this tribe have given up their traditional
profession as the result of the increase in primary health
care centres in rural areas, which has caused a
corresponding decline in demand for their medicine
(Malhotra, K.C. and Gadgil, M. 1988).
The World Health Organisation (WHO) estimates that
four billion people - 80 percent of the world population rely to some extent on herbal medicine in primary
healthcare. The use of traditional medicine in developing
countries is increasing. Hence the question: what is the
contribution of snake charmers, if any, to primary
healthcare?
India is one of the 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the
world, with an estimated 40,000 plant species
(Chowdhary, H.J and Murti, S.K. 2000). Not surprisingly
then, it is the largest user of medicinal plants2 in the
world, using an estimated 7000 species. The medicinal
systems of India are many and ancient. The first written
records of medicinal plant use are found in the Rig Veda
(3500 to 1800 BC) (Jain, S.K. 2001). However, around 95
percent of medicinal plants are wild collected, and there is
little or no regulation of harvesting methods and levels.
This has led to the over-harvesting of some species and
the Botanical Survey of India has estimated that around
1500 plant species in India are rare or threatened. The
main factors contributing to the decline in wild
populations are thought to be anthropogenic, such as

A traditional healer with roots and herbs

habitat destruction and over exploitation (Chowdhary,

H.J. and Murti, S.K. 2000). It is known that snake
charmers use wild harvested plants in their medicines.
However, it is unknown as to which plants are used and in
what quantities, and the impact of harvesting on wild
populations.

3.19. Inventory of Medicinal Plants: Most plants

used are from the wild
The greater proportion of plants used in treatments were
harvested from the wild as opposed to purchases from the
pansari (traders), and for many informants this
proportion was close to 100 percent. Wild harvested
plants were preferred as, despite the greater labour costs
involved in collecting and processing the plants, the profit
from the medicines was greater as there were no
purchasing costs. One healer estimated that the sale price
of the medicine must be at least twice the price of the cost
of the ingredients in order to make a profit. The pansari
was, therefore, used mainly for species that were very
difficult to obtain, because they did not grow in the local
area.

3.20 More than a hundred plant species are used

by the saperas in medicines
The number of different species known and used by

Definition of medicinal plants according to FAO (1999): "Medicinal plants may be defined as those plants that are
commonly used in treating and preventing specific ailments and diseases and that are generally considered to
have a beneficial role in health care."

32

Proportion of Wild Plants

Used
71
80
Percent 60
of
40
Responses 20
0
Figure 3.19:
Proportion of wild
medicinal plants
used by healers

individual informants ranged from 10 to 250. A complete

list of the plants mentioned and their uses is given in the
questionnaire in Appendix 1.
A total of 58 different plants were identified to genus or
species level, with 106 mentions by the informants. In
addition to the identified plants recorded, a further 53
local plant names were documented. It was not possible to
collect specimens of these plants, either because they do
not grow in the locality of the study villages, or because
they cannot be found in this season. Identified specimens
are referred to in this report by their Latin name, and
unidentified plants are referred to by their local or Hindi
name. The snake charmers use their own dialect, so plant
names may not necessarily match with Hindi names.
If the number of identified species, as well as local names
of plants is combined, a total of 110 different plants were
mentioned. There were 170 different mentions of these
plants, with roughly equal numbers of mentions in each
state (Uttar Pradesh 36.4%, Haryana 32.7%, and
Rajasthan 30.9%). This suggests that levels of knowledge
of medicinal plants is similar in each state.
However, with the identified species there is more
variation between states: 38.7 percent of mentions were
from Uttar Pradesh, 34 percent from Rajasthan, and 27.4
percent from Haryana. As the specimens were those
found close to the villages, these differences may
represent the range of wild flora available in the local
area. Haryana, with the lowest number of mentions was
an agricultural area with a corresponding low diversity of
wild flora. In contrast, the villages studied in Uttar
Pradesh were adjacent to a forest sanctuary, resulting in
a comparatively high local biodiversity.
There was little repetition of mentions of individual plant
species. Three quarters (75%) of plants were only
mentioned once, and 13.4 percent were mentioned twice.
There was also marked difference in the plant mentions
between each state; 88.4 percent were mentioned in one
state only, and 10.7 percent were mentioned in two states.
Only one species, Azadirachta indica, was mentioned in
all three states. This is expected considering the ecology
of each state was different. Rajasthan was dominated by
semi arid habitats, Haryana by intensive agriculture, and
Uttar Pradesh by forest. The presence of usage of

Most from wild

29

Few from wild

Azadirachta indica can be explained as this tree is

commonly planted near habitation and on roadsides.

3.21 A range of ailments were treated by snake

charmers
Treatments were classified into 34 groups (see Appendix
IV). Informants were asked to list and rank what they
considered to be the five most frequently treated ailments.
The most frequent treatment was ranked five, and the
least frequent treatment ranked one. The rank scores
were then summed up. The informants' perception of
most frequently used treatment was very similar to the
actual number of mentions of each ailment, with eight of
the ailments occurring in both lists. This suggests that
healers have a very good understanding and awareness of
common illnesses. Snakebite was recorded as the most
frequently mentioned ailment and ranked the fifth most
common ailment by informants, indicating the important
role of healers in treating snakebite victims. Other
commonly treated ailments include colds and flus, aches
and pains, skin ailments, and female sexual diseases.
Over half of the plants mentioned were only used for one
treatment (58.3%), and a further 14.6 percent had two
uses. There are three possible explanations to explain why
these particular plants have many treatments attributed
to them:
1. Medicinal plant knowledge is handed down through
generations, so knowledge systems may evolve
separately in different areas. It is, therefore, possible that
these species are used for different treatments in each
state. However, all except one species were used in only
two states.
2. These medicinal plants are commonly found with a
wide geographical distribution. Healers are likely to
encounter the plants more, so will use them more often.
Three of the plants (Cocculus villosus, Cuscuta sp., and
Nagdaun) are not commonly found.
3. These plants are medically more effective at treating
different diseases.

33

drink it. For illnesses such as burns, skins problems, and

aches and pains, plants are boiled or heated in oil or
water, and the resulting liquid applied to the affected area.
These basic recipes vary in the quantities and
combination of different plant and mineral ingredients.
A wide range of ingredients bought from the pansari is
used in the preparation of medicines. Examples of plantbased ingredients include dried black tobacco,
peppermint, and reetha (probably Sapindus trifoliatus).
Mineral ingredients include boric acid, edible soda,
potassium permanganate and common salt. A variety of
animal parts are also used. Not surprisingly, parts of
snakes are commonly used for treatments, reflecting the
importance of snakes in folk knowledge and beliefs.

Table 6 : Most frequently mentioned

plant species
Latin Name

Local Name

Cocculus villosus

Kalipahad

Boerhavia repens var. diffusa

Nirvani

Citrullus colocynthis

Kaurtumba

Azadirachta indica

Neem

Calotropis gigantica

Aakh (green)

3.22 Most plants listed have medicinal qualities

attributed to them

3.24 Role of plant based medicines is limited for

treating venomous snakebites

A brief literature review revealed that 41 of the 58 plants

identified have medicinal qualities. Another indicator of
efficacy of their methods was the fact that the traditional
healers had established clientele in different cities to
whom they dispensed medicines on a regular basis. Thus,
there does appear to be then a medical basis for the
traditional knowledge. We further observed that many
traditional healers had also received certificates from
established Ayurvedic colleges as a formal recognition of
their skills
It should be stated that in some cases the actual uses of
the plant did not always agree with those cited in the
literature review. Further investigation may be required
to determine the exact medicinal qualities of the plants
mentioned and may be an area of future research.

Nineteen plants are used in the treatment of snakebite,

and there are two main methods of treatment. The first is
to make the patient drink a concoction of boiled plants to
induce vomiting and diarrhoea, and 80 percent of the
plants mentioned were used in this way. Informants stated
that any bitter plant can be used, depending on what is
available.
For the second treatment, a tourniquet is tied around the
upper arm (in the case of a bite to the hand). Longitudinal
cuts are made, usually around four in number, between
the bite and the tourniquet. A paste containing a mixture
of plant extracts and minerals is applied directly to the
wounds to increase bleeding. A range of pansari
ingredients including salts, ghee, tobacco, and sankiya (a
poison), may be added to the paste. It is believed that the
ghee will remove heat in the body produced by the snake
venom. Sankiya is used in the belief that "poison
counteracts poison".
No instances of death from snakebite were recorded from
the informants, although one informant mentioned a
snake charmer in their village who had died from

3.23 Preparation of Medicines

The most common type of treatment involves drying the
plant to be used, and grinding it to form a powder. Other
dry ground ingredients are then added, and the powder
may be mixed with ghee to form a pellet. The powder or
pellet is taken with water or milk like a pill. A second
common treatment is to boil the plant in water, strain, and

Most frequently mentioned ailments

35

32
27

30

23

25
Number of
Mentions

21

19

20

15

15
9
7

10

Figure 3.21: The 10

most frequently
mentioned ailments.

0
SB

AP

SA

CF

GP

FSD

AA

BC

EA

UP

Ailment

Key: SB = Snakebite, AP = Aches & Pains, SA = Skin Ailments, CF = Colds & Flu, GP = Gastric Problems, FSD = Female Sexual
Disease, AA = Asthma & Allergies, BC = Blood Conditions, EA = Ear Ailments, UP = Urinary Problems.

34

Highest ranking ailments by informants

14

13
11

11

12
10
Sum 8
of
Ranks 6

6
5

4
2

Figure 3.21.1 :
Highest ranking
ailments by
informants

2
1

2
0

SA

CF

FSD

AP

SB

BC

TG

EA

AA

EP

Ailment

Key: SA = Skin Ailments, CF = Colds & Flu, FSD = Female Sexual Disease, AP = Aches & Pains, SB = Snakebite, BC = Bone Cancer,
TG = Teeth & Gums, EA = Ear Ailments, AA = Asthma & Allergies, EP = Eye Problems, UP = Urinary Problems, E = Epilepsy.

snakebite despite having treated himself. Recovery rates

of patients varied from 20 minutes to three hours. The
only complication mentioned was the case of one young
man who had been bitten by a Russels viper while cutting
sugar cane. He was successfully treated by making cuts on
his arm and applying a paste made from some of the
plants mentioned above. He recovered in three hours.
However, he was taken to hospital for a tetanus injection
for the cuts. In extreme cases, where there is no treatment
available, a bitten limb may be amputated. One example
was given of a man who chopped off his own finger after
it was bitten by a cobra (Naja naja).
Medicinal healers estimated that they treat, on average,
40 to 50 snakebite victims a year. As many as half of these
cases occur in the rainy season, when snakes are more
commonly encountered. There is a common belief among
victims that the standard anti-venom treatment given in
the hospitals is more dangerous than the snakebite, so
victims often prefer treatment by traditional healers.

Snake charmers, therefore, potentially can play an

important role in the treatment of snakebite, but their
role is limited as plant based medicines cannot be used for
treating a person who has been bitten by a venomous
snake and needs urgent administration of anti-venom
injections.
Nonetheless we found that people preferred to come to a
snake charmer for treatment for snakebites and an
intricate system is followed by him by first identifying the
species of snake, the location of the wound and then
administering medicines accordingly.
The ability of the plant species mentioned to induce
vomiting and diarrhoea has been confirmed. However,
inducement of vomiting and diarrhoea does not impact
the effect of snake venom in the body. No evidence has
been found to suggest that any of the plants are effective
for counteracting snake venom. Azadirachta indica has
been previously recorded for the treatment of snakebite
by the Database of Medicinal Plants, India. However, this

Table 7: Plants used for traditional healing

LATIN NAME

LOCAL NAME

STATES MENTIONED

Cuscuta sp.

Amarbel

H/R

Citrullus colocynthis

Kaurtumba

H/R

Unidentified

Nagdaun

H/R

Cocculus villosus

Kalipahad

Boerhavia repens var. diffusa

Nirvani

H / UP

Calotropis gigantea

Aakh (green)

R / UP

Azadirachta indica

Neem

H / R / UP

Cissampelos pareira

Banchuri / Nirbashi / Jaljamnibuti

H / UP

Convovulus arvensis

Arnabuti

Species with the highest number of different treatments attributed to them, and the states in which they were mentioned.
Key: R = Rajasthan, H = Haryana, UP = Uttar Pradesh.

35

Common treatments and methods of preparation

Ailment: Boils
Treatment: Take Ficus Elastica (Patharchat) leaves and boil them in mustard oil. Tie the leaves onto
the boils. If the boils are unripe, then place the underside of the leaf against the skin and the boils will
subside. If the boils are ripe, place the upper surface of the leaf against the skin and the boils will burst.

Ailment: Joint pains

Treatment: Take a 0.5m3 bundle of Capparis decidua (Kairbuti). Burn it, and then grind into a powder.
Take one puria (a small slip of paper containing around half a teaspoon of powder) each morning for 2
to 4 months.

Ailment: Gum infection

Treatment: Take two fruit of Wrightia arborea (Doodhi). Dry and grind them in mustard oil. Soak a betel
leaf (Areca catechu) in the oil and bandage around the neck with a cloth.

Ailment: Indigestion, stomach ache, constipation

Treatment: Take the fruit of Citrullus colocynthis (Kaurtumba). Break the fruit open and leave it to dry
for six days, or place the fruit in a fire overnight. When dry, remove and discard the seeds and grind the
flesh. Add black salt and a little ghee to form small pellets. Take one pellet with cold water. If the patient
passes a lot of stools, then take a second pellet with hot water.

Ailment: Indigestion in buffaloes

Treatment: Take the fresh leaves of Calotropis gigantica (Aakh) and tie them around the mouth of the
sick buffalo. As the animal eats, it will consume the juices from the leaves which will cure the stomach
ailments.

database also states:

"It is hard to believe that any plant product can actually
confront any venom in the blood and neutralise any of
its components. But plants certainly have a role to play
in the management of the symptoms such as
inflammation, pain, affected tactile sense, etc., and in
keeping the victim in better comfort, in addition to
giving the very essential psychological support."
Most snakebites are dry bites, where little or no venom is
injected. This is especially so in winter when low
temperatures cause the venom to solidify in the ducts.
Consequently, the greatest danger in many snakebite
incidents is from shock, which can lead to a heart attack.
The importance of plant treatments may, therefore, be in
their placebo effect rather than any anti-venom qualities.
Further, if the bite is from a non-venomous snake, plantbased medicines can be useful insofar as they heal the
wound.

3.25 Surma an indigenous medicine for eye

ailments
One medicine, which is held in high esteem by all snake
charmers, is surma. Surma is a powder made from dried
ground plants and minerals, which is applied around the
edges of the eyes like kohl. Surma is used both for beauty
purposes, and to treat eye complaints such as watering,
cataracts, infections and irritation. Several healers also
claimed that the use of surma is the reason why no
36

member of the snake charmer community needs to wear

spectacles.
Surma is found in three varieties - black, white, and
yellow, depending on the exact ingredients. Commonly
mentioned ingredients used for making surma are:
Sonmarchi and Ratanjoth (two wild harvested plants),
Inderjo seed, samundari jhaj (solidified sea foam), mint,
and boric acid. Each healer may have his own personal
recipe, and these are jealously guarded.
There is a great deal of mysticism surrounding surma,
and healers will make unrealistic claims of ingredients in
order to impress patients. Perhaps, the most intriguing
myth is that of snake venom. Four healers admitted to
using cobra snake venom in surma preparation, but there
were many more who denied its usage. Before use, the
venom must be 'purified'. This involves placing the venom
in a clay pot, which is either placed over a fire, or it is
buried in the ground and a fire kept alight above it for 11
days. The dry venom is then mixed with the other dried
ingredients. It was not possible to observe the preparation
of surma using snake venom, so these accounts remain
unverified.

3.26 Ecological Sustainability

3.26.1 Most plant species used are common
None of the plant species identified are recorded as rare
or endangered as per the IUCN Red List (IUCN 1998).

Table 8: Examples of animal parts, their uses and treatment

Animal Part

Use

Preparation & Treatment

Snake moult

Skin disease, antiseptic for wounds

Grind with pansari ingredients and

wild plants to make a paste, which
is applied to the affected area.

Snake skeleton

Swollen glands

Take seven vertebrae and tie

around the neck for several days.

Snake oil

Skin disease, scabies

Heat the snake in a clay pot with a

hole in the bottom. The oil is
collected in a pot below and is
applied to affected area.

Dried hare ears

Ward off illnesses

Carry as an amulet

Indian Pangolin scale

Piles

Cut a ring from the scale and wear

it for 21 days.

Many of the species, for example Calotropis gigantica, are

common weed species. Others are considered agricultural
weeds, which, if not collected by healers would be
uprooted and removed by farmers. One example is
Citrullus colocynthis. This species has been recorded as
under threat from over exploitation in desert regions
(Shetty, B.V. and Singh, V. 1987). However, in the study
area it was found to be extremely common, and the edges
of agricultural fields were littered with piles of this vine,
weeded out by the farmer. Farmers did not mind when
healers took a few fruit from these piles. Further study
would be required to assess the long-term impact on the
plant, but any detrimental effect is more likely to be from
farmers removing them, as opposed to snake charmers.
When informants were asked about the distribution of
wild populations, they estimated that 73 percent were
common or very common (Figure 3.26.1). Only 8.1
percent were described as rare and this figure included
species that were locally rare due to the absence of
suitable habitat requirements. Healers were also asked to
comment on whether there had been any changes in wild
populations over the past 20 years.
Nine species were thought to have declined in the past 20

Table 9: Identified plant species used for

snakebite treatment
Latin name

Local name

Alternanthera paromychioides

Nevlabuti

Azadirachta indica

Neem

Boerhavia repens var. diffusa

Santabuti

Calotropis gigantea

Aakh

Citrullus colocynthis

Kaurtumba

Cocculus villosus

Kalipahad

Cuscuta sp.

Amarbel

years. The main reason given was loss of forest, followed

by an increase in agriculture. Only two species,
Euphorbia antiquorum and Launaea coromandelica,
were said to have decreased because of high demand.
Interestingly, according to local perceptions two plants,
Launaea sp., and Kamalbuti were perceived by healers to
be increasing in population size due to the spread and
intensification of agriculture. This, of course, would need
to be scientifically verified.

3.26.2 Source of Wild Plants

Medicinal plants are gathered from a variety of habitats.
Wild lands are taken to be any wild area under no obvious
ownership or use, and includes uncultivated sand dunes,
roadsides, and canal banks. Agricultural land consists of
all areas under current cultivation, and includes field
edges and the banks of small irrigation channels. The
village common in Haryana was an open access
pastureland. Gardens are taken to be private land
surrounding a habitation.
Although plants are harvested from each habitat type in
similar quantities (excepting gardens, from which only
one plant was collected), there was a marked difference in
the source of plants between states. These differences
reflected the local dominant habitat type. In Rajasthan,
the majority of plants were harvested from wild lands and
agricultural land; in Haryana, from agricultural land and
the village common; and in Uttar Pradesh, from the
Hastinapur wildlife sanctuary. No permission was
required to gather plant material from agricultural land or
the village common. The Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act
(1972) restricts the removal of any plant material, whether
dead or alive from wildlife sanctuaries. Therefore, plant
harvesting from the sanctuary was illegal and a
compoundable offence as per the Wildlife (Protection)
Act, 1972.

3.26.3 Removal of plants and parts that are used

In this study, actual volumes of how much of each plant

37

Utilisation of Black Surma to treat Scorpion stings

Take small quantities of Cocculus villosus (Kalipahad). Dry and
grind them with dried Black cobra venom and sea foam. Apply the
surma to the eyes twice in an hour. If the sting is on the left hand
side of the body, apply the surma to the right eye, and vice versa.
The explanation given for this treatment is that all veins lead to
the eye so it presents a rapid way of circulating the medicine in
the body.

was extracted was not recorded. Still, the potential impact

of harvesting on a wild plant population can be predicted
depending on the plant parts used and method of
harvesting. Uprooting the entire plant to obtain the roots
is most likely to result in a detrimental impact on plant
populations (Cunningham, A.B. 2001). In this study, 30.2
percent of plants were uprooted (see Figure 3.30),
suggesting further research is required to assess the
ecological impact of harvesting of these plants.
No conservation or management measures were
mentioned for plants with declining populations, when a
plant becomes more difficult to find, it is purchased from
a pansari instead of wild harvested.

3.27 Methods for sale of medicines

3.27.1 Medicines are hawked on the street and
through fixed clients

There are three ways in which snake charmers practice

the sale of their traditional medicine:
a. Excursions - fixed clients
Snake charmers may make several excursions in a year to
different parts of the country to perform with their snakes
and sell their medicines. A group of snake charmers from
a particular village will often revisit the same districts
every year. In this way, healers can establish fixed client
bases in the villages they visit.
Excursions may also be carried out with the sole purpose
of harvesting wild plants. The preferred locations for plant
harvesting were the states of Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and Assam. Harvesting trips generally
coincide with springtime and the plants gathered are
dried for use throughout the year.
Rajendranath a traditional healer from Rajasthan makes

Surma applied by a
healer to a client

around five excursions per year, each lasting between four

to eight weeks. At least one of these trips will be for the
purpose of harvesting wild plants. He does not use snakes
to sell his medicinal plants, but has a fixed client base in
villages spread across six states, which he tries to visit
every year. Patients also contact him by telephone to
request treatment.
b. Excursions - on the streets with snakes
Muhkeshnath a traditional healer from Haryana only sells
medicines in association with snake performances. He will
use the snakes to attract an audience, then sell prepared
treatments. He often gives these treatments for free, and
only receives payment if the patient is cured.
c. Visits from patients/requests to attend patients
Patients may visit a healer, or request that the healer
attend the patient. Clients often remain loyal to a single
healer, which reduces competition for custom.
Ramdiyanath in Haryana was unique among all the
healers encountered in that he owned his own clinic. This
consisted of a small brick room where patients could visit
for treatment. He has owned this clinic for 20 years, and
only visits patients in their own home if they are too sick
to attend the clinic, in which case the patients' relatives
may come to collect him. He also makes one excursion per
year to harvest wild plants.

3.28 Importance of Snakes to Traditional

Medicine
In order to assess how dependent the sale of medicinal
plants was on snake performances, the informants were
asked whether they kept snakes. It was found that 90
percent of informants do keep snakes, although only 67

Status of Wild Plant Population

73
80
60
Percent 40
Figure 3.26.1:
Perceptions of
informants on the
status of wild plant
populations.

38

20
8

20
0
Common

Uncommon

Rare

percent said the snakes were necessary for the sale of

medicines. Reasons given for keeping snakes is shown in
Figure 3.28 Some healers catch snakes to extract venom
for use in medicines. The snakes are later released back in
the wild. One informant sells cobra venom to a pansari.
The venom from 10 to 12 snakes may fetch as much as Rs.
5000. Other healers keep snakes so that people can make
offerings to the snake, or because it is part of their caste
identity.

3.29 Not all healers have specialists knowledge

about traditional medicine
Traditional knowledge in this study is taken to be
analogous with Sillitoes3 (2002) definition of indigenous
knowledge. Snake charmers are regarded as having either
a general knowledge of medicinal plants, or specialist
knowledge. Those with a general knowledge know only a
few simple remedies. After their snake performances, they
sell medicines usually prepared by more knowledgeable
healers. Between 40-100 percent of snake charmers in a
village have a general knowledge of medicinal plants.

Healers with specialist knowledge have a much greater

understanding of medicinal plants, their use and
preparation. These healers tend to be more dependent on
herbal medicine for an income, and within a village only
between 5-10 percent of the snake charmers possess this
specialist knowledge.
Women in the community have very little knowledge of
medicinal plants and are not encouraged to learn.
However, if they, or one of their children is sick, they will
approach their husband or another healer for a remedy,
and in this way gain a limited degree of knowledge.

3.29.1 Knowledge is passed down generations

The average age that a healer starts to learn about
traditional medicine is 13, although one healer was 25
when he began. Learning is achieved through an
apprenticeship with a knowledgeable healer who is
considered the boys' guru. The guru is often the boys'
father, but may be chosen due to their expert knowledge.
The apprentice will learn through observation of the guru
as he practices his trade.

Table 10: Reasons perceived by informants for the status of wild

plant populations
Species with decreasing abundance
Alternanthera paromychioides

Loss of forest

Butea monosperma

Loss of forest

Convolvulus arvensis

Because it is uprooted as an agricultural weed

Heliotropium sp.

Increase in agriculture

Launaea coromandelica

Loss of forest and high demand

Bhilbel

Loss of forest

Kapas/Narma

Increase in agriculture

Nagdaun

Loss of forest

Species with increasing abundance

Launaea sp.

Increase in agriculture

Kamalbuti

Increase in agriculture

Uncommon/rare species (due to high demand)

Coccinea grandis
Euphorbia antiquorum
Heliotropium subulatum
Suaeda maritima
Chitah Jeri
Jata Joot

3"Indigenous

knowledgemay relate to any knowledge held more or less collectively by a population, informing understanding
of the world It is community based, embedded in and conditioned by local tradition No one person, authority or social group
knows it all. It exists nowhere as a totality...it is transmitted orally and through experience"

39

Methods
by which
snakesnake
charmers
sell traditional
Methods
by which
charmers
sell
medicine
traditional medicine

To attract an
audience

Reasons why healers

Reasons why healers
keep snakes
keep snakes

To extract venom
for medicines

10%

20%
40%

Excursion - streets

10%

20%

40%

60%

Excursion - fixed
clients

Figure 3.27: Methods by which snake charmers sell

traditional medicine

When asked why they decided to train as a traditional

healer, 57 percent of informants said it was because that
was the traditional occupation of the snake charmers. The
remainder (43%) said it was because they had an interest
in medicinal plants and healing.

3.29.2 Exchange of Knowledge

If a healer does not know the remedy for a particular
illness he will ask another healer. Several of the
informants also had photocopies of treatment recipes
from Ayurvedic texts and many of the plants used are
known in Ayurvedic medicine. However, some healers
may be very secretive of their treatments, so different
treatments can be found for the same illness.

3.29.3 Continuity of Knowledge

All of the healers interviewed said they would continue
with this occupation, although 80 percent of informants
said they were continuing because they had no
alternative. Many informants stated they were becoming
more dependent on other sources of income such as a
been party and breeding of horses, as they provided a
higher income.
The general pessimism regarding the prospects of
traditional healing as an occupation is reflected in the
number of snake charmers practicing the trade. Almost
84 percent of informants agreed that the number of
traditional medicinal practitioners had gone down in the
past few years. None thought that the number had
increased. The following reasons were given for this

There is a high level of

traditional knowledge regarding
medicinal plants and healing
practices, and levels of
knowledge are similar in each
state studied.
40

So people can
make offerings to
the snake

Visits from patients

Tradition

Figure 3.28: Reasons why healers keep snakes

Part
used
medicine
Partof
of plant
plant used
in in
medicine
40
35
30
25
Percent 20
15
10
5
0

38
30

15
7

4
1

Ae
rial

Ro
ots

Fru
it

Ba
rk

Milk

Se
ed
s

Gu
m

Figure 3.30: Parts of plants used for preparing

medicines

decline:
l Due to the ban on snake charming we
cannot keep snakes in captivity, which is
necessary for the selling of medicines.
l An increase in the availability of Western
medicines has caused a decline in the
demand for and the faith in traditional
medicine.
l The loss of forest has reduced the
availability of wild medicinal plants.
l The ban on harvesting wild plants from
forest areas has made plant collection
more difficult.
Despite these feelings, 60 percent of informants have
taught other healers, and of those who have not taught

A healer with his medicines

In Uttar Pradesh, it used to be common for healers to experiment with plants to find new treatments. With
the decline in this occupation, experimentation is now rare. One young healer explained how he had
discovered a new treatment for ear ailments using Ailanthus excelsa (Arru):
"I needed a cure to treat watery discharge from the ears and deafness. I came across this plant and
thought I would try it out. I took the leaves and heated them in mustard oil and camphor, then strained
the oil with a fine cloth. I tested the oil on myself, placing 1 to 2 drops in the ears for 10 days. It worked.
So now I use it to treat my patients. I call the plant 'Government Plant' as the Government planted it here.
I have not told any other healers of this cure."

anyone else, 50 percent said they would like to, given the
opportunity. This demonstrates a willingness to pass on
this knowledge to future generations. On being asked
about the future of their profession, the reactions were
mixed. Some healers thought demand would increase due
to the efficacy of their remedies, while others predicted a
continued decline as the younger generations were
attending school and did not have the time to learn
traditional medicine, or were opting for occupations
which brought in higher income.
To sum up this section :
1. There is a high level of traditional knowledge regarding
medicinal plants and healing practices, and levels of
knowledge are similar in each state studied. Most snake
charmers have a general knowledge of traditional
medicine, and only a few healers in each village have a
specialist knowledge.
2. None of the plants identified are rare or threatened,
and many are common or weed species. Healers estimate
that 73 percent of plants used are common. Decreasing
populations are blamed on the increase in agriculture and
loss of forest, and only two species are rare as the result
of over harvesting. However, 30 percent of plants used are
uprooted, which could potentially have a long-term
negative impact on populations.
3. Snakebite treatments were among the most frequently
mentioned ailments, with any one healer treating up to 50
patients per year. The role of the plant based medicines
administered in the case of a victim who has been bitten
by a venomous snake is limited. The role of the traditional
healer in such a case could lie in an important
psychological support that it may give to a victim

especially in areas where anti-venom is not available.

However the plant product cannot actually confront any
venom in the blood and neutralise any of its components.
The importance of plant treatments may, therefore, be in
their placebo effect rather than any anti-venom qualities.
4. For the treatment of common ailments such as a
stomach ache, skin diseases etc there does appear to be a
medical basis for the use, as 41 out of the 58 plant species
identified have medicinal properties. It is likely that snake
charmers make an important contribution to primary
healthcare, especially in rural areas.
5. The number of traditional healers has declined, and
only two thirds of healers have passed on their knowledge
to the next generation. An increase in school attendance
is partly responsible for this decline, as well as a move
towards higher income occupations. However, interest for
the profession is still very high in the younger generation
of healers interviewed.
6. On average 53.8 percent of household income was from
traditional medicine and snake performances. There is an
increasing dependence on other occupations such as been
parties and horse breeding.
This study has shown that traditional medicine is a
significant aspect of the culture and livelihoods of snake
charmer communities. To date, they have been considered
solely as snake charmers, but traditional medicine is often
as important as snakes to the community, and the two
professions are often inseparable. We suggest that for
future research a more detailed investigation be carried
out of their traditional knowledge systems and of the
efficacy of some of the treatments used.

Informant opinions of traditional healing:

"One in a hundred people will curse me, but the rest will bless me for treating them."
"I enjoy the profession as I gain respect from my patients."
"I continue in this profession because otherwise I would be breaking a promise to my
ancestors."
"I continue practicing traditional medicine as I have no other option."

41

CHAPTER 4

ANALYSIS OF RESULTS OF THE

MULTI-DISCIPLINARY SURVEY

Snakes are kept in topris with a cloth lining to prevent injuries to the snake

4.0 Summary of results

Nearly 73
percent of
the snake
charmers in
the age
group of 1835 are still
dependent
on snakes to
earn a
living.
42

The results of the previous sections can be summarised as follows:

1. Nearly 73 percent of the snake charmers in the age group of 18-35 are still
dependent on snakes to earn a living.
2. Average income from snake charming is Rs. 75 a day, which is more than the
minimum wage rate in most states. For instance, the minimum wage rate in Haryana
is between Rs. 51 and Rs 55. Snake charming, then, despite all restrictions is still quite
economically viable.
3. Education levels were high when compared with the previous generation. However,
the figures only denote the number of children enrolled in school and do not indicate
how many were regularly going to school. This was important as the schoolteachers
confirmed that the attendance of the children from the Jogi-Nath community was quite
poor.
4. Traditional knowledge level was measured with two indicators. One was the ability
to play traditional instruments, mainly the been, and the second was their ability to
catch snakes. We found that only 54 percent of those who were still practising snake
charming knew how to play the been. This indicates that the value of the been , which
is strongly associated with the profession, has gone down and a large percentage of
those who practise snake charming are not using the instrument anymore. In the case
of the second indicator, 82 percent of those who were practising snake charming were
able to catch snakes with confidence.
5. About 75 percent of the people interviewed admitted that the ban on snake
charming had led to a fall in their income levels, 20 percent no longer went to big cities
for fear of being caught and 5 percent said the ban had not impacted them at all.
6. Snake charmers prepare their own herbal medicines and as many as 110 species of
plants were mentioned. None of the plants mentioned are rare or threatened and most

To sum up this section, conservation laws governing the use of wildlife often have impacts beyond those
related specifically to those control measures. This is exactly what has happened to the snake charmers
today. The ramifications of the control measures are many, though they may not necessarily be reflected
in the number of people practising snake charming. The consequences can be in terms of the psychological
impact on community members, the sense of embarrassment they feel about their profession and the
increased effort in finding a place to practise their occupation. Further, as many as 75 percent of the snake
charmers interviewed admitted a fall in income levels since the introduction of the ban.

were common weed species. The medicines are used for

treating a range of ailments such as stomach or ear aches
and skin diseases. (See Appendix IV)
7. Snakebite treatments were among the most frequently
mentioned ailments, with any one healer treating up to 50
patients per year. The role of the plant based medicines
administered in the case of a victim who has been bitten by
a venomous snake is limited. The role of the traditional
healer in such a case should be treated with caution as it
is limited to the psychological support that it may give to
a victim especially in areas where anti-venom is not
available. However the plant product cannot actually
confront any venom in the blood and neutralise any of its
components. The importance of plant treatments may,
therefore, be in their placebo effect rather than any antivenom qualities. Snake charmers, therefore, have a role to
play in treating snakebite victims but it is very limited.
8. On an average seven snakes per year were caught by
one snake charmer. Eight species of snakes were kept in
captivity of which the maximum number were Common
cobras followed by Rat snakes. Two rare species were also
found, namely the Royal snake and the Python, but these
were observed only in 2 percent of the households
sampled.
9. Across all species, the general trend was that the body
condition was predominantly weak for snakes that had
spent more than one month in captivity.

A healer collecting plants for medicinal use

10. The snakes used for performances were generally

released back in the forest after six months. However, as
the body condition of the snakes was poor, their ability to
survive in the forest was questionable.
11. The venom apparatus of cobras and King cobras was
damaged or removed in snakes used in performances. The
teeth of the non-venomous snakes were kept intact.
12. A small percentage of snakes (especially in the case of
the pythons and the King cobra) were observed to be
healthy and good husbandry practises were being
followed.
13. Snake charmers were often called by local farmers to
remove snakes from agricultural fields or human
habitation. The snake charmers thus provide, a valuable
service to people from nearby villages. They could
potentially also provide a valuable ecological role by
releasing captive snakes in the forest. However, the reptiles
rescued from agricultural fields or human habitations
were kept in captivity and used for performances.

4.1 Discussion
Having summarised the results, we shall now analyse some
of the questions raised in the beginning of the study:

4.1.1 Has the ban on snake charming led to a loss

in livelihoods of the community?
The results of the previous section have shown that 73
percent of the snake charmers in the younger generation
are still following their traditional occupation. Despite the
ban, a substantial proportion of the Jogi-Nath population
is still dependent on a wildlife resource, namely snakes, for
their livelihood. Of the Jogi-Naths who were not practising
snake charming, 37 percent admitted fear of being caught
or "embarrassment" as the reason for not practising snake
charming. Thus, while a small percentage has been
impacted by the law, others continue to practise snake
charming as they know no other skill, or the average
income is still enough from snake charming to override
the risk of being caught.
We also found a diversification in their livelihood sources
as a strategy employed by the community at times of
hardships. Snake charmers today are engaged in different
occupations through the year to supplement their income.
These include occupations such as the been party, sale of
herbal medicines, shop-keeping and sale of semi-precious
stones.
Perhaps, the most significant impact has been a decline in
household income. Although it was difficult to estimate in
exact monetary terms the extent of this fall, there are
definite indicators. A greater effort in terms of time and

43

energy is spent in going to smaller places, away from the

watchful eye of the police or the Forest Department to put
up performances. Visits to the cities, which yielded more
money in performances, have stopped. Further, a fear
psychosis has gripped the community and snake charmers
today feel ashamed of admitting their profession. Thus, a
sense of pride has been replaced today by a sense of guilt
for following their traditional occupation.
During our stay with the snake charmers in different
villages across India we also made other observations. We
observed that many Jogi-Naths have started selling snakes
to other communities such as the Kalandars or the
Badhiyas who now masquerade as snake charmers and
roam the street (pers comm. Hawa Singh Nath). Thus,
communities who were earlier not involved in snake
charming, display snakes on streets to earn a living.

4.1.2 Are reptile species endangered by snake

charming?
Unfortunately, very little is known about the status of any
species of reptiles in India but some references indicate
that certain species are declining and are threatened as a
direct result of the skin trade which was flourishing in
India before the introduction of the Wildlife (Protection)
Act (Tyagi and Sharma 1980). Whitaker (1978) mentions
several species of snakes that have been affected by trade.
The Indian Python is now locally extinct in many areas.
The Indian Sand boa has been extensively killed for its
skin. The Checkered keelback, considered one of the most
abundant species, has become locally extinct because of
intensive all-season collections. In the case of the Rat
snake, entire populations have been wiped out in some
localities where they were earlier abundant. The Common
cobra, too, was hunted and killed throughout most of their
range. The legal export of reptile skins virtually ceased in
1976 and no licenses for the killing of reptiles have been
issued since then (Inskipp, 1981). India does not record
the export of any CITES-listed reptile skins or products in
its annual reports, but the CITES trade figures of other
countries indicate that large-scale illegal exports continue.
If we compare the list of species in the reptile skin trade
with the ones used by the snake charmers, we find that
two species in common are the Rat snake and the cobra.
Again, if we compare the numbers used in trade and those
used by the Jogi-Naths, we find a substantial difference.
Snake skins trade data shows that at one point tanneries
in Chennai would handle up to 9000 snake skins per day
- No scientific studies have been done so far to
show how use by snake charmers is affecting the
survival of these species in the wild and this
needs further verification.
- Species such as the Indian python and the King
cobra, which have been affected by rapid
destruction of habitats, are more vulnerable.
Therefore, any use, however small scale, by the
community could affect the population and longterm survival of these two species.

44

A Royal snake observed in captivity

(Inskipp, 1980). Our data from the snake charmers has

shown that on an average seven to eight snakes are used
by one snake charmer in a year. Assuming the number of
people engaged in snake charming to be 60, 000, the total
number of snakes used in one day is 1150. This figure is
only 13% of the number of snakes harvested for trade by
one tannery when snakeskin trade was legal. While the
number is far lower , in the absence of baseline data on
total number of snakes in the wild it is difficult to estimate
if the use of snakes by snake charmers is sustainable or
not. Further a number of other factors such as the
rampant trade and destruction of vital habitats may have
further impacted snake populations making it difficult to
estimate just the impact of snake charming on snake
populations.
What is of further concern, however, is the poor condition
of the snakes kept in captivity by the snake charmers. The
procedures of capturing, handling and removal of the
venom apparatus are cruel, and lead to stress and disease
for the captive snake. While conducting this study we have
seen a number of snakes that were in poor body condition,
or had an infection in the mouth, due to bad handling.
From the animal welfare perspective, then, snakes were
treated quite badly. The use of snakes by snake charmers
is uncontrolled and exploitative. On the positive side, we
did come across snake charmers who look after their
snakes well, but the cases were few. Snakes were perceived
as a resource, which is easily replaceable, perhaps
explaining why they were not looked after well in captivity.

4.1.3 What is the future of snake charming as an

occupation in India?
In a country where unemployment rates are high, the
snake charmers are able to provide a service in which
there is little competition. This indicated that access to
education does not necessarily lead to salaried
employment or shift from their caste-based occupation.
The Jogi-Naths have over generations been able to create
their own niche in village life: one of catching snakes and
then of entertaining audiences with these snakes.
The challenge lies in being able to save the traditions of
this occupation without compromising on the welfare
needs of the individual snakes and the species as a whole.
In the final chapter we give some suggestions on how the
balance can be maintained.

CHAPTER 5

COMMUNITY INITIATIVES

his project was aimed at not just conducting research but

also responding to the immediate needs of the Jogi-Naths.
In this section we glance at some of the projects initiated
with the Jogi-Naths to address their livelihood needs. Given the
size of the population, the efforts are small. We are hopeful that
even if on a small scale they are able to demonstrate the range
of skills of the Jogi-Naths, from their inimitable music to their
knowledge of snakes.

A Been Party performance at Dilli Haat, New Delhi

5.1 THE 'BEEN' PARTY

A musical ensemble of seven persons playing different instruments, the been party is how the
community has responded to the ban on snake charming. They now perform with the flute, the drums
and the tambourine at weddings and social functions. In the past few years we have been working with
the snake charmers through formation of these 'been parties' and promoting this as an alternate
livelihood. The average earning during the "wedding season" can be Rs. 2000-3000 per person per
month. The shortcoming is that this is a seasonal occupation

45

A The bottle gourd fruit from which musical instruments like the 'been' and the 'tumba' are made

5.2 MUSICAL PERFORMANCES FOR TOURISTS

In addition to performing at weddings, the saperas have also performed in the past year at various
cultural events in the city of Delhi. These have been at cultural hot spots like Dilli Haat and the Crafts
Museum. The performances were, of course, without snakes.

5.3 SALE OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

The been and the khanjari are made by drying the fruits of the bottle gourd plant. These are crafted by
the saperas themselves. Two families in the community have been engaged in the sale of instruments
at various outlets in Delhi. Last year, the snake charmers sold 50 instruments at the rate of Rs. 500 per
piece. Supply of raw material is difficult and has affected sales. The snake charmers face a lack of
availability of space to grow the bottle gourd plant due to rapid shrinking of village commons in recent
times.

46

5.4 MICRO-CREDIT AND NEW

LIVELIHOODS
In the year 2003-2004, 17 Jogi-Nath families,
with the assistance of the Delhi government,
were given loans of Rs. 50,000 each to start
small-scale businesses. The funds were
invested for starting their own been party, fully
equipped with drums, horses and a carriage, to
play at weddings. Others have taken the loan to
start their own grocery or electrical repair shops.

Regional variations of the

'Been Party'. At Punjabi
weddings, the 'Bhangra
Party' is popular

Snake charmers in
Rajasthan and
Haryana are called
by farmers to
remove cobras from
agricultural fields

5.5 THE 'SNAKE RESCUE SERVICE'

Snake charmers regularly receive calls from people for rescuing snakes that inadvertently move into
their homes or gardens. The snake charmers have responded to these calls with diligence and charge
a small fee for this service from the house-owner. The snakes are then released in a nearby forest.
Species are mostly Rat snakes and, on a few occasions, cobras. The fee charged ranges from Rs. 50
to Rs. 500, depending on how much effort went into catching the snake.

47

The author in a meeting with members of the Sapera

Samaj at Charkhi Dadri, Haryana

Vikram Hoshing

5.6 PUBLIC MEETINGS IN THE COMMUNITY

The aim of the meetings was to document the needs of the community and their perceptions of how
they are coping with the ban on their profession. At Charkhi Dadri in Haryana this year at a traditional
festival of the snake charmers, 3000 community members took a vow not to use species such as
pythons for their work.

5.7 MEETING WITH POLICY MAKERS

The snake charmers have over the past one year submitted a memorandum to different policy makers
and government departments to highlight the effect of wildlife laws on their livelihoods. These include
the National Scheduled Caste Commission, the Delhi Forest Department, the Delhi Scheduled Caste
Finance Corporation, Ministry of Environment and Forests, along with letters to politicians of various
political parties. The aim of these meetings was to highlight the plight of the saperas and to lobby for
their cause with the policy makers. Many policy makers, we observed were completely ignorant of the
ban on snake charming, the number of snake charmers who had been affected by the ban and how it
had left them with little livelihood options

48

CHAPTER 6

KEY RECOMMENDATIONS
In a country,
where
unemployment
rates are high
snake charmers
have carved
their own niche
in the
employment
sector. This
niche is of
relevance,
especially in an
agricultural
economy where
pressure on
land is
tremendous.

he main results of this report have shown that snake charming, despite
introduction of regulatory conservation laws, is thriving. The reasons for this
are cultural, social and economic. Firstly, snake charmers fulfil a role in rural
areas as traditional healers, treating snakebites as well as common ailments. While
the efficacy of many of the treatments need further investigation we found many
healers having established clientele across states which indicate their popularity. In
a country where access to primary health care facilities is minimal, snake charmers
are providing informal health services to a large section of the rural population.
Second, snake charmers are still able to earn a reasonable amount of money from
snake charming. In a country, where unemployment rates are high and thousands
of educated persons compete for jobs, snake charmers have carved their own niche
in the employment sector. This niche is of relevance, especially in an agricultural
economy where pressure on land is tremendous.
From the point of view of conservation, the use, on an average, of six to seven
snakes in a year by the snake charmers per se may not necessarily be detrimental
to the overall survival of the species when compared to the number of snakes killed
for the snakeskin trade which was around 9000 snakes per day as mentioned
before. The status of snake species in the wild needs to be investigated further and
requires more detailed research, which is expensive to undertake and also difficult
to do in the case of cryptic reptiles like snakes.
Assessing the biological status of snake species can take many years. But the
dilemma before us needs to be addressed immediately. On the one hand is the
dependence of over 2-300,000 Jogi-Naths on this traditional occupation, on the

Jogi-Nath children in a village in Uttar Pradesh

49

other is the welfare and conservation needs of snake

species used by them.

6.1 So is this a win-lose situation for biodiversity

conservation vs. livelihoods?
In the past year we have had discussions with experts,
human rights activists, scientists and herpetologists to
come up with a way out of this dilemma. Can conservation
and animal welfare needs be reconciled with the livelihood
needs of a large population that knows no other skill? In
Table 11 we have tried to present the various options
suggested to solve this complex problem. We also weighed
the pros and cons of each suggestion given. Examining the
options stated, we find that one way or the other there is
a compromise either on the livelihood needs of the
community or on the welfare/conservation needs of
snakes. Even the suggestions which came from the
community were extreme.
If we examine the option of issuing permits so that the
snake charmers can continue with their traditional
occupation, there are two lobbies strongly opposed to this.
One, the animal welfare activists who have rightly pointed
out that the snakes are treated badly and the procedure for
removal of the venom apparatus (especially since
venomous snakes are favoured by the snake charmers) is
extremely cruel and inhumane. Second, are the wildlife
conservationists who are opposed to the issuing of permits
for snake charming. The fear is that issuing permits would
open the floodgates for uncontrolled exploitation of
snakes for the illegal snakeskin industry. Thus snakes
would be collected from the wild in the name of snake
charming and be supplied to the illegal wildlife trade.
Further, not just the Jogi-Naths, but many other
communities are engaged in snake charming and this
could lead to unsustainable exploitation of snake
populations given the sheer numbers of such
communities.

6.2 A balanced approach: Using traditional skills

for conservation
While there is weight in the reasons put forward against
issuing of licenses, other creative means must be sought

Setting up of 'Sapera
Centres' in northern
India as an institutional
framework would
address the livelihood
needs of the snake
charmers while
ensuring regular
monitoring of their
work.

50

for addressing the livelihood needs of the Jogi-Naths.

While weighing the pros and cons of the options stated
above, we analysed what a balanced approach should
contain:
Use the skills of the snake charmers as 'Bare
Foot Conservation Educators'.
l Use the skills of the community to protect
snakes that may potentially be killed due to
conflict with human beings.
l Use their skills as traditional healers, especially
in rural areas where access to health facilities is
not easy and people have more faith in
indigenous methods of treatment after
validation of their treatments through further
research and registration with Ayurvedic
colleges or government bodies dealing with
traditional medicine systems
Keeping these points in mind, we advocate the setting up
of an institutional framework that would help balance the
livelihood and conservation needs.
The role of the Sapera Centre could be the following:
l

l
l
l

Venom collection and immediate release of

snakes back in the wild.
Treatment for persons suffering from snakebites
through administration of anti-venom injections.
Sale of herbal medicines made by snake
charmers to treat different ailments after
registration and verification with Ayurvedic
colleges or government bodies dealing with
traditional medicine systems
Education classes conducted by snake charmers
for the general public on how to distinguish
between a venomous and non-venomous snake.
Rescue of snakes from agricultural fields or
human habitation and release in the wild for a
small fee.

There is scope for starting Sapera Centres in areas

inhabited by the snake charmers. These centres could
function as establishments for promoting related

Cobras trapped by the Jogi-Naths

livelihood practices like dairy farming, cultivation of

medicinal plants and been parties. They could also act as
information centres where information on snakes can be
imparted to children through lecture demonstrations by
the snake charmers. It was observed that snake charmers
possess alternative skills like jute bag making and horse
breeding. These skills could be tapped as well. Their skills
as traditional healers could also be promoted as an
occupation after further validation of their treatments.
The Sapera Centre could help the state earn revenue
while imparting a public service role and providing
employment to thousands of snake charmers who, today,
face possible extinction of their profession and skills which
are exclusive to their caste. The extraction of venom from
snakes can be sustainable and is not new to India. There is
already a cooperative in South India which is run by a
traditional snake catching community called the Irulas and
the project has demonstrated that application of tribal
knowledge to generate income from wild animal sources is
possible (Whitaker, 1995).
The government departments that would be involved
would be the primary health care services in collaboration
with the Forest Department and a non-governmental
organisation that could play the role of facilitator in
helping the Jogi-Naths form cooperatives and getting them
registered.

6.3 Recommendations to policy makers

Since the introduction of the Wildlife (Protection) Act in
1972, several policy documents and initiatives have been
introduced by the Ministry of Environment and Forests
which recognise the problem of strict implementation of
conservation laws. The National Conservation Strategy
and Policy Statement on Environment and Development
(1992) and the Wildlife Conservation Strategy (2002) of
the Ministry of Environment and Forests have all
emphasised the need to address the livelihood needs of
local communities and use of their skills for conservation.
These policy documents further stress the need to educate
people and spread awareness about biodiversity and the
need to protect it.
Further, in 2002, the National Forest Commission was set
up with the specific tasks to "review and assess existing
policy and legal framework and their impact in a holistic
manner, from the ecological, economic, social and cultural
viewpoint." And "to establish meaningful partnership and
interface between forestry management and local
communities including tribals." Keeping these policy
initiatives of the Government of India in mind, we strongly
recommend the following:
l A detailed investigation must be carried out by the
National Forest Commission on the impact of regulatory
conservation laws on certain traditional communities
across India to examine the extent of their dependence on
wild animals and livelihood options available to them.
l Setting up of institutions such as the Sapera Centre
which recognises their traditional skills and maintains a
balance between conservation and livelihoods.
l Use the skills of the Jogi-Naths for educating people in
rural and urban areas about snakes, their ecological role

A red spotted royal snake in captivity

and the difference between venomous and non-venomous

snake. This role is already being performed by students,
NGO activists and amateur herpetologists in the cities of
Bangalore (Karnataka), Pune (Maharashtra), Delhi, Rajkot
(Gujarat) for which snake charmers could be easily trained.
Formal training can be imparted with the assistance of
NGOs. Registration of the snake charmers should be
undertaken as 'Barefoot Conservation Educators'. The
registration can be undertaken with existing government
agencies such as the Animal Welfare Board of India and
the Central Zoo Authority.
l Recruitment of the Jogi-Naths in the State Forest
Department with the specific task of rescuing snakes from
human habitations and releasing them in the forest.
It would be easy to just let the ancient
tradition of snake-charming come to an end.
On the other hand a lot can be done to save
the traditional skills of this community, caught
between their past and modern conservation
laws. Employment of snake charmers as
'Barefoot Conservation Educators' would not
only protect their culture and identity, but also
assist in the protection of thousands of
snakes that are killed by ignorant people. The
need of the hour is to address the livelihood
needs of the snake charmers in a phased
manner with the requisite infrastructure and
adoption of innovative methods.

51

Table 11: OPTIONS AVAILABLE TO SNAKE CHARMERS

52

S No

Options

Pros

Cons

Increase enforcement so that

snake charming is forcefully
banned.

Would lead to complete end to

snake charming and use of
snakes by the Jogi-Naths.

Easier said than done. Does not

address employment issues. Would
mean a loss of a culture and
associated skills of a people who
have the unique ability to handle
snakes.

Regulate use of select

species of snakes through
licenses and close monitoring.
If a snake dies before, due to
bad management practise, then
the license can be cancelled.

Would allow snake charmers to

continue in their traditional
occupation.

Still means that snakes are

defanged and kept badly if
inspections are not monitored
closely. Monitoring too would not
be easy.

Intensive education and

employment opportunities so
that they do not turn to snake
charming.

A long-term intervention which

also addresses the development
needs of the community.

Does not address the immediate

income needs of thousands of
families.

Breed snakes in captivity for

use by snake charmers.

Would allow them to continue

in their traditional occupation.

Difficult to monitor if snakes have

been caught from the wild or bred
in captivity. Does not address
animal welfare concerns.

Use the skills of the snake

charmers for conservation
education and protection of
snake species.

Balanced approach which

Requires commitment from
addresses conservation needs
government agencies and strict
and livelihood requirements
monitoring and enforcement.
through the traditional skills of
the community.

APPENDIX I
QUESTIONS FOR TRADITIONAL HEALERS
A. Socio-Economics

4.

5.
6.
7.

1.

Name of village/ district/town

2.

Name of informant

3.

Educational and occupational details

Proportion of contribution of each occupation

(use stones/pie chart)
a. Informants' incomes
b. Household incomes
What is your average income from healing
(per day/ week)?
Are there seasonal variations in income?
Who do you sell the medicines to, and
proportion of each?
l Other snake charmers
l Audiences
l Private customers
l Shops
l Trader/ pansaris

B. Plants
1.

Please freelist the plants used by you and for

what purpose.
2. Why is this plant used?
3. What part of the plant is used?
4. What stage in life cycle of the plant is used?
5. What is the final product/medicine?
6. Preparation of medicine (quantities, process
and other ingredients).
7. What is the purpose of the medicine?
8. Treatment details:
a. Cost of medicine
b. Frequency of use/Duration of use
9. Frequency of use of plant (when was last use
of plant).
10. Frequency of demand for treatment (when was
last treatment).
11. Can any other plants be substituted for this plant?

C. Ranking

Rank the plants in order of:

1. Frequency of use.
2. Income from treatment.
3. Ease of availability - what are criteria? (cost,
seasonality, abundance).

D. Source of Plants
1.

Please state the source of each plant:

l Collected
l Purchased

If purchased:
2.
3.

Where do you purchase it?

From whom do you purchase it?

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

How much does it cost?

How often do you purchase it?
How much do you purchase?
How constant is the supply/ seasonality/ why?
If collected: Where are the collections made?
l H- Homestead
l V- Village commons
l P - Private land
l A - Agricultural land
l F- Forest (definition?)
9. What is the location of the collections? Is it a
protected area?
10. Who makes the collections?
11. Which season/ months is the plant harvested?
12. What harvesting methods are used? Why?
13. What is the source of the plant out of season?
14. What are the past/ future population trends?

E. Knowledge
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.

How long have you been a healer?

How did you learn?
Why did you become a healer?
What are the advantages/ disadvantages of
being a healer?
Will you pass on your knowledge to anyone?
Why this person?
How long do you think you will continue to be a
healer? Why?
Are there more/ less/ the same, number of
healers than in the past? Why?
What do you think will happen to the number of
healers in the future? Why?
What are the past trends in demand for healing?
Do healers share/ trade information on
treatments? Who, how, how often?

F. Surma
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Do you make Surma?

What it is? How would you define it?
What ingredients do you use? Do you use
venom?
Are there any associated myths/ practices to
do with the preparation/ use?
What do you use it for?
Was the treatment successful?
How much do you sell it for?

53

APPENDIX II
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR
HERPETOLOGICAL INFORMATION
1.

Name of respondent

2.

Name of village/ district

3.

Time-line of captive snake

Species

Number

Time
of trapping
(month/ year)

Code as follows:
A-Agricultural field
F-Forest (check how they define the word forest)
W-Wasteland/ village commons
S-Someone's house
P- If purchased then specify from whom
U-urban area

When will it be released

and where

Area
for trapping*

Some observations on general condition

8. Has the snake been defanged?
Species

Yes /no

(Questions related to husbandry practises)

4.

Who feeds the snake?

a. Snake charmer
b . His wife
c . Children
d . Any others

5. How
a.
b.
c.

often is the snake fed?

Once a week
Once a day
Any others

6. Do you know how to remove the fangs?

a. Yes
b . No (If no please state who removes the
fangs)
7. How would you describe the general condition
of the snake?
a. Weak
b . Healthy

54

9. Does the snake have any infections in the

mouth due to the defanging?
If yes, please give details of condition
10. For how long in a day does the snake spend
time out of the basket
11. Please rank your preferences for a snake
species on a scale of 1-5
Species

Rank

Reasons

APPENDIX III
SOCIO-ECONOMIC SURVEY WITH
SNAKE CHARMERS
1.

Name of village/ district/town

2.

Name of informant

3.

Educational and occupational details

DETAILS OF FAMILY MEMBERS (Note even children may be working)

Name

4.

5.

Age

Sex

Education

What is your main occupation (by main we

mean practiced for more than 6 months a
year)?
a. Snake charming
b. Daily wage work
c. Agriculture
d. Private job
e. Government service
f. Any others : please specify
g. Been party
h. Unemployed
Average income from main occupation? How
much have you earned today?

Occupation

6.

Rel. to
Informant

Daily Income

If not practicing snake charming and given

the option, would you go back to it?
a. Yes
b. No

7.

Occupation/s

Comments

Any other livelihoods you engage in for some

time of the year like been party or harvest
work?

Occupation

Month

Daily Income

8. Do you know how to play the been?

9. Do you know how to catch a snake?
a. Yes very confident
b. No cannot catch a snake
c. Can manage with the help of other snake
charmers
10. When was the last time you caught a snake?

55

11. If not practicing snake charming, what are

your reasons for not following your
traditional occupation?
a. You got caught by the police
b. You never learnt the been or the tricks of the
trade
c. You feel embarrassed
d. You are scared of getting caught/ it has been
declared illegal
e. Any others (please specify)
12. What occupation was/ is your father
involved in ?
a. Snake charming
b. Daily wage
c. Agriculture
d. Private job
e. Government service
f. Any others: please specify
g. Been party
13. In your opinion has snake charming as an
occupation declined? If yes why?
a. Strict laws
b. Other forms of entertainment
c. Any other reason
14. If practicing snake charming, are there any
months when you cannot practice snake
charming or earnings are less?
15. Do you own any land for agriculture?
16. If practicing snake charming would you like
to continue in this? If yes why?
a. I don't know anything else
b. It is part of our caste identity
c. I like my job
17. If
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

no what would you like to move on to?

Agriculture
My own business or shop
Service
Been party
Any others, please specify

18. Why do you think snake charming has been

banned?
a. Species are dwindling
b. It is not banned, the police just harass us to
make money
c. Animal activists have told the Forest
Department to arrest us
19. Have you ever been arrested or harassed by
the police? If yes:
a. I was asked to pay a bribe
b. I was jailed
c. My snakes were seized

56

20. What has been the impact of the ban on snake

charming on your occupation?
a. No impact
b. I don't go to big cities
c. Fall in income

APPENDIX IV
INVENTORY OF MEDICINAL
PLANTS SEEN WITH SNAKE CHARMERS
AND THEIR USES
List of identified Plants
Latin Name, Family, Local Name

State

Part Used

Use

Literature Review

Abrus precatorius L.
Leguminoceae
Chirmi / Rati
Acacia leucophloea (Roxb.) Willd.
Acaciaceae
Kikar
Acacia sp.
Acaciaceae
Kikar
Achyranthes aspera L.
Amaranthaceae
Barchita
Adhatoda vasica (L.) Nees
Acanthaceae
Arusha
Ailanthus excelsa Roxb.
Simaroubaceae
Arru
Alternanthera paromychioides
Amaranthaceae
Nevlabuti
Anagallis arvensis L.
Primulaceae
Chitrapath
Argemone mexicana L.
Papaveraceae
Kandai
Azadirachta indica A.Juss.
Meliaceae
Neem / Neemkee
Baliospermum sp.
Euphorbiaceae
Daiyad
Boerhavia repens var. diffusa L.
Nyctaginaceae
Nirvani / Santabuti
Bombax insigne Wall.
Bombacaceae
Semul
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taubert
Leguminoceae
Dhak
Calotropis gigantea (L.) W.T.Aiton
Asclepiadaceae
Ak (green)
Calotropis sp.
Asclepiadaceae
Aarkh (white)

R, UP

R, SD

CF, A, AP

CF, UP, M, AP, PR, A

B, G

BN, P, FSD, BC, AP

CF, GP

UP

FR

MSD, PG, L

CF, GP, UP, BN, SA

L, MSD

UP, EP, GP,

L, FL

EA

CF, GP, G, SA, AA

UP

EA

GP, AA, CF

UP

A, R

SA, BC, M, J

S, M

EA

SA, EP

H, R, UP

B, L

SB, EA, AP, W, SA, CF

SA, GP, TG, W, CF, UP,

W, G, FSD, MSD

UP

M, ST

TG

R, UP

A, R

SB, GP, D, SA

GP, UP, BC

UP

SA

UP, CF

TG

PL, MP, GP, FSD,

MSD, D

R, UP

A, FL, FR, M

AP, SB, BR, SS, VT

GP, SA, CF, W, AA, P

AA

GP, SA, CF, W, AA, P

57

Capparis decidua (Forssk.) Edgew.

Capparidaceae
Kairbuti
Cassia fistula L.
Caesulpinaceae
Gulakdi
Chenopodium murale L.
Chenopodiaceae
Akarbathua
Cissampelos pareira L.
Menispermaceae
Banchuri / Jaljamnibuti / Nirbashi
Citrullus colocynthis (L.) Schrad
Cucurbitaceae
Kaurtumba
Coccinea grandis (L.) Voigt
Cucurbitaceae
Kakodabuti
Cocculus villosus DC.
Menispermaceae
Kalipahad
Convolvulus arvensis
Convolvulaceae
Arnabuti
Cuscuta sp.
Cuscutaceae
Armarbel
Diospyros montana Roxb.
Ebenaceae
Bistendu / Kendu
Euphorbia antiquorum L.
Euphorbiaceae
Thor
Euphorbia hirta L.
Euphorbiaceae
Dudhi
Ficus benghalensis L.
Moraceae
Bud
Ficus elastica Roxb. Ex Hornem.
Moraceae
Patharchat
Ficus Sp.
Moraceae
Bar / Kakra Patta
Heliotropium curassavicum L.
Boraginaceae
Mukkanbuti
Heliotropium sp.
Boraginaceae
Bichubuti
Heliotropium subulatum (Hochst. Ex
A.DC.)
Boraginaceae
Kalibui
Heliotropium supinum L.
Boraginaceae
Gumrath / Slokbuti / Jaarlpath
Hemidesmus indicus (L.) Schult.
Asclepediadaceae
Badagadi Bel / Ram Chana
Holopterea integrifolia Planch.
Ulmaceae
Papri
Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam
Convolvulaceae
Shakarkand
Kochia indica Wight
Chenopodiaceae
Laanabuti

58

H, R

R, ST

AP

R, UP

FR

CF, MP

SD

AP

GP, CF, SA

H, UP

EA, EP, W, MSD, S

UP, M, GP

R, UP

FR, R

GP, FSD, SA, AP, SB

J, AP, UP, AA, CF, GP,

G

SA, CF, TG, AP

H, UP

A, R

SB, SA, MSD, GP, G

A, R

AA, CF, S, FSD, WH

H, R

AP, SB, SA, EA, FSD, UP

L, GP, SA, MSD, AP

H, UP

A, FR

GP, TG, CF, AP

SA

TG

GP, M, SA, W

L, FL

GP

CF, GP, UP, SA

MSD, AP

AP, GP

GP, BC, AA, CF

SA, GP, AP

SA

R, UP

L, M

S, CF

PL

CF, J

FSD, MP

FL, SD

AA

UP

UP

UP, AP, SA

UP

SA

AP

UP

SA, GP, AP, UP, BC, L,

PL, CF, AA, TG, W,
BR, FSD, MSD
SA, W

SA, W, UP, TG, CF,

AA, GP

CF, AA

M, BC

BC

Launaea coromandelica (Houtt.)

Herrill.
Anacardiaceae
Bada Dodhi
Launaea procumbens (Roxb.) Ram. &
Raj.
Anacardiaceae
Dodhi / Ghammanbuti / Junglibuti
Launaea sp.
Anacardiaceae
Bakthalbuti
Leptadenia reticulata (Retz) Wight &
Arn.
Asclepiadaceae
Kheep
Lycium barbarum L.
Solanaceae
Jaarlbuti
Moringa concanensis Nimmo
Moringaceae
Sainjna
Musa sp.
Musaceae
Banana
Nepeta hindostana
Lamiaceae
Bicchhu Grass
Nothosaerva brachiata L.Wight
Amaranthaceae
Patharcheetah
Polygonum barbatum ssp.gracile L.
Polygonaceae
Chitah
Salvadora oleoides Decne.
Salvadoraceae
Jhal
Sida cordata (Burm.f.) Borssum
Malvaceae
Khrainti
Solanum suratense Burm.
Solanaceae
Kateli / Kateli Bel
Solanum virginianum L.
Solanaceae
Chirmi
Suaeda maritima (L.) Dumort.
Chenopodiaceae
Loonibuti
Tamarix dioica Roxb. Ex Roth
Tamaricaceae
Fraasbuti
Triumfetta rhomboidea var.pentandra
Jacq.
Tiliaceae
Kutta Grass
Withania somnifera Dunal
Solanaceae
Kicharpod
Wrightia arborea (Dennst.) Mabberley
Apocynaceae
Doodhi

UP

R, UP

EP, AA

FR, L

AP, GP

EP, UP, GP

FR

AP, BC, M, AA

SA, AA

A, R

FSD

UP, S

H, UP

FL, L

AP, AA, GP

BC, EP, SA, UP, AP

UP

FSD

GP, UP, BC

UP

SS

BC, CF

UP

UP

SA

SA, TG

AP

CF, GP, AP, MSD, FSD

UP

ST, R

PL

UP

A, FR, R

VT, G

FR

FSD

L, ST

D, M

UP

CF, AP

SD

BC

SD

CF, AA, AP, BC

GP, SA

CF, AP, FSD, M, SA,

EP, W

59

List of unidentified Plants

Local Name
Akol
Ariyalbuti / Saphed Fulka Grass
Askand
Bahakbath / Siptoh
Balgarikathal
Bandhkarela
Baphodbuti
Baslumba
Batelbuti
Bhilbel
Bhoongar Grass
Bipodhbuti
Birchita
Birmi grass
Charchita
Cheepat Grass
Chitah Jeri
Dhumaya
Gaduma
Gajjarbatha
Ghursan
Gokhru
Haad
Harmalbuti
Imirti
Jaiphal
Jata Joot
Jeewanbuti
Jharkarela
Jud
Kakora
Kalabasa
Kalinirvasi
Kamalbuti
Kapas / Naarma
Katali - Ped
Kuchila
Lagwantibuti
Mahla
Mohari
Mul Kangui
Nagdaun
Nakodabuti
Namolee
Nevlabuti
Phorphendua
Pundiaributi
Ramtori
Rataanjoth
Saliabuti
Sonmarchi
Tori
Tumba

State
UP
UP
R
R
R
H
H
H
R
H
UP
R
H
UP
H, UP
UP
UP
H
UP
R
UP
UP
R
H
H
H
UP
H
H
H
H
H
H
R
R
UP
R
H
UP
H
UP
H, R
H
R
H
UP
H
R
H
R
H
UP
R

Part Used
A, R
FR

R
L, R
R
A, R

A, R
ST
R

A, R
FR, L

R
R
R

A, R
FR
M
SD
R
FR
R
R

FR

FR

Use
SB
F, UP, P
GP

S, AP, SA
GP, SB
PL, MSD, FSD, UP
GP
FSD, SA

FSD
SB, UP
AP
SA, AA
SA
SB
FSD
SB
GP, CF
AP
SA, BC, SB
CF
SA, G
CF
GP
CF
FSD
CF
BC
EA
EP
AP
CF
EP
SB
AP, GP, F
SB, AP, GP, SA, TG
PL
SB
SB
AP
FSD
EP
AP
EP
SB
SB

KEY :
States : H = Haryana, R = Rajasthan, UP = Uttar Pradesh.
Part used : A = Aerial parts, B = Bark, FL = Flowers, FR =Fruit, G = Gum, L = Leaves, M = Milk, R = Root,
SD = Seeds, ST = Stem.
For ailments : See Appendix V. Codes in bold are those that have been confirmed in the literature review.
REFERENCES:
Ambasta, S.S.P (2000)
Kamat, V.P. and Kamat, S.V (1994)
Maheshwari, J.K., Singh, K.K. and Saha, S (1981)
Reddy, P.R. and Rao, P.P. (2002)
Sala, A.V. and Kottakkal (1994)

60

APPENDIX V
AILMENTS TREATED BY SNAKE CHARMERS
NUMBER OF MENTIONS
CODE

TREATMENT

SB

Snake Bite

AP

Aches & Pains

SA

Skin Ailments

CF

Colds & Flu

GP

Gastric Problems

FSD

Female Sexual Disease

AA

Asthma / Allergies

DESCRIPTION
Heals wounds, may act as
placebo
Aches & Pains /Joint aches /
Muscle Cramps / Headache
Skin allergies / Infections
inc. Daad
Coughs / Colds / Flu /
Pneumonia / Throat
infections
Gastric Problems - gas,
constipation, heartburn,
indigestion, stomach ache,
worms
Sexual diseases including
Leucorrhoea
Anaemia / Blood cleansing /
High Blood Pressure / Poor
Circulation
Ear problems inc. deafness,
discharge, earache
Urinary problems, inc. Kidney
Stones

Identified
Plants

Unidentified
Plants

Total

14

18

32

18

27

15

23

13

21

11

19

15

BC

Blood conditions

EA

Ear ailments

UP

Urinary problems

EP
MSD
TG

Eye Problems
Male sexual disease
Teeth & Gums

Sexual disease

2
4
6

4
2
0

6
6
6

Mind conditions

Stress / Strength of mind /

Memory

Glands / Goitre

2
2
2
0
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
0
1
1
1
1

1
1
0
2
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

149

76

225

Strength

PR
PL
A
F
J
SS
VT
W
BR
BN
D
L
MP
N
PN
PG
WR
WH

Paralysis
Piles
Abortion
Fractures / Bones
Jaundice
Scorpion Sting
Veterinary Treatments
Wounds
Bruising
Burns
Dehydration / Heat Stroke
Liver
Menstrual Problems
Nosebleeds
Painkiller
Pregnancy
Water retention
White Hair
Total Number Mentions

Lethargy, for strength,

virility

Additionally mentioned ailments whose treatments were not mentioned:

Code
BC
E

Ailment
Bone cancer
Epilepsy

61

Appendix VI
WHAT DO THE EXPERTS SAY ?

n this section we present some views of herpetologists, scientists and amateur

snake experts about the profession of snake charming, how the snakes are
treated by snake charmers and the future of this occupation.

'Nag-Panchami in Mumbai': Kedar Bhide,

Reptile Rescue Centre, Mumbai
Reptile Rescue and Study Centre (RRSC), Mumbai, is an independent organization
functioning in and around Mumbai city. RRSC has a volunteer force and we attend to calls
to rescue snakes trapped in houses and also in distress.
Snake charming occurs in and around Mumbai city all year round in very minimal
proportions. Snake charming takes a new meaning in the city during the Nag-Panchami
festival. In Mumbai and its outskirts, the Nag-Panchami festival comes with a large number
of snakes being brought into the city from northwest Rajasthan by the Naths and sold to
fake snake charmers for Nag-Panchami. These are mostly local people who will sit outside
temples begging for alms. Their snakes include a large number of cobras (Naja naja), Rat
snakes (Ptyas mucosa), Sand boas (Eryx conicus ), Earth boas (Eryx johnii) , Royal snake
(Articeps diadema) and the occasional Rock python (Python molurus ). A couple of years
ago we were astounded to see charmers with a Flying snake (Chrysopelea ornata ) and a
Brown Vine Snake (Ahetulla pulverulentus ) on Nag-Panchami day.
Our centre conducts special awareness programs in the fortnight leading to Nag-Panchami
to dispel myths associated with the festival. The response of school children to this program
is overwhelming. In the past two years, RRSC volunteers handed out idols of snakes to the
charmers from whom the snakes were confiscated. This was an attempt to reduce the use
of live snakes for worship. It was heartening to see the willingness with which these idols
were accepted.
A sad aftermath of the festival is noted in the week following Nag-Panchami. Volunteers at
RRSC are often called out to rescue snakes that have been randomly released by the snake
charmers at the end of Nag-Panchami day. These snakes are barely alive and more often
than not die despite best efforts.

'Friends of the snake charmers': Rupali Ghose, Rajkot, Gujarat

I have had a close rapport with snake charmers from different parts of the country,
especially West Bengal, Bihar, Orissa and Gujarat. I was interested in snakes and that is
how I got interested in snake charmers. I have learnt quite a lot from them and the skills
they have are unique. These include their ability to recognise the species of a snake from
the snakebite, their knowledge of herbs and variations in the breeding seasons of snake
species according to the weather, and the ease with which they handle venomous snakes.
Snake charmers in Gujarat are engaged mostly in agricultural work or street performances.
They are harassed much by animal activists but not so much by the Forest Department. I
think their skills can be used for conservation education as they have a lot of knowledge
which is very practical.

62

Suggestions on husbandry: Gowri Mallapukar,

veterinarian surgeon, Pune
Most of the snakes found on Nag-Panchami have severe infection in the mouth due to
defanging and removal of venom glands. They appear to have been kept in the same
baskets for more than a couple of days and the humidity leads to pneumonia which is
enhanced by dipping them in milk on the day of Nag-Panchami for the ritual. The kumkum
and haldi used in the ritual is aspirated and causes severe irritation to the eyes. The Rat
snakes (Ptyas mucosa) have various degrees of scale rot, subcutaneous abscesses and at
times broken bones so as to prevent movement. The Sand boas are tied in knots and put
into small cloth bags. They are removed only for display on the festival day. Broken bones,
emaciation, dehydration and mouth rot is commonly noted in these snakes.
The most difficult part of maintaining snakes in captivity is management of the infections
caused by the removal of the venom glands. Severe mouth rot infections are noted. The
snakes rescued on (and after) Nag-Panchami have enteritis leading to severe dehydration
and severe respiratory tract infections due to aspiration of milk and the haldi and kumkum.
Due to the humidity in the snake basket and poor basking, the snakes improperly shed
moults, especially the eye cover, which then leads to blindness.
The challenge is to treat these infections effectively and provide appropriate management
practices for recuperation. Management practices need to be followed stringently. All the
snakes should be kept in independent boxes. The cages have to be checked regularly for
defecation or regurgitation by the animal and have to be cleaned as soon as possible.
Basking can be provided by natural light or by means of artificial sources like heating pads
or bulbs. Maintenance of a temperature gradient is essential. Maintenance of an appropriate
ambient temperature is the defense mechanism of the reptile against diseases. Hiding
areas made of cardboard boxes or natural material for crepuscular snakes (e.g. cobras) are
essential, as is the provision of some rocks and stones which will facilitate moulting.

Romulus Whitaker, Centre for Herpetology, Chennai

(Whitaker has set up a Snake Venom Collection Centre which is managed by an indigenous
community, the Irulas)
Unfortunately there are no studies to show that snake populations have bounced back since
the introduction of the Wildlife (Protection) Act (1972), but our experience is that snake
populations have, indeed, bounced back in most cases. It seems pretty obvious that this
should be the case when you consider that up to 10 million skins were exported every year
prior to 1976. Of the species used by the snake charmers, only the python and King cobra
have much to worry about and that, too, mainly because of habitat loss. At Bhitarkanika
sanctuary in Orissa, for instance, people have expressed concern that the snake charmers
have been over-harvesting King cobras for so many years that numbers are visibly lower.
Again, no one has done a study, but I can imagine that hundreds, if not thousands, of King
cobras have been removed from that area over the last decade or two.
In the case of the snake charmers, aside from the cruelty factor (defanging, starvation,
mishandling, etc.), it would seem to me that seven snakes per year per snake charmer (as
your study has shown) would not constitute any threat to the species we are talking about
as they are all very common and widely distributed.
My main suggestion for communities still dependent on wild animals is that for each
community in each area, some imaginative brainstorming needs to be done with their
collaboration. The idea of the Irula cooperative started in this way and the whole thing was
six years in the making before it finally started working. What works for one community does
not necessarily work for another. We all have a certain sympathy for people with livelihoods
dependent on traditions and animals, but it is rapidly becoming impossible for such
communities to continue, simply because either animals are getting scarce or their methods
are unacceptable in today's animal welfare world.

63

References
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CONSERVATION ACTION SERIES

Several communities in biodiversity-rich India traditionally depend on

fast-depleting wildlife resources for their livelihood. The Jogi-Nath
saperas of northern India is one such community. For generations, the
Jogi-Naths have made a living from entertaining street audiences with
performances using snakes they capture from the wild. This report by the
Wildlife Trust of India is an attempt to find solutions through which this
community of snake charmers can earn a living and use their skills for the
protection of snakes on which they have depended for so long.

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