A Course in Mathematics For Students in Engineering

A COURSE IN
MATHEMATICS
<yr
WO<6DS
AND BAILEY
VOLUME
II
APR 19 1909
GIFT OF
R. Tracv
A COURSE IN
MATHEMATICS
FOR STUDENTS OF ENGINEERING AND
APPLIED SCIENCE
BY
S.
WOODS
H.
BAILEY
FREDERICK
AND
FREDERICK
PKOFKSSOKS OF MATHEMATICS IN THE MASSACHUSETTS

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
VOLUME
II
INTEGRAL CALCULUS
FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES, SPACE GEOMETRY
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
GINN & COMPANY

BOSTON
NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON
COPYRIGHT,
FREDERICK
S.
1909,
BY
WOODS AND FREDERICK

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
79.3
gtftenaum
GINN & COMPANY- PROPRIETORS
BOSTON
U.S.A.
H. BAILEY
PKEFACE
This volume completes the plan of a course in mathematics outLined in the preface to the
The subject
treated in the
first
volume.
of integration of functions of a
single variable is
first
eight chapters.
Emphasis
is
here laid upon the
fundamental processes, and the conception of the definite

integral
and its numerous applications are early introduced.
after the
Only
student
is
interest
is
well grounded in these matters are the more

special
methods of evaluating integrals discussed. In this
the
student
s
way
early aroused in the use of the subject,
in those processes
which occur
feature of this part of the book
is
and he
in subsequent practice.
is
drilled
new
a chapter on simple differential
equations in close connection with integration and long before the

formal study of differential
equations,,
With the ninth chapter

variables
of the
is
begun.
This
is
the study of functions of two or more
introduced and accompanied by the use
elements of solid analytic

geometry, and the treatment of
partial differentiation
and
of multiple
integrals is careful
and rea
special feature here
is the
chapter on line
This subject, though
omitted
from
generally
elementary
needed by most engineering students in their later work.
sonably complete.
integrals.
texts, is
The
latter part of the
complex number, and
work
consists of chapters on series, the
differential equations.
differential equations
In the treatment of
many things properly belonging to an ex

tended treatise on the
subject are omitted in order to give the
student a concise working
knowledge of the types of equations
which occur most often in practice.
iii
MJ2987JJO
PREFACE
iv
In conclusion the authors wish to renew their thanks to the
members
of the
mathematical department
Institute of Technology,
for
and
of the
especially to Professor
Massachusetts
H. W. Tyler,
continued helpful suggestion and criticism, and to extend
thanks to their former colleague, Professor
Washington
W. H. Eoever
University, for the construction of the
drawings particularly in space geometry.

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE or TECHNOLOGY
February, 1909
more
of
difficult
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
INFINITESIMALS
AND DIFFERENTIALS
ARTICLE
PAGE
1-2. Order of infinitesimals

3.
Fundamental theorems on
4.
Differentials
infinitesimals
5-6. Graphical representation
7.
Formulas for
8.
Differentials of higher orders
CHAPTER
differentials
II
10
ELEMENTARY FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION
10.
Definition of integration
Constant of integration
11.
Fundamental formulas
9.
1
4
.12
12
13
12. Integral of u n
14
Integrals of trigonometric functions

14-15. Integrals leading to the inverse trigonometric functions
13.
17
.
16. Integrals of exponential functions

17. Collected formulas
19
25
26
18.
Integration by substitution
27
19.
Integration
by
30
20.
parts
Possibility of integration
32
Problems
33
CHAPTER
III
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
.39
21. Definition
22. Graphical representation
23. Generalization
41
43
24. Properties of definite integrals

25. Evaluation of the definite integral
26.
Change
of limits
27. Integration
45
by integration
....
47
49
51
by parts
v
CONTENTS
vi
PAGE
ARTICLE
52
28.
Infinite limits
29.
Infinite integrand
30.
The mean value
53
54
of a function
55
and Maclaurin s series

31. Taylor
32-33. Operations with power series
Problems
s
CHAPTER
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.
IV
59
61
APPLICATIONS TO GEOMETRY
64
Element of a definite integral

Area of a plane curve in Cartesian coordinates
Area of a plane curve in polar coordinates
Volume
Volume of a solid with parallel
The prismoidal formula
64
67
69
of a solid of revolution
.74
of a plane curve in rectangular coordinates

of a plane curve in polar coordinates
41.
Length
Length
42.
The
43.
Area of a surface of revolution

Problems
72
bases
....
77
78
differential of arc
CHAPTER V
75
79
SO
APPLICATIONS TO MECHANICS
Work
86
45. Attraction
86
46. Pressure
88
47. Center of gravity
90
48. Center of gravity of a plane curve

49. Center of gravity of a plane area
50. Center of gravity of a solid or a surface of revolution of con
92
44.
94
96
stant density
98
51. Center of pressure
99
Problems
CHAPTER VI
INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS

103
52. Introduction
53-54. Separation into partial fractions

55-57. Proof of the possibility of separation into partial fractions
.
58. Integration of rational fractions
Problems
109
113
117
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
VII
vii
SPECIAL METHODS OF INTEGRATION

PAGE
ARTICLE
119
59. Rationalization
60. Integrand containing fractional powers of a

61. Integrand containing fractional powers of a
62.
containing integral powers of Vo
+ bx
+ bx n
4-
bx
Va +
bx
Integrand
63. Integrand containing integral powers of

64. Integration of trigonometric functions
65. Integrals of the
66.
forms f
Integrals of the form
xdx and
sin"
1
sin"
cos"
J cos
x dx
x2
.120
.121
.122
.123
nx
.-
123
.
..
.124
126
dx
forms
forms ftan m o; sec n xdx and Cctnm x
The
forms C
70.
x2
tan"
xdx
...
xdx and
119
.
J"ctn
sec"
x dx and
csc n xdx
127
substitution
tan- =
csc n xdx
128
129
130
71. Algebraic reduction formulas

72-73. Proof of reduction formulas
74. Trigonometric reduction formulas
75.
Use of tables
Problems
CHAPTER
131
134
136
of integrals
137
VIII
INTEGRATION OF SIMPLE DIFFEREN

TIAL EQUATIONS
141
76. Definitions
77.
The equation
Mdx + Ndy =
when the
variables can be sepa
rated
...
144
145
80.
The homogeneous equation Mdx Ndy =

The linear equation of the first order
81.
Bernoulli
148
78-79.
-\-
146
equation
11 9
82. Certain equations of the second order
Problems
CHAPTER IX
83.
.154
FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

158
Functions of more than one variable
Rectangular coordinates in space

85-86. Graphical representation of a function of two variables
158
84.
87. Surfaces of revolution
...
159
168
CONTENTS
viii
ARTICLE
PAGE
88. Cylinders
89-90. Space curves
170
172
174
91.
Ruled surfaces
Problems
CHAPTER X
PLANE AND STRAIGHT LINE
92. Projection
93. Distance
176
between two points
178
94. Length of a space curve in

rectangular coordinates
95-96. Direction of a straight line
97. Direction of a space curve
98.
180
Angle between two straight lines

normal to a plane
Normal equation
179
182
.183
99. Direction of the
100.
IQQ
of a plane
Angle between two planes

102. Determination of the direction cosines of
any straight line
103-104. Equations of a straight line determined by two points
105. Equations of a tangent line to a space curve
184
185
101.
186
.
186
.187
189
106. Equations of a straight line in terms of its direction cosines

and a known point upon it
.190
107. Problems on the plane and the

straight line
108. Change of coordinates
190
193
....
Problems
CHAPTER XI
.195
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
109. Partial derivatives
198
110. Increment and total differential of a function of several

variables
200
111. Derivative of /(a-, y) when x

112. Tangent plane to a surface
and y are functions
of
113. Derivatives of f(x,

y} when x and y are functions of
114. Property of the total differential
.202
204
s
and
209
115. Implicit functions
210
116-117. Higher partial derivatives

118.
Higher derivatives of /(ar, y) when x and y are functions

t, or of s and t
212
of
214
119. Differentiation of a definite

integral
Problems
206
216
.
217
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
XII
ix
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
PAGE
ARTICLE
120.
Double integral with constant limits
226
122-123. Double integral with variable limits

124. Computation of a double integral
125.
228
229
Double integral in polar coordinates
126. Triple integrals
230
*.
127. Cylindrical and polar coordinates

128. Elements of volume in cylindrical
129.
231
and in polar coordinates
234
Problems
CHAPTER
XIII
APPLICATIONS OF MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
130-132. Moment of inertia of a plane area

133-134. Area bounded by a plane curve
135.
Area
236
239
241
any surface
of
245
136. Center of gravity

137-138. Center of gravity of a plane area
246
248
139. Center of gravity of a solid
140.
Volume
141.
Moment
249
251
of inertia of a solid
252
142. Attraction
253
Problems
CHAPTER XIV
LINE INTEGRALS AND EXACT DIFFERENTIALS

258
143. Definition
144.
Fundamental theorem
261
145. Line integrals of the first kind, dy
263
dx
146. Line integrals of the second kind,
dy
267
x
269
147. Exact differentials
148-149.
The
271
integrating factor
150-151. Stokes
232
234
of coordinates
Change
222
225
274
theorem
276
Problems
CHAPTER XV
INFINITE SERIES
152. Convergence
153. Comparison test for convergence
154. The ratio test for convergence
279
280
281
CONTENTS
PAGE
ARTICLE
283
155. Absolute convergence

156. The power series
157. Maclaurin
158. Taylor
159-160. Fourier
161-162.
163.
and Taylor
s series
284
287
s series
for functions of several variables
....
The indeterminate form -.

The indeterminate form
295
298
164. Other indeterminate forms
300
Problems
CHAPTER XVI
304
305
and division
306
and evolution
169. Exponential and trigonometric functions
168. Involution
170.
310
171. Functions of a
complex variable in general

172. Conjugate functions
Problems
311
313
.
314
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER
173. Introduction
174. Solution
306
307
The logarithmic function
CHAPTER XVII
301
COMPLEX NUMBERS

166. Addition and subtraction
167. Multiplication
288
290
s series
by
316
318
series
175. Equations not of the first degree in the derivative

176. Equations solvable for_p
....
318
319
320
177. Equations solvable for y

178. Equations solvable for x
321
179-181. Envelopes
322
325
182. Singular solutions
183. Orthogonal trajectories
327
184. Differential equation of the first order in three variables.
The
185.
Two
328
integrable case
differential equations of the first order in three variables
186. Differential equation of the

The nonintegrable case
Problems
first
332
order in three variables.
335
.
336
CONTENTS
CHAPTER
xi
THE LINEAR DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
XVIII
PA E
ABTICLK
187. Definitions
188.
The equation
189.
The
190.
The equation
of the first order with constant coefficients
341
343
operator
191. Solution
by
of the second order
with constant
partial fractions
coefficients
347
.....
constant coefficients
general equation with
193. Solution by undetermined coefficients
constant
194. Systems of linear differential equations with
192.
The
348
350
coeffi
cients
195.
The
linear differential equation with variable coefficients
196. Solution
by
Problems
series
CHAPTER XIX
354
8
36
PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
197. Introduction
363
198. Special forms of partial differential equations

order
199. The linear partial differential equation of the first
200. Laplace
201. Laplace
Problems
ANSWERS
INDKX
equation in the plane

equation in three dimensions
#*.
304
8
368
37
A COURSE
IN
MATHEMATICS
CHAPTER
INFINITESIMALS AND DIFFERENTIALS

which
Order of infinitesimals. An infinitesimal is a variable
mathe
limit. The word "infinitesimal" in the
approaches zero as a
1.
minute."
matical sense must not be considered as meaning "very
is not a mathematical
matter
of
atom
an
of
size
the
For example,
definite. That
infinitesimal, since that size is regarded as perfectly
it can be
that
essential
is
it
a quantity should be infinitesimal
In
operating with in
made smaller than any assigned quantity.
of them as
not, however, necessary to think
are finite quantities and
microscopic or of negligible size. They
division, etc., like finite
all the laws of
finitesimals
it
is
multiplication,
obey
It is generally the last step in a problem involving

infinitesimals to determine the limit of some expression, usually
quantities.
a quotient or a sum,
approach
Ex.
1.
when
the infinitesimals contained in
it
zero.
To
find the velocity of a
find the limit of the quotient
moving body
(I,
106)*
it is
necessary to
as As and Ai approach zero as a limit, where
are infinitesimals and

the space traversed in the time A*. Here As and
the velocity is the limit of the quotient of two infinitesimals.
Ex. 2. To find the area of a circle it is customary to inscribe in the
into n tri
circle a regular polygon of n sides and to divide the polygon
vertices of the polygon. When
to
the
drawn
circle
of
the
radii
angles by
As
is
is
increased without limit, the area of each triangle is infinitesimal, and

of
is the limit of the sum of the infinitesimal areas
the area of the circle
an indefinitely great number of
triangles.
* References
preceded
1
by
I refer to
Vol.
I.
In a mathematical discussion involving infinitesimals there will

usually be two or more infinitesimals so related that as one ap
proaches zero the others do also. Any two of these may be coinpared by determining the limit of their
the following definitions
We have accordingly
ratio.
Two infinitesimals are of the same order

ratio is a finite quantity not zero.
An
ft is
infinitesimal
Let
3.
ft
sin
T
Lim
.
Then
cos a,
,.
ft
r=
Lim
ft is
of the
where a
sin
7 = T
T
Lim
Lim
a
Hence
of their
is zero.
and 7
a:
the limit
of higher order than an infinitesimal a

rt
if the limit of the ratio

Ex.
when
1,
cos a
an infinitesimal angle.
is
0.
(I,
151)
same order as
a, and 7 is of higher order.

Ex. 4. Let the arc AB (fig.
1) be an arc of a
a with center at 0, the chord
the side of an inscribed regular polygon of n
sides, and CD the side of a regular circumscribed
polygon. Also let
AB
circle of radius
a=
ft
Then
the area of the triangle

OB,
the area of the triangle COD,
the area of the trapezoid ABDC.
=
=
if
is
FIG.
perpendicular to
-,
From
indefinitely increased, a, ft,

their values,
To compute
infinitesimal.
AB
and CD.
-,
a2
sin
cos
EF = (EB + FD) (OF /
sin
- +
n
tan
n/
OE)
i.
cos -
n]
OE
#D=atan-.
this it follows that
draw
Then
OE = acos-,
and 7 are
=
COS
7T
-
OliDEK OF INFINITESIMALS
R
Hence
Liui
= Lim
/3
is
of the
same order as
cr,
1,
0.
TT
cos2
Lim ^ = Lim
a
Therefore
O TT
cos 2
and y
is
of higher order.
Particular importance attaches to the case in which the limit

two infinitesimals is unity. Suppose, for example, that
2.
of the ratio of
a
Then, by the definition of a limit
53),
(I,
s-+
where
approaches zero as a approaches
zero.
Hence
= a + ae.
Now
the term ae
= Lim e =
Lim
is
an infinitesimal
that
0, so
and a
j3
of higher order
differ
than
a, for
by an infinitesimal
of
higher order than each of them.

Conversely, let @ and a differ by an infinitesimal of higher
order than either of them, i.e. let
/3
where, by hypothesis,
We
7
Lim -
= a + 7,
=
0.
Then
have accordingly proved that the two statements, "Two

and a differ by an infinitesimal of higher order"
infinitesimals /3
ft
and
"
Ex.
order
Lim 1.
(I,
The
=1
"
are equivalent.
infinitesimals
a and
sin
differ
by an
infinitesimal of higher
151).
AOB
Ex. 2. The areas of the triangles

and
1) differ
(Ex. 4,
infinitesimal of higher order,
namely, the area of the trapezoid ABDC.
COD
by an
INFINITESIMALS AND DIFFEKENTIALS
Fundamental theorems on
3.
infinitesimals.
There are two im
portant problems which arise in the use of infinitesimals, namely
to find the limit of the quotient of
1.
quotient problem
infinitesimals as each approaches zero.
:
A sum
2.
problem
to find the limit of the
number
infinitesimals as the
sum
of a
increases without limit
two
number
of
and each in
finitesimal approaches zero.
Each
there
is
of these
problems has been illustrated in
a fundamental theorem as follows
for
each
1. If the quotient of two infinitesimals lias a limit, that limit is

unaltered by replacing each infinitesimal by another which differs
by an infinitesimal of higher order.

sum of n positive infinitesimals has a limit, as n increases
indefinitely, that limit is unaltered by replacing each infinitesimal
from
it
If the
2.
by another which differs
from
it
by an infinitesimal of higher order.
To prove theorem 1, let a and ft be two infinitesimals and let

a and ft respectively by
a, and ft, be two others which differ from
infinitesimals of higher order. Then we have ( 2)
Lim -~- =
= 1,
Lim
a
whence
where
e1
and
e2
= a + e av
ft
= ft,+ e^ftv
approach zero as a and
al +
1,
Pi
e1
a,
ft
approach
zero.
Then
1+ e,
Therefore
ft
Lim -
Ex.
1.
1
eA
- = Lim /ft, r+
)= Lim
\a, l+ej
Since the sine of an
of higher order,
Lim
angle differs
sm
-
sin 2
To show
this directly,
a_
~~
sin 2 a
sin 3
Therefore
e
+
- - = Lim ft,
l+e
a,
aL
Lim
from the angle by an infinitesimal
3
a _,
= Lim 3 a = 2
2a
a
,
we may write
4 sin 3 o: _
3 sin a
~
2 sin a cos a
sin 3 a
Lim
sin 2 a
2 cos
3
2
_
a
2 sin 2
cos a
FUNDAMENTAL THEOREMS ON INFINITESIMALS
-, a n be n positive infini
increases indefinitely, each of the
infinitesimals approaches zero and their sum approaches a limit
and let /3 V /3 2 /3 3
/3n be n other infinitesimals such that
To prove theorem
a v av as
2, let
tesimals so related that, as
Lim^ = l, Lim^ = l,
*i
We
Lim
-=
3
as
1,
Lim
-,
^=
an
1.
wish to show that
Now (2)
i=*i+ii>
/32
ft
whence
Lim (
=tf 2 +e 2 tf 2
38
Lim(a 1
+>
+ /3j
+a +a +
+a
+ Lim (e ^ + e
1
tf
Now let 7 be a positive quantity which

numerical value of the quantities e v e 2 e 8
,
-7^
Then
=s
l
+
is
n)
as +
+e
a n ).
equal to the largest

,
eB
7,
whence
since
by hypothesis a l
without change of
whence
is
sign.
positive
and may multiply the inequality
Similarly,
As n
!+,+ *,+
increases indefinitely,
<
zero.
by hypothesis, and 7 approaches
an) =
e
a
e
+
a
e
+
+
n
lim
Therefore
3 s
(6^ + 2 2
approaches a
finite limit
Lim
(&+
The theorem
Ex.
2.
The
+ ft)
and hence
0,
thus proved for positive infinitesimals.
is
sum
limit of the
sum
The theorem
also true
is
n triangles such
of the areas of
the infinitesimals are
if
AOB
triangles such as
of the areas of
the same as the limit of the

when n is indefinitely increased.
is
all
as
(fig. 1)
COD,
negative,
simply to change
since to change the sign of each infinitesimal
are not all
the sign of the limit of the sum. If the infinitesimals
is
of the
Ex.
same
3.
however, the theorem
sign,
Let
ai
= JL,
Vn
Then
<*i
according as n
is
01
= --4=i
01
<?2
^2
= a2 +
Lim
n= oo
&
even or odd
Differentials.
fl*
Vn
Lim
4.
not necessarily true.
is
= -4=i
<*4
etc
7=1
Vn
Vn
0,
^ =
Pn
+ -n
<r
0,
or
1,
Or
ft
->
etc
Vn
=1+
and
+ a2 + a s +
1-
<*)
(<*i
(|3i
02
03
The process
of
= 0,
L
differentiation
is
an
illus
3.
y=f(x) is a
the quotient problem of
and
continuous function of x which has the derivative f(x),
A and Ay are the corresponding infinitesimal increments of
For
tration of
x and
y,
then,
by
if
definition,
*,.
^
Lim A?/
?-=f(x).
.
AX= o A^?
/i\
1)
DIFFERENTIALS
It appears
from
(1) that
A# and Ay
order, except in the cases in
may
be written
where Lim
Ax0
which
are infinitesimals of the
f (x)
or
is
GO.
same
Moreover,
(1)
0,
and hence
Ay=/()A + eA.
(2)
differs from Ay by an infinitesimal

and
of higher order than A#,
f(x)&x may therefore be used in
and sums.
place of Ay in problems involving limits of quotients
The quantity f(x)&x is called the differential of y, and is rep
It appears, then, that
f (x)&x
resented by the symbol dy.
Accordingly
dy=f(x)*x.
Now
which y
in the special case in
dx
Hence we may
(3)
= x,
formula
(3)
reduces to
= A#.
(4)
write (3) as
dy=f(x)dx.
To sum
equal
this
the
to
up
The
differential
of
(5)
the
independent variable
increment of the variable; the differential of
is
the
to the differential of the independent variable

multiplied ly the derivative of the function, and differs from the
increment of the function ly an infinitesimal of higher order.
is
function
From
equal
this point of
view the derivative
is
called the differential
coefficient.
The use
of differentials instead of
fundamental theorems
of
3 in
increments
is justified
many problems which
ally to involve the limit of a quotient or the limit of a

It is to be
by the
are eventu
sum.
emphasized that dx and dy are finite quantities, sub

laws governing such quantities, and are not to be
ject to all the
thought of as exceedingly minute. Consequently both sides of

may be divided by dx, with the result
(5)
the derivative is the quotient of two differentials.

notation already chosen for the derivative.
the
explains
That
Ex.
1.
is,
Let y
We may
increase x
Ay
On
x3
This
by an increment Ax equal
(x
dx)
3 x dx
>2
Then
to dx.
3 x (dx)
3.
(dx)
the other hand, by definition,
dy
3 x 2 dx.
3 which is
2
It appears that Ay and dy differ by the expression 3 x (dx) + (dx)
an infinitesimal of higher order than dx.
Ex. 2. If a volume v of a perfect gas at a constant temperature is under
,
the pressure p, then v
k
-
where k
amount Ap =
increased by an
is then the increment
is
Now
a constant.
The actual change
dp.
let the pressure
in the
be
volume of the
gas
p + dp
_
~
kdp
P(p + dp)~
Mp /
p2
The
differential of v
is,
however,
dv
=-
dp
p2
differs from Av by an infinitesimal of higher order. The differential dv

may, accordingly, be used in place of Au in problems which involve the limit
of quotients or sums of this and other infinitesimals.
which
Graphical representation. The

distinction between the increment
5.
and the
differential
may
be
illus
trated graphically as follows:
Let the function be
by
the curve
y=f(x]
represented
(fig. 2).
Let
P(x, y) be any point of the curve,

and Q (x -f- A#, y + Ay) a neighboring
dy =f(x) dx
Draw
the lines
PR
and
RQ
parallel to the axes, the chord PQ,

and the tangent PT. Then
FIG. 2
and
point.
(tan
RPT) PR = R T.
GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
Hence the increment and the
than
___
= Llm RT-RQ
_
lm QT
by QT. That
differential differ
of higher order
an infinitesimal
PR may
QT is
be shown as follows
RT -LunRQ
T
.
= tan RPT - Lim (tan RPQ) = 0.

6.
The formula
dy=f (x^dx
(I)
has been obtained on the hypothesis that x
y = f(x).
variable and
now
Consider
the case
independent variable.
By
r
Then, by
But by
the independent
and
96, (7),
Substituting in
(2),
is
the
<j>(t)
we have
substitution
-/W dy=F (t)dt.
(1),
I,
y=f(x), where x
is
F (t) = f(x)
(2)
r
.
<f>
(t).
we have
(3)
But since
from 1)
is
the independent variable and x
<
(t),
we
have,
<
Substituting in
(3),
we have
dy
This
is
whether x
7.
the same form as

is
= f (x)dx.
(1).
Therefore
(1)
is
always true
the independent variable or not.
Formulas
for differentials.
virtue of the results of the
By
the formulas for differentials can be derived
preceding article,
from the formulas for the corresponding derivatives.
n
For example, since the derivative of u with respect to
n
d(u
= nu
is
nu*~ l
~l
du,
whether u be an independent variable or the function of another

variable.
10
Proceeding as in the above example,

formulas
we
derive the following
8.
"
i^
Differentials of higher orders.
definition
By
dy=f(x)dx.
But dy
is
differential,
itself
which
and may, accordingly, have a

2
2
by d y i.e. d (dy) = d y, and,
2
The differentials d y, d 3 y,
d*y are
a function of
x,
will be denoted
(1)
in general, d(d ~^y)

d n y.
called differentials of the second, the third,
the %th order
respectively.
When x is the independent variable, its increment dx may be

taken as independent of x. With this assumption, applying our
definition of a differential to
(1), we have
d*y
where dx2
is
= d[f(x) dx] =
[f(x) dx] dx
=f"(x)
written for convenience instead of (dx)
In like manner,
d*y=f>
and, in general,
dny
=f
(n
(x)dx\
n
\x)dx
dx2
2
.
DIFFERENTIALS OF HIGHER OKDEKS

The reason
the third,
used for derivatives of the second,
for the notation
the nth orders
11
is
now
apparent.
not the independent variable, the expressions for the

If
be assumed as
differentials become more complex, since dx cannot
is
independent of
tfy
where,
if
We
x.
have, then,
= d \f(x) dx]
dx
<(*),
= * (0^
=/"(*)
and
dx*
+f(x) d\
&x =
2
i
<"W^
>
(by
(4),
7)
bein g the in ~
that the formula for the

dependent variable. It appears, then,
second differential is not the same when written in terms of the
when written in terms of a function
independent variable as it is
of all differentials except the first
is
true
This
of that variable.
(see
6).
Hence the higher differentials are not as convenient as the

and the student is advised to avoid their use at present.
first,
CHAPTEE
II

The process of finding a function
Definition of integration.
9.
when
its
differential is
known
is called
integration.
This is evi
dently the same as the process of finding a function when its
derivative is known, called integration in I,
110.
In that place integration was performed by
rewriting the deriv
ative in such a manner that we could
recognize, by the formulas of
the
function
of
which
it
is the derivative.
differentiation,
But this
method can be applied only

complex cases
in the simpler cases.
For the more
necessary to have formulas of integration, which

can evidently be derived from the formulas for differentials
(7).
it is
Using the symbolic denote integration,

definition that
if
evident from the
= dF(x},
f(x) dx
then
it is
= F(x).
Cf(x) dx
The expression f(x) dx
is said to be under the

sign of integration,
called
the
integrand. F(x} is called the integral of f(x) dx.
and/()
10. Constant of integration. Two functions which differ
is
only
by a constant have the same derivative and hence the same differ
ential and conversely, if two functions have the same
differential,
;
they
differ
Hence
it
only by a constant
110
II,
= dF(x),
f(x) dx = d [F(x] +
30).
f(x) dx
if
follows that
where
(I,
any constant.
Eewriting (1) and (2)
(1)
(2)
<7],
is
as formulas of integration,
x)dx
and
dx
Jf(x)
= F(x)
= F(x) +
we have
(3)
C.
(4)
FUNDAMENTAL FORMULAS
but a special case of
It is evident that (3) is
(4),
13
and hence that
all integrals ought to be written in the latter form. The constant C

is called the constant of integration and is independent of the form
of the integrand. For the sake of brevity it will be omitted from

the formulas of integration, but must be added in all integrals
evaluated by means of them. As noted in I,
110, its value is
determined by the special conditions of the problem in which the

integral occurs.
11. Fundamental formulas.
The two formulas
C c du = c Cdu
and
\(du
(1)
+ dv + dw+->) = Cdu + idv + idw +
are of fundamental importance, one or both of
the course of almost every integration.

as follows
(2)
them being used
in
Stated in words, they are
(1)
constant factor
of integration
(2)
may
"be
changed from one side of the sign
to the other.
The integral of a sum of a
sum of
the integrals
To prove
(1),
we
I
note that since
du
In like manner, to prove
du
number of functions
finite
is the
of the separate functions.
d (cu)
= d(cu),
cdu
= cu = c
it
follows that
du.
(2), since
= d (u + v + iv +
+ dv + dw +
we have
I
(du
dv
+ dw H
d(u
-f
+w
-\
=u+v+w+
=
The
du
application of these formulas
articles.
is
dv
dw +
illustrated in the following
14
12. Integral of
Since
u".
d
follows that
it
But by
m~l
du
~l
du
u m ~^du
um
/u
m = n -f 1,
Placing
we have
1,
mu m ~
du
= um
(1)
n except n
1.
the differential under the integral sign in (1) becomes
for all values of
= um
= ~T^
"
du,
the formula
u du
If
m=0,
if
= mum ~
mu
11(1),
(%"
du
>
which
is
recognized as dQogu).
Therefore
= l og u
(2)
In applying these formulas, the problem is to choose for u some

function of x which will bring the given integral, if
possible, under
one of the formulas. The form of the integrand often
suggests the
function of x which should be chosen for u.
Ex.
1.
Find the value of /Yax2
J \
Applying
11 (2)
and then
11 (1),
- -f
\dx.
x
x2/
we have
bx
f (*+*+*+$+- f-Mt+f^+ftp
=
+
afxtdx bfxdx +
^
c
The first, the second, and the fourth of these integrals may be evaluated
by formula (1), and the third by formula (2), where u = x, the results being
respectively
32
-ax 3 -bx 2 --, and

,
c logx.
Therefore
2
+
flax
\
"
bx
+ -\dx =
x
32
-ax^
+ ~bx2 +
logx
-f
C.
INTEGliAL OF U*
Ex.
2.
Find the value of f (x 2
15
2)xdx.
we have
If the factors of the integrand are multiplied together,
f(x
-f
2)xdx=
which may be evaluated by the same method as that used

4
being \ x
Or,
x2
we may
-f
C.
let
x2
w,
f (x 2
whence 2 x ox
-f
2)xdx
du, so that x dx
1,
the result
dw.
Hence
fJ
r=
Ex.
in
-f 2)
J (x
C.
we may
Instead of actually writing out the integral in terms of w,

x dx = d (x 2 + 2), and proceed as follows
(V + 2 )^
d:c
2)
2)
x<2
I (x
2
ld(x +
2)
C.
of the integral found by the two

that
see
they differ only by the constant unity,
integration,
be made a part of the constant of integration.
Comparing the two values
we
Ex.
3.
note that
Find the value of
Let ax 2 + 2 bx
J(ax
2 6x) 3 (ax
b)dx.
= u. Then (2 ax + 2 6) dx = du, so that (ax + 6) dx =
f (ax2 +
2 6x) 3 (ax
-f b)
dx
=
Or, the last part of the
f(ax
du
+ 2 6x)* -f C.
it
| (ax
work may be arranged
2 6x) 3 (ax
6)
dx
J(ccx
=
=
f(ax
J (ax
methods of
which may
as follows
d (ax 2
2 6x)
2 6x) 8 d (ax 2
2 bx)
2 6x) 8
1 du.
2 6x) 4
C.
Hence
16
Ex.
As
4.
in
Find the value of
Ex.
2
3, let ax
ax 2
-f
+2 bx=u. Then
(2
2 bx
ax+2b)dx=du,
so that (ax +
b)dx=^du.
Hence
r 4 (ax + b) dx
J ax 2 + 2 bx
_
~
r2du_rdu
"
J ~^T
=
=
2 log
~u
+C
2 log (ax 2
-f
2 bx)
+C
r4(ax + b)dx_ r 2 d (ax2 + 2 bx)

J ax* + 2bx ~J
4- 2 bx
6x
ax 2 +
Or
r d (ax 2 + 2 bx)
J
ax 2 + 2 bx
Ex.
5.
Find the value of C(e nx
Let
e ax
Then
u.
e nx
a dx
b)
2 log (ax 2
2 bx)
+C
e ax dx.
Hence
aw.
cfct
:
= --(e^ +
oa
f (e* +
Or,
Ex.
6.
6)
a:
dx
= f
J
i(e
a
6)3
+
2
6)
+ 6)
+ 6) + c
Then sec 2 (ax + 6) a cfx =
Find the value of f
sec 2 (ax
C.
d(e^ +
6)
d"x
tan (ax
Let tan (ax
6)
u.
2
(ax
/sec
tan (ax
b)dx
-f 6)
rl du
J a
+c
~_
it
/"(fat
a J u
d*w.
Hence
INTEGRALS OF TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
17
=
/
Or
sec2(ox
b)dx
UixT&Tc
log [tan (ax
= rl
J
_
~
=
The student
is
d [tan (ax
d [tan (ax
tan (ax
log [tan (ax
+
&)
+ C.
c]
c]
+ &) + c]
+ 6) + c
6)
c]
C.
advised to use more and more the second method,
he acquires
illustrated in the preceding problems, as
integration.
13. Integrals
6)
a"
a J
facility in
the
trigonometric functions. By rewriting
func
formulas ( 7) for the differentiation of the trigonometric
tions. we derive the formulas
of
cos
u du
= sin u
sin
u du
^ du
= tan u,
(3)
u du
(4)
esc
(1)
cos u,
(2)
ctn u,
sec
u tan u du
= sec u,
(5)
esc
u ctn u du
(6)
esc u.
In addition to the above are the four following formulas
fsec u du
jcsc
u du
tan
u du
= log sec u,
(7)
ctn
u du
= log sin u,
(8)
= log (sec u + tan u) = log tan

= log (esc u
ctn u)
rj
= log tan -
+
7j
9)
(10)
18
To derive
= d(cosu).
(7) we note
Then
tan
that tan
and that
sin
u du
d (cos u)
u du
cosu
= log cos u
= log sec u.
/C
In like manner,
udu =
ctn
u du
-=
cos
smu
:
log sin u.
Direct proofs of (9) and (10) are given in

68. At present they
may be verified by differentiation. For example, (9) is evidently
true since
d log (sec u + tan u) = sec u du.
The second form
of the integral
trigonometric transformation of sec
may
u
be found by making a
+ tan u
to tan
(
\4
Formula
Ex.
1.
Let ax2
(10)
Therefore
bx
u.
Then
j^cos (ax
ax
(2
bx) (2
+ bx) (2 ax +
+ b)dx = du.
ax
b)dx
Ex.
2.
Find the value of Tsec (e^2
Let
e a3?
+b=
Therefore
/sec
Then
-f 6)
2axdx =
sin (ax
tan
aa?
b) e
r
sec (ef**
2 a J/
b)
b)
+ C.
b)
tan
(e
=
2a
sec (ea ^
(e
**
bx)
d (ax 2
bx)
aa? x
6) e
bx)
C.
dx.
du.
ay?
ax2
(e
e ay?
b) dx.
Jcos (ax
u.
2/
be treated in the same manner.
may
Find the value of f cos (ax 2
+ -)
tan
xdx
(e
ax*
+b)d (e ax +
6)
The integral may often be brought under one or more of the

fundamental formulas by a trigonometric transformation of the
integrand.
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Ex.
Find the value of
3.
Since
cos2
cos z xdx.
we have
(1 -f cos 2 x),
f cos 2 xdx
% f(l
=
Ex.
If
we
let sec 6 2
2 tan 2 2 x
tan 4 2
sec 4 2 x
\x
cos2x)dx
f cos2x d(2x)
sin 2
C.
2xdx.
sec 2 2 x,
and place sec 4 2 x

the original integral becomes
x,
f (1 +
Place
fsec 6
Find the value of
4.
tan2x = w. Then
we have
19
2 tan 2 2 x
sec 2
(1
tan 2 2 x) 2
tan 4 2 x) sec 2 2 x dx.
2x 2dx =
du.
Making
this substitution
and
simplifying,
f sec 6 2 x dx
=
=
14.
From
f (1 +
l(U
2 u2
u4 ) du
Jtt>+t*)+C
^ tan 2 x
+^
tan 3 2 x
+ TL tan5 2 x + C.
Integrals leading to the inverse trigonometric functions.

the formulas (7) for the differentiation of the inverse trig
onometric functions
of integration
we
derive the following corresponding formulas
du
= sm _, u
or
cos
= tan~
or
ctn"
fVl-t
du
du
con"
i
1
_T
u,
^,
-1
much more
These formulas are

replaced
by
(a>0).
Making
serviceable, however,
this
if
is
and evident
substitution
Cb
reductions,
we have
as our required formulas:
du
,u
= sm _,u
.
/Va / +u
or
cos"
(1)
>
or
--^-tan"
2
or
eta"
-*
(2)
(3)
20
Referring to
we
153,
I,
see that in (1)
1
sin"
- must
be taken
ct
fit
in the
the
first
first
or the fourth quadrant
and that
1
cos"
- must be taken
In like manner in
or the second quadrant.
and
sec"
(3)
in
r\i
must be taken
esc"
be noted that the two results in
It is to
For
constant.
let
1
sin"
d>
sin
d>
cos"
(<
is
i/r
</>
^r)
= 0,
whence
= (2 k + 1)~ i
1
sm"
- = (207&
Find the value
Letting 2 x
/
it,
dx
=-^^^^
2 J
1
we
=
V9 -(2x) 2
Find the value of

let
V3 x =
=
==
-4
dx
r
J xV3x 2
where
M, then du
r
JI
cos"
may
-.
be shown to differ by
and
1..2x
--h C
- sin- 1
2
V3 x 2 -
= V3 dx,
d(V3x)
V3
i
1
2 dx,
x
If
>
dx
2.
in the
of
we have du
-4x2
Ex.
= (2 k + 1)
<
V9-4x
is
in the first or the second
+ 1) --
Similarly, the results in (2) or (3)

constants.
<h
or
1.
where
integer or zero.
Hence
Ex.
^r,
only by a
(1) differ
=-
Therefore cos
any
and
and
Then
quadrant.
is
or the fourth quadrant
first
in the first or the third quadrant.
or
--\-C.
--1 cos- .2x
1
and we may write
+ C or--c S c-
C.
INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS

Ex.
Since
dx
Find the value of
3.
V4 x -
x2
= V4 -
/ax
V4 x
4.
2 x2
To avoid
and
fractions
2)
+C
3x
4-
we
radicals,
(x
sin-i-
Find the value of
_/*(*
ax
V4 -
Ex.
V4 x - x 2
- 2) 2 we have
(x
_
x
21
4-
or
(x
cos-i -
*)
C.
place
8dx
dx
V4 -
4dx
16x 2 4-24x
Therefore
J 2x 2
+ 3x4-6
4dx
r
"J
(4x
tan-
n
1
The methods used
4x4-3
4-
Ex.
5.
bx
Find the value of C

J
r x 3 dx
I
J5 +
4X4
4-
or
ctn-
31
-=
,4x4-3
-1
/>16x
r_xdx_^l
4
4-
4 J 5
4x
(x8
Jf 5
i.e.
(2
tan-
V5
10
xdx
r
/
J
dx
+ 4x 4
1
log (5
4-
4 x4 )
16
4xdx
+ x)(fa =
+ 4X4
\-C.
\/31
log(5
x2 ) 2
2
.2x
1
--Cto"
V5
V5
V5
"
+ 4x4) + -L= tan-i

1
log(5
.2x 2
or
V5
4
or
-V31
4 x4
4-
16J5 + 4x 4
=
Therefore
+ 3)
3)
3
dx
44-x)dx
x) ax _ /r x ax
+ 4x4 ~J 54-4x4
f(x*
and
we have
J
But
and 4 are often of value in dealing with
54-4x*
11 (2)
(4
c.
Separating the integrand into two fractions,
and using
d(4x
V31
in Exs. 3
31
4-
3)
V31
functions involving ax 2
**
V5
2
+ C,
a- 2
+ 4x4 )- J-ctn-i-l-fC.
V5
22
15. Closely resembling formulas (1) and (2) of the last article
form of the integrand are the following two formulas
in the
J
To derive
2
a2
du
-= 7^1og u
and
u2
(1)
we
a sec
2;
2 a
Vtr
= a tan
Then
+ tan
+
<>
the formula of
and
sec*<f>d<f>,
(by
<)
= log (u + Vw + a
is
(2)
J/
-kg
*fat
<f>.
= log (sec
log
+u
= C sec
du
But
log&
a
or
*u + a
Therefore
<.
2 a
place
(1)
log
(9),
1 3)
a.
and may accordingly be omitted from

integration. If retained, it would affect the con
a constant,
stant of integration only.
Formula (2) is derived by means
of the fact that the fraction
be separated into two fractions, the denominators of which

a and u + a i.e.
are respectively u
may
if
Then
r
|
du
u
a\u
r,
a"
rf
==-.(/2 a
J \u a
l / r du
a
2 a \J u
= 5-
2 a
lo S
[Qff
(53)
u+
+ a/
r du
J
)
-\du
+ a/
LOGARITHMIC FUNCTIONS
The second form
of (2) is derived
by noting that
/du = J au =
C-
du
-
The two
u
u
u
u
= log
and hence
log
b
and log(
log(a
u).
by a constant,
results differ only
-u
u
for
-f-
*u +
1)
23
+ log
a constant complex quantity which can be ex
1) is
pressed in terms of i
170).
/: 3x 2 + 4x
To
avoid fractions
we
multiply both numerator and denominator by
-g
Then
V3 x 2 +
Letting 3 x
M,
= ^/3jfa_ =
Vo x 2 + 12 x V(3x +
V.
^<fa
4x
we have du =
dx
3x + 4x
2
2)
-4
3 dx, and
r
1
3dx
fJ
/iJ
V3 V(3x + 2) 2 -
= ^log(3x +
+ V(3a
V3
Ex.
2.
Find the value of
_-*L_.
/*
Multiplying the numerator and the denominator by
J 2x 2 +
x-15~
=
This
may
_ log
be reduced to
11
and the term
(4
Iog
(4 x
1-
2x ~
2x +
I)
we have
-(11)2
+ !)_
Z_J
8,
+ C,
11
f-
c.
log 2, being independent of x,

only affect the value of the constant of integration.
~5
+3
2a;
or
11
Iog
may
11
log 2
be omitted, as
it
+ C,
will
24
If in
the formulas for the differentiation of

1
1
sinh"
we
replace
u by
>
^,
and
^,
cosh"
tanh"
(I,
161)
they become
ct
d
dx
u
-
and
Sinn"
du
dx
tanli"
,u
-
ax
dx
The corresponding formulas
of integration are evidently
du
= smlr
,
cosh
r du =
J d if a
v<
and
"
i
1
-*
_,u
:
tanh
.,"
These forms of the integrals are often of advantage in problems

where the resulting equation has to be solved for the value of u in
terms
By
of the other quantities in the equation.
formulas
(2),
14,
and
(2) of this article
-+lx +
/dx
-
ax2
value of any integral of the form
we
can find the value
We
can also find the
UL
-^
ax +bx +
2
/P
as
shown
in Ex.
3.
(x)
dx
ax?+lx
+c
where P(x)
is
is
polynomial, can always be found, since by division the integrand
mentioned.
form
of
the
a
fraction
a
to
just
polynomial plus
equal
INTEGKALS OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS

Ex.3. Find the value
3x
x2
If 2
Now
15
may
of
M, du = (4x + 1) dx.
be written as f (4 x +
+ \3
1)
_3 / (4x + l)ds
~4 J 2x2 +x-15
The
of the
first
is
integral
form solved
f Iog(2x
and
in Ex. 2,
Hence the complete
25
+ x -15),
is
log
44
12
by
-f
13
4
(2),
cte
J 2x2
+ x-
and the
last integral is
is
integral
Find the value of
Ex.4.
+4x
3x2
The value of this integral may be made to depend upon that of Ex. 1 in the
same way that the solution of Ex. 3 was made to depend upon the solution of
Ex. 2. For let 3 x 2 + 4 x = u then du = (6x + 4) dx.
;
Now 2 +
a;
Therefore
Gx +
== =
4)
V3 x 2 +
4x
J-.
v8 x 2 +
4x
4x)-*[(6z
+ 4)dx] +
J>x
The
I
V3x 2 + 4x, by 12 (1),

+ Vox + 12 x), by Ex. 1. Hence
first integral
11
cr(3
is
y f-
and the second integral

the complete integral
is
is
3V3
-
3V3
log (3 x
+ V9 x2 +
16. Integrals of exponential functions.
e"du
12 x)
C.
The formulas
= eu
(1)
and
J
are derived immediately
entiation.
The
proof
<("du
au
lS
from the corresponding formulas of
is left
to the student.
(2)
differ
26

17. Collected formulas.
+l
J
flii.
(2)
cos
udu =
sin
u du
sec
csc
sec
u tan w
esc
sin u,
(3)
cos u,
^ du
= tan w,
rfw
ctn
(4)
(5)
ctn u,
(6)
= sec u,
rfw
w ew
(7)
esc u,
(8)
/w
tan
^6
c?^
= log sec u,
(9)
ctn
u du
= log sin u,
(10)
sec
= log (sec u + tan M) = log tan
u du
esc
udu = log (esc %

^
= log tan
ctn u)
>
1
cos- -.
or
^
2
+%
9
2
= -tan~
ctn
tfM
osc
= 1nafa + V^T^
=
a
ng
(7/
+ v/
9
?/
(12)
_i^
71
i
cx
(15)
a
/}/
Vit + a
/flni
(11)
(14)
->
or
-1
ttVt**
V^
/dU
- or
= -1 sec _-,u-
/du
2
(13)
^sin"
y.
ffl
or sinh- -,
a
or
11^
cosh"
->
(16)
/1 rrv
(17)
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
u
^f^^^Ta
/du
^
u
2^
= e*
27
1
r
~a
tanh
,u
a
,.,
ox
(1)
(19)
fc*d<u,
Ca u du =
18. Integration
integral
forms.
it is
-au
substitution.
by
necessary to reduce it to
(20)
In order to evaluate a given

one of the foregoing standard
very important method by which this may be done is

that of the substitution of a new variable. In fact, the work thus
far
has been of this nature, in that by inspection
some function
In
many
of
cases
x as
we have taken
u.
where the substitution
is
not so obvious as in the
previous examples,
possible by the proper choice of a
variable to reduce the integral to a known form. The choice
of the new variable depends largely upon the skill and the experi
is
it
still
new
ence of the worker, and no rules can be given to cover
all cases.
systematic discussion of some types of desirable substitution will

be taken up in later chapters, but we shall in this chapter work a
few
illustrative examples.
2 flr
/i*2x
Let 2 x
z2
Then x
(z
1(1
Replacing z by
its
value in terms of x,
2(?X
Jf
Ex.2.
V2x +
^+
Find the value of
=
Then, after substitution,
z
dz
Substituting these val
z dz.
a2
+C
9z)
we have
3 (x 2
2x
+ 6) +
C.
"
dx.
,
z dz,
_ 2z 3 +
25
and
dx
x dx
we have
r(
/z^^=J
and dx
3)
we have
ues in the original integral,
trr*)
dz
=*+
a.
2
log
zdz
*~
ft2
z-a a
+
^Ta
28
its
Replacing z by
/Vx
Ex.
value in terms of
a2
Let x
sin- 1 -
and
1 a2
sin 2 z
1 sin 2
(z
x2
a cos
a 2 f (1
cos 2 z) dz
Va2
a cos z dz and
=
But
2 sin z cos z
z)
by
Let x
substitution,
a sec
a sec z tan z dz, and
a5 Ttan 2 z sec 4 zdz
a5
a 2 dx
tan z
whence tan z
x2
a tan
Therefore
r
I
But tan
z.
(x
Then dx
- dx
whence
so that,
by
z dz
sin z
and
r
C.
(2
a2
substitution,
3 x2 )
C.
Vx 2 +
cos z dz
so that,
a2
x
a2
a sec z.
sin z
(7.
dx
a2 ) 3
a2
sec z
Vx 2 +
2
cZz
a 2 )i
a2
(x
1 tan 5
z)
a tan z.
a2
sec 2
r dz
a2 ) 2
(x
C.
a2
tan 4 z) sec 2 z
= TL V(x 2 -
a 2 dx
/dx+
Let x
Vx 2
2
(tan z
3
a2 sin-i a
sec z
f x 3 Vx 2 - a 2 dx.
of
Then dx
z.
Therefore fx3 Vx 2
But
x2
Find the value
x2
we have
C Va 2 - x 2 dx
4.
Va 2
a2
Ex.
z.
0.
a
Finally,
f Va 2 - x 2 dx.
of
f Va 2 - x 2 dx = a 2 f cos 2 z dz =
Therefore
a2
9:
Then dx
a sin z.
Vx2 +
/^
1-
Find the value
3.
we have
x,
x2
by
substitution,
we have
INTEGRATION BY SUBSTITUTION
Ex.
29
Find the value of f -
6.
V6x2
and
Therefore
But
(2
1)
V6x 2 + 8x +
dz
r
J Vz 2 + 6 z + 6
~_
dx,
=_
log (2
=-
log-
r
^
+ Vz +
2
6z
dz
V(z
5)
+ 3) 2 + C.
an d hence
2x +
log (2
-f
+ Vz 2 +
Gz
5)
+4 +
2x +
log
3a
2+V5x
3x +
+ l)V5x + 8x +
2
log 2 having been
-log 2.
2
2x +
dx
(2x
8x + 3
made
+V5x +
2
8x +
a part of the constant of integration.
refer freely to these examples as possibly

desirable in the solution of a new
substitution
of
a
type
suggesting
the
From
them
following hints for substitution in similar
problem.
The student should
cases
may
be deduced
as in Ex. 1.
In integrals involving ~Va 4- bx try a + bx =
2
2
2
2
In integrals involving Var + a try either x + a = z as in Ex.
2",
or
= a tan z,
as in Ex.
In integrals involving
In integrals involving
In integrals of the
as in Ex. 6.
2,
5.
Va
V#
x2 try #
a try
a;
= a sin
= a sec
0,
as in Ex.
z,
as in Ex. 4.
3.
form
not to be supposed that the above substitutions are desir

able in all cases. For instance, in Ex. 2 the substitution x = a tan z
It is
does not simplify the integral
2
2
but the substitution x -f a =
is
rare that the substitution of a single
of advantage,
though
letter for the
square root of a quadratic polynomial leads to any
simplification.
it
is
30
19. Integration
by
Another method
parts.
importance in
type is that of inte
derived from the formula
of
known
the reduction of a given integral to a

gration ly parts, the formula for which
is
for the differential of a product,
d (uv)
From
this
= u dv
=
|
is
v du.
formula we derive directly that
uv
which
-f-
u dv
^ du,
usually written in the form
u dv
= uv
v du.
|
is evidently to make the orig

evaluation
of a simpler integral.
the
depend upon
In the use of this formula the aim

inal integration
Ex.
If
1.
we
Find the value of Cxex dx.

let
u and
e x dx
we have du
we have
dx and
dv,
Substituting in our formula,
jxe
x dx
xex
ex .
iex dx
xex
ex
+C
It is evident that in selecting the expression for dv it is desirable, if possible,
to choose
Ex.
2.
an expression that
is
easily integrated.
/r
Find the value of
sin- 1 xdx.
Here we may
let
sin-ix
u and dx =
we have
dv,
whence du
Substituting in our formula,
sm~ l xdx = x sin- 1 x
the last integral being evaluated
Ex.
3.
Find the value of
/I
Since cos 2 x
(1
x cos 2 x dx
by
x sin-ix
12
V1
and
x2
xdx
+ Vl -
x2
+ C,
(1).
xcos 2 xcZx.
cos2x), we have
2
r
I
(x
x cos 2 x) dx
x2
1
(-
/*
|
t/
x cos 2 x dx.
= x.
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
Letting x
u and cos 2 x dx
we have du = dx and
//
du,
x cos 2 x dx
- sin 2 x
- sin 2 x
-f
fx
cos2 x dx
=
Sometimes an integral
tion
by
Ex.
4.
C.
- cos 2 x
)
4
/
2 x sin 2 x
+C
cos 2 x)
C.
be evaluated by successive integra
may
Find the value of Cx 2 e x dx.

will let
x2
=u
e x dx
and
Then du
dv.
Cx 2 ex dx = x2 ex
Therefore
The integral
so that finally
x^dx may
Cx 2 ex dx
6.
- cos 2 x
4
\2
|(2 x
dx
parts.
Here we
Ex.
sin 2 x
+ -(- sin 2 x +
2
^ sin 2 x.
/*
/
.*.
31
2 x dx
and
ex
Cxex dx.
be evaluated by integration by parts (see Ex.
= x2^
Find the value of
+C=
x
1) e
2 (x
e x (x 2
2x
2)
1),
C.
eF* sin 6x dx.

|
Letting sin bx
u and
eax
dx
we have
dv,
/&* sin 6x dx = a e
-
ax
In the integral
je
cos6xdx we
/&**
cos bx dx
Substituting this value above,
Co
J
Now
* sin bx
-e
1 H
a2 / J
cos&x
- e?* cos 6x
a
sin bx
u and
T
e"
dx
sin bx
dx
du,
and have
fe^ sin 6x dx.
- eax cos bx
member
a Jfe
e x sin
"(
ax sin bx
dx)
/
of the equation. all the terms con
we have
e"*
a J
a\a
C ** sin 6x dx -
let
le** cos 6x dx.
a J
we have
bringing to the left-hand
taining the integral,
whence
dx
* sin 6x
bx
e"*
cos
a2
- 6 cos te)
+ &2
in te
a2
fox,
32
6.
The
result is
it is
Ce^ cos bx dx.
Find the value of
Ex.
eax
+ bsmbx
acosbx
62
exactly like that of Ex.
5.
Ex.7.
Find the value
Vx 2 +
Placing
)
,
a2
a2
the
work being
(x
= u and dx =
du,
whence du
a?
J\
Vx2 +
in
Evaluating this last integral and substituting
Vx 2 +
f Vx 2 + a 2 dx
whence
x,
we have
a2
may
be written as
a2
(1)
a2
dx
Vx2 +
f Vz 2 + a?dx -
which equals
a2 dx
Vx2 +
/x
and
Vx 2 +
a2 the second integral of
f Vx2
J
a2 )
the student, an.
f Vx 2 + a 2 dx.
of
J
Since x2
left to
a2
[x
- f Vx 2 +
Vx 2 +
a2
(1),
a2 dx
a2
we have
a2 log (x
+ Vx2 +
a 2 log (x
+ Vx 2 +
a2 ) ]
a2 ),
20. Possibility of integration. In this chapter we have learned

how to express the integrals of certain types of functions in terms
elementary functions, and the discussion of

in Chaps. VI and VII.
gration will be continued
of the
methods of inte
But it should
not always possible to express the integral

For
of elementary functions in terms of elementary functions.
be noted
example
now
that
it is
=
V1-^1-&V
f-
cannot be so expressed; in
fact,
kind.
this integral defines a function of x of an entirely new
func
certain
of
Accordingly when it is said that the integration
tions is not possible,
it is
meant that the
integration
is
not possible
which are in
only the elementary functions,
In this
fact the functions generally used in applied mathematics.
from differentiation, which can
differs
for
one
who knows
respect integration
radically
functions. This fact is not

always be performed upon elementary
to what takes place in
surprising, since it is closely analogous
PROBLEMS
33
connection with other operations which are the inverse of each

other. For example, the addition of positive numbers can always
be expressed in terms of positive numbers, but the inverse opera

is made always possible only by the introduc
tion of subtraction
numbers
tion of negative
is
also the involution of rational
always possible, but evolution
irrational
numbers
always possible only after
is
numbers are introduced.

PROBLEMS
Find the values of the following integrals
2.
4.
IZ-UL^rfx.
51
O
-
-f-
*Ls
^-dx.
19
20.
x2 dx.
Jf(x-l)
/^lT^ dx
22.
.
x*dx
J x +
11.
C
J
v
I~L
24
?L.
25
-/X
r.
C
f~
I
f\
23.
I
(I
x2 ) 3
C 3a
J (2 + 3x2 ) 2
21
J
9.
Xdx
C
J
7.
mxdx
/sn
a + &COSX
+ ^ dx
Vo + 4x +
a + bx
a
U,
~T b
*2
dx.
t
X
e
+
C
*Je2x + tan2x
-/^KifcT
"
13.
14
-.
f/
-1 X
,u.
26.
(1+ x^tan-ix
1
x
C 1 + cos *
J (x + sinx) 3
27
Jf
^
^
(tan-ix-1)^
(tan
r
J
(fa.
34
28.
32.
b)*0*xdx.
,
-x
r
J
33
<**
-^7=5
Vx
S7=
Vx 4
34.
31
35.
VxM^)
4
36.
(ax
6)
J"[sin
37.
6)
a2 ) x dx
J
.
W.
tan 3 (x 2
ft
a 52
f (sec x
41.
-f
43.
sec x
x dx
49.
cos
sec x) 2 dx.
50.
J
51.
52.
smx
45.
2
x
Jf(tan
sin 2
(sec 2 x
53.
x dx.
ctn 2 x)dx.
tan 2 x
mx
ctn x
esc x
"/ cos e
sin e
d0
sec
J sec0
sin
rji!i
x
dx.
tan x
cos nx dx.
sin (ox
(tan
b)
2x +
(m
cos (a x
n).
ri).
dx.
i-
tan0
dd
sin
60.
1
cos x
ctn 2x) 2 dx.
x2
tan x2 ) 2 sec x 2 x dx.
cos 2 (1
2 x) dx.
^f(sec
54.
J
1) (sec
2x
tan 2 x
cosx
1) dx.
dx
56
i/
Tcos x
>
.sinmxsinrixdx, (m
2xdx.
44.
tan3x)
/>
Cos2xdx
J|sin
55.
6) dx.
42.
cos (ax
f (sec3x
46.
sec x 2
tan x
6)
2)
4-
sec x 2 tan x 2
47
sin 2 (ax
r sec2 (z
on
6)] sin (ax
f
./
ctnbx)cscbxdx.
j*(cscbx
38.
cos 4 (ax
Jsin3xcosxdx.
sin2xy
35
36
dx.
Vl -
2x
x2
141
f^T~
PROBLEMS
x
159.
f
J
x2
a2
176.
37
ftan-iaxcfx.
X5dx
.
Vx 2 + a2
38

178.
flog(x
+ Vx 2 +
a 2 )dx.
186.
sin
ax ax.
J"x
179.
fxsinaxdx.
187.
J (log ax)
180.
f sec- 1 ax dx.
188.
J(x log ax)
181.
Cxsec~ l axdx.
189.
Cxsm z axdx.
182.
fxtan-iaxdx.
190.
Te 2;r cos 2 xdx.
183.
Cx 2 e nx dx.
191.
fe^sin 2xsinxcZx.
184.
f(x
192.
Te 3;c sm3xcosxdx.
185.
Tx2 cosaxdx.
193.
fX
l)
ea; dx.
sin-
ax.
2 d*x.
az dx.
CHAPTER
III
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
We
have said in
3 that there are two impor
tant problems in the use of infinitesimals, the one
involving the
limit of a quotient, the other the limit of a sum.
have also
21. Definition.
We
4 that the derivative of a function is the limit of the

of
two infinitesimal increments, so that the limit of a
quotient
quo
tient is fundamental in the differential calculus and its
applications.
noted in
sum which has fundamental
Similarly, there exists a limit of a
connection with the subject of integration.

definite integral
If f(x)
for
is
is
defined as follows
This limit
is
called a
a function of x which is continuous and one-valued

of x between x = a and x = b inclusive, then the
all values
definite integral
as
and
of f(x)dx between a and
I is defined as the limit,
increases indefinitely, of the

following
A
=A#
1)
w/iere
a and
and x v x2 x s
,
>,
sum of n
terms,
xn _^ are values of x between
such that
The sum
in the above definition
is
expressed concisely by the
notation
where
word
(sigma), the
Greek form
of the letter S, stands for the
and the whole expression indicates that the sum is

to be taken of all terms obtained from
/(#,.) A# by giving to i in
succession the values 0, 1, 2, 3,
- 1, where XQ = a.
., n
"
sum,"
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
40
denoted by the symbol
is
Also the definite integral
r
f(x)dx
Ja
I
f is
where
a modified form of
Hence the
S.
definition of the
be expressed symbolically by the equation
may
definite integral
i=
rb
= UmVf(x )kx.
f(x)dx
Ja
=*>
<=0
The numbers a and
*
the lower and the upper limit
b are called
definite integral.
respectively of the
of a definite
Ex. The conception of mechanical work gives an illustration
in moving a body against a constant
done
work
the
integral. By definition,
which the body
to the force multiplied by the distance through
force
is
equal
Suppose now that a body
moved.
is
is
from A(x = a)
against a force which is
not constant but a function of x and
line AB be divided into n equal intervals, each
the
Let
expressed by /(x).
= 7.)
fi
g- 3, n
n
(I
s
2
equal to Ax, by the points MI,
be /(a) Ax if
would
to
A
from
the
MI
in
done
work
body
the
moving
Then
the interval AMi. Conse
the force were constantly equal to /(a) throughout
done
is small, /(a) Ax is approximately equal to the work
quently, if the interval
and
2 is approxi
between A and MI. Similarly, the work done between MI
to
3 approximately equal
2 and
mately equal to f(xi) Ax, that between
so on. Hence the work done between A and B is approximately
2 Ax, and
JL
jf
4 j/
MI
Al<
moved along
to B(x
b)
M M
OX
(fig. 3)
-\>
/(x )
equal to
The
if
^ +f ^ ^ + f{^ Ax +
+f(Xn _ l ) Ax.
the better is this approximation.

larger the value of n,
and B,
represents the work done between
Hence we have,
i=n-\
W = Lim V
f(Xi)
Ax
= f
/(x) dx.
"ô
The use
of the
word
"
"
integral
and
of the
symbol
suggests a
connection with the integrals of the previous chapter. This con

25 for the present, it is to be empha
nection will be shown in
;
or
sized that the definition is independent of either differentiation
integration as previously
*
The student should
ferent from that in
known.
notice that the
which
it is
used
word
"
limit
when a variable
"
is
is here used in a sense quite dif

said to approach a limit (I, 53).
/U
b
f(x)dx,the integral
called the indefinite integral.
is
f(x)dx
The definition assumes that the
distinction to the definite integral
Iii
41
limit of
V/(# A# always
f)
exists.
be given here, but the student

from
the graphical representation
obvious
geometrically
rigorous proof of this will not
will find it
of the
next
article.
22. Graphical representation.
Let
LK
(fig.
4) be the
= a and OB = b.
f(x), and let OA
For convenience, we assume in the first place that a
that f(x) is positive for all values of x between a and b.
and lay
graph of
b
and
We
find
<
the
off
=MM =
equal lengths
MM
=*... =
3
n = 9.)
fig. 4,
(In
Let
,
the
OM = x
OM _ = x
l9
_r
Draw
AD
f(a),
ordinates
3/5 3/6 3/7 3/8
Draw
also
J^K 8
the
-,
= the
= the
/(#i) A#
=
the
f(x Aa?
/(a) A#
2)
(._!) Aaj
= the
FIG. 4
lines
P _^R
n
Then
OX.
parallel to
area of the rectangle ^
area of the rectangle

M_
H
P _ Rn B.
n
The sum
is
then the
sum
of the areas of these rectangles,
area of the polygon

the limit of this sum as
ADR^R,
n
is
_^Pn _
n B.
and equal
indefinitely increased
bounded by AD, AB, BC, and the arc DC.
to the
It is evident that
is
the area
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
42
Hence
Cf(x)dx
= the
area
ABCD.
Jo.
It is evident that the result is
length
The area
2
P2
not vitiated
if
AD
BC
or
is of
zero.
P3-M"3 ,
ABCD
etc.
is
exactly the
But one such
sum
of the areas
area, for
ADP^Mi, MiPiP 2 Ma
example lf1 PiP2 3f2
from
differs
that of the corresponding
JKi
MM
z
M<
M,
M, M,
B
"
MiPiR 2 M2 by
rectangle
the area
PiR 2 P2
the
of
which
figure
less
is
than that of the rectangle
Ax Ay, where Ay = J2 2 P2
The area of Pi# 2 P 2 is an
.
infinitesimal of higher order
than
MiPiR<zM2
PiR 2 P 2
MtPiRzMz
since
Ax Ay
Ay
yAx
whence Lin
Therefore
of
FIG. 5
the
such
affect the limit of the
If
f(x)
all
=
f(xj &x =
f(a) A#
not
values of x between a and

is
as in
fig. 5.
b(a<b),
Here
the area of the rectangle

the area of the rectangle
r*
so that
PiE 2 P2 do
in finding the area of the entire figure.
sum used
negative for
is
as
the areas
3)
triangular figures
Ja
f(x) dx
= - the
area
etc.,
ABCD.
In case f(x) is sometimes positive and sometimes negative

have a combination of the foregoing results, as follows
we
If
a<b,
the integral
Ja
f(x)dx represents
the algebraic
sum of
areas bounded ly the curve y =f(x), the axis of x, and the

ordinates x = a and x = b, the areas above the axis of x being
the
positive
and
those below negative.
GENERALIZATION
a
If
I,
>
A#
is
A# =
negative, since
43
b-a
The only change
necessary in the above statement, however, is in the algebraic

and those
signs, the areas above the axis of x being now negative
below
positive.
Ex. The work done in moving a body against a force may be represented
is the work in moving a body along
by an area. For if the force is f(x) and
the axis of x from x = a, to x = 6, then (Ex.,
21)
W=
f f(x)dx.
Consequently if the force is represented by the graph DEC (fig. 6), the equation
which is y = f(x), the area ABCED represents the work W.
This fact is taken advantage of in constructing an indicator diagram attached
of
to a
steam engine. Here
the
ordinate
pressure.
travels from
to
AB
represents the distance traversed

represents the
Then as the piston
the
to
curve
by the
piston,
and
and back
DECFD
is
automatically drawn. The

area
ABCED
represents the
work done by the steam on

the piston. The area ABCFD
represents the work done by
the piston on the steam. The
difference of these
which
is
two
FIG. 6
areas,
the area of the closed
represents the net work done by the steam in one stroke of the
In practice this area can be measured by an instrument, called a planimeter, or the figure is divided into rectangles and the area computed approxi
mately. The latter method illustrates the definition of the definite integral.
curve
DECFD,
piston.
23. Generalization.
In the definition of
21,
where
may
or,
x= a
and x
b.
The sum
accordingly be written
more compactly,
(1)
t=0
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
44
This
sum may
In the
be generalized in two ways

a mere matter of convenience to take the
:
first place, it is
x equal
increments xi+1
for all values of
x..
In fact the n
values x v x 2 xs ",xn _ l may be taken at pleasure between the

values x = a and x = b without altering the limit approached by
,
sum
the
provided
(1),
approach zero as
all
x are made to
the differences %i+1
increases without limit.
This
is
geometrically
obvious from the graphical representation, for the bases
V
... of the
rectangles of fig. 4 may be of unequal length.
3
2
MM
AM
D/
FIG. 7
In the second place, the factor f(x ) in each

sum (1) may be replaced by /(&), where
t
the
of the
is
terms
of
any value of
x between x and xi+r The effect on the graphical representa

tion of fig. 4 is to alter the altitudes of the rectangles without
i
in
altering the limit of their sum, as exemplified
be noted that the rectangles here
by
infinitesimals of higher order.
fig.
advanced
*
It
may
from those of fig. 4

Hence the sum theorem of
differ
3 applies.
For a rigorous discussion of these points the student
to
7.
is
referred
treatises.*
See, for example, Goursat-Hedrick, Mathematical Analysis, Chap. IV.
PBOPEBTIES OF DEFINITE INTEGRALS

The following
24. Properties of definite integrals.

definite integrals are
consequences
cf(x)dx
=c
Ja
i/a
2-
properties of
/&
s* b
1.
of the definition
45
fVi(*) +/>(*)]
f(x)dx,
<**
Ja
Jfa
f,(x)dx
+ f f (x)dx,
Ja
2
3.
C f(x)dx = - f f(x)dx,
Jb
Ja
4.
5.
f(x)dx =
Jfa
rb
I
Ja
f(x)dx
Jo,
+ f f(x)dx,
Jc
where
f(
The truth of formulas 1 and 2 follows at once from the defini

22. We shall
and that of formula 3 follows at once from
show the truth of formulas 4 and 5 graphically. A fully rigorous
tion,
FIG. 8
21 without the use of

proof could be based on the definition of
diagrams, but would follow the outlines of the following graphical
discussion.
To prove formula
Then
4,
C f(x)dx = t\iQ
consider
area
fig. 8,
where
ACFE, C f(x)dx =
Uc
*J a
OA = a,OC=
tliQ
c,
area
OB = b.
CBGF,
and
c
f(x)dx = the
Ja
I
area
ABGE. The
truth of formula 4
is
ap-
parent for any order of the points A, C, B, reference being had,

if
necessary, to formula
3.
DEFINITE INTEGKALS
46
To prove formula
.
sents the value of
5,
C
I
consider
f(x)dx and
t
Ja
fig. 9,
where the area
let
and
ABCD
repre-
M respectively be the
smallest and the largest value assumed by /(a;) in the interval AB.
with the base
and the altitude
Construct the rectangle
ABKH
AH= M. Its area is AB AH (b
tangle ABLN with the base AB
area is AB AN= (b
a) m.
AB
a)
M.
Construct also the rec
and the altitude
AN= m.
Its
CD
-X
FIG. 9
Now it is evident that the area ABCD is greater

ABLNsm& less than the area ABKH. That is,
a)m<
r
f(x)dx<(b
Ja
than the area
a)M*
Consequently
some quantity greater than m and less than M, and is

represented on fig. 9 by AS. But since f(x) is a continuous function,
there is at least one value f between a and b such that /( ) =
and therefore
where
//,
is
//,,
//(*)<**:
= (&-
c/a
ABCD
is equal to a rectangle
Graphically, this says that the area
whose base is
and whose altitude AS lies between
AB
ABTS
and AH.
.42V
*
and
slight modification is here necessary
rb
I
Ja
f(x)dx=
(b
a)k.
if f(x)
k,
a constant. Then
M= m = k
EVALUATION BY INTEGRATION
25. Evaluation of the definite integral
is
known
f(x)
the integral
limit b
by
47
integration.
When
function and a and b are constants, the value of
fully determined. Hence if we replace the upper

x, the definite integral is a function of x.
is
by a variable
Graphically
(fig.
and
constant,
UJa
OM = x,
^ (x =
)
Now we
f (x) dx = area, AMPC,
10),
rx
= the
f(x) dx
Ja
have shown in
109,
I,
a,
Let us place
a variable.
OA =
where
6,
area
AMPC.
that
A new
proof of this can be given

by use of the properties of 24, and
this proof has the advantage of being
really independent of the graphical
representation, although for conven
ience
we
Take
-A"
shall refer to the figure.
MN=
li.
FIG. 10
Then
$(x
+ h) =
f(x) dx
Ja
= the
area
ANQC,
s*x + h
whence
c/>
(x -f h)
(/>
(x)
f(x) dx
JX
= the
=
area
MNQP,
(by
()>
where x
<
<
Lim
;
=o
4,
24)
5,
24)
Therefore
h.
Taking now the limit as

T
(by 3 and
7t
approaches zero, and remembering that

.
^(a?)
and Lim f
a;,
we have
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
48
now F(x)
Let
Then F(x)
known
be any
from
differs
function whose derivative
by a constant
</>(#)
30), that
is
f(x).
is,
f*f(x)dx=F(x) + C.
*J a
To determine
C, place
r*
= a,
and notice that
Ja
= F(a) + C,
Then
whence
C=
f /(*) dx = F(x) - F(a)
Therefore
f(x) dx
= 0.
F(a).
*J a
C f(x) dx = F(b) - F(a).
whence
Ja
This result gives the following rule for evaluating a definite

integral
To find
x
and x
value of
the
=a
r
f(x)dx,
Ja
\
successively,
and
evaluate
c
I
f(x)dx, substitute
subtract the latter result
from
the
former.
It is to
be noticed that in evaluating
integration
ever,
if
to be omitted, since
is
the constant
[F(b)
In practice
b
bol [F(x)] a
Ex.
2.
it is
added,
it
is
F(a)
that constant.
Jo x 2
4-
=
1
x2
How
+ C] - \F(a) + C]= F(b)-F(a).

F(b)F(a) by
so that
Ex.3, f
of
disappears in the subtraction, since
convenient to express
f 2 sinxdx =
Ex.4, f
J-i
is
f(x)dx the constant
cosx]
dx
4 x +
2)]*
v?=
tan-i
V3 -
[2 log(x
[tan- x]
cos^ + cosO
= 1.
2 log 4
tan- 1 (-
1).
the
sym
49
CHANGE OF LIMITS
There
1
here a certain ambiguity, since tan-
is
Vs and tan-i(-
however, we remember that

number of distinct parts, or
If,
an infinite number
tan- J x is composed of an infinite
values of tan- 1
ambiguity is removed by taking the
of values.
/*
the same branch of the function. For
and
its final
if
tan- a, since the value of the integral

1
with a to
and tan-i(- 1) from

dx
- = tan- * b - tan- 1 a
= a, tan- 1 b must be taken equal to

then zero. As b varies from equality
tan- 1 a to the nearest value of
value, tan-ift will vary from
of tan- a, then
1
any value
select
have each
V3
^
we consider
if
1)
the graph of
branches, the
is
tan- 1 b.
The simplest way
1
1
choose the proper values of tan- b and tan- a
to
--
them both between
and
dx
f*
Jo
Va 2
The ambiguity
that sin- - must
1
x2
Then we have
r Vs
5.
dx
l
+#
_*_( _ ^\ _ I5
12
9
4/
= r s in-i-1 =8in-H-Bin-iQ.
a
L
-lo
in the values of sin-i

lie
to take
J-i
Ex.
is
J-
and sin-iQ
in the fourth or the
is
removed by noticing
quadrant, and that the two
first
other by continuous
values must be so chosen that one comes out of the
1
is to take both sin- ^ and
this
to
accomplish
change. The simplest way
7T
i-iQ between
7T
and
2
26.
dX
/*2
Then
Jo
Change
Cf(x)dx by
Va2
tion of a
from a to
it
substitution, the limits of
suppose that in
new
I, t
t,
^
convenient to evaluate
is
f(x)dx may be replaced
of the variable substituted.
f(x)dx the
variable
7T
"
In case
of limits.
by the corresponding values

this,
7T
=-
x2
variable
is
such that when x varies continuously

from t to t r Let the work of
varies continuously
x)
terms
of x.
is
see
replaced by a func
be indicated as follows
finding the indefinite integral
where F(x)
To
dx
=
C<f>
(t)
dt
obtained by replacing
<$>
(t)
in
= F(x),
4>(Q
Then
F(b)-F()=<t>(t l )-<t>(t ).
by
its
value in
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
50
But
F(b)
- F(a) =
f f(x) dx
*) a
and
4>(^-4>(g=
<l>(t)dt.
Jt
f f(x) dx = f
Hence
Ja
Ex.
Find
1.
Va2 -x 2 dx.
Jo
Place x
Then dx = a
a sin 0.
from
varies
to
dt.
(t)
Jt n
cos
and when x
cZ0,
from
varies
to a,
Hence
Jo
L 2
In making the substitution care should be taken that to each

value of x between a and b corresponds one and only one value of t
between t Q and t lt and conversely. Failure to do this may lead to
error.
7T
d0, which
cos
/5
_
by
direct integration
7T
-r~
Let us place cos0
= x, whence
= cos- 1 ^
depends upon the quadrant in which
is
and d0
2.
/7/j
Vi-x
We
found.
equal to
is
where the sign
cannot, therefore,
make
77
this substitution in
we may
write
2
/
cos0cZ0, since
two
lies in
cos
/g
_![
(i0
cos
d0
J_E
-f
cos
in the first of the integrals on the right-hand side of this equation place
cos- 1 ^,
d(f>
VI -
and
in the second
3.
Consider
dx and place x 2
J-i
Vl
x2
negative
/+!
f
J-i
dz=
f*
/>
dx+
J-i
Jo
dx
=-
/^
Ji
x2
"v/1
1;
tute without care

is
Then
t.
=
1, t = 1, and when x = 1,
would lead to error. But x =
and x = $ and dx = J*~*ctt when x
Then, when x
--
Vl-z2
x2
/+!
Ex.
0= cos- 1 ^, eZ0 =
x2
(Z0,
Jo
and
different quadrants; but
-?
jr*<tt+
Jo
t*
is
1
and the attempt to substi

and dx =
^t~*dt when
positive. Hence
.
ir*(tt=
J
Jo
INTEGRATION BY PARTS
27. Integration
and a and
by
desired to integrate
If it is
parts.
s*b
note that
this,
v du.
Ua
follows at once from the equation
it
s*b
(I
/b
Ex.
Find
1.
Take x
w,
(uv)
parts,
s*b
= \uv\
u dv
Ua
To prove
by
independent variable, then
b are values of the
51
u dv
\J a
s*b
+ v du] =
(u dv
-/
^ du.
Ua
xex dx.
Jo
ex dx
dv
then
xe x dx
Jo
\xe Y
e xdx
\e
Jo
x1
1.
Ex.
Discuss
2.
sin"xdx.
Jo
Take
sin"-
sinxdx
M,
dv; then
2
I
sin n xdx
cosx
Jo
sin n
~1
x]
(n
transposing
(n
1)
f
Jo
2
(sin- x
2
/
(n
1)
sin n x
dx
place n
2,
sin"-
Jo
x(Zx,
Jo
2
sin"
- 2 x dx.
(1)
Jo
we have
1
pdx = 2 .^.
2
psii^xdx- 2Jo
Jo
If, in (1),
we
place n
3,
we have
7T
2
/
7T
sin 3 xdx
we
place
4,
we have
C\ sin*xefx =
Jo
3Jo
Jo
If, in (1),
x cos2 xdx
7T
sin n xcZx
c/
we
/o
sin"x)dx.
7T
whence
sin"-
we have
n
If, in (1),
1)
=
By
7T
7T
7T
4Jo
sin 2 x(Zx
=
4-2
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
52
If, in (1),
we
place
5,
we have
4
2
T "sinozdzsi
4-2
6-3
Cl
Joo
is wa]
way, we find
Continuing in this
1-3-
f
Jo
(2
isi
1)
TT
2-4.6-..2A;
2-4-6. .-2ft
Jo
(2
It is possible to
28. Infinite limits.
where by
1)
have the upper limit
oc,
definition
f.
f(x) dx
= Lim
f(x) dx.
The integral, then, is represented by the area bounded by the

curve y =f(x), the axis of x, and the ordinate x = a, the figure
being unbounded at the right hand. There is no certainty that
.
such an area
is
either finite or determinate.
The
tests
by which
it
/~
may
be sometimes determined whether
Ja
will not be given.

definite integral
In
F(x)
case,
=
^|
however,
f(x)dx has a meaning

possible to find the in
it is
f(x)dx, the definite integral can be found

Iw
formula
the formula
by flip
Ja
where
EX.
F(ao)
r^ = [-
Jl
Ex .3.
FIG. 13
^=.85
1.
Ex.2.
= Lim F (b)
X2
i]
X_\l
=l.
r
I
Jo
(fig.
12)
oo
Binxdx=[
coex]
= indeterminate,
(fig.
13)
of the definite integral

Similarly, the lower limit, or both limits,
may
be
infinite.
INFINITE INTEGRAND
29.
53
f(x)dx should become

x
= a and x =
b.
It
between
however, possible to admit the case in which
is,
when x
=b
by means
Um C
C f(x)dx =
Ja
to
infinite
it is
Xt>
f(x) becomes infinite
and
21
According to the definition of
Infinite integrand.
of the definition
/(,*-)
+ oJa
dx,
compute the integral by the formula

.6
Ua
where F(b) means lim F(b
The
h).
integral has not, however, necessarily a
Graphically, the integral

the curve y =/(<), the axis of
value.
the ordinate x
tote
= a, and the
finite or
determinate
represented by the area between
is
x,
asymp
b.
Ex.2,
Jo
Jo
(fig.
15)
limits.
If it
becomes
-i
Similarly, f(x) may become in

finite at the lower limit or at both
FIG. 14
any value
infinite for
FIG. 15
between the
limits,
the integral should be separated into two inte

grals having c for the upper and the lower limit
respectively.
Ex.
3.
Failure to do this
becomes
X2
infinite
when x =
rate the integral into two, thus

-1
O
FIG. 10
lead to error.
/*
Consider
J-l
Since
may
dx
(fig. 16),
dx
we sepa
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
54
Had we
carelessly applied the incorrect formula
11+ 1
we should have been
led to the absurd result
The mean value
30.
of a function.
/
where f
is
meaw m/ê
called the
an extension
in fact
We
24 that
have seen in
r^ JCf^dx,
^
between a and
lies
2.
(*
(1)
The value
J.
of /(a;) in the interval
of the ordinary
from a
to
5.
This
of the average, or
is
mean,
meaning
-, y n -^ correspond
y Q) y lf y 2
to n values of x, which divide the interval from a to I into n equal
parts, each equal to Aa?. Then the average of these n values of y is
value of n measurements.
For
let
n
This fraction
is
equal to
As
7i
is
limit
indefinitely increased,
~\.
y dx
C
I
this expression approaches
as
jfix) dx.
Hence the mean value
of a
be considered as the average of an infinite number

of values of the function, taken at equal distances between a and b.
function
"
may
Find the mean velocity of a body falling from rest during the time t\.
is gt, where g is the acceleration due to gravity.
Hence the mean
Ex.
1.
The
velocity
velocity
is
"
c i
gtdt
Jo
|
^gt\.
This
is
half the final velocity.
In using the indicator diagram ( 22) engineers use the mean effect
ive pressure," which is defined as the constant pressure which will do the same
Ex.
"
2.
amount
work per stroke
as is done by the varying pressure shown by the

found by dividing the area of the diagram by b
a,
accordingly an example of the mean value of a function.
of
indicator diagram.
and
is
It is
THE MEAN VALUE OF A FUNCTION

Formula
Let us place if(x)dx
integral sign.
and
(1)
be written in another form, not involving the
may
(1)
55
= F(x)-,
then f(x)
=F
-F(a)l
b-a
or
.F(a)
= (b
d)F
(2)
(%).
(3)
LK
Formula
(fig.
For let
(2) has a simple graphical meaning.
17) be the graph of F(x) and let OA = a and OB=b. Then
b-a=AB,
F(b)
_JJ
now
is
- F(a) =BE-AD= CE,

()
=:
If
(x),
**
becomes
any value
DC
of x,
the corresponding point of
some point between

to the
chord DE.
- the
and
This
F (^)
LK.
and
slope of the chord

is
DE.
the slope of the tangent at
Hence (2) asserts that there is

for which the tangent is
parallel
is
evidently true if F(x) and

(x) are continuous.
Formula
(3)
may be used to
prove the proposition, which

we have previously used with
out
proof,
namely
If
the
derivative of a function is
always zero, the function is

a constant. For let F (x) be
always zero and let a and b be any two values of x. Then, by (3),
F(b)
F(a)=Q. That is, any two values of the function are
equal; in other words, the function is a constant.
From this it follows that two functions which have the same
derivative
[F(x)
differ
3>(x)]
31. Taylor s
special case of a
to obtain.
ly
= 0;
constant.
whence
For
F(x) =
3>
if
(x)
(x)
<&
(x),
then
+ C.
and Maclaurin s series. Formula (3),

30, is a
more general relation, which we will now proceed
Let us take the equation
t/ a
f"(x)dx
=/ (*)_
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
56
and integrate between a and

multiply both sides by dx,
have
x, x
s*x
(
\
n*
(*) fa
f (x)dx- f (a)dx
*J
J\a
a,
=f(x)-f(a)-(x-a)f
Therefore
But if m is the smallest and

a and x, then (24), when #
m (x-af
Fl*f
Hence
Ua
If
/"(a)
say
we
is
t/a
C"f"(x)d3t*.
t/a i/a
M the largest value

>
of
f"(x)
between
a,
^w
C*r*ut
2~
*
(a).
+ (x -)/ () + f
f(x) =f(a)
whence
We
Ja Ja
x.
^M(x-
~2
-/a
where
(x).datK-
<
/*
<
Jf
t/o
a continuous function, there
between a and
aj,
for
which
f"
is
at least
() =
/*
one value of
56).
(I,
x,
Therefore
have, finally,
/(x)
Again,
let
=/() + (x -
)/ ()
(!)
^2^/"(l^
c
us take
= r
/"
Ja
=/ () -/ ()-(* -)/"().
and
m*f
"(x)d3t?=
ff
Ja
(x)dx-
Cf (a)dx-
Ja
Clx-a)f"(a)dx
Ja
whence
+
where a
<
|2
<
^"
-/
"&>*
(2)
03.
The symbol [2 means 1 2, 3_ means 1

means the product of the n integers from 1
*
3,
to
and, in general, |n, read factorial n,

inclusive.
TAYLOK
Similarly,
where 7
being
tt
tliat
it
we
start
with
Ja
= -^
_
-
/ (n+1
^-
71 ~T~
the
The value
but
if
AND MACLAUKIN S SERIES
of
f (n+l) (x)dx, we
where a
obtain
a,
the only restrictions
derivatives of f(x) exist
and are continuous.
>
(f ),
<
<
-L
+\
in (3)
is
not
that, if
known
usually happens
0. Then the value
otf(x)
Lim7?n =
n= oo
by the
57
is
exactly, since f is unknown,

a sufficiently small quantity,
be expressed approximately
may
-f- 1 terms of
n and this approximation
(3), omitting
approaches f(x) as a limit as % is indefinitely increased. In this
case we say that f(x) is expanded into the infinite series
first
+
For larger values
value of
of
+~.
|^/
however,
it
may happen
increases without limit as
increases.
a,
(4)
that the
Hence the
omission of R n in (3) leaves n + 1 terms, the sum of which
differs more and more from
f(x) the more terms are taken.
n
In such a case the series
(4)
cannot be taken to represent the
function.
The determination
of the values of
a for which
(4) is valid
in general, a matter involving a

knowledge of mathematics which
lies outside the limits of this course.
In the illustrative examples
is,
and in the problems
for the student
we
shall simply state the facts
in each case without proof.

Formula (4) is known as Taylor s series.
Here a is a known
value of x for which
and
its
derivatives
are
known. The series
f(x)
then enables us to compute the value of
for
values of x not
f(x)
too remote from a.
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
58
Another convenient form of (4) is obtained by placing x

whence x = a -f- h. We have, then,
f(a
+ h) =/() + hf
(a)
Here the remainder

n
71
1
special
form
This
is
known
n+
as
By
ex
1.
(5)
+ */ (0) +
/"(0)
Maclaurin s
series,
We
0.
<
1.
have, then,
(0)
/"
<
-.
and the function
(6)
is
said to
x.
Maclaurin
and/(0)
when a
be expanded into a power series in

Ex.
where
\a +6h),
of (4) arises
/(*) =/(0)
= k,
usually expressed as
is
+ 1f
|/
!/"()
1,
s series (6),
(O)
1,
/"(O)
we
find, since /(x)
ex ,
(x)
ex ,
f"(x]
&,
etc.,
1, etc.,
This expansion is valid for all values of x. If we place x~= ^, we have

l +
J
T^ + y i-^ + T ? = 1.3956, correct to four decimal places. If x
has a larger value, more terms of the series must be taken in the computation,
e*
=1+
so that the series, while valid,
Ex.
2.
To
is
inconvenient for large- values of
x.
since.
By Maclaurin
which
is
s series,
valid for all values of
15, we
x.
change 15 to circular measure, which is T^^TT

= TL TT = .2618. Then the first two terms of the series give sin 15 = .2588, cor
rect to four decimal places.
By Taylor s series (5), we have
find sin
first
<r
sin (a
Ex.
3.
h)
sin
h cos a
cosx.
By Maclaurin
s series,
x2
x4
h2
7i
sin a
cos a
OPERATIONS WITH POWER SERIES

Ex.
4.
(a
z).
By Maclaurin
This
is
s series,
the binomial theorem.
polynomial of
a positive integer, the expansion is a

and all higher derivatives are equal
f<*+(x)
If
is
a negative integer or a fraction, the expansion

when x is numerically less than a.
But
if
is
series
which
is
valid
6.
terms, since
to 0.
Ex.
59
is
an
infinite
logx.
The function logx cannot be expanded by Maclaurin s series, since its

We may use Taylor s series (4),
derivatives are infinite when x = 0.
placing a
1.
We
have, then,
Or we may expand log(l
This expansion
is
valid
x)
by Maclaurin
when x
is
s series
numerically
less
with the result
than
1.
Operations with power series. When a function is expressed

power series, it may be integrated or differentiated by integrat
or
differentiating the series term by term. The new series will
ing
be valid for the same values of the variable for which the original
series is valid. If the method is applied to a definite integral, the
32.
as a
must be values for which the series is valid.

Similarly, if two functions are each expressed by a power
limits
their
sum, difference, product, or quotient
is
series,
the sum, the differ
ence, the product, or the quotient of the series.

Ex.
We
1.
Required
to
expand sin- 1 x.
have
=
sin-ix=
rx
|
Jo
dx
x
rx
-=
Vl
I
*^
x2
(l-x2 )~*dx
by Ex 4
"
2-4
2
1
x3
x5
2-4-
1.3.5
<
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
60
Ex.
To
2.
find
fV
Jo
The
Ex.
indefinite integral
Ex.
To expand
3.
e-* by
Then
31.
1,
We may expand
cannot be found directly.
x)
By
division,
By
successive differentiation,
(l
2 (1
Therefore
Ex.
(1
To expand
4.
=
X
J.
Ex.
By
by Ex.
log(l
5.
Ex.
4,
lo,
To expand
+ jc)- 2 = - 1 + 2x - 3x 2 + 4x 3 - 5x 4
+ x)- 3 = 2 - 6 x + 12 x 2 - 20 x 3 +
+ x)- 3 = 1 - 3x + 6 x 2 - 10x 3 +
1-x
x)
log(l
sin- 1 x
Vl-x
sm- l x = x
1,
(l-x 2 )-s=l +
31,
x)
!-;
^+
^+
2x 3
8x 5
-.
Hence, by multiplication,
sin-ix
33.
By means
given in
I,
of Taylor s
62, for the
function of one variable.
.,
/<*>()=
0,
f<
theorem we can complete the rule
maximum and
the
minimum
i.e.
\a)=
let
f (a) =
0.
0,
f"(a)
)-f( a )-
Then, by Taylor
31,
/(+
values of a
Let a be a value of x for which the
derivatives of f(x) are zero

n+l
but
.
16 x 7
fc-+i/<-+
+i
0,
first
=
"(a)
theorem
n
0,
(5),
PROBLEMS
If
is
sufficiently small, the
61
term
?!/
will be larger
i~ -L
-
<
contains h n+z as a factor.

numerically than R n + v since tlie latter
Hence the sign of f(a + h)f(a) depends upon the sign of
n
"
If
sign of
of h.
is
h.
n + 1 is odd, and the sign

Hence the sign of f (a + h)
even,
Therefore f(a)
neither a
is
of
+1
7*,
f (a)
maximum
changes with the

changes with that
nor a
minimum
value
of /(a).
If
7i
is
odd,
+1
is
even and h n+l
is
always
Hence the
positive.
the same as the sign of / (n+1) (a). There

sign oif(ali)f(a)
fore if / (n+1) (a)>0, f(a) is a minimum value of /(#); and if
(n+l
is a maximum value of/().
is
\a)<Q,f(a)
PROBLEMS
Find the values of the following
definite integrals
is.
Jo
(a
"
19.
f
t/
20.
x 2 )*
Va 2 -
x 2 dx.
tj
fVx
a2 o!x.
/a
21.
xsinxdx.
Jo
22.
f x2
Ji
logxa?x.
23.
24.
f x 2 sin-!xdx.
Jo
OK
<&u.
f x
r2 6
^-^^
tix.
I
Jo
DEFINITE INTEGRALS
62
7T
26. Prove
sin 6
0d0=
77
27. Prove
f x
sin
2
~
xdx = n C x n l
Jo
Jo
28 Show that f
Ji
Show
29
/(_
x)
31. If
/(-
x)
32. If /(a
Show
33.
f*
J a (6 -
that
30. if
x)
=/(x), show graphically that
graphically that
"/(sin
/2 (x), /8 (x)
x)dx
1.
>
1.
f /!(x)dx
<
f /2 ()dx
f(x)dx
/(x)dx
f(x)dx
"/(sin
<
</2 (x)
<
3 (x),
</
1.
0.
f(x)dx.
Jf
j^
*/(*)*
x) dx.
are three functions such that, for
& inclusive, /i(x)
Ja
mean
>
has a definite value when, and only when, k
-/(x), show graphically that
<
if
=/(&), show graphically that Jf
x)
35. Find the
cos x dx,
has a definite value when, and only when, k
6, and /i(x),
values of x between a and
34. If a
sin 4 0d0.
Jo
Jo
all
prove
f /8 (a;)dx.
f*
value of the lengths of the perpendiculars from a diameter
of a semicircle to the circumference.
mean value
36. Find the
and x
37.
s
a sin
half the
is
of the ordinates of the curve y
42.
43.
sinx between
motion defined by the formula

particle describes simple harmonic
Show that the mean kinetic energy during a complete vibration is
kt.
maximum
kinetic energy.
Obtain the following expansions.

valid are given in each case.)
40.
TT.
=!+
, ,og
(The values of x for which the expansion
PROBLEMS
44. sinhz
45. cosho;
=l+
+
|2
46.
Compute
12
15
63
(-
---.
<
oc)
(-co<x<oo)
the value of tanh ^ to four decimal places.
48. Assuming sin 60
V3 =
what error would be made in assuming
.8660, cos 60
^, find sin 61
places.
Verify the following expansions
<
[6
[4
47. Given log 2 = 0.693, log 3 = 1.099,

- 0.693)?
log 24 = log 2 +
(1.099
r \ x a-l ^
Jool + x b
I
co
12
11
___
+ 26
+ 36
to four decimal
CHAPTER IV
34.
Element
chapter
shall give certain practical applications of the definite

Here we return in every case to the summation idea of
we
integral.
21.
In this and the subsequent
of a definite integral.
The general method
proposed
to analyze
is
it
of
handling one of the various problems
into the limit of the
sum
of
an
infinite
the form f(x)dx. The expression

number
is called the
concrete
the
as
well
object it represents,
f(x)dx, as
element of the sum.
infinitesimals
of
35.
of
of a plane curve in Cartesian coordinates.
Area
It
has
that the area bounded by the axis of x,

already been shown ( 22)
=
x = b (a<b), and a portion of the
a
and
x
lines
the straight
the axis of x is given by the defi
above
lies
which
curve
y=f(x)
nite integral
/*>
Ua
\
It has also
= b may
ydx.
be replaced by
bounding lines x = a or
which the curve cuts OX.
of the
been noted that either
Here the element
(1)
a point in
y dx represents the area
of integration
of a rec
dx and the altitude y.

tangle with the base
bounded by the axis of y, the straight lines
area
the
Similarly,
and a portion of the curve x =f(y) lying
c and
y
d(c<d),
to the right of the axis of y
is
given by the integral
*xdy
(2)
where the element x dy represents a rectangle with base x and

altitude dy.
Areas bounded in other ways than these are frequently found
by expressing the required area
as the
areas of the above type.

64
sum
or the difference of
AREA OF A PLANE CURVE

2
X2
Ex.
1.
Find the area of the
It is evident
required area
if
A"
is
is
1.
from the symmetry of the curve (fig. 18) that one fourth of the
bounded by the axis of y, the axis of x, and the curve. Hence,
the total area of the ellipse,
,.-1
in-i _
a Jo
Ex.
?/
ellipse
65
2.
= ^06.
Find the area bounded by the

= Ipx, and the
axis of x, the parabola y 2

straight line y
The
2x-4j>
tersect at
(fig. 19).-- ,
..
F IG
shows that the required area
figure
CBD. Hence,
if
is
18
OX at B(2,p, 0).
straight line intersects
The
and the parabola in

the point C(p, 2p), and the
straight line
the
is
sum
two areas
of
OCD
and
and x
the required area,
- 2x)dx
FIG. 19
Ex.
3.
Find the area inclosed by the curve
Solving the equation for
?/,
showing that the curve

It is clear
from the
~
ACFDB =
(fig.
(y
20) lies
V4 -
A CEDE =
.
y<zdx,
where
x2
x-,
between the straight
figure that the area
/_2
3)
we have
y\
+ v4
x 2 and
lines x
2.
s>2
y^dx and the area
J
2/0
v4
x2
66
Therefore,
K= JC
if
is
the required area
C y z dx= C
yidx
(y\
CEDFC,
y*)fa
\/4
x 2 dx
"
=F
-x + 4 sin-i -T
2
2J-
= 4?r.
X&
2/
d# by
its
value f(x) taken from the equation of the curve. More generally,
if the equation of the curve is in the parametric form, we
replace
both x and y by their values in terms of the independent parameter.
This is a substitution of a new variable, as explained in

the limits must be correspondingly changed.
Ex.
4.
Let the equations of the

x
ellipse
a cos
</>,
Then
the area
ft
JOO
Similarly,
if
ydx =
/^
b sin 0.
4\
and
be
K of Ex. 1 may be computed as follows
K=4l
26,
4ab
JQ
1/7T
the equation of the curve is, in polar coordinates,

is one of the above forms, we
may place
=f(0) and the area sought
and obtain thus a para

metric representation of
the curve.
In case the axes of

reference are oblique, the
method
area
FIG. 21
of
is
finding
easily
as follows
the
modified,
Let the axes

let
OX and OY
us find the area bounded
and the ordinates x

of the
sum
=a
and
intersect at the angle
(fig. 21)
axis
of
the
x,
by the curve y =/(#),
and x
of the areas
<w,
= b.
The area
is
evidently the limit

whose sides are
of the parallelograms
AKEA OF A PLANE CURVE

parallel to
OX
and OY. The area of one such paraUelogram

Hence the required area is
?/Asina).
sm
c
ft>
Ua
I
Area
36.
the pole,
67
of
OM
(3)
Let
a plane curve in polar coordinates.
the initial line of a
OA and OB two
respectively,
y dx.
and
any curve
system
for
(fig.
22) be
of polar coordinates (r, 0),
which 6
fixed radii vectors for
AB
is
a and 6
which the equation
is
= /3
r =/(#).
Required the area AOB.

The required area may be divided into
n smaller
by dividing the angle
areas
AOB=j3a Q
into
which equals lines
OP OP OP
1}
Z)
equaj. parts,
= A0,
= A0.
(In the figure

required area is the
each of
and drawing the
OPn _^ where
n
8.)
sum
of
The
the
areas of these elementary areas for

all values of n. The areas of these
FIG. 22
small figures, however, are no easier

to find exactly than the given area, but
mately by describing from
-PR.
we may
find
them approxi
as a center the circular arcs
AR
lt
Let
Then, by geometry,
the area of the sector
AOR = J r A0,
PÔR = J r* A0,
Pn _ OE =
The sum
is
as
of these areas,
J-
r^^
namely
an approximation to the required area, and the limit of this sum
is
indefinitely increased is the required area.
68
To show
this
we need
J0LR
to
show that the
area of each of the cir
from the corresponding elementary

area (7^0P4)by an infinitesimal of higher order than either. For
inter
that purpose draw from P an arc of a circle with center
cular sectors
secting
OP
3
(e.g.
in S.
area
4)
differs
Then
P OE^
3
<
area
P OP
area
P OP^
area
<
80%,
area
area
But area
P OR= \ r A0 and
2
area
SOP= \rl^Q = \ (r + Ar)

3
(r + Ar)- = /
= ^^
1 H
area>SO^
Therefore
Ar\
A0.
r.
Now
as
A0 and
increases without limit,
approach zero as a
Hence Lim
limit.
consequently
area
to
^p
= 1,
Ar
and there-
OR differs from the area 3 OP^ by an infini

Z
order
than either ( 2), and therefore the limit
tesimal of higher
OE i+l equals the limit of the sum of
of the sum of such areas as
such areas as J?0JJ*+1 as n is increased indefinitely ( 3). But the
Hence the
area
P
t
latter limit is the area
AOB,
since
= the
i
for all values of n.
the area
area
AOB
=Q
Hence,
finally,
AOB = Lim &rf&0 =

n
"
=*>
=o
J-
C r*d6 =
/
C
J*
[f(0)] d0.
The student should compare this discussion with that of I, 189.

The above result is unchanged if the point A coincides with 0,
but in that case OA must be tangent to the curve. So also B may
coincide with 0.
VOLUME OF A SOLID OF REVOLUTION

Ex. Find the area of one loop of the curve r
The required area
is
a sin 3
(I,
69
177).
given by the equation

2
K= a2- Jof 7
To
integrate, place
36
0;
then
K=
Volume
37.
its
/72
/>
f
OJo
si
12
l>y
the revolution
The simplest case
plane.
TT
of a solid of revolution.
a solid generated
in
gi
is
^4 sofoW of revolution is
a
of plane figure about an axis
that in which the plane figure is
bounded by the axis of revolution, two straight lines at right angles

to the axis, and a curve which does not cut the axis. Such a solid
is bounded
by two parallel plane bases which are circles and by
a surface of revolution generated by the
revolving curve. Each
point of this curve generates a circle whose center is in the axis
of revolution and whose plane is
parallel to the bases and perpen
dicular to the axis. Consequently, if planes are passed
perpendicular
to the axis, they will divide the solid into smaller solids with
par
allel circular bases.
shall proceed to find an approximate
We
expression for the
KL
Let
volume
one of these smaller
of
solids.
23) be the revolving curve, the equation of which

is x
the axis of revolution,
the line y
=f(y),
c, and
the line y
the
volume
d(c
d).
Eequired
generated by the revo
(fig.
OY
lution of the figure
CKLD.
each of which equals
parts,
CK
DL
<
CD
Divide the line

-
= Ay,
into
by the points
n equal
N N
2,
lt
N ,-. .,jru ^ where ON, = y v ON, = y v ON = yv ÔN _, = y _ r

Pass planes through the points N N N
N _ perpen
-
lt
dicular to OY.
They
2,
3,
lt
will intersect the surface of revolution in
with the radii x v xv

x2 = 2 PZ
--, xn _ lf where x l =
xz = z p^
xn-i = -^n -!-?-! The areas of these sections, begin
ning with the base of the solid, are therefore TTX^ TTX?, TTX^
.,
^-i* where XQ = CK.
circles
NJ>,
"
>
We
The solid is now cut into n slices of altitude Ay.

may consider
the volume of each as
to
of
that
a
approximately equal
cylinder with
70
its
base coincident with the base of the slice and its altitude equal
The sum of the volumes of the n cylinders is
to that of the slice.
and the limit of this sum as n is indefinitely increased is, by defi

revolution.
nition, the volume of the solid of
and in accordance with
reasonable
be
to
is
seen
This definition
Whatever the definifollows.
as
volume
of
the common conception
r
I
IS
FIG. 23
of the
evident that the volume of a solid
it is
tion of volume,
volumes
and the volume
of its parts,
is
the
sum
of a solid inclosing
solid inclosed.
greater than that of the
be the volume of the slice
Let then vol.
4 4 3 (for example)
S
another
is
N N PP
NN
of the plane figure

4
3
generated by the revolution
and S S parallel to OY. Then evidently
the lines
and draw
PR
vol.
N N SE
9
>
vol.
N^N.PR
>
vol.
vol.
or
>
vol.
But
and
N N SP
vol.
N N,SP
vol.
vol.
N N PR = 7rN lf N N = irx^y =
-
TT
(x s
+ Aa?)*Ay.
VOLUME OF A SOLID OF REVOLUTION

= Lim (#, + kxf = 1,
N^N.P.R
Lim -_-_**
vol.
Hence
71
vol.
and consequently
Lim
^.
vol.
48
= 1.
vol.
Therefore the volume of the slice differs from that of the

cylinder
by an infinitesimal of higher order than that of either (2), and
therefore the limit of the
same
as that of the
Hence,
sum
sum
of the volumes of the slices is the

volumes of the cylinders ( 3).
of the
finally,
vol.
CKLD = Lim ir^xf^y = TT
x*dy.
It is evident that the result is not invalidated

lies
if
(1)
either
or
on OY.
Similarly, the volume generated by revolving about OX a figure

bounded by OX, two straight lines x = a and x =
b(a
I), and
curve
not
OX
is
any
crossing
<
TT
f
Ja
fdx.
(2)
To evaluate either of these integrals it is of course

necessary
express x in terms of y, or y in terms of x, or both x and y
terms of a new variable, from the equation of the curve.
The volume of a solid generated by a plane
figure of other
to
in
shape
than that just handled
may
often be found by taking the
sum
or
the difference of two such volumes as

the foregoing.
Ex. Find the volume of the ring solid
gen
erated by revolving a circle of radius a about an
axis in its plane 6 units from the center
(b
a).
>
Take the axis of revolution as OF (fig. 24)

and a line through the center as OX. Then the
2
2
2
equation of the circle is (x
b) + y = a
The volume required is the difference between the volume generated
by
CLEKD and that generated by CLFKD. But the volume generated by
CLEKD is 7r
where xi = b + vV2 - y*, and the volume generated
j_ X\dy
.
by
CLFKD
is TT
C* xfdy where
z2
- Va2 -
y\
72
Therefore the required volume
is
TT
C x$dy = v
P x fdy-TT J-*
J~
C"
J-a
38.
Volume
of
(x*
-xftdy
a solid with parallel bases.
Fig.
25 represents a
OY
is drawn perpen
line
solid with parallel bases. The straight
where
at
a, and
A,
y
dicular to the bases, cutting the lower base
be
x
of
I.
any line
may
base at 7?, where y
(The axis
the upper
but it
perpendicular to OY,
not shown in the figure and
is
is
not needed in the discussion.)

Let the line AB be divided into
to
parts each equal
= Ay,
let planes be passed through

each point of division parallel to
the bases of the solid. Let A Q
be the area of the lower base
and
the
of
solid,
A^ the area
of the
first section parallel to the base,

A the area of the second sec
2
An _
being the
area of the section next below
tion,
the
and
so on,
upper
base.
Then
^4
Ay
of a cyl
represents the volume
inder with base equal to A Q and
volume of a cylinder
represents the
altitude equal to Ay,
as a base and extending to the section
standing on the next section
next above, and so forth. It is clear that
A^y
4, Ay
is
an approximation to the volume
of this
That
sum
as
+ ^ n _iAy
+ ^ Ay + 4, Ay +
of
the
solid,
is the
indefinitely increases
this is rigorously true
Ua
volume
of the solid.
be shown by a discussion similar

That is, the required volume is
may
to that of the previous article.
and that the limit
Ady.
VOLUME OF A SOLID WITH PARALLEL BASES

To
73
find the value of this integral it is necessary to express

in
or
both
and
in
terms
of
some
other
y,
y
independent
terms of
This
variable.
for eacli solid.
is
a problem of geometry which must be solved

solids of revolution are special cases.
It is clear
The
that the previous discussion is valid if the upper base reduces to a

point, i.e. if the solid simply touches a plane parallel to its base.
Similarly, both bases may reduce to points.
Ex. 1. Two ellipses with equal major axes are placed with their equal axes
coinciding and their planes perpendicular. A variable ellipse moves so that its
center is on the common axis of the given ellipses, the plane of the moving
ellipse
being perpendicular to those of the given
ellipses.
Required the volume
of the solid generated.
FIG. 26
Let the given ellipses be ABA B (fig. 26) with semiaxes OA = a and OB =
6,
ACA C with semiaxes OA = a and 0(7 = c, and let the common axis be
OX. Let
be one position of the moving ellipse with the center P
where OP = x. Then if A is the area of
and
NMN M
NMN M
=
But from the
and from the
ellipse
ellipse
ABA B
TT
PM-PN.
+
7-2
PN
~~c?~
-j
be
PM.PN=(a -x
Therefore
Consequently the required volume
is
7T&C
-a a2
The
solid
is
called an ellipsoid
(by
b2
a2
A CA C
86, Ex. 5).
2
).
35,
Ex.
1)
Ex.
2.
The axes
of
two equal right circular cylinders intersect at right
common
Required the volume
angles.
to the cylinders.
OA
OB
be the axes
and
Let
(fig. 27)
their common per
of the cylinders,
pendicular at their point of intersection
0, and a the radius of the base of each
OF
cylinder.
Then
the
figure
represents
one eighth of the required volume V.

A plane passed perpendicular to OF
intersects
at a distance 0^
y from
the solid in a square, of which one side
NP = VoP - ON =
2
is
a2
2
.
Therefore
and
b
39.
The prismoidal formula. The formula
F=
r
-4% leads to
Ja
I
a simple and important result in those cases in which A can be

not greater than 3. Let
expressed as a polynomial in y of degree
us place
A=
and take 0, for convenience, in the lower base

if h is the altitude of the solid,
= p
J
If
now we
of the
place
The formula
for
+a
a 8 ) dy
V then
for the area of the section
becomes
V = -(B6
This
is
known
Then
for the area of the lower base, I for the area
and
we have
base,
upper
tween the bases,
(a Q y*
of the solid.
as the prismoidal formula.
midway be
LENGTH OF A PLANE CURVE

To show
its applicability to
a given solid,
75
we need only to show

may be expressed as
cases are when A is a
that the area of a cross section of the solid
The most important and frequent

quadratic polynomial in y. In this way the student may show
that the formula applies to frustra of pyramids, prisms, wedges,
above.
cones, cylinders, spheres, or solids of revolution in which the gen

erating curve is a portion of a conic with one axis parallel to the
and also to the complete solids just named.

The formula takes its name, however, from its applicability to
the solid called the prismoid, which we define as a solid having
for its two ends dissimilar plane polygons with the same number
of sides and the corresponding sides parallel, and for its lateral
axis of revolution,
faces trapezoids.*
is applicable to a more general solid,
faces are plane polygons lying in parallel planes and
faces are triangles with their vertices in the vertices
Furthermore, the formula
two of whose
whose lateral
of these polygons.
Finally, if the number of sides of the polygons of the last

defined solid is allowed to increase without limit, the solid goes
over into a solid whose bases are plane curves in parallel planes
and whose curved surface is generated by a straight line which
touches each of the base curves.

applies (see
91, Ex.
The formula
To such a
solid the
formula also
5).
extensively used by
in
engineers
computing earthworks.
is
40. Length of a plane curve in rec
tangular coordinates. To find the length

of any curve AB (fig. 28), assume n
l
%_ lt between A and B
and connect each pair of consecutive
points by a straight line. The length
points, JJ, 7J,
of
AB
is
then defined as the limit of the
n chords APly
limit and the length
P^ P
the
2 P^>
of
.,
J^^B
as
FIG. 28
sum
n
is
of the lengths of
increased without
each chord approaches zero as a limit
104).
(I,
*
ih:it
The
definition of the prismoid is variously given by different authors.

solid most closely with the prism.
which connects the
We
adopt
76
Let the coordinates of J? be

y^ + Ay).
Then the length
y ) and those of J?+1 be (x.+ Aa;,

chord 7^+1 is V(Aa;) 2 + (A?/) 2 and
(x.,
of the
the length of AB is the limit of the sum of the lengths of the n

chords as n increases indefinitely. But V(A) 2 + (Ay) 2 is an infini
tesimal which differs
from the infinitesimal Vcta? -f dy* by an

For
infinitesimal of higher order.
Lim
Now
if a; is
>l
the independent variable,
Lim

_
Hence Lim
-7-
= 1.
=1
^x
dx (4);
length of the curve, we may replace V(A^)

Therefore if s is the length of AB, we have
not
Also Lim ~--=.-j-.
(4).
Therefore
if a; is
3),
+ (Ay)
in
finding
the
2
1
by ^/dx + dy
(1)
where (J) and (5) denote the values of the independent variable
for the points A and B respectively.
If x is the independent variable, and the abscissas of A and B
are a and b respectively, (1) becomes
d
= \c \^ + /y\ dx
\dx/
Ja N
(
v
If
are c
y is the independent variable, and the values

and d respectively, (1) becomes
of
y at
2)
and
-jR
If a? and y are expressed in terms of an independent parameter t,
and the values of t for A and B respectively are t and t lt (I) be
comes
/
\ 2
TTTi
,>/
LENGTH OF A PLANE CURVE

Ex.
point
Find the length of the parabola y 2
1.
= 4px
77
from the vertex
to the
(A, k).
Formula
(2)
gives
Formula
(3) gives
----- dx.
c
Jo
vy
|
2p Jo
Either integral leads to the result
Ex.
Find the length of an
2.
ellipse.
x2
If the
equation of the ellipse
end of the minor
where
then
axis,
7/
\-
1,
and we measure the arc from the
we have
1
-s=
4
,
--
is
ra
I
Jo
- && ^
dx.
- x2
-\
a2
the eccentricity of the ellipse.
a f
Vl-
e2 sin 2
Let us place x
asin</>;
d0.
t/O
The
We
(
indefinite integral
Vl
therefore expand
31,
Ex. 4)
Vl-
thus
e2
cannot be found in terms of elementary functions.

into a series by the binomial theorem
e2 sin 2
sin 2
--
-i
0= 1-
-<
-e 2 sin 2
This series converges for
all
values of 0, since e 2 sin 2
-e* f sin 2 0d0e4

2 Jo
2-4 Jo
f\\n*<t>d<t>
The length
of the ellipse
may now
<
--i^-e6
2-4-6
then
1;
f sm60d0 ---- \
Jo
be computed to any required degree of
accuracy.
41. Length of a plane curve in polar coordinates.

8
= r
The formula
(/?)
-Jdof+dy*
J(A)
of
40 may be transferred to polar coordinates by placing
= r cos 6,
= r sin 6.
= cos 6 dr r sin 6 dd,

dy = sin 6 dr -f r cos dO
dx
Then
and
Therefore
=/
(1)
J(A)
If 6 is
are a
the independent variable, and the values of 6 for
and
/3
respectively, (1)
ft
=1
If r is the
are
a and
NT
it
The
follows
/dr
(2)
independent variable, and the values of r for

becomes
differential of arc.
and
and
b respectively, (1)
1 -f
42.
becomes
9) that
ds
(r
dr.
dr
(3)
From
(1)
This relation between the differentials of x y, and s is often rep

resented by the triangle of fig. 29. This figure is convenient as a
t
device for memorizing formula

should be borne in mind that
RQ
rigorously equal to dy
nor
rigorously equal to
ds.
In
5),
(1),
fact,
but
is
it
not
PQ
RQ = Ay
is
and PQ = As, but since Ay and As differ

from dy and ds respectively by infinitesi
mals of higher order, the use of RQ as
dy and of PQ as ds is justified by the
now
29
used as a plane
right triangle, we have an easy method of recalling the formulas
theorems
of
3.
dx
If
= cos
</>,
as
the triangle of
fig.
is
AREA OF A SURFACE OF REVOLUTION

Similarly, from
we
79
=
u
ds=^dr +r2 d02

2
find
(2)
PQ
is the arc
where
suggested by the triangle of fig. 30,
This
OP=r.
radius
with
circle
a
of
arc
the
and
curve
of any
formulas
the
also
a
as
used
gives
straight-line figure,
figure, if
which
is
PR
tan
^=
dr
rdO
>
cos
dr
.
sin
Y = as
= rdd
ds
43.
tion.
Area of a surface
of revolu
surface of revolution
is
FIG. 30
by the revolution
a plane curve around an axis in
surface generated
of
AB
revolve about
(fig. 31)
surface
of the
generated, assume
curve
OY
its
plane
To
as an axis.
Let the
37).
find the area
-, P
n _^
P^
consecutive
of
each
connect
and
points by
between A and B,
pair
since
the
in
omitted
are
lines
they
figure
a straight line. These
are so nearly coincident with the arcs. The surface generated by
AB
is
1 points, J^,
2,
then defined as the limit of the
sum
of the areas of the surfaces generated
by
Pn _ B
as
the
n
of
n chords
AP
lt
J?JJ,
PP
2
increases without limit
and the length
each chord approaches zero as a limit.
Each chord generates the
lateral sur
face of a frustum of a right circular cone,
the area of which
be found by ele
Let the coordinates
may
mentary geometry.
be (x it y ) and those of Jf+l be (x + A#, y + Ay). Then the
has for the radius of the
frustum of the cone generated by
i+l
lower base N^, and for
of
the
the
radius
for
base
upper
i+l lf +l)
is
therefore
area
lateral
Its
J-P
slant
its
equal to
height
i+r
of Pi
%P
1^PP
But
=x
80
Therefore the lateral area of the frustum of the cone equals
This
an infinitesimal which
is
from
differs
= 2 Trx.ds
by an infinitesimal of higher order, and therefore the area gener
ated by A B is the limit of the sum of an infinite number of these
terms. Hence, if we represent the required area by S we have
y
,
/(
xds.
(1)
J(A)
To evaluate the
x, or express x
we must
integral,
and ds in terms
either express ds in terms of
of y, or express both
terms of some other independent variable.

Similarly, the area generated by revolving
AB
x and ds in
about
OX is
yds.
(2)
XCB)
.
[>
Ex. Find the area of the ring surface of the Ex.,
The equation
of the generating curve

(x
6)
2
z/
a2
and
ds
The required area is

24). Hence
= Jl + (^} dy =
V
/
the
sum
37.
is
dy.
2
of the areas generated
LFK (fig.
Sy
27T
ra
va(xi +
CL
a;*)
-v//-2
_ 1/2
dy
fa
4 irab
by the arcs
dii
y
= 4 7T2 a6.
I
"
->Jri^.
LEK &nd
0/2
PROBLEMS
1
2.
Find the area bounded by the axis of x and the parabola x 2 - 16 x + 4 y = 0.

Find the area included between a parabola and the tangents at the ends
of the latus rectum.
as axes
3.
is
x*
Find the
y*
a*
(The equation of the parabola referred to these tangents

(I,
total area
69).)
bounded by the witch y
= ~72
^~2
and
its
asymptote
PROBLEMS
81
n
-\
a
Find the area bounded by the catenary y - (e 4- e
=
h.
lines
x
the
2 4 = a 2& 2 x 2
4 2
5. Find the total area of the curve a y + &
Find the area of a segment of a

from the center.
8.
Find the area contained
9.
in the loop of the curve
10.
Find the area bounded by the curve y
11.
Show
that the area bounded
a cut
circle of radius
(x
2
)
by the hyperbola
and the diameter through PI (Xi, y t ) on the curve
y2
a x2 and
Find the area bounded by the tractrix y

the axis of x, and the axis of y.
its
1,
x).
asymptotes.
the axis of x,
+
-^j.
= - log --
-y
y-|2
J"2
^ 2-z
i
2
>
Find the area between the axis of x and one arch of the cycloid
- sin0), y = a (I -
13.
cos<).
a(<f>
the areas of each of the two portions into which the circle
14. Find
X2
log f
*y
12.
= X 2 (a -
^ ^
is
by a chord h
off
+a 2 62 = a 2 y 2 and its asymptotes.

2
2
- ), the axis of
2
y(x + a = a (a
7. Find the area bounded by the curve

and the axis of y.
units
and
2 2
Find the area bounded by the curve x i/
6.
x,
the axis of x,
j,
4.
15.
is
divided
2
by the parabola y
2x
Find the area bounded by the parabola x
3x-2y
=
-
0.
4y
and the straight
line
- 4=0.
16. Find the area of the figure
bounded by the parabolas
2
17. Find the area between the parabola x
18. Find the total area of the lemniscate
y*
18 x
and
8o3
= 4 ay and the witch y =
4 a8
ga
r2 = 2 a2 cos 2 6.
,
19. In the hyperbolic spiral r6 = a show that the area bounded by the spiral
radii vectors is proportional to the difference of the length of the radii.
and two
20. Find the area traversed

r
ad in the
21
first
by the radius vector
Find the area described by the radius vector of
23. Find the area of the Iima5on r
25.
26.
27.
Archimedes
r=asec<9
+ cos0).
+ 6 when b a.
Find the area bounded by the curves r = a cos 30 and r =
Find the area of a loop of the curve r2 = a2 cos nO.
Find the area of a loop of the curve r = a sin n0.
Find the area of a loop of the curve r cos0 = a cos 20.
22. Find the total area of the cardioid r
24.
of the spiral of
revolution.
a(l
a cos0
>
a.
from
82
by
28. Find the area of the loop of the curve r2

the initial line.
29. Find the total area of the curve (x 2
2 2
a2 cos 2
cos
4 a 2x 2
?/
which
4 6 2 ?/ 2
is
bisected
(Transform
to polar coordinates.)
2
30. Find the area of the loop of the curve
(x
2 3
)
4 a-x 2 y 2
(Transform
to polar coordinates.)
31. Find the volume generated by revolving about OY the surface bounded
by the coordinate axes and the curve x* + yl = ai
32. Find the volume of the solid generated by
revolving about OF the plane
surface bounded by OF and the hypocycloid x* + y$
a*.
33. Find the volume of the solid formed
bounded by the catenary y
(e
e~
34. Find the volume of the solid
bounded by the witch y
figure
),
x2
and the
bounded by the
cissoid
2
?/
2a -
line
4 a2

figure
OF
formed by revolving about
--
OX the
by revolving about
the plane
OX the
and the axis
a,
h.
by revolving about
the line x
figure
the axis of x, and the lines x
36. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about

of the circle x2 + y 2 = a2 cut off by the chord x = h.
plane
of x
OF a segment
37. Find the volume of the solid generated by

revolving a semicircle of
radius a around an axis parallel to the boundary diameter of the
semicircle,
(1) when the arc of the semicircle is concave toward the axis; (2) when the
arc is convex toward the axis.
major
by revolving an
ellipse
39. Find the volume of the ring surface formed
a2
=
62
around OY(d
>
face bounded
by the hyperbola
by revolving the
^L
by revolving about
and the
line
62
a2
bounded by the hyperbola
a2
=
62
the lines y
1,

the figure bounded by the curve y
y=
ellipse
= sin x,
h.
the lines
sur
OF the
sur
and the axis of
by revolving about the

x=
OX the
h.
line
its
a).
40. Find the volume of the solid generated
face
around
axis.
line
and x = -
y.
and the
a.
43. Find the volume generated by revolving about the axis of x the
figure
bounded by the parabola y 2 = 4 px and the line x = h.
44. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about OF the
bounded by the parabola y 2 = 4_px, the axis of y, and the line y=h.
figure
PROBLEMS
83
a
45. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about the line x
1
by that line, the parabola y = 4 px, and the lines y =
the figure bounded

the figure bounded by the parabola y 2
47.
A right circular cone has
its
"by
h.
revolving about the line x

the line x = h(a
h).
= Ipx and
>
Find the
vertex at the center of the sphere.
volume of the portion of the sphere intercepted by the cone.

48.
A steel band is placed around a cylindrical boiler. A cross
section of the
axes being 6 and Vc in. respectively, the greater being

parallel to the axis of the boiler. The diameter of the boiler is 48 in. What is
band
the
is
a semiellipse,
volume
of the
its
band
49. Find the volume of the solid generated

a(l + cos0) about the initial line.
by revolving the cardioid

bounded by the axes of coordinates and the tractrix.
51. Prove
by the method
of
OY the
figure
38 that the volume of a cone with any base
is
equal to the product of one third the altitude by the area of the base.
52. Prove that the volume of a right conoid is equal to one half the product
and its altitude. (A conoid is a surface generated by a moving straight
line which remains parallel to a fixed plane and intersects a fixed straight line.
of its base
moving line is perpendicular to the fixed line, the conoid is a right conoid.
The base is then the section made by a plane parallel to the fixed line, and the
altitude is the distance of the fixed line from the plane of the base.)
If the
53.
On
the double ordinate of the ellipse
x2
2
y
-
\-
a2
ft
=1
an
isosceles triangle is
constructed with its altitude equal to the length of the ordinate. Find the volume
generated as the triangle moves along the axis of the ellipse from vertex to vertex.
54. Find the volume cut
the center of the base
from a right circular cylinder by a plane through

making an angle with the plane of the base.
55. Find the volume of the wedge-shaped solid cut from a right circular
cylinder by two planes which pass through a diameter of the upper base and
are tangent to the lower base.
56. Two circular cylinders with the same altitude have the upper base in
common. Their other bases are tangent at the point where the perpendicular
from the center of the upper base meets the plane of the lower bases. Find
the volume common to the cylinders.
57.
Two
parabolas have a
An
common vertex and
common
axis but
lie
in per
moves with its center on the common axis, its

plane perpendicular to the axis, and its vertices on the parabolas. Find the
volume generated when the ellipse has moved to a distance h from the com
pendicular planes.
mon
ellipse
vertex of the parabolas.
58.
cylinder passes through great circles of a sphere which are at right
angles to each other. Find the common volume.
84
59.
variable circle moves so that one point
y2
x2
always on the
ellipse
\-
1,
and
its
always on
is
OY
its
center
is
always perpendicular to OY.
is
plane
a2
b2
Required the volume of the solid generated.
60. Two equal four-cusped hypocycloids are placed with their planes per
pendicular and the straight line joining two opposite cusps of one in coinci
dence with a similar line in the other. A variable square moves with its plane
perpendicular to this line and
its
vertices in the
two curves.
Find the volume
of the solid generated.
61.
Two
equal ellipses are placed with their major axes in coincidence and
their planes perpendicular.

straight line moves so as always to intersect the
ellipses and to be parallel to a plane perpendicular to their common axis. Find
the volume inclosed
by the surface generated.

moves so that one side has one end in OY and the
a?.
The ratio of the other side of the rectangle to
the one mentioned is - and the plane of the rectangle is perpendicular to OF.
variable rectangle
other in the circle x 2 + y2 =
62.
Required the volume of the solid generated.

63. The cap of a stone post is a solid of which every horizontal cross section
a square. The corners of all the squares lie in a spherical surface of radius
8 in. with its center 4 in. above the plane of the base. Find the volume of the cap.
is
64. Find the length of the semicubical parabola y 2

the point for which x = h.
65. Find the length of the curve y
log
x 3 from the vertex to
from x
ex
1 to
66. Find the total length of the four-cusped hypocycloid x 5

67. Find the length of the catenary from x
68. Find the length of the tractrix y
= htox =
a.
69. Find the entire length of the curve
Find the length of the curve
71.
Find the length from cusp
a(l
72.
2
y"
y*
= at.
h.
- Va 2 -
x2
\b,
2 p) 3
(x
to cusp of
from x
the cycloid x
= 2p
=
to
a(0
h.
sin0),
cos0).
Find the length of the epicycloid from cusp
From a
If the
thread
by
end
its
2.
~
a
Find the length of the involute of a

= to = 0i.
a sin
a0 cos from
74.
f-V + (-\*=1.
73.
to
log
(aj
70.
is
to cusp.
circle
a cos
spool of thread 2 in. in diameter three turns are
held constantly tight, what
is
+ a0
sin 0,
unwound.
the length of the path described
The cable
of a suspension bridge hangs in the form of a parabola. The

lowest point of the cable is 50 ft. above the water, and the points of suspension
are 100 ft. above the water and 1000 ft. apart. Find the length of the cable.
75.
PROBLEMS
is
85
76. Show that the length of the logarithmic spiral between any two points
proportional to the difference of the radii vectors of the points.
f\
Find the length of the curve r
77.
curve intersects the
a cos 4 - from the point in which the
initial line to the pole.
f\
Find the complete length of the curve r
78.
a sin 8 -.
3
Find the length of the cardioid r = a (I + cos0).

80. Find the area of a zone of a sphere bounded by the intersections of the
sphere with two parallel planes at distances î and h from the center.
79.
81. Find the area of the curved surface formed by revolving about
= 4 px between x = and x = h.
OX the
2
portion of the parabola y
82. Find the area of the curved surface of the catenoid formed
OX the portion of the catenary y =
about
(e"
83. Find the area of the surface formed
u.
.
,
a
u,
log
2
a
84
x2
fr
+ Va
- - v a2 2
- Va - x 2
-f *
i*
+e
between x
by revolving about
by revolving
h and x
OY the
h.
tractrix
x2 .
Find the area of the surface formed by revolving about
OY the hypocycloid
by revolving an arch of the cycloid

sin0), y = a (I
a(0
cos0) about OX.
86. Find the surface area of the oblate spheroid formed by revolving an
ellipse about its minor axis.
87. Find the surface area of the prolate spheroid formed

ellipse
around
major
its
by revolving about the
initial line
Find the area of the surface formed by revolving about the
initial line
the cardioid r
89.
by revolving an
axis.
the lemniscate r 2
(I
cos 6).
2 a 2 cos 2
0.
CHAPTEE V
44. Work. The application of the definite integral to determine
the work done in moving a body in a straight line against a force
21. Problems for the
in the same direction has been shown in
student will be found at the end of this chapter.

The case of a body moving in a curve, or acted on by forces not
in the direction of the motion, is treated in Chap. XIV.
Two
45. Attraction.
by
respectively, separated
(YY)
force equal to
particles of matter of masses
a distance
r,
of
it
mass
and
wyi
Jc
where k
>
a constant which depends upon
is
We
the units of force, distance, and mass.

units are so chosen that k = 1.
Let
attract each other with a
assume that the
shall
now
be required to find the attraction of a material body

upon a particle of unit mass situated at a point A. Let
the body be divided into n elements, the mass of each of which may
be represented by Am, and let J? be a point at which the mass of
one element
may
be considered as concentrated.
tion of this element
and
its
on the particle
at
component in the direction
of
is
OX
Then the
attrac
where r
= P A,
>
is
cos
it
where
the angle between the directions JF*A and OX. The whole
body, therefore, exerts upon the particle at A an attraction whose
6[
is
component in the direction
Lim
7i
If
now
cos 6[., r
.,
and
independent variable,
-.-
Lim
W=C
= co
OX is
V
i=\
Am may
we
equal to
-*
Am.
be expressed in terms of a single
have, for this
V ^ Am =
J
\
COS
tr=l
C7.
80
component,
v^-v/o v
COS0
7
am,
5
ATTRACTION
87
where the limits
of integration are the values of the independent

variable so chosen that the summation extends over the entire
The manner
body.
which
in
this
may
be done in some cases
is
illustrated in the following example.
Find the attraction of a uniform wire of length I and mass

on a par
unit mass situated in a straight line perpendicular to one end of the wire
and at a distance a from it.
Ex.
ticle of
Let the wire OL (fig. 32) be placed in the axis of y with

one end at the origin, and let the particle of unit mass
be at A on the axis of x where A
Divide OL into
a.
parts, 03fi, 3fi3f2 , 3f2 3f3
Ay.
Then,
if
3fn _ i i, each equal to
mass per unit
p is the
3/4
of length of the wire, the mass of each

element is pAy
A?M.
shall consider
We
//.
the mass of each element as concentrated at
its
this
obtain
way
first
and
point,
shall
an approximate ex-
pression for the attraction due to the

element, this approximation being the
better, the smaller
is
Ay.
The
,-
in
is
OX, and
attraction of the element 3/ -3/,- + i on

l
then approximately
The component
of this attraction in the direction
and the component
Y is
in the direction
m
sin
rMir =
(JAM
i
(a
Then,
the total
if
is
component of the attraction

OF, we have
i=n-l
Ây
2
verify this
parallel to
parallel to
y
To
the total
component
OX is
we may show
2 3
2/
ô(
that the true attraction of
MiM
+l
differs
from
the approximate attraction, which we have

used, by an infinitesimal of higher
order. Let I be the true x-component of the attraction of
7X the approx
{ Mi + 1
imate attraction found by assuming that the whole mass of
31,-3/i
.V,.
1 is at
88
and J2 the approximate attraction found by assuming that the whole mass of
I /i; that is, -2
1.
But
is at Jfi + i.
Then, evidently, I2
<
<
Ay
pato
,
(a
Lim
and Lim
^= [
and
Ay )2] |
Vi
1.
Hence
La2
Jj
Ii differs
<
<
4"
(Vi
from I by an
*1
*t
J
+ Ay )2]!
Therefore
infinitesimal of higher
order ( 2), and may therefore be used in place of I in finding the limit of a
sum (3). A similar discussion may be given for the y-component.
To evaluate the integrals for X and F, place y = a tan 6. Then, if
a = tan- x - = OAL.
a
cos
a Jo
i
T=-aP
since
Zp
If
is
dd
ra
sin0d0
Jo
I
- sin
a
cos a)
-(1
av
or,
wi
makes with OX,
46. Pressure.
in a liquid at a
tan- !
F=
tan- 1
cos
sin
is
&A
the angle
which
its
- a.
2
Consider a plane surface of area A^4 immersed

The
of h units below the surface.
of liquid of
(a
volume h&A,
constant for a given

This weight
of the liquid.
surface.
The pressure per
then
independent of the
is
/3
uniform depth
submerged surface supports a column

the weight of which is wh&A, where
liquid) is the weight of a unit volume
is the total pressure on the immersed
unit of area
cos a),
:(!
ar
the magnitude of the resultant attraction and
/3
think of
sin
m.
line of action
which
at
as infinitesimal
size of
AA We
and define
may
accordingly
wli as the pressure at a
point h units below the surface. By the laws of hydrostatics

this pressure is exerted equally in all directions.
may accord
We
ingly determine the pressure on plane surfaces which do not lie

parallel to the surface of the liquid in the following manner.
Let
be in the surface of the liquid, and OH, for which
(fig. 33)
OX
the positive direction is downward, be the axis of li. Consider a

surface
bounded by a portion of OH, two horizontal
ABCD
PRESSURE
AD (h = a)
lines
x=f(h).
_l
parallel
ment
to
I?J?+ l
tangle with base

line
between
and
is
= AA,
now
MM
M^M^
-,
S,
the ele
M + v where M^ = x
i
equal to that of a rec
MM
i+l
and
some
altitude
M P and M
i+l l*+1 (5,
AMV
and
each point
Consider
Its area is
and a curve with the equation
n segments,
into
M^ through
OX.
of area
=/(/*,).
AB
each equal to
draw a Hue
= b),
and BC(h
Divide
89
therefore equal to (xt
24),
+ ej AA, where
c
Ax. The pressure on the element
would be wh (x + e.) AA, if all points of
FIG. 33
=h
the element were at the depth
and would be w(k -\- Ah)(x -j-eÂA, if all points were at the
depth
Consequently, the pressure on
J^Jf+1 i} 1 is
plus an infinitesimal of higher order. Therefore the total
pressure P on the area ABCD is
<
t,
=n-l
P = Lim Y
==
The modification
s*b
s*b
âjrfA
=w
7if(h)dh.
*/a
of this result
necessary to adapt
of slightly different
shapes is easily
to areas
it
made by the student and
is
exemplified in the following example.

Ex. Find the
total pressure
on a verti
cal circular area, a being the radius of

the circle and 6 the depth of the center.
In
34 let OC =6, CA = CK = a,
OM = h, MN = Ah. Then OA = b - a,
OB = b + a, LK=2 MK= 2 â?-(h - &)
fig.
and the pressure on the strip LKIG is

2wh\/a 2 -(h -6) 2 AA, except for an infin
itesimal of higher order. Therefore the
total pressure on the circle is
_a
To
Va 2 -
integrate, place h
JT
= 2w C
^
(h
6)
Mh.
a sin
<f>
then
90
If the
equation of the curve
CD
(fig.
is
33)
x =f(y), referred to
OX
the liquid,
being
to the surface of the liquid, the
below the surface
of
an origin at a depth
OY perpendicular
parallel and
on ABCD may be shown to be
c
pressure
of A and B respectively.
being the y coordinates
circle
in
.the
used
is
example, the center of the
formula
If this
of coordinates, we have
being taken as the origin
a and
=2w f
(6
47
m m
of masses
z
lt
Center of gravity. Consider n particles
P
P
-,
y
),
s
at the points P^(x v y^ 2 (% 2 y z ), 8 (x 8
-,
n placed
form
these
of
The weights
particles
20 (fig- 35 ) respectively.
a system of parallel forces equal to
where g is
-,
n g,
s g,
2 g,
mtf,
the acceleration due to gravity. The
resultant of these forces is the total
Pi
weight
W of the n
particles,
where
H-----h
=a
ff
>
mg
n
m...
FIG. 35
This resultant acts in a line which

about
tion that the moment of
moments
of the
is
is
determined by the condi

equal to the
sum
of the
weights.
that gravity acts parallel to OY, and thatthe line
in a point the abscissa of which is x. Then
cuts
of action of
and the moment of one of the
is
about
the moment of
f
Suppose
first
OX
n weights
Hence
is
gx^ m
m^.
g*^>i=*9
to OX, the line of action of the

Similarly, if gravity acts parallel
in a point the ordinate of which is y, where
resultant cuts
OF
CENTER OF GRAVITY
of action intersect in the point G, the coordinates
These two lines

of
which
are
OX
XO Y plane,
gravity acts in the

or OY, the line of action of
Furthermore,
to either
91
if
This
through G.
may
be shown by
but not parallel
resultant always passes

resolving the weight of eacli
its
OX
and
respectively,
two components parallel to
particle into
of each set of components in the manner just
resultant
the
finding
shown, and then combining these two resultants.
plane, it may still
If gravity acts in a direction not in the
the
but
acts
proof requires
be shown that its resultant
through G,
XOY
a knowledge of space geometry not yet given in this course.
of gravity of the n imrticles.

If it is desired to find the center of gravity of a physical body,
the problem may be formulated very roughly at first by saying that
of an infinite number of particles of matter
is made
the
The point
is called the center
up
body
each with an infinitesimal weight hence the formulas for the co

ordinates of G must be extended to the case in which n is infinite.
;
More
solution of the problem is as follows. The body

precisely, the
is divided into n elementary portions such that the
in question
weight of each
within it. If m
be considered as concentrated at a point

the total mass of the body, the mass of each
may
is
coordi
may be represented by Aw. Then if (x ?/,) are the
nates of the point at which the mass of the iih element is concen
the equations
trated, the center of gravity of the body is given by
element
t ,
= Lim -
= Lim
Am
Am
can be expressed in forms of a single inde

values become
these
pendent variable,
In case x it
y.^
and
x dm
L_,
I
dm
dm
y^-dm
I
(2)
92
where the limits
of integration are the values of the

independent
so
chosen
that the summation extends over the entire body.
variable
It is to
be noticed that
possible, to
not necessary, nor indeed always
is
it
determine xi9 y exactly, since, by
Lim 2* (#i +
.)
Am = Lim V x
-ns
--j3
if e^
3,
Am
approaches zero as
approaches
Am,
zero.
The manner in which the operation thus sketched may be car

ried out in some cases is shown in the following articles. Discus
sion of the most general cases, however, must be postponed until
after the subjects of double
and triple integration are taken up.

48. Center of gravity of a plane curve. When we speak of the
center of gravity of a plane curve we are to think of the curve as
the axis of a rod, or wire, of uniform small cross section.
Let
LK
(fig. 36) be such a curve, and let p

be the amount of matter per unit of
length of the wire which surrounds LK.

That is, if s is the length of the wire
and
is its
mass,
we have
Am = = a
p
constant
As
and
for a
for a
homo-
nonhomogeneous wire
Am = dm- = = a
p
Lim -T
As
The curve may now be divided

each being As and
s.
into elements of arc, the length of
mass Am, and formulas
its
function of
ds
(2) of
47 may be
applied by placing
pxds
whence
x = --I
The
for
pds
py ds
>
---y=
I
(1)
p ds
limits of integration are the values of the independent variable
and K.
CENTER OF GRAVITY OF A PLANE CURVE

If
sx
where
1.
We
x ds,
the length of
s is
Ex.
x2
become
constant, these formulas
is
sy=
lies in
have
the
first
= Vdz2 +
ds
dy*
= -dx =
Jm
and
Hence
a cos 0, y
also be solved
a sin
-dy.
a2
a dy
(I
a dx
yds=
The problem may
circle
quadrant.
x ds
(2)
LK.
/r
/n
circle
y ds,
Find the center of gravity of a quarter circumference of the

a 2 which
93
a2
ira
i
a quarter circumference.
= 2a
by using the parametric equations
of the
0.
7T
a2 f
fx ds
Then
cos
d0
f y ds = a2 f
x
Therefore
a2
a2
as before.
7T
Find the center of gravity of a quarter circumference of a circle when

of matter in a unit of length is proportional to the length of the arc
measured from one extremity.
We have here p = ks, where k is constant. Therefore, if we use the para
Ex.
the
2.
amount
metric equations of the circle,
/r
__
pxds
sxds
= J__ _ a=
=
/.-
ipyds
Csyds
fpds
fsds
a 3 0cos0d0
J_o
(* TT
/;
2
**
8)
94
49. Center of gravity of a plane area. By the center of gravity

of a plane area we mean the center of gravity of a thin sheet of
matter having the plane area as its

middle section. We shall first assume
is of the form of
fig. 37,
bounded
the
axis
of
x, the
being
by
curve yf(%), and two ordinates.
Divide the area into n elements by
n l ordinates which divide AB into
n parts each equal to A#. We de
that the area
note by p the mass per unit area.

That is, if A is the area and
the
mass,
we have
for a
homogeneous sheet of matter
Am = = a
p
and
for a
nonhomogeneous sheet
T
.Lim
Hence
in (2),
47,
we
of
constant
matter
Am = dm = = a
p
dA
,,
variable.
place
dm = p dA = py dx,
since for the area in question
Consider
now any one
dA = y dx
of the
ON = x + Aa?, MP = y, NQ = y + Ay,
QS
OX. The mass
parallel to
35).
((1),
elements
MNQP,
of the rectangle
+
(A
-
x
-
may
y\
-
and the
at a point
nates
MP
MNQP may be considered
>
A?/\
- vH
#H
and
be con-
(A^c
Accordingly the mass of
PR
lines
MNRP
x
OM = x,
where
and draw the
as concentrated
which lies above G v below G and between the ordi

and NQ. The coordinates of any such point may be
expressed as
2>
-f-
p&x,
where
-)>
0=^>=1,
0=^ =
/
But the coordinates

an infinitesimal
of this point differ
of the
same order
from those
as A#.
of
?/
(x,
1.
~) by
CENTER OF GRAVITY OF A PLANE AREA

Therefore
it is
centrated at
mass
sufficient to consider the
(x,
Hence formulas
|Y
If
is
47,
(2),
of
MNQP
95
as con
become
pydx
a constant, these formulas become
\xydx
I
(2)
y dx
ydx
which can be written
Ay =
Ax = Cx dA,
\y dA.
(3)
of gravity of a plane area of

required to find the center
the
that
other shape than
preceding method may be
just discussed,
2.
Ex.
illustrated
modified in a manner
by
If it is
If
the area has a line of symmetry, the center of gravity evi
dently
lies
upon
it,
and
one of the coordinates
down
this line is perpendicular to
if
of the center of gravity
may
OX or OF,
be written
at once.
Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the parabola

the axis of x, and the ordinate through a point (h, k) of
(fig. 38),
?/
the curve. Here
Ex.
1.
= 4px
Ax = f xydx =
Jo
r
Ay =i* Jo
I
and
A=
Therefore
y^dx
2p
c
Jo
t
f ydx = 2p* Jo x*dx= ^pÂ- =
Jo
;3
h,
r!
fc.
/i
96
Ex.
2.
Find the center of gravity of the segment of the
ellipse
a2
^=1
b2
39) cut off
by the chord through the positive ends of the axes of the curve.
Divide the area into elements by lines parallel to OF. If we let
y 2 be the ordinate of a point on the ellipse, and y l the ordinate of a
point on the chord, we
(fig.
have as the element of area
The mass
of this element
dA =
may be
(y z
2/1)
dx.
considered as concentrated at (x
n
x = ^
I
Hence
(yz
/.a
/
Jo
(2/2
"*"
yi)xdx
y\)
dx
FIG. 39
2/i
From
the equation of the ellipse y 2
- x).
(a
nO,
The denominator
ellipse
minus that
(y z
- y$ dx
"â
x 2 and from that of the chord

,
is
of a right triangle,
equal to the area of the quadrant of the
i.e. is
equal to
--
Hence
E_l\
3(:r-2)
2/
50. Center of gravity of a solid or a surface of revolution of
constant density.
volving about
and two
OF
Consider a solid of revolution generated by re

the plane area bounded by OF, a curve x
=/(y),
Y. The solid may be resolved into

elements by passing planes perpendicular to
at a distance dy
apart (37). The same planes divide the surface of revolution
into elements ( 43). If the
density of the solid is uniform, it is
lines perpendicular to
OY
evident from the symmetry of the figure that the mass either of
an element of the solid or of the surface
may be considered as
Y at the point where one of the planes which fixes the
lying in
element cuts OY.
CENTER OF GRAVITY OF A SOLID

Consequently, the center of gravity
Now
face,
if
we
V is
lies in
the volume of the solid and
have, by
37 and
dV=
7TX
O Y,
97
so that
the area of the sur
43,
dS=2Trx ds.
and
dy
of gravity of the solid

Consequently, to find the center
47 (2) by p-jrtfdy with the result
to replace dm of
piracy
dy
(1)
x*dy
of the surface of revolution
and to find the center of gravity

47 (2) dm =
have to place in
2 Trpx ds with the result
2 Trpxy ds
p-n-rfdy
x*y dy
-=-TT-
7r-
we have
we
xy ds
(2)
I
x ds
2 Trpx ds
Find the center of gravity

segment of one base
generated by revolving the area BDE
OF.
(fig. 40) about
Ex.
1.
of a spherical
Let
OB = a and OE = c. The
is x 2 + y 2 = a 2
tion of the circle
equa
and
Ex.
of Ex.
2.
Find the center of gravity of the surface of the spherical segment
1.
Using the notation and the figure of Ex.
JI c
xyds
Jc
1,
we have
ds
ydy
ft
Xa
The center
of gravity lies half
way between
and
7>.
and therefore
98
The pressures acting on the elements

a system of parallel forces perpen
form
area
submerged plane
dicular to the plane. The resultant of these forces is the total
51. Center of pressure.
of a
pressure
the point at which
P( 46) and
acts is the center of
it
find the center of pressure of an area of the type

pressure.
considered in
46, we may proceed in a manner analogous to that
To
used in finding the center of gravity of a plane area, only we have

now to consider, instead of the weight of an element, the weight
of the
column
of liquid
which
it
sustains.
be the coordinates of the center of pressure. Then

(x, h)
the moment of the total pressure about OX is Ph, and the moment
Also the pressure on an
is Px.
of the total pressure about
Let
OH
force equal to whÂh plus an

33) is
infinitesimal of higher order ( 46). By symmetry this force acts
at the middle point of the element, the coordinates of which are
element J^^. +1 Jf+1 ^
and h if except
a"
(fig.
for infinitesimals of higher order
Hence
49).
Zi
the
moment
and the moment
ON is
of higher order.
^wli^f^li, except for infinitesimals
the momentj of the resultant must be equal to the sum of the
about
Now
OX is whfx^h
about
of this force
moments
of the
forces.
component
t
=M
Hence
s*l)
Ph = lAm^whfXi&h = w I
n=a =
Ja
h x dh,
>
= n-l
,rb
Px = Lim Vl- wh x?&h =

n
= oo =
J-
hx2 dh.
Ja
Find the center of pressure of the circular area of the Ex.,

By symmetry it is evident that x = 0.
46.
Ex.
Erom
the discussion just given,

ra
TT
= 2w
C
t/
a 2 cos2
(6
a sin 0) 2
(where h
d(f>
a sin 0)
7T
2
2
dtp
""
But
P = vaPbw
(Ex.,
7T
7T
7T
C cos 2
J _n
46).
4 a s bw
cos 2
sin
dQ
J _1L
Therefore h
a2
.
46
-- w
2
\
v_2E
sin 2 2
d<}>
PROBLEMS
99
PROBLEMS
1.
positive charge
of electricity
charge at a distance x from
from
infinity to a distance
fixed at 0.
is
The
repulsion on a unit
work done in bringing a unit charge
a from 0.
A rod is stretched from its natural length a to the length a + x.
2.
that the force required in the stretching
3.
fc,
(2)
proportional to
find the
Assuming
work done.
free to slide in a cylinder of cross section S. The force acting

p is the pressure of the gas in the cylinder.
as the volume of the cylinder changes from vi to u 2 (1) assum
is
Find the work
is
is
piston
on the piston
ing pv
is
Find the
equal to pS, where
assuming pvy
k,
y and k being constants.
A spherical
bag of radius a contains gas at a pressure equal to p per unit

Assuming that the pressure per unit of area is inversely proportional
the volume occupied by the gas, show that the work required to compress the
4.
of area.
to
bag into a sphere of radius

5.
The
& is 4 7ra 3p log -
resistance offered
by any conductor
to the passage of a current of
in the con
electricity is proportional to the distance traversed by the current
ductor and inversely as the area of the cross section of the conductor. If a
source of electricity is applied to the entire interior surface of a cylindrical shell,

and the current flows radially outward, what resistance will be encountered ?
The length of the shell is h, the right circular section of the interior surface is
of radius a
and
of the exterior surface
substance of which the shell
is
made
is
of radius
offers
6,
and a unit cube
a resistance
of the
k.
6. A particle of unit mass is situated at a perpendicular distance c from the

and length 2 I. Find the force
center of a straight homogeneous wire of mass
of attraction exerted in a direction at right angles to the wire.
7. Find the attraction of a uniform straight wire of mass

upon a particle of
unit mass situated in the line of direction of the wire at a distance c from one end.
Find the attraction of a uniform straight wire of mass

upon a particle
mass situated at a perpendicular distance c from the wire and so that
drawn from the particle to the ends of the wire inclose an angle 6.
8.
of unit
lines
9.
upon a
Find the attraction of a uniform circular wire of radius a and mass

particle of unit mass situated at a distance c from the center of the ring
in a straight line perpendicular to the plane of the ring.
Find the attraction of a uniform circular disk of radius a and mass

particle of unit mass situated at a perpendicular distance c from the
center of the disk. (Divide the disk into concentric rings and use the result
of Ex. 9.)
10.
upon a
Find the attraction of a uniform right circular cylinder with mass Jf,
its base a, and length Z, upon a particle of unit mass situated in the
axis of the cylinder produced, at a distance c from ono end. (Divide the cylinder
into parallel disks and use the result of Ex. 10.)
11.
radius of
100
12.
circle
Find the attraction of a uniform wire of mass

bent into an arc of a
with radius a and angle a, upon a particle of unit mass at the center of
the circle.
13. Prove that the total pressure on a plane surface is equal to the pressure
at the center of gravity multiplied by the area of the surface.
14. Find the total pressure on a vertical rectangle with base 6 and altitude a,
submerged so that its upper edge is parallel to the surface of the liquid at a
distance c from it.
Find the center of pressure of the rectangle in the previous example.

Find the total pressure on a triangle of base 6 and altitude a, submerged
so that the base is horizontal, the altitude vertical, and the vertex in the surface
15.
16.
of the liquid.
17.
lies in
Show that the center of pressure of the triangle of the previous example
the median three fourths of the distance from the vertex to the base.
Find the
18.
so that the base
Show
19.
on a triangle of base 6 and altitude a, submerged

in the surface of the liquid and the altitude vertical.
total pressure
is
that the center of pressure of the triangle of the previous example
median half way from the vertex to the base.

20. Find the total pressure on an isosceles triangle with base
lies in
the
2 b and alti
submerged so that the base is horizontal, the altitude vertical, and the
vertex, which is above the base, at a distance c from the surface of the liquid.
21. A parabolic segment with base 26 and altitude a is submerged so that
its base is horizontal, its axis vertical, and its vertex in the surface of the liquid.
Find the total pressure.
tude
a,
22. Find the center of pressure of the parabolic segment of the previous
example.
23.
base
its
parabolic segment with base 26 and altitude a is submerged so that

in the surface of the liquid and its altitude is vertical. Find the
is
total pressure.
24. Find the center of pressure of the parabolic segment of the previous
example.
25. Find the total pressure on a semiellipse submerged with one axis in the
surface of the liquid and the other vertical.
26. Find the center of pressure of the ellipse of the previous example.
27.
An
with its base horizontal and vertex downward is

Find the pressure on the triangle if the length of the base
the altitude 3 ft., and the depth of the vertex below the surface 5 ft.
immersed
is
ft.,
28.
isosceles triangle
in water*.
The centerboard
two parallel
sides are 1
dicular to these two
is
is in the form of a trapezoid in which the

respectively in length, and the side perpen
in length. Assuming that the last-named side is
of a yacht
and 2
3
ft.
ft.
parallel to the surface of the water at a depth of 2

sides are vertical, find the pressure on the board.
*
The weight
of a cubic foot of water
may
ft.,
and that the
be taken as 62|
Ib.
parallel
PROBLEMS
101
29. Find the moment of the force which tends to turn the center-board of
the previous example about the line of intersection of the plane of the board
with the surface of the water.
is
30. Find the pressure on the centerboard of Ex. 28 if the plane of the board
turned through an angle of 10 about its line of intersection with the surface
of the water.
31.
A dam
300 and 100
in the
is
form of a regular trapezoid with
its
two horizontal
sides
respectively, the longer side being at the top and the height 20 ft.
.Assuming that the water is level with the top of the dam, find the total pressure.
ft.
32. Find the
by turning
it
on
moment
its
base
of the force
which tends
to overturn the
dam of
Ex. 31
line.
33. A circular water main has a diameter of 6 ft. One end is closed
by a
bulkhead and the other is connected with a reservoir in which the surface of
the water is 100 ft. above the center of the bulkhead. Find the total
pressure
on the bulkhead.
34.
pond of 10 ft. depth is crossed by a roadway with vertical sides.

whose cross section is in the form of a parabolic segment with
horizontal base on a level with the bottom of the
pond, runs under the road.
culvert,
Assuming that the base

its
altitude 4
of the
segment of the parabolic segment is 6 ft. and

on the bulkhead which temporarily
find the total pressure
ft.,
closes the culvert.
35. Find the
x2
x*
+ y* =
x$
+ y* =
center of gravity of the semicircumference of the circle

is above the axis of x.
a2 which
36. Find the center of gravity of the arc of the

four-cusped hypocycloid
a* which is in the first quadrant.
37. Find the center of gravity of the arc of the

four-cusped
a 3 which is above the axis of x.
hypocycloid
38. Find the center of gravity of the arc of the curve 9

ay 2 - x (x
between the ordinates x = and x = 3 a.
39. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded
chord perpendicular to the
- 3 a) 2 =
by a parabola and a
axis.

= x s and any double ordinate.
by the semicubical
parabola ay 2
41. Find the center of gravity of the area of a

quadrant of an ellipse.
42. Find the center of
gravity of the area between the axes of coordinates
and the parabola x* + y^ = a*.
43. Find the center of gravity of the area contained in the

upper half of
the loop of the curve ay2 = ax 2
xs
.
44.
Show
that the center of gravity of a sector of a circle
lies
on the
line
a
Sm ~9
.
2
bisecting the angle of the sector at a distance a is the angle and a the radius of the sector. 3
from the vertex, where
102
= sinx
45. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the curve y
and the axis of x between x = and x = TT.
46 If the area to the right of the axis of y between the curve y =
e- h
VTT
and the
axis of x
is
what
is
the abscissa of the center of gravity of this area
47. Find the center of gravity of a triangle.

2
48. Find the center of gravity of the area between the parabola y
= 4px
mx.
and the straight line y

49. Find the center of gravity of the plane area bounded by the two parabolas
=
4 px, and x 2 = 4 py.
7/2
50. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the two parabolas
_ 6) = 0, x2 4py = 0, the axis of y, and the line x = a.
X2 _ 4_p
51. Find the center of gravity of the plane area

2
2
32 p 2 = 0.
X 2 _ 4.py = o and the circle x + y
52. Find the
a2
=i
common
to the parabola
center of gravity of the surface bounded by the ellipse
the circle x 2
y*
a2
and the axis
of y.
62
53.
Find the center
of gravity of half a spherical solid of constant density.
54. Find the center of gravity of the portion of a spherical surface bounded
from the center.
by two parallel planes at a distance hi and h^ respectively
55. Find the center of gravity of the solid formed by revolving about OX
2
line x = a.
the surface bounded by the parabola y = 4px, the axis of x, and the
OF the
56. Find the center of gravity of the solid formed by revolving about
2 =
4px, the axis of y, and the line y
plane figure bounded by the parabola y
k.
the
57. Find the center of gravity of the solid generated by revolving about
the parabola
line x = a the surface bounded by that line, the axis of x, and
OY
58. Find the center of gravity of the solid formed by revolving about
bounded by the parabola x 2 = 4py and any straight line through
the surface
the vertex.
59. Find the center of gravity of the solid formed
the surface bounded by the hyperbola

60. Find
~jp
by revolving about
and the
lines
y=
and
OF
y=b
the center of gravity of a hemispherical surface.
61. Find the center of gravity of the surface of a right circular cone.
62. Find the center of gravity of the surface of a hemisphere when the
density of each point in the surface varies as

the circular base of the hemisphere.
its
perpendicular distance from
CHAPTEE VI
The sum
52. Introduction.
each term of which
is
a rational fraction in
its
lowest terms with
the degree of the numerator less than that of the denominator,
known by elementary
algebra to be a fraction of the form
where
= (a^x 4 \)
= A^(a x + 1
f(x)
is
^-\>
J?
(X)
F(x)
and
(A 3
+ b x + c^+A^x + \) (a
x + B,} (ap + \) (a x + &
2)
(a s x
x2 + l z x + c 3 )
2 ).
Again, consider the
sum
Here the linear polynomial a^x + & x appears both in the first and
the second powers as denominators of fractions which have the
same form of numerator, a constant also the quadratic polynomial
2
a^x 4- b 3 x + c 3 appears both in the first and the second powers as
;
denominators of fractions which have the same form of numerator,

a linear polynomial.
F(x)
If this
= (a,x + ^)
sum
is
(a,x
denoted by
bz)
(aj*
>
then
+ b,x + c,)\
and f(x), when determined, will be of lower degree than F(x).

In both examples, f(x) and F(x) have no common factor and
f(x)
is of
lower degree than F(x).

103
104
We
proceed in the following articles to consider, conversely, the
possibility of separating
any rational fraction
fix]
^-~
in
which f(x)
F(x)
is of
sum
lower degree than F(x) into a

just added.
of fractions of the types
we have
53.
Consider
Separation into partial fractions.
fraction
Jfix)
v
where f(x) and F(x)
>
no common
are
now any rational
two polynomials having
the degree of f(x) is not less than that of

F(x), we can separate the fraction, by actual division, into an inte
of the numera
gral expression and a fraction in which the degree
tor is less
If
factor.
than that of the denominator.
For example, by actual

2 x*+ x*
Accordingly,
of f(x) is less
Now
division,
+ x +x - 18 x 2
we
x*+ x*+
shall consider only the case in
than that
which the degree
of F(x).
always equivalent to the product of linear factors

F(x)
and if the coefficients
are not necessarily real
which
42),
is
(I,
equivalent to the product of real linear

shall limit ourselves in this
and quadratic factors (I, 45).
and shall assume
coefficients
real
with
to
chapter
polynomials
of F(x) are real, it is
We
that the real linear and quadratic factors of F(x) can be found.
We
make two
shall
Case
Case
CASE
cases
where no factor
I,
II,
where some
As an example
I.
F-(x)-= (a^x
May we
is
repeated.
of the factors are repeated.
of this case let

& t ) (a 2 x
& 2 ) (a 3 x*
lzx
+c
3 ).
then assume, as suggested by the work of the previous
article, that
/(a)
F(x)
where
A lt A v A and B
3
are constants
SEPARATION INTO PARTIAL FRACTIONS

sum
It is evident that the
member
of (1) is a fraction the
the numerator of which
105
of the fractions in the right-hand
denominator of which
F(x) and
is
a polynomial, which, like /(#),
is
of
is
lower degree than F(x).

It will be proved in
55, 56 that A v A 2 A s and B s exist. As
suming this, we may multiply both sides of (1) by F(x) with the
,
following result
f( x )
= A(
V+
+ (A
As
(2) is to
& 2)
a if*?+ \K + C s )+ A i( a i x +
+B
3)
hold for
+ bj (,* + 6
all
values of
x on the two
powers of
The right-hand member
member
left-hand
(a,x
the coefficients of
is
a ^*+
\ x + c a)
(2)
2 ).
the coefficients of like
sides of the equation must be equal.*

of degree three, and by hypothesis the
no higher than three. Hence, placing

and the constant term on the two sides
of degree
x*,
x2
x,
of the equation respectively equal,
which
x,
b i)
to find the four
unknown
we have
constants
four equations from
A v A A By
2,
3,
Solving these equations and substituting the values of A lt A 2

A 3 and 3 in (1), we have the original fraction expressed as the
sum of three fractions, the denominators of which are the factors
,
The
of the denominator of the original fraction.

said to be separated into partial fractions.
It is evident that the
number
fraction
F(x) in ho
of the factors of
affects the reasoning or the conclusion,
and there
number of equations as the

constants to be determined.
number
the same
* If the
is
now
way
will always be
of the
unknown
two members of the equation
_jz
+ an = b
xn
1
bix"
+ & M _ ia; + b n
(1)
are identical, so that (1) is true for all values of x, the coefficients of like powers of x
on the two sides of (1) are equal, i.e. a Q 6 a 1
an
i
n
Writing (1) in the equivalent form
,
(a
we have an
xn
(<*!
1
&!)*"-
4- (a B
=b
_1
=b
- &_!) x + (a n - &) = 0,
algebraic equation of degree not greater than n, unless a
-,=&
=b
(2)
a^
= bi,
Then (2) is true only for a certain number of values of x, since the number of roots
of an algebraic equation is the same as the degree of the
equation. But this is contrary
to the hypothesis that (1), and therefore
6
(2), is true for all values of x. Hence a
ai
= &i
>
&n
& s was stated.
106
Ex.
Separate into partial fractions
1.
(x
Since the degree of the numerator
(x
3) (x
A
x
4)
x2
x2
+
+
Since
11 x
14
11
14
a;
(3) is to
(x -f 3) (x
4),
we have
= A (x + 2) (x + 3) + B(x - 2) (x + 3) + C(x - 2) (x + 2),

= (A +B+ O)x 2 + (5 A + B)x + (QA -6J5-4C).
hold for
all
the two sides of the equation
(2)
(3)
values of x, the coefficients of like powers of x on
must be equal.
A + J5 + C = 1,
Therefore
whence we
n
C
+3
r>
where A, #, and C are constants.

Clearing (1) of fractions by multiplying by
or
4)
than the degree of the denominator,
is less
..**_.-
we assume
3) (x
find
2,
B=
1,
and C
Substituting these values in
x2
(x
(1),
2.
we have
+ 11 x + 14 _
~
+ 3) (x 2 - 4)
denominator are
If the factors of the
and
all linear
3*
different, as in this
ex
ample, the following special method is of decided advantage. In (2) let x have
in succession such a value as to make one of the factors of the denominator of
=
i.e. x = 2, x =
2, x
becomes 40 = 20^4, whence A
whence B = 1; and when x =
the original fraction zero,
=
4 =
C=
When
comes
whence
2, (2)
3.
when x =
3, (2)
becomes
2, (2)
10
be
5 C,
2.
just used may seem to be invalid in that (2) apparently holds

for all values of x except 2,
3, since these values make the multi
2, and
The method
plier (x
3) (x
4),
by which
(2)
was derived from
(1), zero.
met, however, by considering that the two polynomials in

and therefore equal for all values of x, including the values 2,
is
Ex.
x3
2.
4 x2
-I-
-f-
This objection
(2)
are identical
2
and
3.
1
x3
Since the degree of the numerator is not less than that of the denominator,
we divide until the degree of the remainder is less than the degree of the
divisor,
and thus
find
x3
The
real factors of
=1+
x3
are x
-1
and x
1.
Hence we assume
Bx+ C
x3
x2
-I-

Clearing of fractions,
4x2
Equating
we have
+ 1 = A (x 2 4- x + 1) + (Bx + C) (x - 1)
= (A + 5)x2 + (A - B + C)x + (4 powers of x
coefficients of like
A=
whence
4 X2
Hence
X3
4,
5=
2,
2,
f4x +
x3 - 1
2x +
X-l
X2
(3)
1.
2x4
C).
obtain the equations
C=
we
in (3),
A +B=
-l
2
and
107
x2
The values of A, 5, and C may also be found by assuming arbitrary values

Thus when x = 1, (3) becomes 6 = 3 A when x = 0, (3) becomes l = A C;
and when x = 2, (3) becomes 19 = 1A+2B+C; whence A = 2, C = 1, B = 2.
of x.
54.
CASE
II.
We
will
now
consider the case in which some of
the factors of the denominator F(x) are repeated.
F(x)
We
= (ajc + &
2
1)
(a z x
For example,
+ 6 (a^ + \x + c
2)
let
2
3)
assume
2
,
ff+VH-y
(i)
by the work of 52.

Multiplying (1) by F(x), we have an equation of the 6th degree
in x, since the degree of f(x) is, by hypothesis, less than that of F(x).
&
b
2
Equating the coefficients of x x x*, x*, x x, and the constant
term on the two sides of the equation, we have seven equations
from which to determine the seven unknown constants, A v A[,
as suggested
It is evident that, granted the existence of these constants, the

above method for determining them is perfectly general.
108
X4
Ex.
we
1.
Since the degree of the numerator

find by actual division
X*-6X2
is
We now
assume
(x
2x 2 =
=
Equating the
2X2
B=
+ 2)(x2 -4)
----- ---
7?
(x
4)
2)2
(2)
2)
+ B(x 2 - 4) + C(x + 2) 2
+ (A + 4 C)x + (- 2 A - 4 B +
C)x2
2,
than that of the denominator,
less
powers of
B+C-
=-
16
-}-
we have
A (x (E
not
(z
3*2
2) (x
Clearing of fractions,
J.
6 x2
16
2)(x2-4)
whence
C=
Therefore substituting in
we
Q.
(3)
2,
(2),
we have
2x2
-+
2 (x + 2) (x
x,
(x
4)
2)2
so that finally
x*
-6x 2 +
16
_^
(x
By
2.
division
we
2(x-2)
2)
6_4-2-
first find
~2
We now
2(x
2)2
3 x7
Ex.
(x+2)(x2-4)
x3
-4x2 -7x +
x3-l2
assume
B
3
(X
I)
(X
I)
Cx
1
(X
+D
+ I) 2
Ex + F
+X+1
(2)
X2
and
clear of fractions.
The
result is
-E +
-B- 2C + D- E)x*
)
(3)

Equating the
powers of x
B+#=
in (3),
we
109
0,
A+B-E + F=0,
2A+B+C -F=l,
3A-B-2C + D-E = - 4,
whence
--,# =
C=
0,
3,
Substituting these values in
(X-l)2
D=
(2),
4,
E=
0,
(4)
F=
jj.
we have
3(X-1)2
so that finally
2 (x 3
I)
3 (x
2
I)
3x
(x
l)
55. Proof of the possibility of separation into partial fractions.
we have assumed that the given fraction

can be separated into partial fractions, and proceeding on this as
sumption we have been able to determine the unknown constants
which were assumed in the numerators. We will now give a proof
In the last two articles
that a fraction can always be broken

the types assumed in
53, 54.
up
into partial fractions of
f(x)
Let the given fraction be J ^
where f(x) and F(x) are polyF(x)
nomials having no common factor.
>
Let x
r be a linear factor of F(x) which occurs ra times,

of the remaining factors. Then
F(x)
and F^(x) be the product

= (x r^F^x) and
F(x)
Now
the equation
(x
is
- r) m F^x)
identically true,
(x
- r) m
being any constant.
(x
- r)
INTEGKATION OF EATIOXAL FE ACTIONS
110
If
we can determine A
so that
f(r)~AF (r)=0,
(3)
then f(x)
noted by (x
AF (x)
is divisible
by x
(I,
40) and may be de
r)fv (x).
But by hypothesis neither f(x) nor F^(x) is divisible by (x-r)

and hence f(r)
and FJr)
0.
Therefore, from (3),
a constant,
With
which
is
not zero.
this value of
Applying
this
A we
have
same method
to
^_
yi
r
>
we have
y-i^^
i()
/.(^
,
A=
where
and
(f-
however, that A l may be zero, since f^(r)

be infinite since F^(r) = 0.
cannot
t
this
method
times in succession, we have
Applying
It is to be noted,
be zero
but
may
F(x)
where
(x
(x
r)
A Av A
y
z,
Am
r)
m-1
(x
F^x)
r)"
are all finite constants, of
which
is
the
only one which cannot be zero.

By the above reasoning it is evident that corresponding to any
times we may
linear factor of the denominator which occurs
fractions, the numerators of which are constant, and the

denominators of which are respectively the mth, the (m
l)st,
assume
1st powers of the factor.

After these fractions have been removed, the remaining frac,
tion,
i.e.
JfmV(x}
>
FAx)
may
be treated in the same way.
111
In the above discussion r and the coefficients of f(x) and F(x)

may be real or complex. Consequently, the method may be applied
successively to each factor of F(x), thus making a complete separa
If, however, /(#) and F(x) have real
and we wish to confine ourselves to real polynomials, we
apply the method to real linear factors only, and proceed in
tion into partial fractions.

coefficients
will
the next article to deal with the quadratic factors.

56. Proceeding now to the case of a quadratic factor of
F(x) of
2
2
the form (x
which
cannot
be
into
+b
real
linear
a)
separated
y
factors,let
/()
Then
Now
the equation
Ax + B
/(*)
- a) + tifF^x)
[(x
- of + b
[(x
is
identically true,
f(a
and
then f(x)
40),
we can
[(x
being any constants.
and
so that
+ U) -[A(a + bi) + B} Fâ + li) =
a
(Ax + B)Fl (x) is divisible by x
and hence is divisible by their product
U and x
2
a)
(x
+U
+b
2
,
and
hence f(a
and
bi)
Doting
have
&+
î( a
and
Fâ
by
and
same
bi)
P+
bi)
Qi)
is
divisible
by
(x
a)
2
;
^ 0.
and
^)
A(a
zero at the
hypothesis neither f(x) nor F^x)
where
0,
- (Ax + B}F (x) = [(x - a) + I ]f,(x).

2
shall
0,
place
f(x)
By
(x)
- a) + VfF^x)
"*"
- U) - [A (a - bi) + B} Fâ - U) =
f(a
and
(I,
we can determine
If
f(x)-(Ax + B)F
m
J>=P
=*$Fâ-li)
by
P - Qi,
we
Qi,
are finite quantities, both of

time.
which may not be
112
+ B = P,
aA
Therefore
two equations from which A and

values which cannot both be zero.
With
these values for
f(xl _
and
and repeating
have finally
/(a) _
F(x)
are found to have real finite
we have
Ax + B
f,(x)
- a) + &}**
[(x
- of + tf} m [(x
F(x)
FJx)
this process as in the case of the linear factor
Ax + B
m
af + tf]
[(x
Ax+B
of +
[(x
l
we
fm (x)
l
*"
added that A and B may not be zero at the same

and that any or all of the other constants may be zero.
The same method may evidently be applied to each one of the
It should be
time,
quadratic factors of F(x).
To sum
up,
F(x)
if
= (x
m
r 1 ) (x
-r
n
z)
[(- a) + tf]
.
.".,
and we apply the above methods to the linear factors in succession

and then to the quadratic factors in succession, we have finally
f(*)
f(x)
Cx + D
_ a )*+ V]
2
(x
a)
+b
+D
[(x- a) + 6
C^x
-1
where / is either zero or an integral expression in x.

But if the degree of f(x) is less than that of F(x), and we
always reduce the fraction to this case by actual division,
shall
f(x\
z--*-
and
113
the fractions on the right-hand side of the equation are zero

when x = co hence I is zero and the fraction is separated into
all
the partial fractions noted.

57. In the discussion of the last article the quadratic factors of
the denominator are only those which represent the product of two
conjugate imaginary factors,
all
the real linear factors having been
factors may be
previously removed. But some of these real linear
of the
of
determination
the
work
case
the
in
which
surd,
algebraic
numerators
tor is of the
may
form x
burdensome.
is
53, 54)
however, the surd fac
If,
Vb, where a and
b are rational, this
work
be avoided in the following manner

It may be shown by a method similar to that used in
:
(1)
is
I,
a
^/b
F(x) has only rational coefficients, and x
a + V& is also a factor, and hence that
a factor of F(x), then x
44, 45, that
if
F(x) contains (x
(2)
If
a)
[(#
b as a factor.
of
n
b]
a factor of the denominator F(x), the
is
other factor being F^(x), then
Then the
f(x]
rational fraction
"-^
may
be proved equal to
F(x)
[(a-
The
_ of- b]
[(x
- of- by^F^x)
proof, being similar to that of the last article, is left
to
the student.
Accordingly,
and the surd
if all
the coefficients of the denominator are rational,
type just noted, the fraction

will be separated into partial fractions, the denominators of which
2
n
2
2 n
n
shall be of the forms (x
and [(x
a)
b]
a) + & ]
r)
[(x
factors, if any, are of the
58. Integration of
The integration of a
two steps: (1) the sepa
rational fractions.
rational fraction in general consists of

ration of the fraction into partial fractions
the integration of
each partial fraction, and the subsequent addition of the integrals.
There will then be four types of integrals to consider
;
(2)
Adx
CAdx
f(Ax + B}dx
(*
(Ax+B}dx
114
The first three, however, have

already been discussed.
then to the fourth, we
may put that in the form
which
sum
equal to the
is
of the
two
A r
+ a^)f
The
first of
these integrals
\(
is
integrals
_n
and
-a
readily seen to be
n+1) "[(*)+ Mp.-i
2{
The second may be evaluated by

-a
placing x
/dx
-) +y
[ (a!
When n =
case
n>2
cos*
-2
C
gral
2, this integral is
occurs
rarely
\(x
f du
J (u*+c?r
Ex.
!
\
2( n
evaluated as in Ex.
practice,
but
if
of
it
3,
13.
does
The
occur,
65, or the inte-
be evaluated b )7 successive
applications
__
73.
Find the value of f jgJL *

J z 3 + 2x 2
Since x*
2x2
-x-
8x
-f
2x2
,,
-la<u>+<t>-^
will be derived in
1.
Then
dx
a)*+l*\*
of the reduction formula
which
in
= I tan 6.
6d0 may be evaluated by methods
may
Turning
(x
~
2
1) (x
^L
3)
<*
-z-2
l)(x
7?
x-1 + aT+T
2),
we assume

Determining A,
C by
and
72,
2
+ 8 x 4- 3
+ 2z2 -x-2~x-l x
+ 8s + 8)cto = rl 2
f (*
J x 3 + 2x2 -x-2 J \x-l
J(
2 log(x
8ic
8 x4
The
2 x 2 4-
4-
division,
8x 3
8x 3 +
real factors of
assume
8x 3
Determining A, B, and
6x4- 18
Cby
1)
2x+
3 X dx
x
18
and
J 4x 2
r
J
(8
4-
4-
6x
4-
18)
2)
+ C
(1)
9.
Therefore,
^t
4x
(2)
-6x +
iJ
we
we have
3z
-6x +
4x 2
(8)
___
3z
4x 2 - 6x4-
2x +
/x
4-
6)
<5
dx
J 4 x 2 - 6x44?log(4x
-6x +
Substituting the values of the integrals in
x2
31og(x
18
- 6x +
9 r
9) 4-
(4),
dx
4x 2 -
4J
4
4
x4
r
/
3 r (8 x
-6x + 9~
- 21x4-
2x +
\x*,
z
1)
Cxdx =
and 4x 2
4
rl
dx
+ 2z 2 4-6z4+ 6x + 18)
/(8x*4-2z
18)dx_
~(8x
8x3 4-27
\
2 log(z
dx
8x 3 + 27
2x +
But
2/
the methods of the previous articles,
2z 2 -21x +
8x 3 + 27
"
2 x2
= x4
t
27
33
4- Ox + 18)dx
8x 3 4-27
27
27 are
x4-2*
4- 1
2 x2
4-
By
z3
T,
o Ti .1
* T
Ex.
2. Find the value of
J
we have
the methods of the previous articles,
x2
"
115
V3
we have
V3
finally
dx
"
8x 3 4-27
= -x 2 4-
log(2x
+ 3)-?log(4x 2 -6x +
9)
-4
1
2
= -x
2x +
4-log
(4x
-6x4-9)
-tan-*
V3
--^tan- ,4z-3
3
4V3
3V3
4-
4
*"!
3
C.
V3
4-
INTEGEATION OF BATIONAL FRACTIONS
116
of
X*
~ Ux +
6 **
2(x -l)2
The fraction being the same

the work completed.
as that of Ex. 2,
we have
54,
the
first
step of
Hence
/
(3a?
x6
- 6x*-8x 2 -llx
3
2
2(x -I)
l
2dx
r dx- c
Now
+ Jr
first,
423
,
9^0-1
and
+ x+l2
x2
the second, the third, and the fifth integrals are readily eval8
1
2
previous methods, their values being respectively -x 2 -x,
,
the
uated by
(8x+4)dx
J3x-l2 + Jr
J2
(x
1)
rrtan- 1
V3
V3
There remains the fourth integral C

J
(x
^-
I)
2
2
which may be reduced
to
dx
2J
The
first
is
integral
written in the form 40
2x
+ = V3 tan 0.
The
40
2x
-f-
1)2
[(2
-(-
^++ ^+
(x
be
and can be evaluated by placing
result will be
may
3]2
,=
V3
V3
V3
3\/3
I)
1)
"
+x+
while the second integral
Hence
2 (x2
(x
dx
l)2
___tl
+x+
2(x2
6
l)
6 x2
+ J! ton -i?fLt!
3V3
V3
2x
6 x2
Finally, substituting the values of the integrals in (1) and simplifying,

have, as the value of the original integral,
Vs
we
PROBLEMS
117
PROBLEMS
Separate the following fractions into partial fractions
-f x - 4
6x3 + 6x 2 -6x*
a2
+ 2x * + x
x*
4x 8 + 8x 2
4
1Q
-x-2
-5x-6
-x-3
3x2
x4
x2
3x 4
x5
+ 3)cZx
4x-15
+ 4)dx
x3
-2
3 x2
+ 5x2
x5
-2x4 -4x3 + 8x2 + 4x-
x3
2x
+ x3 -
x2
+x+
4 x2
6x
8
8
x3
27
2g
(6-12x)dx
/-
g- 10) dg
(8
x4
x4
2)3
C (14x
J 4x 2 +
19
-x
x4
5x
+ 3x 2 +
x4
Find the values of the following

integrals
lg
"
-4x3 -2x2 + 7x
r (3x
-2x 2 -l
-x +
x3
x(x
1 vj
2x
12
-x2 -12x-8
8x4
-4x
3x 2
-1-
+ 2x 2
x3
x3
2x 3 + x 2
- llx-1
x8
-x +
x2
/^(3x
-10x-
3x
+ 17x 3 _3x 2 -Ox

B
J
2x 3 + 7x2 -f 2x-3
x +
+
L rJ
4x 3 + 8x 2 -9x-18
+
*
r
J 4x 3 -4x 2 + x
2
(x + 2x +
33
J x 3 + Ox 2 + 1
+ 10x + 9)d
^(fix2
/*6x 4
22
3-2x-x
9x 2 4-12x +
a
+ 2x 2 + 3x
--
23.
24.
J
25.
x2
r2*
-2x-l
x-x-x
x-x
/.
dx
-Hx-6^
6x
J 4x 3
+ 8x 2 -3x-
118
37
+ 12 z 2 +
9z
J z3
+2z2 -4z-8*
x4
+ 2z 3 +
ic
45
2
2<to
(x
z2
+3)(2z 2 +
+ Qx ~
xZ
-8z2 +
(*
49
i
8^
6)
X2
(z
(
4x3
x2
13x
51.
+ 20z 2 + 21z2
_
+ 3z +
-3)(3z
3) (3
1
52.
z2
53.
ab
j
^
(to.
^z +
z
i)^
8
dz.
K
2
dx.
-12z +
- 16
(a
r 9z 3
r
~ dx
/i*
z4
/z
5)
-13z)dz
z+
"4^4"
4x4
48.
T 2_
16z4
- 29z - 17)dz
2 - 2 z
+ 3)
2) (z
J-
3
z(z-l)
(x-l)3
44.
(3
47.
/ ^-6^
r^- 2 ^-^- ^
39.
J
X
9
42.
38
4i.
r (15z 2
(3-2z-4z )dz
,*
J 4 z3
CHAPTEE
VII

59. Rationalization.
a suitable substitution of a
By
able an irrational function
new
function of the
of Chap. VI.
cases in
which
may
In this case the integrand
variable.
and the integration
to be rationalized,
We
shall
this
method
new
now
is
is
said
performed by the methods
60-63 some
discuss in
is
vari
sometimes be made a rational
possible, together
of the
with the appropri
ate substitution in each.
60. Integrand containing fractional

sions involving fractional
of
powers
x can be rationalized by assuming
where n
is
powers of a + bx. Expres

+- bx and integral powers of
= zn
bx
common denominator
the least
of the fractional
expo
nents of the binomial.
For
if
(a
if
+ bx =
p
bx) is
where pn
is
one
then x
z",
= \ (z* - a]
of the fractional
and dx
=-z
n~l
dz.
Also,
p
powers of a + bx, (a +- bx) = z pn
and
the fractional powers of
dx,
an
Since
integer.
x,
a
bx can all be expressed
rationally in terms of z, it follows that
the integrand will be a rational function of z when the substitution
has been completed.
Ex.
1.
X * dx
Find the value of
(1
Here we
let 1
2x
then x
X * dx
Therefore
z*
J
(1
2x)
2 3)*
J-
(z
? f 27
(
%J
~
uitf
Replacing z by
its
value (1
x*dx
z<2
1),
2 z*
5 z6
and dx
z)
16 2 3
= *z z dz.
dz
20)
C.
2x)* and simplifying, we have
^J
320
119
120
Find the value of
Ex.2.
<*
2
>*
>
(x
common denominator
Since the least
we assume x +
integral
z*
then x
z4
-<*
2)^
2,
*)*
of the exponents of the binomial
On
4z 3 dz.
and dx
is 4,
substitution, the
becomes
z3
(x
2)*
- - tan-iV
V2
value (x
its
2)
Replacing z by
- 2z +
/(
+2
- * (x +
2)3
C.
we have
2)*,
4(x
2)4
8 (x
2)*
+ 8 log(Vx +
2)
V2
61. Integrand containing fractional
integrand
is
CASE
If
the
the product
is
where q and r are

ization
+ bxn
powers of a
integers, there are
two cases
in
which
rational
possible.
I.
When
is
an
and observe the

x
lxn
I
(
+-
=z
result of the substitution.
r-a)
dx
and
Let us assume
integer or zero.
Then
--i
(sra)
~l
dz.
rib*
Therefore
But
if
+ r -l
sf>
sr
5il-i
n
dz.
rib*
is
rational function of
ive one.
an integer or
2,
zero, this
new
integrand
and the assumed substitution
is
an
is
effect
RATIONALIZATION
Ex.
1.
Find the value of
121
fx 5 (l + 2x 3 )*dx.
= 2 we assume 1 + 2 x 8 = z 2 whence x 3 =: -(z 2 - 1), and x 2 dx=-zdz.

- z*)dz, which reduces to
integral is
^ z 3 (3z 2 _ 5) + C
Since
The new
Replacing z by
its
JFfte^
II.
value,
we have
2x 3 )*dx = ?i5 (i + 2x 3 )*(3x 3 -
yV(l +
CASE
assume
&V
--
(-
^^
+ bx = x
*
C.
Here we
integer or zero.
Then
1)
will
r
.
and
Therefore
new
This
Ex.
2.
Here
Find the value of
^~n~ +
stitution
is
expression
we
=
r
lj
its
f (2 +
J
x2 )
value,
new
z.
dx
x2
and accordin S lv we
have, as the
Replacing z by
a rational function of
integral,
-2
let 2
x2
= x 22 2
After the sub
Z * dz
,
the value of which
we have
62.
is
Integrand containing integral powers of ^/ a + bx + x2

If the integrand contains
only integral powers of x and of
Va + bx + or it may be rationalized by the substitution
2
V +
for
fa?
+x =z-x
2
from this equation
The
result of the substitution is
evidently a rational function of
z.
122
Ex. Find the value of

2
x, we have as the new integral 2
Letting Vl + x + x = z
which, by the method of Chap. VI, is
Replacing
by
its
value x
+ Vl +
x2
we have
dz,
j-
as the value of the
original integral
1
f(
x 2) 2
3 (x
+ Vl +
2
log
x2 )
(
2x +
Vl +
x2)
C.
x2 under the radical sign
is any positive
it
factor
we
than
constant other
out, thereby bringing
may
unity,
the expression under the case just discussed.
If the coefficient
of
63. Integrand containing integral powers of
Va +
bx
this case the substitution of the previous article fails, as
be expressed rationally in terms of
Ix
z.
lx)
(x
In
x*.
x could not
We may now, however, write

a -+-W
an expression which can be factored into two linear factors

^
when
the form (7^+ x) (r 2
x), which are real except
But then
values of
Now
it is
x,
--
evident that
and hence
+ Ix
x2
-}
(x
is
negative for
is
of
0.
all
always imaginary.
place
Va +
bx
x2
= vVi +
Solving this equation for
x,
After the substitution the

function of
z.
x) ( r 2
x)
= z (r
x}.
we have
new
integrand
is
evidently a rational
TRIGONOMETKIC FUNCTIONS
123
dx
Ex. Find the value of f

J
Since 2
x2
(2
V2 The
+ x) (1 - x), we assume
z - z 2 = V(2 + z) (1 - x) = z(l-x).
result of the substitution
f-
the integral 2
is
which
za
is
equal
to
+c.
iog^Z+V2
Replacing z by
value
its
V2 + Z+V2 -2z
64. Integration of trigonometric functions. There are certain
types of trigonometric functions for which definite rules of pro
cedure
integrand
is
case
that in which the
is
any power of a trigonometric function multiplied by
its differential, e.g.
of the
The simplest
be stated.
may
sin
x cos x dx, which
fundamental formulas.
be integrated by one
may
It is evident that this class requires
no further consideration here. To deal with the more complex cases

usually necessary to make a trigonometric transformation of
the integrand, the choice of the particular transformation being
guided by the formulas for the differentials of the trigonometric
it is
functions.
Some
of these transformations are given in
65-70.
lcos n xdx.
We may
lsm n xdxand.
Integrals of the forms

distinguish three cases.
65.
CASE
I.
n an odd
place
xdx =
sin
In the integral
integer.
sin
xdx we may
x sin x dx.
sin
n-l
Now
is
sin
x dx
d(cos
and
x),
1
sin""
a rational function of cos x since
Then
8ii\
xdx
/P
In like manner
we may
cos
(1
n_
-
is
sin
an
2
cos
n-l
(1
cos ^)
prove
xdx=
(1
integer.
2
,
which
124
Ex.
Find the value of f sin 5 xdx.
1.
fsm^xdx =
C(l
=
Ex.
(1
To
sin 2 x) 2
- Bin**)*
(1
dz
(1
1 sin
_
~
n a positive
II.
22)2
C.
&
sin
Then
z.
z2
2 cos 2 x
CASE
1 cos5 x
integrate, place sin x
/_d(smx)_ = r
cos 3 x
J COS 3 X
cos x
d (sin x)
=
/dx
J
cos x
cos2 x) 2 d(cosx)
f-*L.
Find the value of
2.
sinx
even integer. In this case
we may
evaluate
the integral by transforming the integrand by the trigonometric

formulas
Sm2 = J (1 cos 2 x),
cos x
shown
as
Ex.
3.
4-
1(1
cos2#),
in the following example.
Find the value of Ccos*xdx.
Applying the second formula above, we have

cos4 x dx
Applying
this
all
sin
x by
n a
III.
CSCX
which an
CASE
is
I.
dx
cos 2 x dx
^ C(l
cos 2 2 x a?;,
cos 4 x) dx.
we have
1 sin 2 x
finally
+ ^L sin 4 x +
negative even integer.
and cos x by
in
the integrations,
|x
CASE
formula a second time, we have
Tcos 2 2 x dx
Completing
form
In this case we replace
and proceed
SQCX
sin
integral of this type
cos"
may
C.
as in
68.
x dx. There
are
two
be readily evaluated.
Either ra or n a positive odd integer.
If
m,
for example,
a positive odd integer, we place

1
m
n
^ cos n #(sin x dx)
sin # cos # dx =
1
"
sin"
m-l
(1
cases
cos #)
cos
# d (cos
x).
TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS
-
Since by the hypothesis

that the
new
function of sin
x.
Ex.
1.
a positive integer,
it is
evident
integral can readily be evaluated.

if
Similarly,
is
125
is
an odd integer we express the integrand as a
Find the value of C Vsinx cos8 xdx.
Vsinx cos 3 xdx
= f Vsinx(l
sin 2 x)d(sinx)
C.
Sometimes when one of the exponents is a negative integer the

same method is applicable, but it is apt to lead to functions the
integration of
Ex.
2.
which
is
laborious.
Find the value of C

J cosx
2x
rsm 2 xd(s mx)
r z 2dz
- ~dx= I I
1
J cosx
J
J 1
1
sm 2 x -=/z2
/"sin
(where z
= - sm x +
CASE
II.
is
Both
- log
,
+ sin x
- sm x +
:
C.
m and n positive
even integers. In this case the

transformed into functions of 2 x by the two formulas
integrand
of the last article and the additional formula
sin
Ex.
3.
x cos x
Find the value of f sin 2 x
Placing
we have
sin 2 x cos4 x
sin 2 xcos4 x
f sin 2 x
Therefore
cos 4 x dx
= \ sin 2 x.
cos* xdx.
(sin
x cosx) 2 cos2 x,
2
^sin 2x(l
cos2x).
2
J f sin 2 x dx +
f sin 2 2 x cos 2 x dx.
Applying the same method again, we have

2
Jsin
Completing
sin x)
all
2 x dx
J*(l
the integrations,
2
ysin
x cos4 x dx
we have
T*g.
cos 4 x) dx.
finally
+ \ sin 3 2 x -
sin 4
C,
SPECIAL METHODS OF INTEGKATION
126
forms
tan n * dx and
ctn"
x dx.
Since tan x
and ctn x are reciprocals of each other, we need consider only the
case in which n is a positive quantity. Accordingly, if n is a
positive integer
we may
tan
and substituting
a?
for tan
tan #
Therefore
tann x dx
proceed as follows.
= tanw ~
its
Placing
x tan 2 ^,
"
ic
^(sec
n~2
tan
1).
x sec x dx
tan
w -1
~2
tan"
evidently applicable to the integral

1.
Find the value of

tan 5 a;
Placing
ftan 5 xd5x
we have
tan 3 x
ftan xdx
we have
~*xdx
x dx.
may
be completely evalu
The same method
ctn"
x dx.
ftan*x<tc.
tan 3 x tan 2 x
tan 3 x (sec 2 x
= f tan 3 xsec 2 xdx

=
Again, placing
It is evident that the original integral
Ex.
tan
ated by successive applications of this method.

is
we have
value in terms of SQCX,
= tanw
=
4
J tan x
1),
ftan 3 xdx
ftan 3 xdx.
tan x (sec x
1),
= Ttanxsec
2
\ tan x
log cosx
1 tan 4 x
xcZx
-J^tanxdx
C.
Hence, by substitution,
Ttan 5 xdx
Ex.
2.
Find the value
fctn 4 2xdx
ctn 2 2 x
=
=
esc 2 2 x
fctn 2 2xdx
T(csc
Hence
Tctn 4 2 x dx
ctn 2 2 x (esc 2 2 x
2
fctn 2 x
esc 2
=-
C.
1) ,
2xdx
fctn 2 2 x dx
fctn 2 2 x dx.
3
^ ctn 2 x
log cosx
2xdx.
Again, placing
we have
|ctn
ctn 4 2 x
Placing
we have
of
2
^ tan x
1,
2x - l}dx
l ctn 2 x
3
J ctn 2 x
^-
C.
ctn 2 x
C.
forms
sec"
x dx and lcsc n xdx.
consider these integrals only for the case in which
CASE
I.
If n
/
is
we
a positive even integer,
SQc
xdx =
127
is
We
an
shall
integer.
place
/
where the integrand
is
a positive integer.
In the same manner,
a rational function of tan x, since
/r
csc
Ex.
1.
we may show
xdx=
n
2
i f(l
~2
2
d(ctnx).
II.
If n
is
any
tan 2 3x)d(tan3x)
tan 3 x
(3
tan 2 3 x)
evident that the integral falls under the case of
is
replaced by
when
or
esc
is
replaced by
sin
maybe.
2.
C.
integer oilier than a positive even integer, it

65 when sec x
is
Ex.
is
Find the value of fsec 4 3xdx.
j*sec*3xdx
CASE
that
ctii ^)
(1-f
as the case
Find the value of Csecxdx.
f-
dX
-=
Jfsecxdx= J cosx
cos 2 x
d (sin x)
sin x
**
}
sin 2 x
1
/I +
= rlog(.
=
In like manner
it
may
sin x\ 2
cosx
log (sec x
- +C
/
tan x)
C.
be shown that fcscxdx
log (esc x
ctnx)
C.
128
69
Integrals of the forms
CASE
and
If n
I.
tan x sec n x dx and

777
a positive even
is
tan m x SQcn x
dx=
w
w
ctn x csc x
dx
where -
we may
integer,
ctn m x esc" x dx.
write
m
tan #(l
+ tan x)~d (tan x)
m
ctn x (1
+ ctn
x) ~*~d (ctn x),
a positive integer.
is
Zi
Ex.
Find the value of f tan* 2 x sec 4 2 x dx.
1.
4
Placing sec 2 x
f tan* 2 x
CASE
II.
If
we have
sec 2 2 x sec 2 2 x,
sec 4
2 x dx
^ f tan^ 2 x (1
i tan*2x
tan2x +
a positive odd
is
tanm # secn x
dx=
m
ctn x cscn x
dx
integer,
1
m-
2.
we
C.
place
1
sec""
^) (tan
x sec x dx)
/m-l
/m-l
n~1
ic(sec
""
(ctn
w~1
d(sec#),
1)
csc""
^) (ctn
a;
esc
# c?a;)
^(csc ^
1)
is
2
Ex.
(tan"
csc
where
"
sec
and
tan 2 2 x) d (tan 2 x)
a positive integer.
f
Find the value of Ttan 3 3 x sec* 3 x dx.
ftan 3 3 x
sec*
3xdx=
2
f(tan 3 x
sec"
3 x) (tan 3 x sec 3 x dx)
I)d(sec3x)
C.
CASE
III.
the integral
sec
cos
If
may
,
is
an even
integer
and n
is
be thrown under the cases of

.
and tan x
sin x
= --
cos x
an odd
integer,
66 by placing
70.
The
substitution
1
tan"
substitution tan -
The
= z,
or
of considerable value in the integration of

trigo
is
z,
tan=z.
129
nometric functions, since
the integrand involves only integral

of this substitu
if
powers of the trigonometric functions, the result

tion is a rational function of
= 2,
tan,,
then
sin
z.
if
For,
2 sin
x
x
cos 2
cos x
2 cos
2z
->
y>
+z
t
>
2tan
,
tan
2,
->
and
When
it is
these values for sin
x, cos
a?,
tan
x,
and d# are substituted,
evident, as stated above, that the result
Ex.
is
a rational function.
dx
Find the value of
2 cosx
Placing tan ?
*
= z,
or x
= 2 tan-
z,
we have
cos x
=_
<**
Therefore
f1
2 cos x
Z2
and dx
2dz
=
1
f_^.
J
z2
2V3
tan
= i,log
This method
t
es
C
J a
is
cos
+v^
applicable to an integral of
dx
-h b
C
J a+
dx
b
sinx
+ C.
any one
dx
of the three
C
J a cos x + b sin x
130
71. Algebraic reduction formulas.
an integral
of the
form
,.
xm (a
number, can be rationalized
was shown
if
or
is
m+1
\-
61 that
in
l^ydx, where p
m+1
It
is
a rational
zero or an
In general, however, an integral of this type is evaluated

use
of
the so-called reduction formulas, by means of which the
by
original integral is made to depend upon another integral in which
integer.
the power either of x or of the binomial a

decreased.
The four reduction formulas

x m (a
+ lxn
are
lxn
is
increased or
p dx
a
(np
r
\
+ m + l)b
(np
&*)
npa
+ m + 1)1b J
xm
(a
+ o^ydx,
(1)
Cxm (a
np
(a
lx
(m
np + m + 1 J
ydx
+ 1) a
(m
These formulas
n
m l
+ np + + + T
+
W(^ l)fl J
be verified by differentiation their deriva

tion will be given in the next article.
but in that case
Formulas (1) and (2) fail if np -\-f 1 =
may
we proved
Formula
in
61 that the integrand can be rationalized.
(3) fails if
m+1=
and in that case
also the inte
grand can be rationalized.
Formula
(4) fails
the integration
may
if
p+1=
and in that case
it is
be performed by the method of
evident that
60.
ALGEBRAIC REDUCTION FORMULAS

72. Proof of reduction formulas.
~
nbxn l dx,
bxn )
note that d(a
we
x m (a
+ bx
and integrate by
n
~,m
p dx
=-
+ bx
n
)
p nbxn - 1
and
(a
+ bx
n
)
1
= m-n+
-xm ~ n dx,
p nbx" ~ l
and
dx
dx
= dv.
+l
p+
nb
As
71,
parts, letting
= u,
du
To derive formula (1),

and accordingly place
(a
nb
4- 1
nb
Then
131
a result,
fxm (a
*_m-n+l C^- n(a

nb(p+l)J
To bring
this result into the required form, we place

~
~
n
xm n (a
bx ) (a
bxn ) p+l
xm n (a
ixm - n (a
=a
xm
~n
(a
+ btf) p dx + b
Substituting this value in (1),

I
xm (a
+ bxn p dx.
)
we have
xm (a-\-bxn ) p dx
=x
m - n+l
(a
+ bx
---m-n+l{
p+l
n
)
x m (a
It?)
Solving (2) for fat* (a

If
we
C
I
nb(p+l) \ J
nb(p+l)
+b
bxn ) p dsc
dxlp
bx")
(2)
dx,
we have formula
solve the equation defining formula (1),
and then replace
"(a
n by m, the
(1),
71.
71, for
result is formula (3),
71.
132
To derive
and xm dx
du
we
71,
(2),
= dv.
by
integrate
parts, letting (a
+ bxn p =u,
)
Then
= pnbxn ~
+ bxn
(a
p ~l
)
and
dx,
Then
/
xm (a
bxn ) p dx
m+
To bring
m+ 1J
form we place
this result into the required
=J
x m (a
+ lxn
axm (a
p
)
whence
r m+n
J
-
ir
i
/v>
_l
hyf } P dx
1
C
I
Substituting this value in
(3),
We
evaluation
evaluated
formulas.
xm (a
+ bxn
p - l dx
of
by
bxn ) p dx,
by p, the result
few
~]
-
(4)
J
x m (a
now
will
we have formula
solve the equation denning (2),
and replace p
73.
["
+ \J
we
dx
np
m+
If
we have
/m
bxn } p
bj
t>J
Solving (4) for
(a
apply
is
these
integrals.
71, for
formula
Many
substitution, without
the
of
~l
dx,
71.
formulas
these
use
71.
(2),
x m (a + bxn ) p
(4),
reduction
of
can
the
to
also
the
be
reduction
ALGEBRAIC REDUCTION FORMULAS

Ex.
Find the value of f x 3 Va2
1.
Applying formula
f x Va
mulas.
+ x 2 dx.
we make
71,
(1),
133
the given integral depend
upon
x dx, an integral which can be evaluated by the elementary for

2
-f
The work
fx
is
VoM^dx =
x 2 (a 2
x 2 )*
2
I a
x (a 2
x 2 )* dx
J"
= I x 2 (a 2 + x 2 - ^ a 2 (a 2
= TV (3 x 2 - 2 a 2 (a 2 + z 2 )*
)
Ex.
Find the value of C
2.
dx
r
J x 2 Va2 - x 2
Ex.
_ x~
a2
(a
Applying
Applying
x 2 ) 3 dx
f (a -
x2
dx
)*
dx
Va2 -
x2
a 2x
member
of (1),
a2 J
dx
-x 2
(a
2
sin-i -
x2 )*
a2 /(a 2
we have
x 2 )* dx.
(2)
+ - a 2 /f
2
==
_
(3)
X2
A/ a 2
C.
finally
(^2
x 2 )^
right-hand
we have
we have
X 2\i
2
i x (a
x2
Substituting back,
=
=
_ _ Va 2 -
dx
/*
^Va
a2
71, again,
(2),
2
and
71, to the integral in the
(2),
/(a
x2 )*
x2
x2
Applying
+C
we have
71,
(3),
C.
- dx
Find the value of f-
3.
4-
we have
71,
(3),
x2 )*
Va2 - x2
* x2
Applying
4-
//(j2 x 2
X 2~j
a2
x
C.
dx
/C/T
Applying
71,
(4),
/dx
+a
2
(x
=
2
)"
x(x
4-
a2
is
+1
)~"
"
2(-n+
_i1
This formula
is
a positive integer.
we have
the one which
l)a
T
r
2(n-l)a2
fractions.
where n
is
l(x2
2(x
+ a2
2n4-3
n+
,
-1
sometimes
dx
2
2
l)a J (x
(2n
>x
3)
a2
dx
)"-
r
J (x 2 4-a2
1
)"-
used in integrating rational
134
Ex.
If
Find the value
5.
we
xdx
of
J V2 ax -
x2
divide both numerator and denominator of the integrand by x*, it

x*
1 a form to which we can apply a reduction formula.
Apply-
becomes
V2a-x
ing
71,
(1),
we have
""
f
V
Ex.
6.
0-2
Find the value of f

^
2
Writing 2 ax
apply
=f,>(2g-
-x/O
x as
71, to
(4),
a2
dX
f^
(2 ax
~3
x2 ) 2
(2
= f
^
a)
The
2
ax
(x
advantage.
<
2
,
x2 ) 5
and noting that dx
result
(x
a) ]-
-a
a),
we
can-
MX
2
= _(x-a)[a -(x-an^ +
2
a2
= d(x
is
^ [a
(x
_ a)Tidx
V2 ax
x2
74. Trigonometric reduction formulas.
It
was proved in
67
that
n
^^ =
/tan
Similarly,
1
tan"-
71
Ct&n n
/ctn n xdx=
ctn n
Formulas
-2
xdx.
~1
~2
fctn"
x dx.
(1)
(2)
(1) and (2) are evidently reduction formulas for the

of
this particular type of integrand. There are four
integration
others
which we
shall derive,
i.e.
>
TRIGONOMETRIC REDUCTION FORMULAS

3in
sin
sin
7"-*-
cos""
*cos n *d*
//
* dx
cos"
sin
135
sin m+1 *cos"
sin
* n+2 xd*,
(4)
*cos"*
sin
7""
m1
* cos n+1 *
m+n
sin
* cos n xdx
sin m+1 a;cos n+1 ^
-s
m
These formulas are useful when
and n are
tive or negative, or zero.
xcosx
(6)
integers, either posi
(3) and (5) fail if

+ % = 0; but in that case the
can
be placed under
integral
or
(1)
(2), by expressing the integrand
in terms of tan x or ctn x. Formula
fails when
=
Formulas
formula
when
(5) fails
(4)
m+1=
tion can be performed

by the methods of
To derive (3) we place sm m x cos" xdx
and
let
As
cos"-
= u and sm m x cos xdx = dv for
cos
14 2
"
sin"
1
cos""
2
cos"-
I hen
sin
m
x(sm x
cos x dx)
integration by parts.
form we place
= sin m *(l-cos
nl
this into the

required
and
xdx
in m+1 *
To bring
66.
= cos n -
a result
/
but in these cases the

integra
*)
2
cos"-
cos"-
* dx
*=sin m *
jsin
2
cos"-
x cos n xdx.
*-sin w *cos n *
136
Substituting this value in

I
siu
mx
cos
(1),
xdx
m+
m+ 1J
Solving (2) for
sin
solve formula
By
1.
co$
smm x
~2
xdx
cos* x dx,
for
(3)
cos xdx.
we
(2)
obtain formula
r sin w ^ cos n ~ 2 ,^^
(3).
and then replace
n by n + 2, the result is formula (4).

The derivations of formulas (5) and
Ex.
r. m
sm x
m H- 1J
s*
we
nl
smm+l xcos*~ l x
If
we have
(6) are left to the student.
Find the value of fsin 3 x cos2 xdx.
formula
(5),
sin 3 x cos2 x
dx
sin x cos2 x
dx
dx
and
Therefore
sin
% cos 2 xdx,
3
^ cos x,
by the elementary
sin 2 x cos 3 x
integrals.
sin 3 x cos 2 x
1
3
2
y ^ cos x (3 sin x
of
Applying formula
and noting that
(3),
/
Applying formula
C.
fcos4 xcZx.
cos4 x dx
(3)
-f 2) -f
again,
cos 2 x dx
m=
0,
we have
sin x cos x
3
i
4 sin x cos x
sinx cos 3 x
cos 2 xdx.
/
we have
dx
sin
x cos x
-f
^ x.
Therefore, by substitution,
/cos
4x
dx
sin x
cosx
ft
4-
C.
Use of tables of integrals. In Chap. II we have evaluated

simple integrals by bringing them under the fundamental
formulas collected in
17, and in Chaps. VI and VII methods of
75.
many
dealing with more complex integrals have been discussed. But

in the solution of problems involving integration it is found that
PROBLEMS
some
integrals occur frequently.
137
If these integrals are tabulated
with the fundamental integrals, it is evident that the work of inte

gration may be considerably Lightened by reference to such a table.
Accordingly the reader
is
advised to acquire facility in the use of
a table of integrals.
No
table of integrals will be inserted here, but the reader is

referred to Professor B. 0. Peirce s
Short Table of Integrals."
"
PROBLEMS
14.
l.f-jj*L.
2.
>
-1
Vx +
r
16.
*/~T
dx
dx.
t/
4.
15
C^dx
^ x
/~
n-2)*-(,-g)_> fa
x-2i--
5.
7.
- Vl
25.
/(2
12.
-.
x 2 (3
x 8)
26.
r
|
-3x-
2x2 ) 3
sin*x cos 3 xdx.
138
+ a2
PROBLEMS
87. Find the area
139
X2
bounded by the hyperbola
88. Find the area of the loop of the curve cy
2
V
y
= I and the chord x = h.
90. Find the area of the loop of the curve 16 a 4 ?/2
+
+ y) 2
91. Find the area of a loop of the curve y 2 (a 2
92. Find the area of the loop of the curve (x
x2
a) (x
(x
x 3 (2 a
89. Find the total area of the curve a y 2

2
6)
95. Find
the
area included
).
97. Find the area
x*
x3
2 a
asymptote.
y%
cfi.
between the cissoid y 2
96. Find the area of the loop of the strophoid y 2
6).
62x 2 (a2 - 2 ax).

= x2 (a2 x 2
= y 2 (y -f 1).
W+W=
(
<
x).
93. Find the area inclosed by the four-cusped hypocycloid x*
94. Find the area inclosed by the curve
(a
^ + x)
a
and
its
bounded by the strophoid y2
and
its
asymptote,
excluding the area of the loop.

98. Find the area of a loop of the curve r
a cos n9
b sin nd.
W +W=
99. Find the entire area bounded by the curve (-
100. Find the area of the loop of the Folium of Descartes, x 3

by the use of polar coordinates.
101. Find the length of the

end of the first revolution.
spiral of
Archimedes, r
102. Find the length of the curve 8 a?y

point x
x4
= ad,
6 a2x2
1.
+ y3
3 axy
= 0,
from the pole
to the
from the origin
to the
2 a.
103. Find the volume of the solid formed by revolving about OX the figure
bounded by OX and an arch of the cycloid x = a(0
sin0), y = a (I
cos0).
104. Find the volume of the solid bounded by the surface formed by revolving the witch y
8 a3
=
x2
-|-
4 a2
about
its
asymptote.
105. Find the volume of the solid generated by revolving about the asymptote
3
= x
the plane area bounded by the curve and the asymptote.
of the cissoid y 2
A right circular cylinder of radius a is intersected by two planes, the

which is perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, and the second of
which makes an angle Q with the first. Find the volume of the portion of the
cylinder included between these two planes, if their line of intersection is tan
gent to the circle cut from the cylinder by the first plane.
106.
first
of
107.
An
ellipse
and a parabola lie in two parallel horizontal planes, the

is ft, and are situated so that a vertex of the
ellipse is
distance between which
vertically over the vertex of the parabola, the major axis of the ellipse being
parallel to and in the same direction as the axis of the parabola.
trapezoid,
140
having for its upper base a double ordinate of the ellipse and for its lower base
a double ordinate of the parabola,generates a solid, whose upper base is the
ellipse, by moving with its plane always perpendicular to the two parallel
planes.
Find the volume of the
solid, the
and the distance from the vertex
semiaxes of the
ellipse being
to the focus of the parabola being -
a and
6,
108. Find the center of gravity of the arc of the cycloid x
a(l
cos0), between the
first
two
a(0
sin0),
cusps.
109. Find the center of gravity of the plane surface bounded by the
arch of the cycloid and the axis of x.
first
110. Find the center of gravity of the plane surface bounded by the two
x 2 + ?/ 2 = a 2 and x2 + 2/ 2 - 2 ax = 0, and the axis of x.
circles,
111. Find the center of gravity of that part of the plane surface bounded
by the four-cusped hypocycloid x$ + y$
a-, which is in the first quadrant.
112. Find the center of gravity of the surface generated by the revolution
about the initial line of one of the loops of the lemniscate r2 = 2 a 2 cos 26.
CHAPTER
VIII
INTEGRATION OF SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
A differential equation is an equation which con

Such an equation can be changed into one which
contains differentials, and hence its name, but this change is usually
76. Definitions.
tains derivatives.
not desirable unless the equation contains the
first
derivative only.
and derivatives
differential
of y
equation containing x, y,
with respect to x, is said to be solved or integrated when a relation
between x and y, but not containing the derivatives, has been
found, which,
it
to
an
if
substituted in the differential equation, reduces
identity.
The manner in which differential equations can occur in prac

and methods for their integration are illustrated in the two
tice
following examples
Ex.
1.
Required a curve such that the length of the tangent from any point
with OF is constant.
to its intersection
Let P(x, y}
curve.
Then
(fig. 41) be any point on the required

the equation of the tangent at
is
where (X, Y) are the variable coordinates of a moving

point of the tangent, (x, y) the constant coordinates
of a fixed point on the tangent (the point of tangency),
and
is
Q
FIG. 41
derived from the, as yet unknown, equa
tion of the curve.
are then JT
0,
The coordinates
Y=y
of U,
where the tangent intersects OF,
-x, and the length of

dx
PR
is
-\/z
Representing by a the constant length of the tangent, we
X f~
+
,
xz (
\dx
have
Jdy\* =a
(dx)
or
dy
Va2 - x2
(1)
141
SIMPLE DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS
142
which
is
the differential equation of the required curve.
Its solution is clearly
y=
x2
-f
a
2
log
T v a2 Va2 -
x2
C.
(2)
x2
The arbitrary constant C shows that there are an infinite number of curves
which satisfy the conditions of the problem. Assuming a fixed value for C, we
see from (1) and (2) that the curve
symmetrical with respect to OF,
that x 2 cannot be greater than a2
is
and y = C when x = a,
dx
dy
becomes infinite as x
and that
that
dx.
approaches zero.
From these facts and
the defining
property the curve is easily sketched,

as shown in fig. 42. The curve is
called the tractrix
y=0
(I, p.
299).
uniform cable is sus

pended from two fixed points. Re
quired the curve in which it hangs.
Ex.
2.
Let
be the lowest
43)
(fig.
any point on the re

quired curve, and let PT be the
point,
and
tangent at P.
portion
AP
at
sion
h at
in
body acted
the
forces,
acting along
is
consider the
as a rigid
on by three
t
Since the cable
we may
equilibrium,
PT,
tension
the ten
acting horizontally,
of
acting ver
and the weight
AP
AP
is ps, where s is the

uniform, the weight of
of
unit
the
of
the
cable
of
and
Equating the
length.
per
p
weight
length
horizontal components of these forces, we have
Since the cable
tically.
is
AP
and equating the

these
h,
vertical components,
t
From
cos
sin
we have
ps.
two equations we have
dy
dx
or
where P
a,
a constant.
FIG. 43
DEFINITIONS
This equation contains three variables,
with respect to x we have (I,
105, (4))
x, y,
143
and
s,
but by differentiating
(1)
the differential equation of the required path.
To
solve (1), place
ax
= p. Then
becomes
(1)
dx
whence
log
Since ^4
Hence, in
is
(2),
(p
dp
+ Vl + p 2 ) =
0,
and we have
(2)
we know
the lowest point of the curve,
C=
C.
that
when x =
0,
p =
0.
p + Vl + p 2 = e,
_\
= -*,
whence, since
The value
x
p=
or
0.
We
dx
of
can,
we
\e"
e~
"J,
"J
4-
C depends upon
if
Ve
the position of OJT, since y

that OA = a. Then
wish, so take
OX
C =
+ C when
0,
and we
have, finally,
x
2/
the equation of the catenary
The order
(I, p.
a(
-Ve
-*\
e
/,
281).
of a differential
equation
derivative of the highest order in
it.
is
equal to that of the

(1), Ex. 1, is of the
Hence
order, and (1), Ex. 2, is of the second order.

The simplest differential equation is that of the
first
of the first
or
where
first
order and
degree in the derivative, the general form of which
Mdx + Ndy =
M and N are functions
of
x and
y, or constants.
is
(1)
SIMPLE DIFFEKENTIAL EQUATIONS
144
We
shall consider three cases in
solved.
They
are
which
When the variables can be easily

When M and N are homogeneous
1.
2.
same
this equation is readily
separated.
functions of x and y of the
degree.
When
3.
the equation
is linear.
+ Ndy =
The equation Mdx
77.
separated. If the equation
when
76, is in the
(1),
form
The solution
said that the variables are separated.
it is
the variables can be
then
is
evidently
where c is an arbitrary constant.

The variables can be separated if If and
can each be factored
into two factors, one of which is a function of x alone, and the
other a function of y alone. The equation may then be divided
which contains y multiplied by the factor of
by the factor- of
which contains x.
Ex.
Any
dy=f(x}dx.
1.
From
this follows
= C f(x) dx +
indefinite integral
c.
be regarded as the solution of a differential
may
equation with separated variables.
Vl -
Ex.2.
2
7/
dx
+ Vl -
x 2 dy
0.
This equation rnay be written

dx
VI -
dy
x2
1
sin-
whence, by integration,
a;
VI + sin-
1
?/
c.
(1)
This solution can be put into another form, thus: Let sin- 1 x =
sin- 1 ?/ =
+ = c, whence sin(0 + ^) = sine
Equation (1) is then
\j/.
is,
sin
cos
\f/
= Vl
cos
\f/
-f
cos
x2 cos
,
sin
\f/
=
Vl
&,
where k
2
?y
is
a constant.
But
sin
x, sin
and
;
\f/
that
y,
hence we have
xVl-^ + T/Vl-x ^.
2
In
(1)
and
(2)
of the differential equation.

ential equation Mdx + Ndy
constant.
the
same
(2)
we have not two
solutions, but two forms of the same solution,

It is, in fact, an important theorem that the differ
has only one solution involving an arbitrary

to meet different forms of
The student must be prepared, however,

solution.
145
THE HOMOGENEOUS EQUATION

Ex.
5.
This
(1
is
x2 )
^ + xy
ax.
readily written as
x 2 ) dy
(1
or
whence, by integration,
log (y
which
and
is
this
+ x (y
dy
~ r
- %
a)
same as
the
a) dx
x dx
--
log (1
_
-
=
_
0,
"\
x2 )
c,
log
be written
may
The homogeneous equation Mdx + Ndy = 0. A polynomial

sum of the expo
in ,c and y is said to be homogeneous when the
ax 2 + bxy + cf
Thus
same.
the
is
term
each
in
letters
nents of those
78.
+ bx*y cxf ef
homogeneous of the second degree,
a polynomial, we
such
in
homogeneous of the third degree. If,
the
n
is
where
= vx, it becomes x"f(v)
degree of the poly
place y
nomial. Thus
as *
+ C = 3*(a + bv + cv*),
ax*
is
+ lxy y*
ax* + lx*y + cxf + ef =x*(a +
lv
cv
ev
is
).
to
This property enables us to extend the idea of homogeneity
functions which are not polynomials. Representing by f(x, y)
we shall say that/(ar, y) is a homogeneous
a function of x and
y,
j^ y^ = x
since
Thus
F(v).
V^ + if = #Vl
2
0, since
log
When
W+
2
4- v
= log v = x
said to
and log x
log
of
degree
same
degree,
homogeneous
v.
of the
Mdx
= vx.
Then
dy = vdx + ^^
or
(i?)
and
+ vf
(v)
0,
this can be written

,
the differential
^ ^^ + x =
^.^ ^ +
=
[A (v) 4- t/ (r)] ^ + xf (v) dv
becomes
If /!
is
be homogeneous and can be solved as follows
Place y
tion
if,
M and N are homogeneous functions
the equation
is
if is
when we
vx,
place y
first degree,
the
of
homogeneous
function of x and y of the nth degree,
equa
0,
0.
(1)
146
where the variables are now separated and the equation may be
solved as in
If /! (v)
Ex.
(x
Place y
77.
+ vf
- y2
= vx.
= 0,
(v)
dx
becomes dv =
(1)
+ 2 xy dy =
0.
There results
v 2 ) dx
(1
2 v (x dv
we have
v dx)
0,
=
^+^
+
X
Integrating,
whence v = c and y = ex.
0,
logx
V2
log (1
v2 )
x(\ + v )
x2 + y 2
whence
or
0.
=
=
=
c,
ex.
79- The equation

(aix
biy
not homogeneous, but
is
Ci)
Place
Equation
(1)
=x +
+
+
&i2/
(agx"
now, we can determine h and k
becomes
which
is
Now
k
is
(aix
(4)
cannot be solved
(aix
if
we
+
if
Equation
b\y
-f c 2 )
dy
(1)
follows
so, as
k.
(2)
a\b 2
dx
is
&ifc
b2 k
+
+
ci
c2
(a2x
[k
(5)
(61
(3)
(H
62 2/0
= 0,
78.
fax
biy)
becomes
^X/
ttl
c2 ]
dy
ai(Zx
In this case,
+ c2
kx/ + Cg
- aik)x + &!Ci -
dx
0.
0j
in
0.
2 &i
=
=
- ci)
then of the form
(1) is
c 2 )dy
so that
dx
+ biy + ci) dx +
dx + biy = x
place
(x
which
b2 y
A,
homogeneous and can be solved as
some constant.
so that,
+ aih + &ifc + ci) dx

+ & 2 y + a^h + &2^ +
+
+
(3)
(a 2 x
becomes
(aix
If,
dx
can usually be made
it
0,
0,
0,
= k, where
1
(5)
Ol
dx
aic 2
and the variables are separated.

Hence (1) can always be solved.
80.
The
linear equation of the first order.
!;
where f^ (x) and
y, is called
of
(x)
+ /,(*)*=/,<*),
may
Q,
where
(1)
reduce to constants but cannot contain
a linear equation of the
Mdx + Ndy =
The equation
first order.
M=f (x)yf
1
(x),
It is a special case
N=
1.
LINEAR EQUATION OF THE FIRST ORDER

To
solve the equation
we
147
will try the experiment of placing
= uv,
where u and v are unknown functions of x to be determined

in any way which may be advantageous. Then (1) becomes
du
dv
au
\
or
v\
Let us
be zero.
now
We
deter mine
dv
av
+ ^ dx =/
-P
+/i(J5)^|
2 (
a5
/o\
2
\
)-
so that the coefficient of v in (2) shall
have
or
of
later
U
which the general solution
is
Since, however, all
make
we need
is
the coefficient of v in (2)
Then
log
With
this value of u, (2)
a particular function
u=
=e
which
we may take
will
0.
/, (x) dx,
(3)
(x)dx
c.
(4)
= wv,
/*
I
c.
becomes
and
Wlience, finally, since y
equal to zero,
or
(x)dx
ff^d
(5)
148
Ex.
(1
x2 )
^+
dx
x?/
ax.
Rewriting this equation as
dy
r-
dx
we
+
,
ax
- =
1-&*y
T-
1-x2
recognize a linear equation in which
Then
f/i (x)dx
Hence
=y
log
Vl -
= Vl -
x2
z2
(1
=
This example
+ Vl
eJ
and
fl(x)<lf
- log
VT^ _
Vl -
x2
+ cVl-x 2
eZx
x2 )*
2.
the same as Ex.
3,
77, showing that the methods of solving
an equation are not always mutually exclusive.
is
Bernoulli! s equation.
81.
+ /i (x) y = /2 (x) y n
The equation
made
we have
while not linear, can be
Dividing by
?/",
and placing y l ~ n
= z,
follows
so, as
and multiplying by
n,
we have
a linear equation.
That
is,
-3
y-4_,
dx
x
/
or
have now
whence
Hence
x2
dx
We
z,
where
3^2
y~ s
JCfi(x}dx
Jf^
dx
= f
J
=
=
x
Iogx3,
x*.
C(- 3x 5 )dx +
x3 J
and
v3
= --x +
2
x3
x8
CERTAIN EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND ORDER 149

82. Certain equations of the second order.
There are certain
equations of the second order, occurring frequently in practice,
which are readily integrated. These are of the four
types
:
We
>
proceed to discuss these four types in order
3 -A*
direct integration
By
This method
is
equally applicable to the equation
=/(#).
Ctd}
Ex. 1. Differential equations of this

type appear in the theory of the bend
ing of beams. Each of the forces which act on the
beam, such as the loads and
the reactions at the
supports, has a moment about any cross section of the beam
equal to the product of the force and the distance of its point of
application from
the section. The sum of these moments for all forces on
one side of a given section
is called the
bending moment at the section. On the other hand, it is shown in
the theory of
beams that the bending moment
modulus of
is
elasticity of the material of the beam,

of the cross section about a horizontal line
and
by
R is
I,
equal to
and
through
I,
the
where E, the
moment
of inertia
center, are constants,

the beam is bent Now
its
the radius of curvature of the curve into which
191,
[
where the axis of x
is
horizontal.
very small, and if we expand -
But
O
in
most cases arising
by the binomial theorem, thus
in practice
~y
is
150
neglect all terms except the
we may
bending moment
Hence the
without sensible error.
This expression equated to the bending
CIX
moment as defined above gives
We
EI^
taken to be
is
first
the differential equation of the shape of the beam.
will apply this to find the shape of a
beam uniformly loaded and sup
ported at its ends.

Let I be the distance
Take the
metry,
is
between the supports, and w the load per foot-run.

at the lowest point of the beam, which, by sym
coordinates
of
origin
at its middle point. Take a plane section C (fig. 44) at a distance x
from O and consider the forces at the
right of C. These are the load on CB
and the reaction of the support at B.
The load on
CB
w I- -
is
FIG. 44
moment
acts
of the load
is
--
is
But
which
0, c 2
therefore
beam,
^fix
dx2
-^
place
=/(, p),
p from
is
when x
0,
both y and
are 0,
we have
is
dx/
but does not contain
we
Y_^_
~iU
/Z_ x
SVS
I
since,
Hence we have
]
0.
The essential thing here
if
is
--
TVS
Hence the required equation
Hence
C.
solution of this equation
in the case of the
from
taken negative, since the load

wl
The moment
supports half the load equal to
-
EI
rl Vy_wl(l
The general
acting at
2 \2
5?
at the distance of
is
downward. The support B
of this reaction about
l__ x
2
CB, which
the center of gravity of
the
x\
?/
that the equation contains
dy
and
d 2y
>
Hence
except implicitly in these derivatives.
= p, we
which
is
have
is of
this equation,
the
^-f
first
and the equation becomes
>
-j-
order in
we can then
method has been exemplified in Ex.
p and
find
2,
a?.
If
we can
y from -^
76.
= p.
find
CERTAIN EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND OKDER 151
The
essential thing here is that the equation contains
but does not contain

<ry
= dpdpdy =
which
As
before,
we can
we
place
dp
of the first order in
is
equation,
Ex.
x.
find
p and
-~
y from
y.
If
~
and
dx
-^-=p but now

)
_*
^,
dx2
write
dp
we can
find
from this
= p.
Find the curve for which the radius of curvature at any point is equal
normal between the point and the axis of x
2.
to the length of the portion of the
The length of the radius of curvature

equation of the normal is (I,
101)
This intersects
therefore
OX at the point
(x
is
oV
-^
X
X/ J
(I,
The length
of the
192).
The
normal
y\\ 1 + ( V.
\dx/
The conditions
of the
equations
,_
problem are
/JAO -, 3
satisfied
by
either of the differential
/rfi,\ 2
(1)
or
(2)
Placing
dx
=p
whence
The solution
and
dx 2
=p
dy
in (1),
dy
of the last equation
is
whence
we have
p=
Cl
~^c
"
152
Replacing p by
This
is
Cl
we have
dx
Vy2~
dx
2
most neatly solved by the use
Cl
= x-c 2
cosh-i-
or
cosh
Cl
If
is
the equation of a catenary with
= p,
we place -^
cZz
and ^-= p -^
dx 2
dy
1
its
in (2),
dy
15)
ei
vertex at the point
(c 2 ,
we have
dp
+ p2 _ _ py -.
whence
have
This
We
of hyperbolic functions.
= ^pdp
The
is
whence
2/
Replacing
p by
we have
dx
we have
Integrating,
or
is
c2 ) 2
the equation of a circle with
7/2
2/2
its
2
8
center on
OX.
<*
>$-
If
dx.
V<
(X
This
Vc
.
we multiply both
Integrating,
sides of this equation
we have
V/
(
<
the variables, we have

whence, by separating
separa
f_
V2
dy
O
t
we have
by 2 dx
-/- dx,
CERTAIN EQUATIONS OF THE SECOND ORDER 153

Ex.
(fig.
3.
45) of
Consider the motion of a simple pendulum consisting of a particle

mass m suspended from a point C by a weightless string of length
Let the angle AGP

and let AP s. By
AP
direction
is
6,
I,
equal to
AC
where
P
I.
the vertical,
108, the force acting in the
is
but the only force
acting in this direction is the component of gravity.

of the pendulum being mg, its compo
The weight
nent in the direction
Hence the
m
We shall
sis
AP
is
treat this equation first
6,
ds
is
new
at
and
dt,
is
Then
integrating,
sin-i -
pendulum swings
arbitrary constant.
whence
where
is
on the hypothe
without sensible error.
Multiplying by 2
where a2
motion
mg sin 6.
that the angle through which the
place sin 6
mgs m6.
equal to
differential equation of the
The physical meaning
s=0;
We
value of s
hence
is
J.(t-
we have
),
this, finally,
(*-*,).
of the arbitrary constants can be given.

therefore the amplitude of the swing.
For a
is
the
When t =
which the pendulum passes through the
vertical.
will next integrate the equation
mg sin 6
without assuming that the arc of swing
by
the equation becomes
m (ft- =
so small that
it is
the time at
we may
is
we have
8in*/|
maximum
Separating the variables,
From
an arbitrary constant.
since 6
dt,
is
small.
and integrating, we have
\dt)
2 g cos 6
+ GI.
Placing
10,
multiplying
SIMPLE DIFFEKENTIAL EQUATIONS
154
now, the pendulum does not make a complete revolution around the point of
If,
support
port C,
of 6
for some value
v
which we will
Hence C
call a.
2 g cos a,
dt
and our equation becomes
whence
/
where
to is
2 (cos 6
the value of
iar form, place cos 6
have, then,
If
we measure
To bring
0.
a=
2 sin 2
22
the integral into a famil
- and
,
let
= sin
We
-sin 2 -
2
/A:
There
k sin 0.
r^
^0
results
\Q n
= = V7
* \
*"
(*
V1
^]
cos
Place, now,
2 sin 2 -
which
for
Jo
sin -
cos a)
k2 sin 2
*<>)
time from the instant in which
0,
we have
The integral can be evaluated by expanding (1 A; 2 sin 2 0)~^by the binomial

2
2
1, and a table for the value
theorem, the expansion being valid since & sin
of this series is found in B. O. Peirce s Tables, p. 118.
0<
The pendulum makes one fourth

from
a, and
as
may
If 4
to
T is
of a complete swing
when
varies
from
the time of a complete swing, then
be verified by the use of Ex.
2,
27.
PROBLEMS
Solve the following equations
x dx
+y
4. sec 2 x
y dy
+ x~
"
5.
2.
2xsinydx + cosydy =
3.
x^l + y-
dx
8.
0.
6.
+ yVl + x*dy = Q.
(
Vx2 -
y2
9. sin
x sin y dx
7.
y sin-i - dx
)
x*
dx
tan x tan y dy
0.
+ y)dx - xdy = 0.
2 dx - x
2
dy
)
(y + Vz +
(x
2/
x/
cos y cos xdy
x sin-i - dy
x
0,
0.
0.
to
PROBLEMS
10.
y cos - ) dx
x sin X
11. \Q x
12. (2 y
x)
_j_
15. (x
2/)
dx
dy
(x
?/
dx
3)
y dx)
x2
3 xy) dx
13.
X/
x cos - dy
X
0.
\e x
x) x
+ (3
+ (2 x -
+
dy
- 1) dy =
xy
e
2
2/ )
14.
16.
155
dx
= 0.
0.
0.
35. _^
dy
dx
\-
17. (x
1)
(x
1)
dy
36.
sin x.
dy
dx
?/
= x2
dx
0.
^ - ay =
e<
dx
2y
37.
sin ax.
18.
dx 2
19.
-ycos)dx +
x
(x-ycosî
dy
20. x
dx
23.
xex
x2 y) dx
d.x
24.
x2
40
y -^
dx 2 dx
41
dy
39.^ =
+ (x xy 2 dy = 0.
Vx 2 + y 2 dx = 0.
+
ydx
xdy
21. (y
22.
xcos-cfy
x
d *V
^_
dx
x.
25.
dx
x2
y tan x
x2
sin 2 x.
26.
27. _fL
28.
_|
x2
dx
dy_tf
dx
dx 2
dx
29.
dx
30.
dx
31.
32. (x 2 \/z 3 4- y 3
33.
dy
)dx
-f x?/
dy = 0.
49
x !l^__Li)^
dx 2
ex
dx
3
7/
dx 2
34. 3
dx
dx2
dx/dx
156
52. Solve
u&
53. Solve
and
^-
=-
2
7/
under the hypothesis that when x
- sin 2
y,
1,
and
dx
under the hypothesis that when x
1,
0.
1.
dx
= sin 2
54. Solve
dx 2
55. Solve 2
dx 2
56. Solve
dx 2
?/,
under the hypothesis that when y
under the hypothesis that
=
dx
0,
-dx
when y =
= y+ 1, under the hypothesis that when x = 2, y =
<x>.
and
5 7. Find the curve in which the slope of the tangent at any point
the slope of the straight line joining the point to the origin.
1.
dx
is
n times
58. Find the curve in which the chain of a suspension bridge hangs, assuming
is proportional to its projection on a horizontal line.
that the load on the chain
59. Find the curve in which the angle between the radius vector and the
is n times the vectorial angle.
tangent
of
60. Find the curve such that the area included between the curve, the axis
a fixed ordinate, and a variable ordinate is proportional to the variable
cc,
ordinate.
Show
61.
the curve
is
that, if the
normal
to a curve
always passes through a fixed point,
circle.
62. Find the curve in which the length of the portion of the normal between
is proportional to the square of the ordinate.
the curve and the axis of x
63. Find the curve in which the perpendicular from the origin
is equal to the abscissa of the point of contact.
upon the
tangent
64. Find the curve in
which the perpendicular upon the tangent from the
foot of the ordinate of the point of contact
is
constant.
65. Find the curve in which the length of the arc from a fixed point to any
is proportional to the square root of the abscissa of P.
point
66. Find the curve in which the area bounded
a fixed ordinate, and a variable ordinate

arc which is part of the boundary.
67. Find the deflection of a
is
by the curve, the axis of x,

proportional to the length of the
beam loaded
at one end
and weighted
at the
other.

beam
fixed at one
beam loaded
end and uniformly loaded.
at its center
and supported at
its
ends.
70. Find the curve
71.
Find the curve
whose radius of curvature

in
the cube of the length of
is
constant.
which the radius of curvature at any point varies as

the normal between that point and the axis of x.
PROBLEMS
157
72.
particle moves in a straight line under the influence of an attracting
force directed toward a fixed point on that line and varying as the distance from
the.
point.
Determine the motion.
73.
74.
Find the velocity acquired by a body sliding down a curve without

under the influence of gravity.
particle moves in a straight line under the influence of an attracting

force directed toward a point on the line and varying inversely as the square of
the distance from that point. Determine the motion.
friction,
75. Assuming that gravity varies inversely as the square of the distance from
the center of the earth, find the velocity acquired by a body falling from infinity
to the surface of the earth.
CHAPTEE IX
more than one variable. A quantity z is said
a function of two variables, x and y, if the values of z are
determined when the values of x and y are given. This relation is
83. Functions of
to be
= F(x, y), etc.

expressed by the symbols z =f(x, y), z
u
of
three
is
a
function
x, y, and
variables,
Similarly,
u
values of
This relation
given.
= F(x,
Ex.
its
1.
is
the values of
x, y,
z, if
and
the
z are
expressed by the symbols u =f(x,
y, z),
y, z), etc.
If r is the radius of the
base of a circular cone, h
its altitude,
and
2
volume, v = ^ Trr h, and v is a function of the two variables, r and h.
Ex. 2. If /denotes the centrifugal force of a mass m revolving with a velocity
v in a circle of radius r,
u,
when
are determined
and r.
Ex. 3. Let
and p
its
/=
v denote a
pressure.
and
/ is
a function of the three variables, m,
volume of a perfect
Then
where k
is
gas,
written in the three equivalent forms

of the quantities,
_p, v,
and
is
its
p = k-,
k-,
absolute temperature,
This equation
a constant.
t
-pt>,
may
be
by which each
explicitly expressed as a function of the other two.
function of a single variable is denned explicitly by the equa

y =f(x), and implicitly by the equation F(x, y) = 0. In either
case the relation between x and y is represented graphically by
tion
a plane curve.
denned explicitly
two variables may be

by the equation z=f(x y), or implicitly by the
Similarly, a function of
t
= 0. In either case the graphical representa

equation F(x y, z)
tion of the function of two variables is the same, and may be
t
made by introducing the conception
of space coordinates.
To locate a point in
in
coordinates
space.
Rectangular
three number scales,
assume
of
we
three
dimensions,
space
may
ZZ
mutually perpendicular, and having their
84.
XX YY
(fig. 46),
zero points coincident at 0.
,
They
158
will determine three planes,
XOY, YOZ, ZOX,
two.
The planes
lines,
XX YY
,
each of which
is
159
perpendicular to the other
are called the coordinate planes, and the three

and ZZ , are called the axes of x, y, and z
respectively, or the coordinate axes,

origin of coordinates.
and the point
is
called the
and through P pass planes perpen

and ZZ intersecting them at
the points L, M, and
respectively. Then
if we place x
OL, y = OM, and z = ON,
as in I,
16, it is evident that to any
there
point
corresponds one, and only one,
and that to
set of values of x, y, and z
any set of values of x, y, and z there cor
responds one, and only one, point. These
values of x, y, and z are called the coordi
nates of the point, which is expressed as
Let
be any point in space,
dicular respectively to
XX YY
,
P(x,
y, z).
From
and
the definition of x
it
follows that x
direction, to the distance of the point
plane YOZ.
equal, in
magnitude
from the
coordinate
is
Similar meanings are evident for y and
z.
It follows
that a point may be plotted in several different ways by construct

ing in succession any three nonparallel edges of the parallelepiped
(fig. 46) beginning at the origin and ending at the point.
In case the axes are not mutually perpendicular, we have a system of oblique
In this case the planes are passed through the point parallel to the
coordinate planes. Then x gives the distance and the direction from the plane
coordinates.
YOZ
to
to the point,
y and
z.
measured parallel
to
OX, and
similar meanings are assigned

a special case of oblique
It follows that rectangular coordinates are
coordinates.
85.
Graphical representation of a function of two variables.

y) be any function of two variables, and place
,
Then the locus of all points the coordinates of which satisfy (1) is
the graphical representation of the function f(x, y}. To construct
this locus we may assign values to x and y, as x
x l and y
y lt
and compute from
(1)
the corresponding values of
z.
There will
160
be, in general, distinct values of
function, their
on a
pi( x
number
line parallel to
lie
z,
and
OZ
if
(1) defines
an algebraic
The corresponding
will be finite.
XOY
and intersecting
points all
at the point
an d these points alone of this line are

points of the locus,
and the portions of the line between them do not
belong to the
locus. As different values are
assigned to x and y new lines
parallel to OZ are drawn on which there are, in general, isolated
i>
2/i)>
points of the locus.
It follows that the locus has extension in

only two dimensions, i.e. has no thickness, and is, accordingly, a
surface.
Therefore the graphical representation
of a function of
two variables is a surface.*
If
f( x y)
is
>
indeterminate for particular values of x and

OZ lies entirely on the locus.
y,
the
corresponding line parallel to
Since the equations z =f(x, y} and

F(x, y,z)=Q are equivalent,
their graphical representations are the same, it follows that
and
the locus
of any single equation in
x, y,
and
z is
There are apparent exceptions to the above theorem,

surface shall have real existence. Thus, for
example,
x2
is satisfied
by no
Moreover,
For
it
is satisfied
axis of z
z2
=-
if
we demand
that the
It is
convenient in such cases,
"
imaginary
may happen
give points which

example, the equation
may
real values of the coordinates.
however, to speak of
tion
a surface.
surfaces."
that the real coordinates which satisfy the equa

upon a certain line, or are even isolated points.
lie
x2
in real coordinates only
while the equation
x2
v2
by the points
2
_i_
zz
(0, 0, z)
which
lie
upon the
is satisfied, as far as real points

go, only by (0, 0, 0). In such cases it is still con
venient to speak of a surface as represented by the
equation, and to consider
the part which may be actually constructed as the real part of that surface. The
imaginary part is considered as made up of the points corresponding to sets of

complex values of x, y, and z which satisfy the equation.
The appearance of any surface can be thus determined from

equation by assigning values to any two of the coordinates and
86.
its
computing the corresponding values of the third. This method,

however, has practical difficulties. In place of it we may study
* It is to be noted that this method of
graphically representing a function cannot
be extended to functions of more than two variables, since we have but three dimen
sions in space.
any surface by means
of the sections of the surface
161
made by planes
If, for example, we place z

parallel to the coordinate planes.
the equation of any surface, the resulting equation in x and
in
y is
from
the
surface
cut
curve
of
the
the
by
plane
equation
evidently
the plane XOY. Again, if we place z = z l9 where z l is some fixed
finite value, the resulting equation in x and y is the equation of
the plane curve cut from the surface by a plane parallel to the
new
plane XOY and z^ units distant from it, and referred to
and O Y which are the intersections of the plane z = z

with the planes XOZ and YOZ respectively for by placing z = z
instead of z = 0, we have virtually transferred the plane XOY,
axes
through the distance z r

In applying this method it is advisable to find
=
plane sections made by the coordinate planes x
parallel to itself,
first
0,
the three
y=
0, z
0.
These alone will sometimes give a general idea of the appearance

but it is usually desirable to study other plane sec
tions on account of the additional information that may be derived.
of the surface,
The following
it is
surfaces have been chosen for illustration because
important that the student should be familiar with them.
Ex.
1.
Ax + By +
Placing z
+D=
Cz
we have
0,
(fig.
0.
47)
Ax + By + D =
0.
Hence the plane XOY

Placing
and then x = 0, we find the sections of this surface made by the planes
and YOZ to be respectively the straight lines
cuts this surface in a straight line.
Ax +
By +
and
Placing z
Zi,
Cz
+D=
+D=
0,
(2)
0.
(3)
0,
(4)
ZOX
we have
Ax + By +
which
Cz
(1)
y=
Czi
+D=
the equation of a straight line in the

plane z = z\. The line (4) is parallel to the
is
line (1), since
they
make
the angle tan- 1
&X
OX
and lie in
parallel planes. To find the point where (4) intersects the plane XOZ, we place
shows that this point is a point of the
y = 0, and the result Ax + Cz\ + D =
linn (2). This result is true for all values of z\. Hence this surface is the locus
with the parallel lines
and
162
of a straight line
which moves along a fixed straight
parallel to a given initial position
Since the equation
Ex.
= ax 2 + by z where
z = 0, we have
2.
Placing
and hence the
hence
it is
line
always remaining
a plane.
Ax + By+ Cz + D =
we have proved
three coordinates,
XOY plane
is the most general linear equation in

that the locus of every linear equation is a plane.
>
ax2
0, 6
>
by
0.
0,
(1)
cuts the surface in a point
(fig.
we have
which
0,
(2)
axis along OZ.
0,
Plac
we have
which
ax ^
the equation of a pa
with its vertex at
its
ing x
is
rabola
and
Placing y
48).
by
(3)
also the equation of a

parabola with its vertex at
and
is
its
axis along OZ.
Placing z = z\, where z\ 0,

we may write the resulting equa
>
tion in the
form
which is the equation of an ellipse

i
with semiaxes
-\
and
As
the plane recedes from the

origin, i.e. as z\ increases, it is
evident that the ellipse increases
FlG 48
-
If
we
place z
and hence there
The surface
Zi,
is
is
in magnitude.
the result
no part of
may be written
this surface
in the
form
x2
Zl
y2 =
-\
1,
Zi
on the negative side of the plane XOY.

and evidently may be generated by
called an elliptic paraboloid,
ellipse of variable magnitude always parallel to the plane XOY, the

axes always lying respectively on the parabolas z = ax2 and z = by 2
While the appearance of the surface is now completely determined, we shall,
nevertheless, find it of interest to make two more sections. In the first place, we
moving an
ends of
its
note that both the coordinate planes through OZ cut the surface in parabolas
and their axes along OZ, and hence arises the question,
with their vertices at
Do
all
planes through
To answer
OZ
cut the surface in parabolas ?

we shall make a transformation of coordinates by
this question
XOZ
through an angle
revolving the plane
,
of transformation will be
x = x cos _
x sin
<
<
about
y, sin
0>
OZ as an axis. The
formulas
163
for z will not be changed at all, and x and y will be changed in the
ner as in I,
115. The transformed equation is
z
Placing y
which
0,
a (x cos
we have
y sin 0) 2
<f>
(a
cos 2
+ b (x sin +
+ b sin 2 0) z 2
y cos 0) 2
same man
(5)
a parabola with its vertex at

and its axis along OZ. But by chang
we can make the plane
OZ any plane through OZ, and hence every
ing
and its
plane through OZ cuts this surface in a parabola with its vertex at
axis along OZ.
is
we will place
and write the result
ing equation in the form
Finally,
=.
y\
which
is
the equation of a
its axis par
parabola with
OZ and
to
allel
its
at a distance by*
plane
vertex
from the
XOY.
Ex .S.
a2
Placing z
_
&2
0,
=
c2
we have
which
y
0,
is
FIG. 49
(1)
a2
the equation of an ellipse with semiaxes a and 6
we have
(fig.
Placing
49).
22
OX
which
its
is the equation of an hyperbola with its transverse axis

along
conjugate axis along OZ. Placing x = 0, we have
(3)
62
which
its
and
is the equation of an hyperbola with its transverse axis

along
conjugate axis along OZ.
If we place z =
z\ and write the resulting equation in the form
OY and
.1
OM 1 +
we
see that the section
is
an
(4)
-=.
ellipse
with semiaxes a
c2
>
c2
which accordingly increases in magnitude as the cutting plane recedes from

the origin, and that the surface is symmetrical with respect to the
plane JTOF,
the result being independent of the sign of
z\.
FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL. VARIABLES
164
Accordingly this surface, called the unparted hyperboloid or the hyperboloid

may be generated by an ellipse of variable magnitude moving
and with the ends of its axes always lying
always parallel to the plane
of one sheet,
XOY
on the hyperbolas
now we
If
62
revolve the plane
x cos
the transformed equation

/
(x
and
c2
a2
cos0
-y
XOZ
about
OZ
as
an axis by making the trans-
x sin
sin0
y cos0) 2
sin 0,
1.
c2
y cos 0,
is
/
sin0)
(x
z2
_
"
a2
= 0, we
Placing ,
62
have
"c
,_
1,
(6)
and have thus proved that the section made by any plane through OZ
hyperbola with
we
Finally,
is
an
conjugate axis along OZ.

place y =
y, and write the resulting equation in the form
its
?_ 2l-l_^l
~
a2
whence we
see that the surface
To
discuss the equation further

the value of y im
If yi
<
6,
we put
is
c2
52
symmetrical with respect to the plane XOZ.

shall have to make three cases according to
we
the equation in the form
*!
(-I) -(-59
which
2 a
the equation of an hyperbola with
is
- and
parallel to
OX. Hence
its
transverse axis equal to
the vertices will approach coincidence
as the cutting plane recedes from the origin.

If y\ = 6, the equation may be put in the form
which
is
If yi
the equation of two straight lines which intersect on

6, we write the equation in the form
OY.
>
*"
1.
which
is
the
equation of an hyperbola with
its
transverse axis equal to
Ca
2 c
V-l
v-- -
and parallel
to 0:
OZ.
plane recedes from the origin.
Hence the
vertices separate as the cutting
165
.?*"-*
This surface
cone, with
its
OZ
(fig.
50)
its
axis
as
is
and
vertex at 0.
This surface
(fig.
51)
62
c2
is
the
ellipsoid.
Ex
This surface
(fig.
52) is the
biparted hyperboloid or the hy

perbola-id of two sheets.
The discussions
~Fio.
50
of the last
and for
three surfaces are very similar to that of the unparted hyperboloid,

that reason they have been left to the student.
Ex.
7.
Placing z
ax 2
= 0, we
by
2
,
where a
>
ax 2
i.e.
two straight
0, b
0.
>
obtain the equation
by
0,
lines intersecting at the origin
the equation of a parabola with
its
ax 2
(1)
(fig.
Placing y
53).
0,
we have
(2)
vertex at
and
axis along the positive

direction of OZ.
its
= 0, we
Placing x
have
z
=-
by
(8)
the equation of a pa
rabola with its ver
tex at
O and
its
axis
along the negative

direction of OZ.
Placing x
Xi,
we have
z
ax?
by
2
,
FIG. 51
b
a parabola with
the plane
XOY.
its
axis parallel to
It is evident,
OZ and
its
vertex at a distance ax* from
moreover, that the surface
is
symmetrical with
respect to the plane FOZ, and that the vertices of these parabolas, as different
values are assigned to xi, all lie on the parabola z = ax 2
.
166
Hence
this surface
may
be generated by the parabola z=-by2 moving

2
FOZ, its vertex lying on the parabola z = ax
parallel to the plane
always
The surface
called the
is
hyperbolic paraboloid.
Finally, placing z = Zi,
where
z\
zi
an
>
we have
0,
ax
by 2
with
hyperbola
transverse
its
axis
parallel
increasing in
OX and
length as the cutting
plane recedes from the
to
origin.
If
--
zi,
we may
write the equation in the
form
JV-
1,
an hyperbola with
its
(0)
transverse axis parallel to

from the origin.
as the cutting plane recedes
/r\
OF and
increasing in length
Ex.
As
XOY
8.
167
kxy.
the algebraic sign of the constant k merely shows which side of the plane
we take as the positive side, we will assume fc>0, and discuss the surface
on that hypothesis.
= 0, we have xy = 0, which is the equation of the axes OX and OF.
Placing y = 0, or x = 0, we have z = 0, and gain no new information about
(fig.
54)
Placing z
the surface.
Placing z
z\,
where
an hyperbola referred to
we have the hyperbola
z\
its
0,
>
we have
asymptotes as axes
(I,
117, Ex.).
Placing z
z,
XOY
Hence all sections made by planes parallel to

are hyperbolas with OX
and OF as their asymptotes, and lying in the first and the third quadrants or in
the second and the fourth quadrants according as the cutting plane is on the
positive or the negative side of the
Placing x
Xi,
where x\
>
0,
XOY plane.
we have
z
which
kx iy
Similarly, placing y
y\,
=-
where y\
z
>
kxiy.
0,
(3)
the equation of a straight line intersecting

plane FOZ. If x =
Xi, we have the straight line
is
OX
and
parallel to the
(4)
we have
fc?yiz,
(6)
168
which
is
ZOX.
OF and parallel to the plane
the equation of a straight line intersecting

we have the straight line
y =
?/i,
If
(6)
As
the cutting plane recedes from the origin
it is
evident that these straight
about OX and OY respectively as they move along them, but

remain
parallel to the planes YOZ and ZOX respectively.
always
lines revolve
XOZ
Finally, we will revolve the plane

OZ as an axis, the transformed equa
about
tion being
cos0).
?/
Placing y
we have
0,
kx
cos0
sin 0, (7)
the equation of a parabola

with its vertex at and its
axis along OZ.
Hence
all
planes through OZ cut this

surface in parabolas with
their axes along OZ.
The surface is a special

case of the hyperbolic pa
for if
raboloid of Ex. 7
;
we keep OZ
swing OX
in its original position
and
OY into
the formulas of
FIG. 55
assumes the form z
4ab
a
but
if
sidered,
a, the
where k
xy.
117,
I,
and
by
and choose the
positions
as in the illustrative example of

angle
2
that article, the equation z = ax2
by
Here the coordinates are oblique unless b = a
;
coordinates are rectangular and
new
we
have the case just con
2 a.
of this surface on which the coordinates are all positive shows

relations between the pressure, the volume, and the tempera
the
graphically
ture of a perfect gas ( 83, Ex. 3). This part of the surface is shown in fig. 55.
The portion
87. Surfaces of revolution.
If the sections of a surface
made
are circles with

by planes parallel to one of the coordinate planes
is
which
of
coordinates
axis
on
the
their centers
perpendicular to the
revolution (37) with that

cutting planes, the surface is a surface of
coordinate axis as the axis of revolution. This will always occur
=
the equation of the surface is in the form F^x^+y*, z )
the
in
which means that the two coordinates x and y enter only
when
combination
>
^x + y
2
2
;
for
if
we
place z
=z
in this equation to
CYLINDEES
169
find the corresponding section, and solve the resulting equation for
2
e have, as a result, the equation of one or more circles,
aj -f
y*
according to the
number
of roots of the equation in
x2 + y 2
the equation F(y, z) = 0,

which is the equation of the generating curve in the plane YOZ.
= 0, we have F(x z) = 0, which is the
Similarly, if we place y
XOZ. It should be
equation of the generating curve in the plane
noted that the coordinate which appears uniquely in the equation
shows which axis of coordinates is the axis of revolution.
we
if
Again,
x=
place
we have
0,
=
Conversely, if we have any plane curve F(x, z)
XOZ, the equation of the surface formed by revolving
an axis
is
F(^/x?+ y
x in the equation
Ex.
,
Show
1.
z)
0,
which
of the curve
is
in the plane
about OZ as
formed by simply replacing
V# + y
2
by
it
that the imparted hyperboloid
a2
2
.
-^L +
2
o
1 is
a surface of
a2
revolution.
equation in the form
this
Writing
a2
we
see that
it is
Placing z
a surface of revolution with
0,
we have - -
The hyperbola was revolved about

Ex.
y
2.
= 4tpx
= 1,
its
OF as the axis.
an hyperbola, as the generating
curve.
conjugate axis.
Find the paraboloid of revolution generated by revolving the parabola

about
its axis.
Replacing y by ~Vy
b*
z2
we have
as the equation of the required surface
4px.
= 0,
given equation is of the form F(x, y)
involving only two of the coordinates, it might appear to represent
a curve lying in the plane of those coordinates. But if we are
88.
Cylinders.
If a
dealing with space of three dimensions, such an interpretation would

be incorrect, in that it amounts to restricting z to the value 2
0,
any simultane
ous values of x and y satisfying the equation F(x, y} =
may be
anything whatever. Hence, corresponding to every point of the
curve F(x, y}
in the plane XO Y, there is an entire straight line,
whereas, in fact, the value of z corresponding to
parallel to
OZ, on the surface F(x y)

t
0.
Such a surface
is
170
in the
cylinder, its directrix being the plane curve F(x, y)
the
axis
of the
to
and
its
2
elements
OZ,
0,
being
parallel
plane
coordinate not present.
= a* is the equation of a circular cylinder,

elements
its
being parallel to OZ, and its directrix being the circle
2
=
a
in
the plane XOY.
x*+
2
In like manner, z = ky is a parabolic cylinder with its elements
2
For example, x -f-
2/
parallel to
If only
OX.
one coordinate
present in the equation, the locus
is
is
2
=Q
(a + l}x + ab
planes. For example, the equation x
=
which
form
in
the
written
be
0,
represents
I)
a) (x
(x
may
a =
I = 0. Similarly, any equation
and x
the two planes x
number of
involving only one coordinate determines values of that coordinate

only and the locus is a number of planes.
Regarding a plane as a cylinder

straight line,
we may
of
which the
directrix is a
say that any equation not containing all the
coordinates represents a cylinder.

If the axes are oblique, the elements of the cylinders are not
perpendicular to the plane of the directrix.
89. Space curves. The two surfaces represented respectively by
the equations /x (x, y,z)=Q and /2 (x, y, z)=Q intersect, in general,
in a curve, the coordinates of every point of which satisfy each of
the equations. Conversely, any point the coordinates of which

satisfy these equations simultaneously is in their curve of inter
section.
in
x, y,
Hence, in general,
z is a curve.
In particular,
is
the locus
of two simultaneous equations
the two
simultaneous linear equations,
and
a straight
the locus
line,
since
of
it
is
the line of intersection of the two
planes respectively represented by the two equations.

= 0, fz (x, y, z) = 0,
If, in the equations f^(x, y, z}
we
assign a
value to one of the coordinates, as x for example, there are two

equations from which to determine the corresponding values of
y and z, in general a determinate problem. But if values are
assigned to two of the coordinates, as x and y, there are two
SPACE CURVES
171
a single unknown z, a prob

equations from which to determine
is only one independent
there
Hence
lem generally impossible.
variable in the equations of a curve.
the independent variable and place

the equations of the curve in the form y = <M#) z = $z( x by
curve for y and z in terms
solving the original equations of the
In general, we
may make x
}>
of x.
The new
are cylinders
tively.
= fa (x), z = 2 (x), determining the curve,

elements parallel to OZ and OY respec
with
88),
surfaces, y
<
= ^(z)
The equation y
interpreted in the plane
XOY is
the equation of the projection ( 92) of the curve on that plane.

in the plane ZOX, is
2 (x), interpreted
Similarly, the equation z
<
the equation of the projection of the curve on that plane.

In particular, if we solve the equations
for
y and
z in
terms of
x,
we have two
= px + q,
as the equations of the
same
equations of the form
= rx +
s,
straight line that
was represented by
the original equations.
any variable parameter, and we make x a function

of t, as x=fl (t), and substitute this value of x in the equations
y ==&(*), * = &(*) (89), we have
90. If
is
*=A(0>
y =/,(
*=/.(
),
)>
as the parametric equations of the curve.
More
generally, the three equations
in
represent a curve, the equations of which may be generally put
t from the first and
the form y = $ 1 (x),z
eliminating
2 (#), by
<
the second equations, and from the
first
and the third equations.
Ex. The space curve, called the helix, is the path of a point which moves
around the surface of a right circular cylinder with a constant angular velocity
and at the same time moves parallel to the axis of the cylinder with a constant
linear velocity.
172
FUNCTIONS OF SEVEEAL VARIABLES
Let the radius of the cylinder (fig. 66) be a, and let its axis coincide with
and the constant linear velocity
OZ. Let the constant angular velocity be
be v. Then if 6 denotes the angle through
which the plane Z OP has swung from its
o>
initial position
ZOX,
any point P (x, y,

by the equations
x
a cos
But
wt,
0,
the coordinates of
z) of the helix are
a sin
0,
given
vt.
and accordingly we may have
as the parametric equations of the helix
x
t
a cos u,
sin at,
vt,
being the variable parameter.

r\
Or, since
we may
a cos 0,
where k
91.
FIG. 56
of ruled surfaces,
and
a sin
regard 6 as
and the equa
the variable parameter,

tions are
0,
Ruled surfaces.
is
kd,
the constant -
surface
generated by a mov
ing straight line is called a ruled
surface. The plane, the cone, and
\vhich
may be
the cylinder are simple examples

8 6, Ex. 8, it was shown that the hyper
in
bolic paraboloid is a ruled surface.
Ex. 1. Prove that the ruled surface generated by a straight line which
moves so as to intersect two fixed straight lines not in the same plane and at
the same time remain parallel to a fixed plane is an hyperbolic paraboloid.
Let the fixed straight lines have the equations y = 0, z = 0, and y = c, z = kx,
and let YOZ be the fixed plane, the axes of coordinates being oblique. Then the
= mz is a straight line which is parallel to the plane YOZ
straight line x = a, y
and intersects the line y = 0, z = 0, for all values of a and m. If this line
intersects the line
the required line are x
c,
z
a,
=
y
kx, evidently
z.
Any
Therefore the equations of
values of x, y, z which satisfy these
ka
k
c
equations satisfy their product xy = -z, or z = -xy. Hence the line always
^
k
lies on the surface z = -xy, an hyperbolic paraboloid ( 86, Ex. 8).
z2
x2
y2
= lisa ruled sur
Ex. 2. Prove that the unparted hyperboloid ~^+^
^
face having two sets of rectilinear generators,
two straight
lines
may be drawn, each
of
i.e.
which
that through every point of it

on the surface.
shall lie entirely
RULED SURFACES
If
we
173
write the equation of the hyperboloid in the form

T2
72
? /2
I-?- 1 -*
it is
evident that (1)
is
<
the product of the two equations
any value of ki. But (2) are the equations of a straight line ( 89). More
over, this straight line lies entirely on the surface, since the coordinates of every
point of it satisfy (2) and hence (1). As different values are assigned to k\, we
for
obtain a series of straight lines lying entirely on the surface.
Conversely,
if
PI (xi,
yi z\)
t
is
any point
of
(1),
Therefore PI determines the same value of ki from both equations

every point of (1) lies in one and only one line (2).
We may
also regard (1) as the product of the
(2).
Hence
two equations
(3)
whence
it is
evident that there
the surface, one

the surface.
and only one
is
a second set of straight lines lying entirely on

which may be drawn through any point of
of
Equations (2) and (3) are the equations of the rectilinear generators, and
every point of the surface may be regarded as the point of intersection of one
line from each set.
Ex. 3. The conoid (Ex. 52, p. 83) is evidently a ruled surface, since it is gen
erated by a straight line moving always parallel to a given plane and at the
same time intersecting a given curve and a given straight line.
Ex.
4.
Another example of a ruled surface
is
the cylindroid,
i.e.
the surface
generated by a straight line moving parallel to a given plane and touching two
given curves.
Ex. 5. Show that the prismoidal formula ( 39) applies to the volume
bounded by a ruled surface and two parallel planes.
The equations x = pz + q, y = rz + s represent a straight line. If p, q, r, and
s are
functions of a single independent parameter
surface.
the line generates a ruled
174
If
we
place z
we have x
0,
tion of the ruled surface
have x
= pzi +
section
is
q,
by the plane
= s, the parametric equations of

XOY. Similarly, if we place z
the sec
Zi,
we
the parametric equations of a section parallel to

XOY. Suppose now when t varies trom t to ^, the straight-line generator of
the surface traverses the perimeter of the section z = z\. Then the area of this
g,
rzi
s,
dp
t
dt
r tl da
dq
^+ ^
r
dt
Jto \
dt
dt
Jt
is a quadratic polynomial in z\.

Hence the prismoidal formula holds for
a portion of a ruled surface bounded by parallel planes.
The prismoid itself is a special case of such a surface.
This
PROBLEMS
1.
Show
constants,
faces /i (cc,
that the surface lfi(x,
z)
?/,
is
a surface passing through
T/,
z)
+ fc/2 (x,
all
?/,
z)
where
0,
common
the points
and k are
two sur
to the
= 0, and meeting them at no other points.

3
=
a
xyz
by means of plane sections.
=
surface z
a
Vx 2 + y* is a cone of revolution, and find
and /2
(x, y, z)
2. Discuss the surface

3.
its
Show
that the
vertex and axis.

4.
Prove that the surface ax
by
-f-
z*
cz 2 is a cylindroid,
and discuss
its
plane sections.
+ y*
5.
Discuss the surface x
6.
Prove that the surface (ax
6y)
z%
a?
by means
cz
is
of plane sections.
a cylindroid, and discuss
its
plane sections.
7.
Discuss the surface x
-f
y%
eft
by means
of plane sections.
Find the equation of a right circular cylinder which

plane XOZ and has its axis in the plane YOZ.
is
tangent to the
Find the equation of a right circular cylinder which

and XOY.
is
tangent to the
8.
9.
planes
XOZ
10. Describe the locus of the equation z

11. Describe the locus of the equation
2y 2
12. Describe the locus of the equation (ax

13.
ellipse revolving
as
its axis.
15.
Find the equation
of
by)
=
3
0.
0.
c 2z 2
0.
the surface generated
by
a biparted hyperboloid of revolution with
OY
Find the equation of the prolate spheroid,

its major axis.
revolving an ellipse about
I)
5y
Find the equation of the oblate spheroid,

about its minor axis.
an
14.
(y
i.e.
i.e.
the surface generated
by
PROBLEMS
16.
175
Find the equation of the surface generated by revolving the parabola

about OF as an axis.
= 4px
17.
Find the equation of the ring surface generated by revolving about

+ (y - b) 2 = a 2 where a 6.
the circle x2
18.
xy
OX
<
Write the equation of the surface generated by revolving the hyperbola

about either of its asymptotes as an axis.
Find the equation of the surface formed by revolving the four-cusped

8
an axis.
hypocycloid x + y* =a* about OF as
19.
+ (y2 + z 2 )* = a* ?
x 2 + z 2 - y6 = ?
20.
What
surface
is
represented by the equation x*
21.
What
surface
is
represented by the equation
22.
What
the
is
line
represented
2
by the equations y
- 6x =
z2
a2 and y
0,
z-3=0?
23.
is
an
Show
2
that the line of intersection of the surfaces x
(Rotate the axes about
ellipse.
OX through 45.)
24. Show that the projections of the skew cubic x = t, y = P, z = t* on the

coordinate planes are a parabola, a semicubical parabola, and a cubical
parabola.
- a cos0, y = asinfl, z = kd
25. Prove that the projections of the helix x
and YOZ are sine curves, the width of each arch of
on the planes
XOZ
which
is
k-rr.
26. Prove that the projection of the curve x

the plane
XOY
is
y=e~
e{ ,
= tV%,
on
an equilateral hyperbola.
27. Turn the plane XOZ about OZ as an axis through an angte of 45, and
e~ z = t V2 on the new
show that the projection of the curve x = e, y
f
XOZ plane
28.
a catenary.
is
Show
that the curve x
2
,
1,
is
a plane section of a para
bolic cylinder.
29. Prove that the skew quartic x = t, y = 3 z = t* is the intersection of

an hyperbolic paraboloid and a cylinder the directrix of which is a cubical
,
parabola.
30.
The
vertical angle of a cone of revolution
is
90,
vertex
its
is
at 0,
and
A point,
starting from the vertex, moves in a spiral

path along the surface of the cone so that the measure of the distance it has
traveled parallel to the axis of the cone is equal to the circular measure of the
its
axis coincides with OZ.
angle through which
it
has revolved about the axis of the cone.
equations of its path, called the conical helix, are x
cos
Prove that the

t
sin
t,
t.
CHAPTEE X
92. Projection. The projection of a point on a straight line
denned as the point of intersection of the line and a plane
through the point perpendicular to the line. Hence in fig. 46
is
are the projections of the point

M, and
and z respectively.
The projection of one straight line of
L,
second
straight
line
the
is
between the projections
of
part
the axes of
first line, its
direction
being from the projection

initial
x, y,
finite length upon a

the second line included
ends of the
of the
P on
of the
point of the first line to the
projection of the terminal point of

the first line. In fig. 57, for ex
ample, the projections of
MN
R
FIG. 57
and
and
is
AB
denote the positive directions
OL 2 = x2
If
is
If
MN
In particular, the projection on
and
MN and
on
AB
But
P (x
L L =x
OX
is
from P^x v y^ zj
im
MN
BA
respectively of these lines, it fol

is positive when it has the same direction as
negative when it has the opposite direction to MN.
lows that
of
MN
being A and B respec

the
tively,
projection of AB on
is A B
and the projection of
_ N on
on
to
x2
x1
2>
y2
x 1 by
and
OZ are
we
OXoi the
z 2 ) is
parallel to
L^L zt
13.
where
P^P2 drawn
OL = x
Hence the
any two
and
on
OY
lines in space as the
them and drawn from
common
point, then the projection of one straight line on a second

176
projection
similarly, its projections

and z2 z r
yl
respectively y 2
define the angle between
angle between lines
I,
straight line
is
the
PROJECTION
and
the first line
product of the length of
177
between the positive directions of the two
angle between
To prove
by
MN
and
(fig.
lines.
</>
draw A C parallel
Then A C = AB, and
f
ST
at C.
A B and meet
A B = A C cos
to
whence the truth
14,
of the angle
Then if
is the
57),
this proposition,
ing the plane

I,
AB
the cosine
</>,
of the proposition is evident.
Defining the projection of a broken line upon a

straight line as the sum of the projections
segments, we may prove, as in
the projections on any straight
that
15,
line of a broken line and tht
of
its
I,
straight line joining its ends

are the same.
We
will
show that
now
the
projection
^feô
of any
FIG. 58
is the product of that area and
of the angle between the planes.
OY (fig. 58) be any plane through OY making an angle
plane area upon another plane

the cosine
Let
<
with the plane
XOY.
Let
AB
OX
let AB
f
straight line parallel to
any
more than two
Then
points,
35)
and
area
AB =
be any area in
intersects its
be
r
C(x2
its
X OY such
boundary
projection on
- x[) dy
that
in not
XOY.
(1)
the limits of integration being taken so as to include the whole area.
In like manner,
area
AB =
(x2
x^
dy,
(2)
the limits of integration being taken so as to cover the whole area.
178
But the values
of y are the same in both planes, since

they
measured parallel to the line of intersection of the two planes
and hence the limits in (1) and (2) are the same. Since the x
are
coordinate
x2 = x2 cos
is
<,
measured perpendicular to the

x 1 = x[ cos
and (2) becomes
line of intersection,
<,
area
AB =
x[) cos
(x2
dy
<
cos
<p
= (cos
(x2
x^)
(area
(/>)
AB
dy
).
between two points. Let P^x^ y v zj and P^(x2

be
any two points. Pass planes through P^ and P2
59)
93. Distance
yz
z 2 ) (fig.
parallel to the coordinate planes, thereby
forming a rectangular
parallelepiped having the. edges parallel
OX, OY, and OZ, and having Pfc as

Then the edges are equal
to
a diagonal.
respectively to x2
x v yz
y v and
z2
zl
92), being equal to the projections of
on OX, OY,
Hence
59
PI
%=
(*2
+ (y
,)
two points have two coordinates the same,

z
yv 2 = z v the formula reduces to
If the
2/ 2
Ex.
1.
P (x,
1, 1),
y, z)
(3, 1, 2).
be the required point.
Then
(x
(X
(X
- 1)2 +
- 2)2 +
- 3)2 +
Solving these three equations,
Ex.
2.
example,
Find a point Vl4 units distant from each of the three points
(1, 0, 3), (2,
Let
as, for
- 0)2 +
+ 1)2 +
- 1)2 +
(y
(y
(y
we determine
_
-
the
Find the equation of a sphere
3)2
14,
= 14j
2)2 = 14.
1)2
two points
of
(0, 2, 0)
radius r with
and
its
(4,
2, 4).
center at
Pi(*i, y\, zi).

If
P (x,
y, 2) is
any point
(x
xi)2
of the sphere,
(y
yi )2
Zl )2
r2.
(i)
Conversely, if P(x, ?/, 2) is any point the coordinates of which satisfy (1),
is at the distance r from P
Therefore
1? and hence is a point of the sphere.
(1) is the required equation of the sphere.
LENGTH OF A SPACE CURVE
179
Length of a space curve in rectangular coordinates. The

method of finding the length of a space curve is similar to that of
40 may
finding the length of a plane curve, so that the proof of
94.
be repeated.
AB
the given curve, we assume n

l points
A
between
and
and
each
connect
B,
, JJ_j
pair of
JJ, JJ, JJ
consecutive points by a straight line. The length AB is then
If
defined
(fig.
60)
the
as
is
limit
of
Pf^
I^_ 1 B, as
the
sum
n chords
of the lengths of the
is
^
|J
~^~*-^5^
Al[,
increased
and the length of

without limit
each chord
limit
Let the coordinates of If be

(# .+ A#,
Now
if
FIG 60
104).
(I,
+ Ay,
Then
z.-f Az).
x, y, z are
zt)
y it
(#.,
PP +
i
and those
functions of a variable parameter
have the derivatives -~
>
cw
of 7? +1 be
= ^/~Kx*+ Ay V Az
t
90),
93).
and
then vAa? + Ay + Az is an
a
a
2
2
2
from the infinitesimal ^/dx + dy + dz
-/
infinitesimal which differs

by an infinitesimal of higher
>
For we have
order.
A,
rf^y
dt)
Since
is
_
~
/^y
/dz*
\dt)
(dt
A = dt
4)
also
etc
dt
Therefore
3), in
1.
finding the length of the curve,
A^+A/
Aa/^Hreplace
the length of AB,
T
Lim
Hence
by
we have
=/
J(A)
V^
2
cZ?/
+ dz
2
.
Hence,
we may
if s
denotes
180
where (A) and (B) denote the values

for the points A and B respectively.
follows
the independent variable

this formula for s it
of
From
9) that
Ex. Find the length of an arc of the helix x

corresponding to an increase of 2 TT in e.
Here dx
a sin e
dd,
dy
a cos Odd, and dz

f>01
a cos0, y
a sin0, z
kd,
= k dd.
+ 2TT
Therefore
95.
The
Direction of a straight line.
line in space is
determined by means
direction of
of the angles
any straight
which it makes
with the positive directions of the coordinate axes OX, OY, OZ,
We denote these angles by a, /3, and
7 respectively
cosines,
the
called
61).
(fig.
cos
cos a,
i.e.
direction
/3,
Then
their
cos 7,
cosines
of
are
the
line.
It
is
be noted that the same
to
straight line
av
7 X or TT
Hence
its
is
The
.axes,
which the
are
either
is,
the
Cos
sum of
+ cOS /3 + cos
the squares
of
straight line is always equal to unity.

To prove this theorem, let the line
make the
OZ respectively. Then
line
coso^,
straight line in
line is drawn.
cos^, cos 7 X or
which the direc
fixed has only one set of direction cosines.

three direction cosines are not independent, for they satisfy
the equation
that
7r
according to the di
coordinate
rection in
cosines
cos
cos^,
coscTj,
tion
direction
makes the angles a^, j31}

7r/3 lt TT 7 X with the
and
let it
PP
*-*
angles
the
1;
direction cosines of
any
Jf^ (fig. 59) be any straight

and 7 with OX, OY, and
a, j3,
cos
DIRECTION OF A STRAIGHT LINE

we have
Squaring and adding these equations,

cos
cos
/S 4-
cos
-f cos /3
181
But
2
Therefore cos * 4- cos
96. If Pt(x v
y v z x ) is
any
1.
fixed point
(fig.
any second point Pz may be denoted by

where Arc, Ay, and Az are arbitrary.
If cos *, cos
line P^P^
cos
we
y8,
have,
cos
(x^-\- Arc,
y x 4- Ay,
7 are the direction cosines
by the work of the last

Arc
59), the coordinates of
z x 4-
Az)
of the straight
article,
Ay
~"
for
+A
and
Hence,
if Aa?,
Ay, and Aa; are given, the direction of a straight

but the particular straight line having that di
line is determined,
is not determined, for the values of A#, Ay, and Az in no

x v y v and z v the coordinates of the initial point of
determine
way
the line. Moreover, the ratios of Are, Ay, and Az are alone essen
tial in determining the direction of the line. Accordingly we
may
rection
speak of the direction A# Ay Az, meaning thereby the direction

of a straight line, the direction cosines of which are
respectively
:
Arc
Az
Ay
Furthermore, if A, B, and C are any three given numbers, we

may speak of the direction A\B\C. For we may place Arc = A,
Ay = B, Az = C, and thus determine a direction, the direction
cosines of
which are
+ B* + C
A + 7/ + C
2
A + B + C*
2
PLANE AND STEAIGHT LINE
182
97. Direction of a space curve.
point P (x, y, z)
we
If
regard the position of a

its distance
s,
along
determined by
of a curve as
the curve from some fixed point of the curve,

y, and z are functions of s, i.e.
Then
if
Q(x+ A#, y
increased by an increment As, a second point

z -f Az) of the curve is located, and the direc
is
PQ
VA + Ay + Az
The
105, x,
I,
+ Ay,
tion cosines of the chord
as in
are
vA + Ay + Az
As
limits of these ratios, as
the tangent to the curve at P.

\
/yi
VA^+ Ay + A/
0,
are the direction cosines of
,-yt
Now
whence
lim
for
Proceeding in the same
dx
>
ds
dz
dy
=L
_
way with
the other two
ratios,
we have
,.
as the direction cosines ot the curve at
>
ds
104)
(I,
ds
since the directions of the tangent
and the curve
at
any
point,
any point are
the same.
Instead of giving the direction cosines,
direction of the curve as the direction
ds
= \^dx + dy +
2
we may speak
dx:dy.
dz
of the
dz, since
2
.
94)
Ex. Find the direction of the helix

x
at the point for
Here dx
for which
0=0,
cosines are 0,
a cos 0,
a sin 0,
A:0,
which 0=0.
asin0d0, dy
the direction
^
a
a cos0d0, dz
is
Va 2 +
the direction
A;^
kde.
:
add
Therefore, at the point

A:d0, and the direction
:
ANGLE BETWEEN TWO STRAIGHT LINES
183
98. Angle between two straight lines. Let the directions of

any
two straight lines be respectively A^ A^ AjZ and A 2 # A 2 ?/ A 22,
where the subscripts are used merely to distinguish the two direc
tions.
If two straight lines having these directions are drawn from any point P(x, y, z)
they
:
will
pass
y +A
z
x y,
(fig.
through the two points P^(x
+A
2)
and ^(a;
+A
2 ^,
y+A
z
2 y,
4-
A^,
+ A z)
2
FlG 62
-
62) respectively.
Then
is
if
the angle between these two lines,
we
have, by
trigonometry,
x
-
But
- A,*)
whence, by
2
,
93)
substitution in (1) and simplification,
a v cos ^, cos y l are the direction cosines of any

straight
first direction, and cos a
cos /32 cos y 2 are the direc
2
tion cosines of any
straight line with the second direction, the
above formula becomes
or
cos
if
line
with the
cos 6
If the
(2)
= cos
cos
a2
+ cos /3
cos
/32
two directions are given as
+ cos 7
:J^ i
cos
72
(3)
Cv and A Z :BZ C2
evidently becomes
If the lines are
perpendicular to each other,
AÂ 2 + B^B2
since cos 9
since
cos a^
and
= cos a
if
+&=
0,
(5)
they are parallel to each other,
:H=t
=
cos
/3 1
cos
2,
cos7
=cos7
PLANE AND STBAIGHT LINE
184
from
have,
97,
P (x + A#,
l
yv +
A?/, z l
to a plane. Let l (x v y v zj and

be
any two points of the plane
Az)
normal
99. Direction of the

2
we
6 represents the angle between any two curves,
If
Substituting their coordinates in
(1),
we have
(2)
+
Subtracting (2) from
A
whence, by
tion
98,
(5),
Ax Ay
:
any straight
A2.
We may
+ B &y + C A = 0,
the direction A B C is
-
But the
latter direction
Hence
line of the plane.
direction of the
(3)
we have
(3),
A^c
Z>=0.
normal
to the
plane
(4)
normal
is
to the direc
the direction of
A B C is
+ D = 0.
the direction
Ax + By +
Cz
the
that the equation of any plane is a linear

For let the given plane pass through
equation of the form (1).
a fixed point JfJ (x v y v 2^ and be perpendicular to a straight line
C.
having the direction A
now show
Now
the equation
Ax + By +
Cz
+D =
to the direction
represents a plane perpendicular
plane will pass through P^ if
D=- (Ax^ + By
whence
Therefore
A(x
x^)
+ B(y
y^)
A B
:
C.
This
CzJ.
+C(z
zl
)=Q
(5)
A:B:C
and
to the direction
represents a plane perpendicular
one
But
plane
only
passing through the fixed point : (x v y v zj.
these conditions hence the given plane has the equa
can
satisfy
tion just determined.
Any
plane
however, and hence every plane

equation.
may be determined in this way,

may be represented by a linear
NORMAL EQUATION OF A PLANE
185
Ex. Find the equation of a plane passing through the point

1.
normal to the straight line having the direction 2 3
The equation
is
2(x
l)
(y
2x
or
2)
3y
1)
(1, 2,
and
1)
=
=
0,
0.
100. Normal equation of a plane. Let a plane be passed through

the point J^(x v y v 2^) perpendicular to the straight line OPl (fig. 63).
96, the direction
By
z
of
the
is
OP^
x^. y^. z v
direction
and hence the
equation of the required

plane
is,
by
+ *,(*-
99,
(5),
(1)
*,)=<),
which may be put

form
in the
~( x i+yi+Zi)=Q
(-)
FIG. 63
r/
If the direction cosines of
01^ are denoted respectively by I, m, and n, i.e. / = cos a,

= cos 7, and the length of OP^ is denoted by p, then
m = cos
2
p = V#
and
we
if
Accordingly,
is
known
Equation
Let P(x,
(3)
as the
z.
+ my 4-
nz
p=
normal equation
V,/-
-f
y*
,it
becomes
0,
(3)
of the plane.
OPV and the projection of the broken

l-OL +
LM+ n MP 92). Hence
line
OLMP
I-
also
is
m>
+2
be derived geometrically as follows:

63) be any point of the plane, and let OL = x,
Draw OP. Then the projection of OP on OPl
may
y, z) (fig.
LM=y,MP =
+ zf.
divide equation (2) by

Ix
which
2
-f- ?/
OL + m
LM+ n MP - OP^= 0,
on
OP
l
is
186
The general equation
may
evidently be
V^
of the plane
assume the normal form by dividing the

+(7 since the direction of the normal to
made
to
+^
equation by
the plane is the direction
2
The sign of the radical must

in order that the constant term
be taken opposite to the sign of
may be the negative of the distance of the plane from the origin,
A\B\C.
as in (3).
Ex Find the direction cosines of the normal to the plane 2x-3i/ + 6z+14=0,
.
also its distance
Dividing by
from the
- V2 2 +
origin.
32
we have
Hence the direction
the plane
is
+ 6 2 i.e. - 7,
- fx + %y - f z ,
0.
cosines of the normal to this plane are
f and
,
2 units distant from the origin.
101. Angle between
two
Let the two planes be
planes.
(1)
>-0,
0.
(2)
is the same as the angle between

of which are respectively
directions
the
their respective normals,
is the angle
Hence if
A
C
and
the directions A 1 B l Cl
2
2
2
The angle between these planes
between the two planes,

cos
The conditions
are respectively
.i
^
A
+BB
l
*S l
^B
(4)
9g)
T/
for perpendicularity
^L
and
VJ + Bl + C?
and parallelism
of the planes
+(7(7=0
V.
102. Determination of the direction cosines of
any
straight line.
Let the equations of the straight line be in the form

= 0,
(1)
(2)
0,
TWO POINTS
LINE THROUGH
and
be
let its direction cosines
both planes (1) and (2),

Therefore (by (5),
98),
also
Here
are three equations
/,
m, and
n.
Since the line
+m
lies in
normal to each.
perpendicular to the
it is
187
2
+7i =l.
(95)
from which the values
of
/,
m, and n
may
be found.
From
the
first
two equations we have
= B
#
l:m:n
C\
C,
C,
(I,
three equations for
Z,
B.
Ex. Find the direction cosines of the straight

+ y-z + 7r=0.
The
8)
2x-f3y +
line
0,
m, and n are
2
+
Z
m +n=
+m-n=
3
0,
0,
the solutions of which are
l=
V38
9.
r=~
or
V38
38
V38
V38
V38
Since cos (180

cos0, it is evident that if the angles corresponding
0)
to the first solution are a\, /Si, 71, the angles corresponding to the second solu
tion are 180
nrj, 180
y lt Since these two directions are each the
ft, 180
negative of the other,
it is
sufficient to take either solution
and ignore the
other.
103. Equations of a straight line determined by two points.

Let P(x, y, z) be a point on the straight line determined by
"
z i) a nd
*( x v Vv z 2 so situated that P^P

&(%%). Then,
18, there are three cases to consider according to the
If
is between
and v P^P and JJJJ
position of the point P.
JFJ
-?(#!
y\>
as in
)>
I,
have the same direction, and P^P

P^ accordingly k is a posi
tive number less than unity.
If P is beyond P2 from JJ, Pf
and P^ still have the same direction, but P1 P>P1 P2
there
<
fore
is
a positive
number
greater than unity.
Finally,
if
188
is
beyond
is
from
In
7^,
from P^ P^P and P^ have opposite directions, and

its numerical value ranging all the
way
a negative number,
to co.
fig.
which represents the
64,
P, and
the points
P% perpendicular to
Mv M, and M
and since 7JP
= k(PP
1
2))
first case,
OX; and
respectively.
by geometry
pass planes through
OX
them intersect
Then OM=
let
at
M^M = k(M M
z ).
whence, by substitution,
(1)
By
OF
passing the planes through the points perpendicular to

to OZ, it may be proved in the same way that
and perpendicular
= 2/i+fe/
z = z +k(z -zj.
-2/i)>
(2)
(3)
The construction and the

proof for the other two cases
are
the
and the re
same in all the
same,
sults are the

FIG. 64
cases.
By assigning different values to k we can make equations (1),

on the straight line determined
(2), and (3) represent any point
by the points
7J
and
Conversely, if x, y, and z satisfy these

must be a point of the straight line
and (3) are the parametric equations of the
P^.
three equations, the point

P^PV
Hence
straight
(1), (2),
line
determined
by two
points,
k being the variable
parameter.
104.
By
eliminating k from the three equations
of the last article,
(1), (2),
and
(3)
we have
(1)
two independent equations in x, y, and z. This

89, that two linear equations
a
line
for we have any straight line
straight
always represent
Here
are but
result proves
the converse of
TANGENT TO A SPACE CUKVE

The
represented by two linear equations.

x 1 :^/ 2 y l z 2 z l
is the direction x2
:
189
direction of the line
96).
be noted that, if in the formation of these fractions any

denominator is zero, the corresponding direction cosine is zero, and
It is to
the line
perpendicular to the corresponding axis.
is
Ex. Find the equations of the straight

- 1) and (2, - 3, - 1).
determined by the points
line
(1, 5,
x-\ _
2_1~
_3-5"
z + 1
-1 + 1
Hence the two equations of the line are z + 1 = 0, since the line
the JTOFplane and passes through a point for which z =
1, and 8 x
formed by equating the first two fractions.
is
parallel to
13
0,
+y
105. Equations of a tangent line to a space curve. If

(x v y v z^
and
of
a
A#,
curve,
Az)
y
Ay,
P^ (x 1
z^
l
space
any given point
are
second point of the curve, the equations of the secant
is
is
7^
any
xl
y
(
A#
Ay
Aa?
A//
A3
As
As
As
or
where As
is
104)
the length of the arc P^PV
Denning the tangent
at P^ as in
59,
I,
we have
as its equa
tions
/dy\
/dz"
\ ds A
ds /i
(dx\
dx
dz
dy
where dx, dy, dz are to be computed

Ex. Find the equations of the tangent
x
a cos
0,
at the point
Pr
to the helix
a sin
0,
at the origin.
Since dx
?
a
a sin
= ?, or(104)z =
A;
dy
0(Z0,
2/
0,
.
= a cos0d0,
= ?.
k
dz
kd6, the required equations are
190
106. Equations of a straight
in
line
and a known point upon it.

a known point of the line, and let
Let
cosines
/,
terms of
P (x v
m, and n be
Let P(x, y, z) be any point of the

diagonal construct a parallelepiped as in
denote
by r, we have
cosines.
line.
93.
direction
its
y v zj
65) be
direction
(fig.
its
On P^P
Then
if
as a
we
Pf
= mr,
= nr.
But
whence
=x
l ~\-
lr,
= y + mr,
These are the parametric equations
= z + nr.
(1)
of the line, the variable
param
eter being r, r being positive if the

point is in one direction from P^ and
negative if it is in the other direction
from
j^.
By
eliminating r
we have
which are but two independent linear
FIG. 65
equations.
Problems on the plane and the straight line. In this

article we shall solve some problems illustrating the use of the
equations of the plane and the straight line.
107.
Plane determined by three known points. Let the three given

and -?J(#8 y 3 zs ), and let the
points be J^(xv y v zj, I(x v y v
),
of
the
determined
equation
plane
by them be
1.
Since
Pv P
satisfy (1).
2,
and
P
%
Ax + By +
Cz
are points
of
+D =
0.
(1)
the plane, their coordinates
Therefore
Ax2 +
We may now solve
%+
(2), (3),
and
Cz 2 +
D = 0,
(4) for
(3)
the ratios of the
unknown
we may
eliminate
constants A, B, C, and D, and substitute iu
(1),
or
191
PROBLEMS
A, B, C, and
either
D from
the four equations (1), (2), (3), and (4). By

of the required plane is found to be
method the equation
y
2/1
2/2
2/3
Ex.
1.
(1, 1, 1),
Find the equation of the plane determined by the three points

- 3, - 1).
(- 1, 1, 2), and (2,
The required equation
is
1111
21 =
-1
x
0,
2-3-11
no plane
given points are on the same straight line,
=
0.
to
reduces
above
the
and
determined,
equation
If the three
is
2.
Distance of a point
P^(x v y v
2 X ),
and
Let the given point be

the equation of the plane be in the
from a
at first let
plane.
^ + my + ^ _ p = Q
normal form
Then the equation

/
(x
of a plane
P^ parallel to (1)
is,
by
(5),
- x^ + m (y - yi + n(z- zj = 0,
in the
99,
(2)
which may be put

Ix
through
(1)
form
+ my + nz
(Ix^
+ my + nz^ =
l
Since equation (3) is in normal form, it

tance of this plane from the origin is lx^
is
0.
evident that the dis
+my^+ nz r
distance between the two parallel planes
Ix^+my^+nz^
is
in
(3)
Hence the
magnitude
p,
(4)
the plane through l is beyond plane

is on
if the plane through
origin,
(1)
the same side of plane (1) as the origin. But the distance
between the two planes is the same as the distance of l from
this result being positive
from the
if
and negative
the given plane. Hence

tance in magnitude.
lx v -\-my^-\-nz^
is
the required dis
PLANE AND STKAIGHT LINE
192
If the
equation of the plane
finding the values of
I,
m,
is in
the form
and p, and substituting in
n,
as the
(4),
we have
magnitude of the required distance, being positive

points on one side of the plane and negative for all points
other side. If we choose, we may take the sign of the
always positive, in which case we can determine for which
the plane the above result
preferably the origin.
Ex.
6z
2.
is
positive
Find the distance of the point
14
0.
The required distance
by
testing for
(1, 2, 1)
for all
on the
radical
side of
some one
point,
from the plane 2x
3y
is
Furthermore the point is on the same side of the plane as the origin, for if (0,
had been substituted, the result would have been 2, i.e. of same sign as 2|.
3.
tion.
Plane through a given line and subject

Let the given line be
1
It/
to
0, 0)
one other condi
Multiplying the left-hand members of (1) and (2) by l\ and & 2

respectively, where \ and k z are any two quantities independent
of x, y, and 2, and placing the sum of these products equal to zero,
we have
the equation
>,)=0.
(3)
Equation (3) is the equation of a plane, since it is a linear equa

tion, and furthermore it passes through the given straight line,
since the coordinates of every point of that line satisfy (3) by
virtue of (1) and (2). Hence (3) is the required plane, and it may
be made to satisfy another condition by determining the values of
and &2 appropriately.
CHANGE OF COORDINATES
Ex.
Find the equation of the plane determined by the point

4 = 0, 2z - lly -4z -12 =0.
3.
The equation
Since
23 k 2
Substituting this value of k\ in

equation
(1)
its
or ki
11 y
4z
12)
0.
coordinates satisfy
=-
23 k 2
(1)
(1),
and hence
and reducing, we have as the required
+ 2z
2z
The equation
fci(4z
(4fc 1
0,
Find the equation of the plane passing through the line 4z + 3?/
12 = 0, and perpendicular to the plane 2 x + y
4z
lly
4.
= 0,
+ 1 = 0.
4
(2
a point of this plane,
(0, 1, 0) is
ki
of the required plane
+ 3y + 2z -4) +
2fc 2 )z
Since this plane
^3
(3fc 1
is
2 (4 ki
whence
and
be written
may
of the required plane
^ (4 x + 3 y + 2 z - 4) + k
or
(0, 1, 0)
4z + 3y + 2z -
the line
Ex.
193
_Hfc 2 )y +
be written
may
fc 2
(2z-lly-4z-12) =
1 (3
fc!
0,
(1)
(2fc 1
2x + y
to be perpendicular to the plane
2 k2 )
2z
11
fc 2
2 (2
fci
fc 2
2 z
0,
0,
7 &i.
Substituting this value of & 2 in
equation
(1)
and reducing, we have as the required
z-8?y-3z-8 = 0.
108. Change of coordinates. 1. Change of origin without change

of direction of axes. Let
(x Q y z ) be taken as a new origin of
coordinates, the new axes being parallel respectively to the original
,
axes,
to
i.e.
OZ.
OX
Let
parallel to
x, y,
and
OX,
parallel to
be the coordinates
respect to the original axes,

of the
and
same point with respect
let
x y
to the
and
new
,
the proof being similar to that of
I,
OY, and O
of
any point
z
parallel
with
be the coordinates
Then
axes.
Z
= Z +Z
Q
(1)
112.
Change of direction of axes without change of origin. Let

OX, OY, OZ, and OX OY OZ be two sets of rectangular axes
and making angles with each other, whose cosines
meeting at
2.
194
are given in the following table,
where
the cosine of the angle

^
the
cosine
of
the
2
angle between
etc.
Let x, y, and z be the coordinates of
any point
with respect to the axes OX, OY, OZ, and let x
y and z be the
between
and OY
OX
and
OX
is
OX
P
is
ra 3
It,
to the axes OX
Y
drawn, the projection of OP on OX is x, and
the projection on OX of the broken line
and P, formed
joining
by constructing the coordinates x y z is Ijc + I 2 y + I 3 z (
coordinates of the
same point with respect
OZ
is
Then
if
OP
But these two projections are
in like
manner,
= n-^x
In like manner
we may
92).
Hence
equal.
m^x
+ m y -f m z
+ny+nz
r
(2)
derive the formulas
(3)
Formulas
(2) and (3) may be expressed concisely by the above table.

Since both systems of coordinates are rectangular, we have,
by
and
m + m + m = 0,
m % + m + ^ = 0,
l
7i
??i
PROBLEMS
Also,
by
/*
95,
and
n* =
+m +
2
m +m +m
2
2
1,
+^l,
+Z
J
2
195
2
3
=l,
<+<+<=!.
All these formulas are easily remembered by aid of the above table.
PROBLEMS
1.
Find a point of the plane
three points
(0, 0,
1), (3, 1, 1),
2x4-3^ + 22 =
- 1, 0).
equally
Find the equation of the sphere passing through the points
1, 4, 4),
4.
1,
0,
2).
(-1,1, -5).
point moves so that its distances from two
1,3), (4,0, 7),
constant ratio
k
(2,
3.
2. Find a point on the line 3 x

y
distant from the origin and the point
(-5,
equally distant from the
(-2,
or k
k.
Prove that
its
locus
fixed points are in the

a sphere or a plane according as
is
1.
Prove that the locus of points from which tangents of equal length can
be drawn to two given spheres is a plane perpendicular to their line of centers.
5.
6.
Find the length of the curve x
point for which

7.
2
,
1,
from the origin
to the
1.
Find the length of the curve x

t =
and t
1.
e*,
e~*, z
= tVz
between the points
for which
8. Find the length of the conical helix x

the points for which t =
and t = 2 TT.
9.
tcost, y
Prove that a straight line can make the angles GO
tsint, z
between
45, 00 respectively
with the coordinate axes.

10.
Show
that the helix
cylinder on which
it is
makes a constant angle with the elements
11. Find the angle between the conical helix x

the axis of the cone.
12.
z
Show
of the
drawn.
tcost, y
that the angle between the conical helix x
and the element of the cone
is
tan-
sin, z
tcost, y
=
=
and
tsiut,
=.
V2
13. Find the equation of a plane three units distant from the origin and per
pendicular to the straight line through the origin and (2,
3, 0).
196
intersection
and
32
3 ?/ + 5 z = 3,
of three planes are x -}- 2y
1, 2 x
Find the equation of the plane through their point of
equally inclined to the coordinate axes.
The equations
14.
and
2.
normal distance from the origin

and c respectively on the axes
to the plane
15. If the
cepts a,
6,
16.
z
18.
19.
z
ts
a cos 0, y
to the helix x
a sin
0,
0.
Find the equation of the plane normal
sin
p, prove that
is
c2
Find the equation of the plane normal
kd at the point
17.
&2
^~<*2
which makes inter
and
of x, y,
at the point for
which
e*,
to the conical helix
tcost,
Find the equation of the normal plane

Find the equation of the normal plane
which t = 1.
to the curve
to the
skew cubic x
e-
(
,
&,
at the point for
+ 3z 7=0.
3x-2?/-l=0, 4y-3z + 2 = 0, z -2x
20. Find the direction cosines of the line
-f
2x +
3y
6,
21. Prove that the three planes

= are the lateral faces of a triangular prism.
22. Prove that the two lines
+ y- 7z + 11 = 01
+ 4y + z-3 = 0j
+ 17 y + 26z-48 = 01
\4x -2y- 16z + 26 = OJ
f
2X
are coincident.
23. Prove that the lines
+i = oi
-
2z/-3z +
oî
\7x-4y-*-10 = OJ
OJ
intersect at right angles.
24. If
lines,
and
Z]_,
/,
mi, n\ and ^,
m2
n% are the direction cosines of
two given straight
m, n are the direction cosines of a normal to each of them, prove
that
25. Find the equation of the plane passing through
26. Find the angle between the line
x-2y-8 = 0,
(1, 4, 1)
3^ +
perpendicular to
and the
27. Find the coordinates of a point on the straight line determined by

and (2, 3, 2) and 1 unit distant from (1, 1, 1).
(0, 1, 0)
28. Find the equation of a plane perpendicular to the straight line joining
and (4, 3, 2) at a point one third of the distance from the first to the
(1, 3, 5)
second point.
29. Find the equations of a straight line passing through
(1, 2,
1) parallel
PKOBLEMS
30. Find the foot of the perpendicular
3y-|-z
197
drawn from
(1, 2,
to the plane
1)
0.
31. Find the equations of the tangent to the skew quartic x

4 at the
t
point for which t = 1.
32. Find the equations of the tangent to the curve x
the point for which
2
,
e~ f z
34. Find the direction of the conical helix x
cos, y
ef,
tsin
t,
at
tV%.
at the
and the equations of the tangent.
35. Find the equation of the plane determined by the three points
(3,
1,
1.
33. Find the equations of the tangent to the curve x
origin,
1, 2), (2, 1,
(1, 2,
4),
2).
36. Find the angles made with the coordinate planes by the plane deter
mined by the three points (1, 2, 0), (4, 1,
2), (
2, 2, 2).
3 7. Find the point of intersection of the lines

(
2x-y-3 = 01
i37/-2z +
= 0/
r3x-2Vy-5 = 01
2x-z-l = o|
38. Find whether or not a plane can be determined
by the
lines
39. Find the equation of the plane determined by the two lines
+
+
1
l
= 01
= 0/
40. Find the equation of the plane determined by the

point (2, 4, 2) and the
(1, 2, 3) equally inclined to the coordi
straight line passing through the point

nate axes.
41. Find the equation of a plane passing

through the line x - y
and perpendicular to the plane
+ 2z + 1=0.
2x + y + 3z =
x
+z=
0,
+ z-2 =
0,
x-y
42. Find the equations of the projection of the line x

2 =
z
1 = 0.
upon the plane 3x + y + 3z
+ 2y +
43. Find the equation of the plane

passing through
3 y -f 2 2
perpendicular to the plane 2x
6 = 0.
(2,
1, 2)
and (-
1, 2,
1)
44. Find the equation of a plane

passing through the line
+ 3 y 2z 1 = and parallel to the line 3x + y + 2z
z + 5 = 0.
x-2y + z-3 = 0,
2x
45. Prove that the plane

(x
4z-f3y + 5z = 47is tangent

+ (y - 3)2 + Z + 4)2 = 50.
2)2
47. Find the center of a sphere of radius
4)
and
(3,
1,
4)
and tangent
2x
3y
to the sphere
46. Find a point on the line x-z + 3 =

0,
from the planes 3x + 3z-5 = and x +
4y +
(2, 4,
4x-y-6 =
equally distant
z=7.
7,
passing through the points
to the plane
3x-6y + 2z+51=0.
CHAPTER XI
109. Partial derivatives.
where x and y are

choose, allow x alone to
Consider f(x,
We
if
we
y),
may,
independent variables.
We thus reduce f(x, y) to
constant.
vary, holding y temporarily
a function of x alone, which may have a derivative, defined and
as for any function of one variable. This derivative is
computed
called the partial derivative of f(x, y} with respect to x,
V
ex
Tnus b 7
>
and
is
definition,
_ Lim
(1)
ex
Similarly,
function of
x is held constant, f(x, y) becomes temporarily a

whose derivative is called the partial derivative of
if
y,
f(x, y) with respect
- Lim f(x
if
Graphically,
>
z=f(x,
Tnen
(2)
Ay
A-/=O
dy
dfix y}
to y,
y) is represented
by a
surface, the rela
between z and x when y is held constant is represented by the

curve of intersection of the surface and the plane y = const., and
tion
is
the slope of this curve.
and y
Also, the relation between z
dx
when x
is
constant
is
of
represented by the curve of intersection
the surface and a plane x
= const., and
is
the slope of this curve.
dy
Thus, in
z
fig.
=f(x, y}, PQ
Let
is
66,
PQSR represents a portion of the surface

= const., and PR is the curve x = const.
L K = PK = Are, LM = PM = Ay.
and
(x, y, z),
if
the curve y
be the point
198
PARTIAL DERIVATIVES
Then
LP=f(x,
,
KQ=f(x + bx,
y),
y)-f(x,
y),
MR=f(x,
y),
M R=f(x,
199
y
+ Ay),
y+Ay)-/>, y),
and
FIG. 66
Ex.
1.
Consider a perfect gas obeying the law v
We may
change the
temperature while keeping the pressure unchanged. The relation between the
volume and the temperature is then represented
by a straight line on fig. 65.
If A and Au are
corresponding increments of t and v, then
A,
and
dt
Or, we may change the pressure while keeping the temperature

unchanged.
relation between the volume and the
pressure is then represented by an
hyperbola on the surface of fig. 55. If Ap and Aw are
corresponding increments
The
of
p and
v,
then
ct
ct&p
P + Ap
dv
and
ct
dp
if we have a
we
-,),
may have
So, in general,
function of any
a partial derivative with

respect to
y>
number
of variables
200
These derivatives are expressed by the sym
each of the variables.

bols J-
J-
>
>
>
dx
fz( x
"
>
or sometimes
>
dz
dy
>
y>
by fix, y,--,z), fy (x,
To compute these
z)-
y,
we have
derivatives,
z),
to
of one variable,
apply the formulas for the derivative of a function
all the variables except the one with respect
constant
as
regarding
to
which we
Ex.
/=
2.
differentiate.
x*
3 x*y
y3
Ex.
^ = 3x2 _ Qxy
-L
= - 3x2 + 3y2
/=
4.
log
x2
ments
and
A# and
Ay.
fig.
66,
Vz 2 +
+ y2 +
2
2/ ),
+ z2
z2
x and y be given any incre

takes an increment A/, where
and
y),
Then /
A/ =/( + Aaj,
In
2xcos(x
y 2 ),
total differential of a function of several
Consider f(x,
variables.
Ex.
110. Increment
sin (x 2
dx
dx
/=
3.
let
+ Ay) -/(a;,
NS=f(x + kx,y + ky}
and
y).
N S = bf.
If
a;
and y
Thus
LK and
are independent variables, A# and Ay are also independent.

the position of S in fig. 66 depends upon the choice of
LM, which can be taken
at pleasure.
x and y
y} is called a continuous function of
and
A#
a
when
limit
zero as
Ay approach zero
The function f(x,

if A/ approaches
as a limit in any
Thus
in
fig.
66,
manner
if z is
whatever.
a continuous function of x and y, the point
will approach the point
matter what curve the point

point
S on
the surface.
as
LK
LM
and
approach zero, no
on the plane XO Y or the
N traces
INCREMENT AND TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL

The expression
A/ may
for
be modified as follows
201
A/ =f(x + &x,y + Ay) -f(x y)

=f(x + &x,y + Ay) -/(a?, y + Ay) +f(x y + Ay) -/(,
t
y).
x
Lim f(
But
+ Aa;,
+ Ay) -/(a;,
+ Ay) = 3/(a?,
+ Ay)
Therefore
or
/(a + Ax, y
+ Ay) -/(, y + Ay) =
where Lim
0.
since
Also,
= V( x ^ +
>
where Lim
dX
el
=e +e
+ Ay) -f(x,
Therefore
0.
+ Ay) =
/(*, y
e2
e"
Ay=
/A
Similarly,
where Lim
continuous function,
is
OX
Ax=o
where
fix,
7)f
OX
0.
+ Ay) -f(x,
Hence we have
y)
i^^l +
,\
Ay,
finally
Aj/=0
A/ = ^ A* +
x,
In like manner,
y, .-.,, then
A/= ex A^ +
if
Ay +
is
^ Ay + 6.A* +
A^
+ A^ + e Ay +
l
(1)
number
a function of any
cz
cy
e 2 Ay.
of variables
-..+
en Az.
(2)
In a manner analogous to the procedure in the case of a func

(
4), we separate from the increment the
tion of one variable
terms
e^x + e Ay +
2
+ en Az,
call
the remaining terms the dif
and denote them by
The differen
ferential of
df.
tials of the independent variables are taken equal to the increments,
as in
4.
is a function of
Thus, we have by definition, when
the function,
two independent variables x and
y,
202
and
if
is
a function of the independent variables
..*
ox
and
x, y,
z,
->
d
dz.
(4)
dz
oy
be given any values whatever.

one
If, in particular, we place all but
equal to zero, we have the
Thus,
partial differentials, indicated by dj, d y f, etc.
In
(3)
(4) dx, dy, etc.,
may
dx
in the
partial differential expresses approximately the change
function caused by a change in one of the independent variables
the total differential expresses approximately the change in the
function caused by changes in all the independent variables. It
;
appears from (4) that the total differential
is
the
sum
of the
partial differentials.
Ex. The period of a simple pendulum with small oscillations
is
(Ex.
82)
3,
r=s
Small errors
The
dl
and
dg, in determining
ratio of error is
dT
r
111. Derivative of f(x, y)
We
and
g, will
I dl
2 ?
make an
error in
T of
dg
when x and y
are functions of
t.
y) as a function of two independent

suppose that x and y are functions of a
have been considering f(x,
variables.
We
shall
now
of x and y are
single independent variable t, so that the variations
caused by the variations of t. Graphically, if z=f(x, y) represents
and x and y are independent, the point P(x, y) may

tne
entire surface. If, however, x = $$), y = $ 2
on
whose
on
a
curve
the
to
P
is
restricted
surface,
projection
point
the plane XOY has the parametric equations x = ^(0* V =
The equations of the curve on the surface are, therefore, x =
a surface
move over the
(0>
<MO-
<f>i(t),
DERIVATIVE OF A COMPOSITE FUNCTION
203
In this way, f(x, y) is now a function of t and may have a

derivative with respect to t, which may be found as follows
:
Give
Ay, and
an increment
Then x and y take increments A# and
Atf.
in turn receives
an increment A/, where
A^ + ^ Ay + e^ + e Ay.
A/= ^
0#
2
tfy
A/ =
Then
By
allowing
limits,
A<
=y
&e
ay dt
ott
we multiply each term

dt
by
since /, x
of (1)
by the
dt
differential dt,
4,
,
7
dx
df=^-dt,
dt
Hence we have
df = -^-dx
dx
of a single variable
a/
, ,
...
we have
.
dt
and y are functions
and taking the
^ y^
dt+ v^ d,
f dt= v^
dx
dy
But
^.
e2
A<
fyA<
to approach zero as a limit,
we have
d*
If
y^ + /^ + ^ +
<teA<
A<
= cfe dt,
7a
dt
t,
we
have,
= -fdt.
<iy
dy
7j
dt
dy,
(2)
dy
110, made on the hypothesis that

showing that formula (3) of
x and y were independent, holds also when x and y are functions
of
t.
In a similar manner, if we have f(x,y,---,z), where

are all functions of t, then
x, y,
=
dt
dx dt
dy dt
dz dt
*-*+**+!*
Ex. Let F(x,
field,
that
is,
let
y, 2)
be the electrical potential at a point in an electrified
= - X,
~=-
F,
=-
Z,
where X, F, Z are the com
ponents of force in the directions of the coordinate axes. Required the rate of
change of F in a direction which makes the angles or, /3, 7 with the axes.
204
A
by
straight line
If these
and
r,
making the given angles with the axes has the equations,
106,
(1),
its
= Xi + r cos a,
y = yi +
z = zi -f r cos 7.
values are substituted for x,
rate of change with respect to r
dx dr
z in V,
is
cV
dV__8Vdx
dr
and
?/,
dV
dy
cy dr
becomes a function
(3),
dz
/3
By the principle of the composition of forces this

force in the given direction.
cos 7.
is
minus the component
112. Tangent plane to a surface.

Let x
on
be
a
curve
the
surface
z
y)
=/(#, y), and let
=/(#,
(f>M>
of
dz dr
X cos a Y cos
By
it
of
<
(0>
^ (x v y v zj
be a point on the curve. Then the tangent line to the curve at

the point JJ has the equations ( 105)
xl
=y
dx
=z
zl
^
dz
dy
or
The
line (1) is perpendicular to the straight line
x-x _y-y1 = z-z1

~1
d
l
l\
dxl
by
(5),
98,
Equations
and therefore
(2)
define the curve,
}"
lies in
the plane
and (3) are independent of the functions which

and therefore the tangents to all curves through
PI lie hi the plane (3). This plane is called the tangent plane to
the surface, and the line (2), which is normal to it, is called the
normal line to the surface at the point J^. The tangent plane
TANGENT PLANE TO A SURFACE

may simply touch
ellipsoid, or it
205
the surface, as in the case of the sphere or the

intersect the surface at the point of tangency,
may
one sheet.
as in the case of the hyperboloid of
In order that the function f(x, y) shall have a maximum or a

minimum value for x = x v y = y v it is necessary, but not suffi
cient, that the
tangent plane to the surface z =f(x, y) at the point

should
be parallel to the plane XO Y. This occurs when
(x v y v z^
-^-
These are therefore necessary conditions for
0.
maximum or a minimum, and in case the existence of a maxi

or a minimum is known from the nature of the problem, it
may be located by solving these equations.
a
mum
Ex. 1. Find the tangent plane and the normal line

ax 2 + by 2
Here
2 ax
and
dx
the
paraboloid
2 by.
Hence the tangent plane
is
Zi)
0,
z\
0.
cy
Xi) 2 axi
(x
or
y\] 2 by {
(y
(z
+ 2 byiy 2 ax} 2 by} z +

+ 2 by} = 2 z l5 this may be written
2 axix
But since 2 ax}
The normal
x
is
- Xi _
Ex.
in the
2.
yi
_z-
2 by i
2axi
It is required to construct
out of a given amount of material a cistern
form of a rectangular parallelepiped open at the
dimensions in order that the capacity
made
to
may
be a
maximum,
top.
if
Required the
no allowance is
for thickness of the material or waste in construction.
Let
x, y, z be the length, the breadth, and the height respectively. Then the
2 xz
2 yz, which may be placed equal to the given
superficial area is xy
amount
of material, a.
(a
Then
dx
If v is the capacity of the cistern,
2 xy
2(x
~
y)
dy
For the maximum these must be zero, and since

0, y = 0, we have to solve the equations
xy
x2
xy
= 0,
= 0,
it is
not admissible to have
206
which have for the only

if
there
positive solutions
whence
z=y=*p,
z^-
maximum capacity, it must be for these dimensions.

maximum does exist hence the problem is solved.
a
is
Consequently,
very evident that a
It is
The graphical interpretation of the differential can now be given

manner analogous to that in the case of one variable ( 5).
in a
In
fig.
67
let
PQ S R
be the tangent plane at P(x,
y, z).
Then,
FIG. 67
LK=dx
and LM=dy, the coordinates of S are (x + dx, y + dy,

and the value of z corresponding to S is found by
replacing x by x-\-dx and y by y + dy in (3). There results
if
+ A),
for
z,
+ /dz\
efcc
/02
Therefore
Vay
\0y
-ZV fl
=
<fe,
whereas
N S = A*
113. Derivatives of /(*, y) when * and y are functions of s

If # and y are functions of two
t.
independent variables s
and
and
t,
then /(a?, y)
o^
derivatives
also a function of s
is
Q-/
we
find
dt
will give s
=
a^c
an increment As.
3s
Then x and y take increments Az and Ay, and

ment A/. As in 111, we find
T
As
and may have the
CH -/*
To
and
ds
and
As
T-
-r
1-
^y As
As
As
takes an incre
DEKIVAT1VES OF A COMPOSITE FUNCTION

Now
let
As approach
A/ =
Lun
df
>
As
Lim
ds
and take the
zero
Az =
dx
As
ds
= 3/^ + ^^.
d#
ds
df
Similarly,
-J-
dt
remembering that
limit,
^,
We ,have
etc.
>
dy ds
ds
dx
dy
-~
= df
+ df
ff-
dx
dt
dt
dy
-,), where
So, generally, the partial derivatives of f(x, y,

u t are
z are functions of s, t,
,
,
y,
dx ds
ds
+^
x,
^,
+...
cy ds
dz ds
df_
= df_dx
dfty
tf^,
dt
dx
dt
dt
dz dt
dw
d^c
du
dy
die
dz
/2)
du
special case worth noting is that in which

u. Then
is a function of s, t,
,
x where x
t
207
is
a function of
= ^??,
5/
cfo ds
ds
^ = *^.
= ^^,
a5
c?aj
du
a^
(3)
dx du
If we multiply the equations (2) by the differentials ds, dt,

110, we have
du, add the results, and apply the definition of
+ &dy +.. + dz
df=*dx
ex
(4)
&;<&
dy
This shows that the expression for the differential df

z are independent variables or not.
whether x, y,
-
Ex.
1.
Place x
if z
=f(x-y,y- x),
= u,y
v.
prove
Then
+
ex
0.
dy
=/(M,
u),
and
a2_âwa/aw_^_^
dx
du dx
dv dx
du
dv
fo__tf_fa.tf_to____3f_
dy
By
du dy
addition the required result
dv dy
is
obtained.
du
tf
dv
is the
same
208
Ex.
Let
2.
it
polar coordinates
be required to change from rectangular coordinates

= r cos 0, y = r sin 0.
(r, 0), where x
y) to
(x,
ax
Then
dr
dr
(1)
dy
dd
and consequently,
if
is
a function of x and
dx
dr
y,
dy
(2)
dx
dd
Also, since r
= Vx 2
-f
y 2 and
dy
tan- * X
= sin 0,
(3)
whence
Equations
It is to
means
(4)
may
also be obtained
be emphasized that
from
(2)
by solving for
and
dx
in (1) is not the reciprocal of
dy
in
(3).
In (1)
the limit of the ratio of the increment of x to an increment of r
when
dr
u
FIG. 69
e is constant.
PR = Ax
Also
when y
is
Graphically
thus determined.
in (3)
means the
dx
constant.
is
(fig.
68),
Then
OP = r
= Lim
is
-
increased by
cos
PQ =
Ar,
and
9.
limit of the ratio of the increment of r to that of x
Graphically
(fig.
69),
OM=x is increased
by MN=PQ=Ax,
PROPERTY OF THE TOTAL DIFFERENTIAL

-,
RQ = Ar is thus
=
But
that
iii
and
in (1)
dx
d6
dx
dr
In cases where ambiguity
likely to arise as to
is
parenthesis and the constant variable

3.
Consider f(x, y,
we
of formulas (2) in that
is
place s
(x, y).
x and
left of the
would yield the symbol

it
equation
happens here
nor reciprocal.
which variable is constant

is sometimes inclosed in a
in
two
j-
from the
=1 -=
Then
y.
Pf
We may find
pf
substitution in (2)
It
6.
written as a subscript, thus
when z =
z)
cos
in (3) are neither equal
symbol for the derivative
in a partial derivative, the
Ex.
r\
T>
= Lim - =
Then
determined.
id
209
1.
Cl
CS
different senses.
first
Direct
On
the
ex
partial derivative of / with respect to x when

given to the fact that z is a function of x. On the
means the
constant, and attention is

derivative of / with respect to x on
right of the equation it means the partial
the assumption that both y and z are constant. Ambiguity is avoided by the
is
use of subscripts as suggested at the close of Ex.
\W\
dX/y
Thus we have
2.
+ Wte.
CZ dX
\dX/yz
An
114. Property of the total differential.
important property
theorem
of the total differential is expressed in the following
If f( x
then
1.
>
y>
>
df=
z)
= c for
a ^ va ^ ues
Let us suppose
y,
f(x
+4^
/(a?
+ Aa;,
^=
0,
.,
y,
^=
0,
_ /(aj)
z)
z)-f(x, y,--,
z}
.
y>
A# =
z.
= 0,
fif
0,
we have ir
and hence
pendent variables
s,
t,
cz
dy
Suppose, secondly, that x
-,z)
the independent
z are
for all values of x, y,

,
...,*)
y>
dx
f(x,y,
dz
dy
first
=c
z)
Taking the limit as
for all values of x.
Similarly,
that x, y,
first
Then f(x,
Hence
th e independent variables
0.
variables.
2.
u.
y,
Then
z are functions of the inde
if x, y,
by their values in terms

%-f
and hence as before --
case again,
of
cs
s, t,
z are replaced in
,
%-f
0, -f-
ct
u,
0,
we have
,
%f
^cu
the
= 0.
210
PAKTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
Hence
df
= ^-dx + ^-dy +
=
ds
dx
+ &dz
dz
dy
& + |* -K...+gte-0.
du
dt
be emphasized that the coefficients of dx, dy,

not equal to zero.
It is to
CASE
115. Implicit functions.
I.
/(#, y)
dz are
The equation
0.
f(x, y)=Q
y as an implicit function of x, or x as an
function
of
implicit
y, since if one of the variables is given, the
values of the other are determined. Then, by
114,
defines
dx
T?df
dy
-/-=
dx
whence
(1)
ay
Ex.
Find the tangent and the normal
1.
to the curve /(x, y)
=0.
100, 101, the equations of the tangent and the normal are respectively
By I,
_ 1/1 =
these equations
become
and
By use of
(1)
_X
=0
+ (y -y ,)
\dx/i
\dy/i
and
CASE
II.
/(#, y,
2)
one of the variables

will take
0.
The equation f(x, y,z)=Q
x, y, z as
x and y as the independent
variables.
Then, by
+ y-dy + -dz=0.
df=y-dx
dx
dz
dy
-r,
But
dz
dz
-\
dx
Therefore
K+
dz
-dy.
,
dx
defines
a function of the other two.
*WW
dy
+&
^W =
any
We
114,
IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS
This
and
is
211
true for all values of the independent differentials
dx
Therefore
dy.
dx
*_
and
dz dx
dz
whence
dy
_ ~
=
dx
dx
dz
df
~ty
+ #*-*
dz dy
(2)
dz
Ex.
2.
Find the equations of the tangent plane and the normal
surface F(x, y,
By
z)
112 the required equations are
(x-xo Vi~~
+ (y-
and
Using
(2)
yi )i^\
W/i
-(*-*i) =
y\
zi
and reducing, we have
and
=r
vex/i
CASE
III. f^(x, y,
y, z)
0,
2 (a;,
z)=Q,
y, z)
**
**.
(**.}
f^x,
line to the
0.
(**)
i
\d*Ji
The two equations

2
y, z)=Q.
taken simultaneously define any two
f (x,
of the variables as functions of the other one.
By
114,
dx
cy
cz
dx
Therefore
dx:dy:dz
(3)
212
Ex.
/,(,
3.
y,
Find the equations of the tangent
line to the space curve

/i(x, y, z)
=0,
0.
105 the required equations are
By
dx
where the values of
dec,
dz
dy
dy, dz given in
(3)
may
be substituted.
116. Higher partial derivatives. The

partial derivatives of
are
themselves
functions
x
of
and y which may have
f(x, y)
partial derivatives called the second partial derivatives of /(a?, y).
are
sslST/ j-(/ 57(37] But it may be shown

dx\dx/ dy\dx/ dx\dy/ dy\dy/
that the order of differentiation with
respect to x and y is imma
They
terial
%-{)>
)>
117), so that the second partial derivatives are three in
number, expressed by the symbols
dxdx
,
Jm>
da?
Similarly, the third partial derivatives of
number, namely
"
f(x
are four in
y)
2
?
/2 /\
_ a/
a?
~
dy \dx*}
dx \dxdy)
a / a
Sy \8xdy /
So, in general,
dxp dyq
signifies
dx \dy)
a
dx*dy
/a/\ =
dfx
a
.
dxcf
the result of differentiating/(^, y)
times with respect to x and q times with respect to y, the order
of differentiating being immaterial.
The extension
to
any number
of variables is obvious.
HIGHER DERIVATIVES
117. To prove the relation ^-^dxdy
consider the expression
_
on the one hand, and
to
2 , 172)
In the
F(a,
ft
let/(x
~~-
"
We
shall prove
I equal
on the other hand, where (1,
to
771)
F(a,
fe)
h, y)
-/(x,
y)
F(x,
y).
fig.
70.
Then
6)
"
30, (2),
fv (a +
Fy (a,
^-
are two undetermined points within the rectangle of
first place,
2*v(
where
ft,
\dydx/ x= $,
whence, by
y=
(a, 6)
are taken as positive.
fc
asedy/c.f,
and
any particular values x = a,
-^- for
dycx
*)-/(a,
where for convenience h and

1
213
171)
h,
171)
-/y (a,
Apply-
\a?//x=a
=iJi
ing
30, (2), a second time,
j-fit
In the second place,
we have
FlG 70
-
if
we
let/(x, y
k)
-/(x, y)
=
<I>(x,
y),
we have
fc)-/x(^6)_
=/
Therefore /^(d, ^)
^ 2 ), since each is equal to 7.
y;r (| 2
Now let A and fc approach zero as a limit. The points (&, ;!) and (^ 2 172)
both approach the point (a, 6) as a limit; and since the functions are continuous
,
77!)
= Lim/yx
772),
or
/*<,&) =/(<!, 6).
This result being proved,

differentiations.
it is
easily extended to
any number
Thus, for example,
cx*cy
dxdydx
of variables or
214
of
118. Higher derivatives of /(*, y) when x and y are functions

t, or of s and t.
By 111, if x and y are functions of t,
3f_dy^
dy dt
d^<^dx
dx dt
dt
To
with respect to
differentiate again
we must
t,
notice that
each term on the right-hand side of (1) is a product and must

be handled by the law of products (I,
96, (4)). We have,
then, in the
first
place
dy = df^xdxd_/df\,^fd^,dyd/df\
dt
dx dt
Now
and
j
fif
2
dy dt
dt dt \dx)
be found from
may
dt dt \dy)
by replacing / by
(1)
fif
and
dx
Hence
respectively.
d
dt
dx/d 2fdx
=
dx dt
dt \dx dt
dx
dy/dy
dt \dxdy dt
_,
dt
dx \dt
2
/ = d fdxdx
dsdt
dx ds
dt
The extension
obvious.
dy*
>
df\)
dx dt
of s
dy \dt
dt
dt
dx ds
/dxdy
dy dt
and
t,
dxdy dt
dxdy\ds
/ON
dy \ds)
dfd y
dy df
dt)
dxdy ds ds
dx dsdt
dy \
x and y are functions
if
__
dx \ds)
d*fdy\
dxdy dt dt
In a similar manner,
dxdy dt)
^_
dx\dt)
s*
dx
dt
dy
ds*
dy dt
fdydy
dxdy\
dt
dy ds dt
ds)
dy dsdt
of these formulas to
any number
of variables is
HIGHER DERIVATIVES
V
Ex.
Required to express
1.
a
fix
8r
= Vx 2 +
x
dx
Vx +
Plence,
from
(3),
a2
a2
c6 (x 2
F_aF
x2
x2
(
dff2
y2 )*
ay
(x
2 xy
y2 ) 2
y2 ) 2
(x
y2 ) 2
8r
x2
+
a?/
=/i(*
a2
dt 2
x2
xy
ar2
x2
i
o<)
+/
(x
a^F
r2
a<),
y2
"
ar2
If z
aF
x2
x2
"
"a^
where
Vx^Ty2
aF
"a7
/i
and
/2
dr
are any two functions,
ax 2
11,
ai
=v
then
-- -= -= ^=-a
a,
1,
ax
ot
^2_Â du^dfo to_dfi

~
ax
dw
ax
dv ex
dt
dv
dx2
d 2/! /aw\ 2
d%
du 2 \ax/
du 2 \ax/
/av\ 2
S s ffiM%.m/aiy
dw \a/
a
inspection the required result
du 2 \ae/
is
obtained.
_^
Differentiating these equations a second time,

<Pz
1,
du
du
ct
ax
dfz
du
=
~
du
dt
By
_ -
a 2^
-f
aF
xy
(
_a F
erf
(x
"^y
x2
2 xy
_
~
ax 2
cy
)^
y2
r?/
drdB
ax 2
Let x
d26
2 2
y*
Hence
2.
x2
ax
?/ )
a2
aF
Ex.
_ -
a0
y 2 )*
aj?
(x
y2
show that
x2
2
n a r
ara0
function of x and y,
aF_^xy_
+
a2
^2/
x2
cr2 x 2
dx 2
F is a
~"
(x
fPr
Sx *
y2
tan-
_
~
&r_
Vx 2 +
^_
y 2 and
where
^y
polar coordinates.
Since r
F
y-
215
^dv
we have
d2
dfc
du2
dv 2
JM
-M
dw 2
"
and
216
119. Differentiation of a definite integral.
Consider
f(x, a)dx,
where a is a parameter independent of x. In the integration

a is considered as constant, but the value of the integral is a
function of a. Let a be given an increment Aa. Then u takes
an increment AM, where
r.
r*b
s>b
Aw =
f(x, a -f Aa) dx
<J
by
+ Aa)
f(x, a)] dx.
31, (1),
A, =
Hence
f(x, a) dx
*J a
[f(z,
Now
a
Ja
Dividing by Aa, and taking the limit as

limit,
Aa
we have
The proof assumes that a and
6 are finite.
It is not
always
infinite
possible to differentiate in this way an integral with an
limit. The discussion of this lies outside the scope of this book.
The
integral
have, by
25,
is
also a function of the
rr
f(x,
a)dx
upper limit
).
6,
and we
(2)
f(x, a)dx,
Jb
= -/(,).
(3)
PKOBLEMS
Suppose now that
Then, by
111, (3),
du
a,
db
If
= flog (1 Jo
du
P*
_
~
Jo
da
da dt
s;
a2
Therefore u
= const.
a)
tan 2 -
2T
+ a tan X\IT
1
tan- ,/1
al
\i- a
2/Jo
TT
2a
2 a cos x
a}
a 2 ) dx,
2 cos x
da C b df(x,
da
2 a cos x
0.
= 0,
But when a
dx
(log 1)
Therefore u
0.
way the value of a definite integral can sometimes be found

direct integration is inconvenient or impossible.
PROBLEMS
2.
3.
Given z
log(x
Given z
Given x 2
x4
4-
x 2 y2
.2
2
),
xy
prove y
c,
+y
5x
Given y
eax sin6x,
5.
6.
7.
8.
Given z
Given
=
=
z2
Given z
Given z
=
=
(x
xy
ev
sin-
2
-f-
2
)
tan- 1 x
tan- 1 x
1
(x
y),
aa
ax
dx
prove
=2z.
y
ay
= xy.
zy
dy
-f
ax
ax
prove zx
a&
prove x
2 ye*, prove x2
ay
6
-f
ax
prove
prove x
4 z.
Sy
ex
4.
0.
dy
2 z2
dx
y4 prove x
= 0.
In this
1.
t.
du da
dt^
â
functions of a single variable
all
du da
_ du db
~di~~db~dt
Ex.
a are
b,
217
ay
y
ay
2 y2
when
PAliTIAL DIFFERENTIATION
218
=
9. If z
xy, illustrate the difference
rectangle with sides x and
10.
is
angle
between Az and dz by constructing a
y.
triangle has two of its sides 6 and 8 in. respectively, and the included
Find the change in the area caused by increasing the length of
30.
each of the given sides by .01 in. and the included angle by 1, and compare
with the differential of area corresponding to the same increments.
11.
is
angle
triangle has two of its sides 8 and 12 in. respectively, and the included
Find the change in the opposite side caused by making the given
60.
and
sides 7.9
and compare with the

same increments.
12.1 in., the angle being unchanged,
ential of area corresponding to the
differ
right circular cylinder has an altitude 12 ft. and the radius of its base
Find the change in its volume caused by increasing the altitude by .1 ft.
and the radius by .01 ft., and compare with the differential of volume corre
sponding to the same increments.
12.
is
ft.
13.
The distance
measuring a base
an inaccessible object
h and the angles
of
BC =
line
from a point B is found by

and BCA = p. Find*
CBA = a
AB
caused by errors of cZ/i, da, dp

the expression for the error in the length of
measuring h, a, /3, assuming that higher powers of the errors of measurement
in
may
be neglected.
,
Verify the formula
dz
x2
15. z
=
=
16. z
17. z
ex2
+ v2 x
14. z
2
?/
sinxy, x
= sin
,
--h dz
--dy m each of the following cases
.
->
= P.
y = e st
cos
sin, y
t.
cost.
18. Find the tangent plane to the cone z

19.
Show
20.
Show
dy dt
t,
e2
dz dx
dx dt
dt
Vcc 2
-f
y2
that the tetrahedron formed by the coordinate planes and any

3
tangent plane to the surface xyz = a is of constant volume.
two straight
21
that
any tangent plane
to the surface z
kxy cuts the surface in
lines.
Find the point in the plane ax
by -\- cz + d =
22. Find the points on the surface xyz
which
is
nearest the origin.
a which are nearest the origin.
23. Find a point in a triangle such that the

from the three vertices is a minimum.
sum
of the squares of its distances
24. Of all rectangular parallelepipeds inscribed

which has the greatest volume.
in
an
ellipsoid find that
25. Find the point inside a plane triangle from which the sum of the squares
of the perpendiculars to the three sides is a minimum. (Express the answer in
the area of the triangle, a, &, c, the lengths of the three sides, and
terms of
JK",
x, y, z,
the three perpendiculars on the sides.)
PROBLEMS
az
az
26. If z
^./x\
=/(-), prove x ax
\y/
4 my
27. If f(lx
mx)
(ly
28. If z
29.
If
4 2/(- 4
\x
y2
/(x, y)
mz)
/ax\
--
\-
prove
log
Vx +
2
dy
- = 2y - - -
=_
(dy\
w/
\ce/ r
tan-
4y
a/
nf.
dy
/er\
W/
\dy
prove
32. Find the tangent plane to the ellipsoid
^+
CL
(*1,
a/
prove x
dx
n,
prove
/8r\
\Sx/ v
y ax
W/
2
= 0.
nx)
(lz
ay
d0Jr
prove
0,
ex
\ar/
31. Given u
2
4- z )
log
0.
a homogeneous function of degree
is
30. Given x
(ny
4-
ay
x2
4- nz,
\-
219
at the point
l)-
2/1,
33. Show that the sum of the squares of the intercepts on the coordinate
a* is constant.
axes of any tangent plane to x 4 y* +
Show
34.
that the
gent plane to x^
y^
sum
35. Prove that the plane

?L
+ !^4.^
if
p = Va2
Ix
ax
by
if
bl 2
p =
+ my 4 nz = p
m 2 + c%2
2
4- b
36. Prove that the plane Ix

2
on the coordinate axes of any tan
of the intercepts
z*
a is constant.
is
tangent to the ellipsoid
4 my +
nz
=p
is
tangent to the paraboloid
4 am 2
37. Find the cosine of the angle between the normal to the ellipsoid and the
drawn from the center to the point of contact, and prove that it
straight line
is
equal to
where p
is
the distance of the tangent plane from the center
r the distance of the point of contact
from the
and
center.
38. Find the angle between the line drawn from the origin to the point
= a 3 and the normal to the surface at that point.
(a, a, a) of the surface xyz
39. Find the angle of intersection of the spheres x 2
(x
6)
c2 .
z2
a2 and
220
40. Prove that the families of surfaces x 2 y 2
= c\
z 2x 2
and x2
y2
z2
and 0(x,
y, z)
= c^
intersect everywhere at right angles.
41. Derive the condition that two surfaces /(x, y,
z}
intersect at right angles.
42. If /(x, y,
z)
43. If /(x, y}
(\
(^} (?*} = _ L
\ax/j,\c?// W*
show that
0,
and 0(x,
how ttat*
z)
= 0,
and z
taken for the independent variable,
is
?*.
dx dz
dx dy dz
44. Find the equations of the tangent line to the curve of intersection of the
--
y2
a2
o2
2j2
ellipsoid
g2
-{
f-
c2
and the plane
Ix
+ my +
nz
0.
45. Find the equations of the tangent line to the curve of intersection of the
2
cylinders x
y2
-f
a 2 y2
,
z2
b2
x2
46. Find the highest point of the curve of intersection of

-^
and
xa
Ix
+ my +
nz
y2
+ ^H
z2
0.
47. Find the highest point of the curve of intersection of the hyperboloid
z 2 = 1 and the plane x + y + 2z = 0.
y%
-f
48. Find the angle at which the helix x 2
the sphere x 2
y2
z2
r 2 (r
>
y2
- =
dxdy
~
51. z
52. z
55. If z
56. If z
57. If z
CO
-rr
58. If z
60. If z
(e
y2
Iog(x2
sin
y2 )
+ tan-i,
x
e~ x ) cosy, prove
sec (x
at)
5
tan (x
y 2 prove
,
e~
k tan-
a,
b (y
- intersects
z) intersects
logx
prove
-\
8111-!-.
KA
54. z
ex
gx2
3*
dy
at),
prove
dZ
dx dxdy
y),
smy.
= 0.
cy
^ = a -|
2
dc 2
Sx-4
dy dx*
-
prove
=
cxcy
--- = 0.
dx2
ev\ prove
53. z
&
& = ----
cos (x
= e cosu, y
respect to x and y.
61. Given x
V with
z2
in each of the following cases
Vx 2 +
= V/x
59. If z
dydx
log
a2 z
a).
49. Find the angle at which the curve y 2

the surface x2 4- 2 zy = c.
Verify
eM sinu, find
----
(-
= 0.
xy.
in terms of the derivatives of
PROBLEMS
62. Given x
cos
sin
= re
e -e
jf.
c2
a2
65. If x
=/(w,
^ = ?*
u)
~^2
=
and
v)
<f>(u,
is
du
8u
&v
"
ew2
-,
c2
d*v
prove
5^2
and y
--
du
e
= r-
82F
F ~ a2F _
~
~~
"^2
/a
8F
cr
are two functions which satisfy the equa
any function
a2
2
\ ax
av 2
02
1 g2
of
0(x
iy)
t(x
68. If u =/(x, y) and y
69. If /(x, y)
iy),
= F(x),
_=
d 2 ?/
prove
0,
x and
prove
y,
a?/
67. If z
e~Q
-,
aw
a2
_L
+
2
i
64. Given x
tions
prove
M-D
63. Gi
221
where
V-
az
1,
prove
a^ =
0.
d*u
find
-- -ax 2 \ay/
axay ex Sy
2
ay \gx
\cy)
70. Differentiate
/**
log (1
a cos x) dx with respect to
a,
and thence
find
the value of the integral.
Q*+A
77
L<r
~
71. Differentiate
of the integral.
f
Jo
lo %
dx with respect
to a,
and thence
find the value
CHAPTEE
XII
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
120. Double integral with constant limits. Let
f(x, y) be any
function of x and y which is single valued and continuous and posi
tive for all pairs of values of x and y for which a^x^b and
c^y^d.
b
a into n equal parts, denoting each part by
thus forming the series of values of x, x v x 2 xs
,xn _ l where
Divide the interval

Aa?,
>
c into m equal parts,

Similarly, divide the interval d
denoting
each part by Ay, thus forming the series of values of y, y v y 2
->-
where
The above values

allel to
of
x determine a
OY, and the values
of
series of straight lines par

determine
a series of straight lines
y
parallel to
Every
OX
(fig.
71).
line of either set intersects
every line of the other set, and any

one of these points of intersection
ya
may
be represented by ^-(^, y^-),

i has all integral values from
where
to
l
<r-x
and j has
values from
and y being
FIG. 71
to
f(a,
we form
XQ being a
c.
Taking the value

each point of intersection,
all integral
1,
of f(x, y) at
the series
c)kxky +f(a,
+f(xv
,
c)
AÂy +/(^,
y,
222
(I)
DOUBLE INTEGRAL WITH CONSTANT LIMITS 223

This series can be expressed more concisely by the notation
where two
which vary.
The limit
are used, since there are
of (2) as
two elements
and j
and n are both increased indefinitely is

bounded by the
called the double integral of f(x, y) over the area

lines x
d.
a, x
b, y
c, and y
of the terms in (2) may evidently be made in

ways, but there are two which we shall consider in par
ticular: (1) when the sum of the terms of each row is found, and
The summation
many
sums added together (2) when the sum of the terms in each
column is found, and these sums added together. It will appear
from the graphical representation ( 121) that these two methods
these
lead to the
always
If
is
row
is
result;
and
it
method is followed,
the same in all the terms
first
of
/(,
+
But
to be noted that the value
any one row, and hence each
exactly the series used in defining a definite integral
increase indefinitely, (2)
y)dy^
( jf
/to,
Accordingly,
let
Qf f(x v
+
(jf
/("V-*
<
>
I).*)**
used in defining a definite integral with x
/awef(xhavey)dy
}
Letting
(21)
when we
becomes
y)dy)**
(3) is the series
is
summation.
it is
with y as the independent variable.
(jf
be shown that the result
may
independent of the order of
the
of
same
as the function of
x.
increase indefinitely,
which represents the double integral on the hypothesis that

and then n is made to increase indefinitely.
first
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
224
Another way
of writing (4) is
nd
f(x,y)dxdy,
(5)
where the summation

right to left,
i.e.
first
is made in the order of the differentials from

with respect to y and then with respect to x,
and the limits are in the same order as the differentials, i.e. the
y are c and d, and. the limits of x are a and b.*
If the second method of summation is
followed, we have
limits of
f(x )y )dydx.
(7)
Ex. The moment of inertia of a particle about an axis is the product of its
mass by the square of its distance from the axis. From this definition let us
determine the moment of inertia of a lamina of uniform thickness k about an
axis perpendicular to its plane. Let the
density of the lamina be uniform and de
noted by
and let the plane
coin
cide with the plane of the lamina, the axis
XOY
/>,
being perpendicular to the plane at 0.
Let
the lamina be in the form of a rectangle

(fig. 72) bounded by the lines x = a, x = &,
y
.
y-
c,
.tangles
Divide the lamina into rec-
d.
by the
lines
Then the mass
of any element, as PQ, is pkAxAy. If this mass is

regarded as
concentrated at P(X;, %), its moment of inertia would be
(x? -f yj)pkbxby. If
the mass is regarded as concentrated at
Q(x t + Ax, 2fr + Ay), its moment of
-
* Still another form of

writing
summation
is first
(4)
is
f
/a
dx
f f(x,
t/e
y) dy, in
with respect to y and then with respect to
which the order of
x.
nd
f(x, y)dydx, which is

merely (4) with the parenthesis removed. In this form it is to be noted that the limits
and the differentials are in inverse orders, and that the order of summation is the
order of the differentials from left to right, i.e. first with
respect to y and then with
respect to x. In this text this last form of writing the double integral will not be used.
In other books the context will indicate the form of notation which the writer has
chosen.
GKAPHICAL REPRESENTATION
would be
inertia
moment
[(x t
Ax)
+ Ay) 2 ]pkAx&y.
(j#
of inertia of the rectangle,

t
i=0
The
.7
Lim
Hence we
define
[(*
M by the equation
M= vC JC
and k are each placed equal
moment
ra
If p
=n
= cc,
+ A*) 2 +
(x? +
sums as n=oo,
represent the
j=
(x
j=Q
and
Ax= 0, Ay =
are the same
3),
for
y*)pkdxdy.
to unity, the result
of inertia of the plane area
bounded by the
which
is
often referred to as the
lines
x=a, x=6, y=c, y = d.
Placing z=f(x, y), we have

121. Graphical representation.
the equation of a surface
Letting
we have
i=0
limits of these
225
is
of f(x, y) (fig. 73).

d
a, x
b, y
c, y
Through the lines x
Then the volume bounded by the
pass planes parallel to OZ.
FIG. 73
the planes x
a, x = b, y = c, y
d, and the surface
=f(x, y) is a graphical representation of the double integral of
120. For if the planes x
xv x
x2 x
xv
y y v y ya
are constructed, they divide the above volume, which
y = y3
plane
XOY,
we
will denote
by V, into columns such as
MNQP,
each of which
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
226
AAy
in the plane XOY. If the

stands on a rectangular base
coordinates of
are (xit y^, the corresponding term of (2),
the term/(^, ^.)Aa!Ay
is/(^, %.)AÂy, and since f(x{) i/j ) =
120>
MP
is
the volume of a prism standing on the same base as the column

and the volume of this prism is approximately the volume
MNQP,
of the column.
Hence (2), 120, is the sum of the volumes of
such prisms, and is approximately equal to V\ and as m and n
both increase indefinitely, the limit of the sum of the volumes
of these prisms is evidently V.
The significance
For if the integral
of the
is
two ways
written as
(5),
of
summation
is
now
120, the prisms are
clear.
first
added together, keeping x constant, the result being a series of

slices, each of thickness A#, which are finally added together to
include the total volume and if the integral is written in the form
;
120, the prisms are first added together, keeping y constant,

(7),
the result being a series of slices, each of thickness Ay, which are
added together to include the total volume.

and (7) are equivalent, as was noted before.
It follows that
finally
(5)
We
122. Double integral with variable limits.

may now extend
the idea of a double integral as follows
Instead of taking the
integral over a rectangle,
:
as in
120,
we may
take
over an area bounded by

any closed curve (fig. 74)
it
such that a straight line

parallel to either
intersects
it
than two points.
OX or OY
in not
more
Drawing
straight lines parallel to
and
to
of
M
FIG. 74
straight lines parallel
OX, we form rectangles

area Aa;Ay,
which
some
of
are entirely within
the area bounded by the
curve and others of which are only partly within that area.
Then
(1)
DOUBLE INTEGRAL WITH VARIABLE LIMITS 227

where the summation includes
all
the rectangles which are wholly
or partly within the curve, represents approximately the
volume
bounded by the plane XOY, the surface z =f(x, y], and the cylinder
standing on the curve as a base, since it is the sum of the volumes
121. Now, letting the number of these prisms
of prisms, as in
and A#
increase indefinitely, while A#
0, it is evident that
volume described above.

(1) approaches a definite limit, the
If
we sum up
first
with respect to
y,
we add
together terms of
ME
Then if
is
of x, such as x
(1) corresponding to a fixed value
xit the result is a sum corresponding to the strip
the line x
ABCD, and the limits of y for this strip are the values of y corre
.
sponding to x
and
=x
MB =/ (#
2
),
i.e.
in the equation of the curve
the limits of y are/âj,.) and /2 (# ).
;
if
MA =f (x^
l
As
different
integral values are given to i, we have a series of terms correspond

ing to strips of the type ABCD, which, when the final summation
is
made with
must cover the area bounded by the
respect to x,
the least and the greatest values of x for the

curve are the constants a and b respectively, the limit of (1) appears
in the form
curve.
Hence,
if
f(x,y}dxdy,
Ja
(2)
Jfi(x)
where the subscript
i is no longer needed.
the other hand, if the first summation is made with respect
the result is a series of terms each of which corresponds to a
On
to x,
strip of the
and
terms of
type
<
4>i(y)
in
A B C D*
and the
limits of
x are
of the
form
found by solving the equation of the curve for x

Finally, if the least and the greatest values of y for
(y),
y.
the curve are the constants
appears in the
form
J/c
and d
respectively, the limit of (1)
f(*,y)dydx.
(3)
i/fi(r)
While the limits of integration in (2) and (3) are different, it is

evident from the graphical representation that the integrals are
equivalent.
123. In
120-122, f(x, y) has been assumed positive for all

the values of x and y considered, i.e. the surface z =/(#, y} was
If, however,
entirely on the positive side of the plane XOY.
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
228
f(x, y)
negative for
is
reasoning
the values of x and y considered, the
all
exactly as in the first case, but the value of the
is
Finally, if f(x, y) is sometimes positive

sometimes negative, the result is an algebraic sum, as in
integral
is
negative.
all
we may use /((-.,
2223,
of
is
it
review those
17,),
where x
<
xi+l and yj
<
this integral
is
in parenthesis being
Ex.
2.
If
y2
we sum up
written,
computed
a2
first
to strips of the type
points like
<
yj+r
The method
comput
meaning
it is
nZt
equivalent to
Jo
/>2
Vo
xydy)dx, the integral

/
on the hypothesis that y alone
first,
/
J
xydxdy over the
varies.
quadrant of
first
with respect to
ABCD
and B.
of
of the notation.
xydxdy.
Find the value of the integral
articles.
n2
the circle x2
<
making these extensions being similar to that of

not repeated here, but the student is advised to
124. Computation of a double integral.

ing a double integral is evident from the
As
22.
not necessary that all the values of A# should

the values of Ay equal also in place of f(xit y^
it is
Furthermore,
be equal and
The work
and
(fig.
75),
The ordinate
y,
we
find a series of terms corresponding

limits of y are the ordinates of the
and the
of
is
evidently 0, and from the equation
of the circle the ordinate of
B is Va2
x2 where
,
OA = x.
quadrant of the circle the limits of

Hence the required integral is
Finally, to cover the
x are
and
a.
n"^
-*2
r a P x ?/ T
2
^ j
xydxdy=
dx
i[-Yl
2
=fl"-*
rq
~2l
A D
x"
te
><
x
4
FIG. 75
Since the above computation of a double integral is simply the

repeated computation of a single definite integral, the theorems of
24 may be used
in simplifying the work.
DOUBLE INTEGRAL IN POLAR COORDINATES

125. Double integral in polar coordinates.
the double integral of f(r, 6) over any area,
up
into elements, such as
at distances
increase
is
by
A0
apart,
The area
AT*.
ABCD
(fig.
of
we
we have
to find
divide that area
by drawing
76),
and concentric
If
229
radii vectors
circles the radii of
which
ABCD
the difference of the areas of the
sectors
OB C
and OAD.
Hence,
if
OA = r,
area
AB CD =
+ Ar) A0 2
\ (r
J-
A0
Therefore any term of the sum cor

120, is,
responding to (1),
at first sight, of the form
f(r, #)
(rArA0+J- Ar
2
-
A0).
FIG. 76
in taking the limit, r Ar A0

rArA0 ( 3), for
But
_.
Lim /(r, 0).(rArA0
Hence the required
Lim
2}
+ lAr
integral
V /(r,
A0 may
J-Ar
be replaced by
-A0)_
= Lim /
is
0) r
ArA0 =
f(r, 0) rdrdd.
(1)
-fp<-
A0Zo
If the summation in (1) is made first with respect to r, the result

a series of terms corresponding to strips such as A 1 1 C1 V and
the limits of r are functions of
found from the equation of the
is
The summation with respect
bounding curve.
all
these terms, and the limits of
area will be constants,
i.e.
the least and the greatest values of
on
made first with respect

a series of terms corresponding to strips such as
and the limits of
are functions of r found from the
to 0, the result
,
will then add
taken so as to cover the entire
the bounding curve.

If, on the other hand, the summation
A 2 B2 C2 D2
to
is
is
equation of the bounding curve. The summation with respect to

r will then add all these terms, and the limits of r will be the
least
and the greatest values
of r
on the bounding curve.
MULTIPLE INTEGKALS
230
Ex. Find the integral of r2 over the circle r = 2 a cos 0.

and 2 a cos 0, found
If we sum up first with respect to r, the limits are
from the equation of the bounding curve,
and the result is a series of terms cor
responding to sectors of the type A OB
To sum up these terms so as
(fig. 77).
to cover the circle, the limits of
and !
The
result
a cos
rsdedr
TT
are
is
2 a cos
de
JO
=11 4a*cos
0d0
FIG. 77
The graphical representation may be made by the use

Let any volume
126. Triple integrals.
of cylin
127.
drical coordinates defined in
(fig.
78) be divided into
volume A,xAyA2 by planes paral

Z
the coordinate
rectangular parallelepipeds of
lel
respectively to
planes,
some
of the parallelepipeds
extending outside the volume in a
manner
similar to that in
which
122 extend out

the rectangles in
side the area. Let
yjt zk) be a
(x.>
point of intersection of
any three
these planes and form the

i=n j=m k = p
.\
_[>,
of
sum
A-.A-.A-i
"\
-X
i=0 j=Q k=0
as
122.
in
limit of this
m, and
Ay =
0,
include
f(x
while
Az =
as n,
0,
Ax
in
== 0,
FIG 7g
so as to
points of the volume,

throughout the volume.
all
y, z)
sum
increase
definitely,
Then the
is
called the triple integral of
It is denoted
f(x, y, z}dxdydz,
by the symbol
CYLINDRICAL AND POLAR COORDINATES
231
If the summation is made

x
and
first with respect to z,
y remaining constant, the result is to
extend the integration throughout a column of cross section AÂy
if next x remains constant and y varies, the integration is extended
so as to combine the columns into slices and finally, as x varies,
the limits remaining to be substituted.
the slices are combined so as to complete the integration throughout

the volume.
127. Cylindrical and polar coordinates. In addition to the
84, we shall consider two other
rectangular coordinates defined in
systems of coordinates for space of three dimensions,
(1) cylin
drical coordinates, (2) polar coordinates.
Cylindrical coordinates. If the x and

the y of the rectangular coordinates are
1.
replaced by polar coordinates r and 6 in

the plane XOY, and the z coordinate is re
tained with its original significance, the new
coordinates
and z are called cylindrical

The formulas connecting the
r, 6,
coordinates.
two systems of coordinates are evidently

x = r cos 0, y = r sin 6, z = z.
Turning to
to the plane
fig.
79,
XOY,
we
see that z
that
=z
FIG. 79
determines a plane parallel
MONP,
determines a plane
passing
OZ
and making an angle l with

the plane XOZ, and that r = r l determines
a right circular cylinder with radius r x and
OZ as its axis. These three surfaces inter
through
sect at the point P.

2.
Polar coordinates.
In
are
drical coordinates of
and
Z L OM =
If
9.
80 the cylin-
fig.
OM=r,
instead
placing
and denote the
r,
OM=
z,
of
OM = r we place OP =
angle NOP by $, we shall have
coordinates of P. Then, since ON= OP cos
r,
as the polar
sin
MP =
(/>,
and
and
(f>
OP
the following equations evidently express the con
nection between the rectangular and the polar coordinates of P:
</>,
= r cos
x
cf>,
= r sin
<f>
cos 0,
= r sin
sin 0.
<f>
MULTIPLE INTEGEALS
232
The polar coordinates of a point also determine three surfaces

which intersect at the point. For 6 = l determines a plane (fig. 81)
through OZ, making the angle
=
with the plane XOZ;
l
</>
determines a cone of revolution,

the axis and the vertical angle of
which
2
are respectively OZ and

and r r^ determines
(/^
;
a sphere with
at
center
its
and radius r r
In both
tems
nates
-X
sys
coordi
of
from
varies
to
TT,
and in polar coor

dinates
varies
<f>
from
to
The
TT.
coordinate
is
FIG. 81
usually positive
be negative, in which case it will be laid
on the backward extension of
in both systems, but

off
may
the line determined by the other

two coordinates, as in I, 177.
128. Elements of
cylindrical and
nates.
volume
in
in polar coordi
If it is desired to
express
126 in
the triple integral of
either cylindrical or polar coor

dinates, it is necessary to know
the expression for the element

of volume in those coordinates.
1.
The element
cylindrical
of
volume
coordinates
(fig.
in
82)
bounded by
two cylinders of radii r and
r+Ar, two planes corresponding
and
+ A0.
corresponding to
is
the volume
FIG. 82
to z
It
and z+Az, and two planes

is
accordingly, except
for
ELEMENTS OF VOLUME
233
infinitesimals of higher order, a cylinder with
base
rArA0(
Hence the element
125).
of
&z and
altitude
volume
is
dV=rdrd0dz.
(1)
The element of volume in polar coordinates (fig. 83) is the

volume bounded by two spheres of radii r and r + Ar, two conical
2.
surfaces
ing to
correspond
and
<f>
</>+Ac/>,
and two planes cor

and
responding to
+ A0.
The volume
of the spherical
pyr
0-ABCD
amid
is
equal to the area of

its
ABCD mul
by one third
base
tiplied
altitude r.*
of
its
To
find the area of
ABCD
we
note
first
that the area of the
zone formed by com

pleting the arcs
AD
and
BC
its altitude,
area of
and
r cos
<
r cos
+
multiplied by 2 irr. Also the
the area of the zone as the angle A0 is to 2 TT.
A<),
(<
ABCD
Hence
FIG. 83
equal to
is
is to
ABCD = r A0 [r cos $ r cos

0-A BCD = r A0 [cos $ - cos
area
vol
Similarly,
vol
((/>
+ A$)],
0-EFGH = 1 (r + Ar) A0 [cos - cos

3
Therefore
vol ^4 J?
But
mal
CDEFGH = 1 [(r + Ar) - r

3
this expression differs

of higher order.
2
from r sin
- cos
A<9
[cos
</>
$ArA</>A0
by an
infinitesi
Accordingly, the element of volume
is
(2)
*
its
of a spherical pyramid is to the volume of the sphere as the area of

the area of the surface of the sphere.
The volume
base
is to
MULTIPLE INTEGRALS
234
It
rsm(f>d0,
129.
and
of coordinates.
and
are respectively
rd(f> )
When
a double integral
is
given
may
it
be easier to determine the value
the rectangular coordinates are replaced by polar

Then f(x, y) becomes f(r cos 6, r sin 6), i.e. a function
coordinates.
of r
equal to the product of the
f(x, y) dxdy, where the limits are to be substituted
so as to cover a given area,

of the integral
in
is
AB, AD, and AE, which
dr.
Change
form
in the
dV
be noted that
to
is
three dimensions
if
As
0.
the other factor, dxdy, indicates the element of area,

of
121 and the work of
view of the graphical representation
we may
125,
replace
dxdy by rdrd0. These two elements of area

two integrals are nevertheless equiva
are not equivalent, but the
provided the limits of integration in each system of coordi

nates are taken so as to cover the same area.
lent,
In like manner, the three
triple integrals
f(x,y, z)dxdydz,
f(r cos
f(r sin
are equivalent
total
volume
0,
(f>
when
r sin 0,
z)
rdrdddz,
cos 0, r sin
<p
sin 0, r cos $) r sin fydrdfydO
the limits are so taken in each as to cover the
to be considered.
PROBLEMS
5.
L*r$ dXdy
6-
r r
Ji Ji
7X
-dxdy.
y
/>;:
i.
,X2
/io;z
re
n-n
/rt~vsin
Jo Jo
+
"
**UOr.
n
3.
C
Jit
Joy
C^sin-dydx.
7.
C f^
J
i/
"rdrdd.
cos-
2
1
/~
4.
f T ^xlog
*/2 t/i
dydx.
8.
f C
t/
*C
/
e*-*y+ s dxdydz.
PROBLEMS
r a /Vaz-x2
11.
JJood()
C
Jo J
dxdydz
Va2
Jo Jo
drdZ
x2
y2
13.
r sin
cos
cos
6d6d<j>dr.
/asin<J>
15. Prove that
f ff(*)
-f(y)dxdy
z2
235
CHAPTER
XIII

130.
Moment
its
of
distance
from
we
of
derive
is the
product of
The moment of inertia

mass and the square
its
The moment of
same axis is the sum
number
moments of
inertia of a
the axis.
of particles about the
inertia
a plane area.
of inertia of
of a particle about an axis
of the
the particles about that axis. From this definition

(120) a definition of the moment of inertia of a
homogeneous rectangular lamina of thickness k and density p

about an axis perpendicular to the plane of the lamina. The
result
may
be written in the form
M =pk
If
(&+f)dxdy
i/a
where
rd
(*
M represents the moment
p and
Jc
are both replaced
M:=
(1)
c/ c
of inertia.
by
unity, (1)
Uf
a \J\(&+f)dxdy,
c
becomes
(2)
which, as was noted in

120, is called the moment of inertia of
the rectangle about an axis perpendicular to its plane at O.
Reasoning in the same way, we may form the general expression
(3)
where the integration
XOY. Then
(3) is
is
the
to extend over a given area in the plane

of inertia of that area about the
moment
axis perpendicular to the plane at 0.
Ex. Find the moment of

the origin, of the plane area
y = 2 a, and the axis OF.
inertia,
(fig.
84)
about an axis perpendicular to the plane at

bounded by the parabola y 2 = 4 ax, the line
236
MOMENT OF INEKTIA OF A PLANE AREA

If the integration is
tion are
of inertia
and
due
made
first
with respect to
x, the limits of that integra-
y2
,
4a
since the operation
to the
is
the
of elements of
summing
elementary rectangles in any

a fixed value of y the limit
w2
strip corresponding to
237
moment
found from the axis of y, and the limit found from the equation of the parabola.
Finally, the limits of y must be taken so as to
include all the strips parallel to OX, and hence
is
is
must be
and 2
Therefore
a.
M = Jo
C"
4a
Jo
(z
y*)dydx
192
FIG. 84
131.
If
the plane area
is
of polar coordinates, (3) of
more conveniently denned by means

130 becomes
(1)
for,
the
129, in place of dxdy as the element of area we take

by
z
2
element of area rdrdO, and the factor x + y evidently
2
becomes r
.
Formula
(1)
may
also be de
rived directly from the fundamen

tal definition at the beginning of
130, and the student
to
make
is
advised
that derivation.
Ex. Find the moment of inertia, about

an axis perpendicular to the plane at 0,
of the plane area (fig. 85) bounded by one
loop of the curve r = a sin 2 6.
M
FIG. 85
We
the
shall take the loop in
first
moments
quadrant, since the

of inertia of all the
loops about the chosen axis are the same by the symmetry of the curve.
If the first integration is made with respect to r, the result is the moment of
inertia of a strip
bounded by two successive radii vectors and the curve and

and a sin 2 6. Since the values of 6 for the loop of
hence the limits for r are
238
the curve vary from
to
it is
evident that those values are the limits for 6
in the final integration.
M = Jovo Jo
/*asin20
Therefore
In the two preceding articles we have found the moment

of inertia of a plane area about an axis
perpendicular to the plane,
which, with the exception of a constant factor, is the moment
132.
of
inertia of
a corresponding
homogeneous lamina about the

same
the
axis.
We
moment
shall
of
now
inertia
find
of
homogeneous lamina about an

axis in its plane.
Let the lamina be bounded
by the closed curve (fig. 86),

and let its density at any point
be p and its thickness be k.
Let OX be the axis about which
~x
FIG. 86
the
moment
is to
be taken.
Divide the area into rec
tangles of area AÂ^/. Then

the mass of any corresponding element of the lamina, as PQ, is
pk&x&y. If this mass is regarded as concentrated at P, its moment
about
is pky^&x&y
and if the mass is regarded as concen
2
trated at Q, its moment about
is pk
(y + Ay) Aa;Ay.
OX
Therefore,
if
OX
represents the required moment,

(i)
the summations to cover the entire area.
Since
Um P k (y+y?y = l
the same limit
(3), and
the double
is
of
have
accordingly
&*=ffphfdax!y
where the integration
sums
to cover the entire area.
(2)
AREA BOUNDED BY A PLANE CUKVE

If
p and k are each replaced by unity, (2) defines the

about OX.
239
moment
of inertia of the plane area

If
M denotes the moment
about
of inertia
Y, in similar
manner
(3)
OY of
Ex. Find the moment of inertia about

parabola y
4 ax, the line y
Since the above area

integration will be the
2
2
changed in that x + y
same as that
same
2
replaced by x
is
OY.
of the Ex. in
130, the limits of

as there determined, but the integrand will be
the
is
the plane area bounded by the
2 a, and the axis
Hence
C"
Jo
Jo
__
4a
x 2 dydx
r2
"
y*(ly
*
192a3Jo
use polar coordinates, (2) becomes
If it is desirable to
M=
ph* sin
and
(3)
OdrdB,
(4)
6drd0
(5)
becomes
M = CCpkr
y
the substitution being
cos
made according
to
Area bounded by a plane curve.
133.
129.
The area bounded by an
arc of a plane curve, the axis of x t and the ordinates of the ends of
the arc has been determined in
35 by a single integration. By tak
ing the algebraic sum of such areas any plane area may be computed.
The area bounded by any plane curve may also be found by a
double integration as follows
and
to
OF respectively,
which, as in
of
which
sum
fig.
Draw
forming
will be only partly within the curve.
^ÂÂy
of these rectangles,
integral
A# =
and then
and
Ay =
0.
Form
the double
number
Then the double
let their
rr
JJ
the required area.
OX
some of
within the curve, and others
rectangles of area A:rAy,
74, will be entirely
increase indefinitely while
is
straight lines parallel to
dxdy
(I)
240
2 = 4
Ex. Find the area inclosed by the curve (y
x
x 2 (fig. 87).
3)
The element of area is the rectangle AxAy. If the first integration is made
with respect to y, the result is the area of a strip like the one shaded in fig. 87,
and the limits for y will be found by solving the equation of the curve for y in
terms of
Since y
x.
the lower limit
-V4-x
the upperjimit
is
?/ 2
and
=x+3
ViT^ x For the integra

tion with respect to x the
limits are
2 and 2, since
2.
the curve
is
bounded by the
2 and x
x =
Therefore
lines
area
2.
C *dxdy
J-<zJ
2/i)
dx
= 2 f V4 -x2 dx
J-2
/-
This example
35.
is
Ex.
3,
Comparing the two
solutions, we see that the

result of the first integra
tion here
"*
grand in
is
exactly the inteIt is evident
35.
that this will be the case
FIG. 87
in all similar problems, and

hence many areas may be found by single integration. The advantage of the
double integral consists in the representation of the area of a figure for which
the limits of integration cannot easily be found.
134. In like manner, the area
coordinates
may
bounded by any curve
in polar
be expressed by the double integral
rdrd6,
(1)
the element of area being that bounded by two radii vectors the
angles of which differ by A0, and by the arcs of two circles the
radii of
which
the
differ
by Ar.
integration of (1) is with respect to r, the result

2
before the substitution of the limits is ^ r d@. But this is exactly
If
first
AREA OF ANY SURFACE
241
the integrand used in computation by a single integration. Hence

many areas may be computed by single integration in. polar
coordinates.
135. Area of
Let
surface.
any
(fig.
88) be any closed curve
on the surface /(#, y, z) = 0. Let its projection on the plane XOY

We shall assume that the given surface is such that the
be C
.
XOY
at any point within the curve C

perpendicular to the plane
meets the surface in but a single point.
In the plane
and QF,
draw straight lines parallel to
1
OX
XOY
forming rectangles of area A#Ay, which

in
the area bounded by
parallel
will
OZ.
to
Through these
These planes
the
intersect
surface
lie
wholly or partly
lines
pass planes
in
curves which intersect in points

the projections of which on the
XOY
are the vertices of

plane
the rectangles for example,
is the projection of P. At
every
such point as
P draw
the tan
gent plane to the surface,
each tangent plane there

will be cut a parallelo
by the
planes
drawn
gram
parallel to
OZ.
We shall now
FlG 88
-
define the area
of the surface /(#, y, z)

0, bounded by the curve C, as the limit
of the sum of the areas of these parallelograms cut from the tan
gent planes, as their number is

the same time that A# =
and
made
to increase indefinitely, at
This definition involves
Ay = 0.
the assumption that the limit is independent of the manner in

which the tangent planes are drawn, or of the way in which the
small areas are made to approach zero. This assumption may be
proved by careful but somewhat intricate reasoning.

* This
parallelogram is not
surface element.
drawn
in the figure, since
it
coincides so nearly with the
242
A^4 denotes the area of one of these

parallelograms in a tan
gent plane, and 7 denotes the angle which the normal to the tangent
plane makes with OZ, then ( 92)
If
Aa?Ay
since the projection of
tion cosines of the
A^
normal
= A J. cos 7,
on the plane
are,
by
/I)
XO Y is A#Ay.
112,
(2),
The
direc
proportional to
dz
1
>
v,
;
hence
cos
and hence
and
According to the definition, to find
= and Ay =
that is
of (3) as Aa;
A we
must take the
limit
where the integration must

be extended over the area in
the plane XOFbounded
by the curve
1
.
Ex. 1. Find the area of

an octant of a sphere of
radius
a.
If the center of
the sphere is taken

as the origin of co
ordinates
(fig.
89),
the equation of the
sphere
is
= a2
Y
area on the plane
and the axes
XOY
is
OX and OF.
the area in the

2
2
2/
first
(1)
and the projection

of the required
quadrant bounded by the circle
(2)
AREA OF ANY SURFACE

From
243
(1),
by(i)
na
iTra
dx
/o
3.
Ex.
2.
The center
7ra2.
of a sphere of radius 2 a is on the surface of a right cir

Find the area of the part of the cylinder intercepted
a.
cular cylinder of radius

by the sphere.
FIG. 90
Let the equation of the sphere be
the center being at the origin

2
2/
(fig.
90),
and
+ z2-2a?/ =
let the
equation of the cylinder be
0,
(2)
the elements of the cylinder being parallel to OX.

To find the projection of the required area on the plane
it is necessary
to find the equation of a cylinder passing through the line of intersection of (1)
XOY
and
(2),
and having
its
elements parallel to OZ.

2
2/
z2
4 a2 )
+ Ml/ 2 +
Now
- 2ay) =
z2
(3)
244
represents any surface through the line of intersection of (1) and (2), and hence
Accord
it only remains to choose k\ and k% so that (3) shall be independent of z.
ingly let ki
and k 2
and
1,
x2
From
(3)
2 ay
(2),
becomes
4 a2
0.
(4)
dx
cy
by
f*2a
adydx
=L /
=
8 a2
(2)
limits of integration were determined from (4), which is the projection

bounding line of the required area on the plane XOY.
As an equal area is intercepted on the negative side of the plane JTOF, the
above result must be multiplied by 2. Hence the required area is 16 a 2
The
of the
The evaluation
may sometimes
of (4)
be simplified by trans
XOY.
forming to polar coordinates in the plane
Ex. 3. Find the area of the sphere x2 + y2 + z 2 = a 2 included in a cylinder

having its elements parallel to OZ and one loop of the curve r = a cos 2 6 (fig. 91)
in the plane
as its directrix.
XOY
Proceeding as in Ex.
1,
we
find the integrand
ing this integrand to polar coordinates,
we have
Transform-
Va2 - x2 - y2
(
129)
~ a cos 20
A=
ardddr
for the first integration

with respect to r covers a
sector extending
from the
origin to a point on the curve

a cos 2 0, since the cjurve
r
the origin
passes through
and the final
with respect
--
4
chosen
FIG. 91
radii vectors
and
4
because there
is
to
=4
an equal amount
The
4
is
integration
to
since
is
from
the loop
bounded by the
factor 2 before the integral
is
necessary
of area on the negative side of the plane
XOY.
CENTER OF GRAVITY
Therefore
A=2 f
Vj
If the required area is projected
245
20
on the plane YOZ, we have
where the integration extends over the projection of the area on

YOZ] and if the required area is projected on the plane
XOZ, we have
the plane
where the integration extends over the projection

the plane
136. Center of gravity.

of a
system of particles
ing formulas being
If
of the area
on
XOZ.
the particles do not
47 we denned the center of gravity

which lie in the same plane, the result
In
all of
all lie in
add a third equation,
the same plane,
we
are obliged to
m
2i &
= ~^
^-\
2^ra.
to define the third coordinate of the center of gravity, the deriva
tion of which is not essentially different from that given in
47.
To determine the center of gravity of a physical body, we divide

the body into elementary portions, the mass of any one of which
be represented by Am. Then if (#., y., z.)
that the mass of one of the elementary portions
may
is
any point such
may
be considered
as concentrated at that point, we define the center of

gravity
(x, y, z) of the body by the formulas
246
The denominator of each of the preceding fractions is evidently M,

the mass of the body.
Formulas (1) can be expressed in terms of definite integrals, the
shall here
evaluation of which gives the values of x, y, and z.
We
take up only those cases in which the definite integrals introduced

are double or triple integrals.
137. Center of gravity of a plane area.
XOY has
The center
of gravity
From
we have immediately that z = 0.
To determine x and y we divide the area into rectangles of area
AÂy (fig. 86), and if we denote the density by p, Am = /aAzAy.
If we consider the mass of an element, as PQ, concentrated at P,
we have, by substituting in (1), 136,
of a plane area in the plane
been defined in
49.
that definition
(1)
an expression which is evidently less than x and

as concentrated at Q, we have
the mass of
;
if
we
consider
PQ
an expression which
But the
is
Limits of (1)
evidently greater than x.

and (2) are the same ( 3), for
4- Aa?
(x.
Lim ^-^-
...
Î
The
limit of (1) is
entire area.
\pxdxdy
both integrals being taken over the
iipdxdy
\\pxdxdy
Therefore
~^~
~>
tjpdxdy
y being derived in the same manner as
\\pydxdy
"
"77^
jjpdxdy
x.
(3)
CENTER OF GRAVITY OF A PLANE AREA

If
is
constant,
it
can be canceled
247
and in any problem in
which p
is not denned, it will be understood that it is constant.

In that case the denominator of each coordinate is the area of the
plane figure.
Ex. Find the center of gravity of the segment of the
off
x2
ellipse
--
?/
a2
62
1-
cut
by the chord through the positive ends of the axes of the curve.
is Ex. 2,
49, and the student should compare the two solutions.
The equation of the chord is bx -f- ay = ab.
To determine x and y we have to compute the two integrals CCxdxdy and
JJ
ydxdy over the shaded area of fig. 39, and also find that shaded area.
This
n
I
f\
I
The area is the area of a quadrant of the ellipse less the area of the triangle
formed by the coordinate axes and the chord, and is accordingly
For the integrals the

and y%
= - v a2
|(7ra6)- la&
|a6(7r-2).
limits of integration with respect to
y are y
x2 y\ being found from the equation of the chord, and y 2 being

,
found from the equation of the
The
ellipse.
limits for
x are evidently
and
a.
z va^ - te +
f r l^xtofr = Jor/6
\a
Jo Jah-bx
nb
~\/2
_ 3-2
ydxdy
- bx
If the
6 2x 2
(TT
a62 x) dx
26
3
2)
(TT
2)
equation of the bounding curve of the area
polar coordinates,
by
a 2 Jo
2a
=
3
138.
=-
we
have, by transforming equations
129,
(3),
is
in
137,
rr
x
pr-cos0drd0
I
CprdrdO
(i)
2
pr
sin
OdrdO
prdrdO
248
Ex. Find the center of gravity of the area bounded by the two
r
a cos
r =
0,
b cos
circles
6.
(b
from the symmetry of the area (fig. 92) that y = 0.

is the area,
the denominator of the fractions, after canceling
>
a)
It is evident
As
it
is
/>,
equal to
444
-
= - TT (W -
The numerator
for x
a*).
becomes
r2 cos edddr
62
(ft
r-2
a3 )
a2
ab
~2 (6 +
cos*0d0
a)
FIG. 92
139. Center of gravity of a solid.

of
any
solid
we have merely
136, in terms of space coordinates
example,
if
To
find the center of gravity
to express the
rectangular coordinates are used,
Am
of formulas (1),
and proceed as in
137.
Am = /aAÂyAz,
For
and
pxdxdydz
\pdxdydz
\pydxdydz
JJ-J_
y=
\\ \pdxdydz
\\\pzdxdydz
z
=
I
pdxdydz
137.
the work of derivation being like that of
If desired, formulas (1) may be expressed in cylindrical or polar
coordinates.
Ex. Find the center of gravity of a body of uniform density, bounded by one
nappe of a right circular cone of vertical angle 2 a and a sphere of radius a, the
center of the sphere being at the vertex of the cone.
VOLUME
249
If the center of the sphere is taken as the origin of coordinates and the axis
of the cone as the axis of z, it is evident from the symmetry of the solid that
0.
To find z, we shall use polar coordinates, the equations of the sphere
x = y
and the cone being respectively
C
Jo
Then
a and
n(X
Jo
of altitude a(l
C
Jo
is
a.
sin
(j>d6d<f>dr
nO.
r 2 sin
Jo Jo
({>d6d(f>dr
the volume of a spherical cone the base of which
cos a); therefore
f f
r2
Jo Jo
nllf
The denominator
r cos
<
r3 cos
<
sin
Jo Jo
its
<pddd(f>dr
1 a4 f
140. Volume.
sin
(""cos
= |a (l
a) C
Jo
= l7ra4 (l- cos2 a).
z = ! (1 + cos a) a.
126, 128
In
-|7ra (l
Jo
Jo
4
.-.
volume equals
cos 2
we found
cosa)
is
a zone
128).
QdBdQ
dt
expressions for the
element of volume in rectangular, in cylindrical, and in polar

coordinates.
The volume
will be the limit of the
of
a solid
bounded by any surfaces
sum
of these
elements as their number
increases indefinitely while their magnitudes approach the limit

zero. It will accordingly be expressed as a triple integral.
Ex.
1.
Find the volume bounded by the
From symmetry
is
(fig.
93)
it
evident that the required

is eight times the vol
volume
ume
in the first octant
bounded by the surface

and the coordinate
planes.
In summing up the
rectangular
parallel
epipeds AxAyAz to
form a prism with
edges parallel to OZ,
the limits for z are
the latter being

found from the
equation of the
ellipsoid,
Y/
FIG. 93
a2
y2
Jg2
ellipsoid
62
c2
1.
250
Summing up next with
respect to y, to obtain the volume of a slice,
--
and 6-1/1
as the lower limit of y,
This latter limit
as the upper limit.
determined by solving the equation
^=
found by letting z
1,
we have
is
in the
that the ellipsoid has the

equation of the ellipsoid for it is in the plane z
greatest extension in the direction OF, corresponding to any value of x.
;
and
Finally, the limits for x are evidently
Fsgf
J
Therefore
a2
"*
f
Jo
Jf*
o
/o/o
*dxdydz
pa, />6\/l-^
= 8C
a.
a*
"V
dx
(l--\
a2
\
Jo
| -rrabc.
be noted that the
It is to
first
integration,
when
rectangular
coordinates are used, leads to an integral of the form
where
faces.
and
z2
z l are
found from the equations of the bounding sur

many volumes may be found as easily by
It follows that
double as by triple integration.

In particular, if z l = 0, the volume
senting the double integral
Ex.
z
2.
is
the one graphically repre
121).
Find the volume bounded by the surface
ae~( xZ + y-) and the plane
0.
To determine this volume

Then the equation of
nates.
volume
is
it
will be
advantageous to use cylindrical coordi

= ae~ 2 and the element of
the surface becomes z
128) rdrdddz.
first with respect to z, we have as the limits of integration

and
and oo, for in the
integrate next with respect to r, the limits are
plane z = 0, r = GO, and as z increases the value of r decreases toward zero as a
limit. For the final integration with respect to 6 the limits are
and 2 TT.
Integrating
ae~ r2
If
we
stZir
Therefore
V= Jo
=
/oo
I
/.2rr
s*ae~ rZ
I
rdedrdz
Jo Jo
I
Jo
/>oo
re~ r *dddr
Jo
de
MOMENT OF INERTIA OF A SOLID
251
In the same way that the computation of the volume in Ex. 2

has been simplified by the use of cylindrical coordinates, the com
putation of a volume may be simplified by a change to polar coor
dinates and the student should always keep in mind the
possible
;
advantage of such a change.

141.
Moment
The moment
of inertia of a solid.
of inertia of a
an axis may be found as follows Divide the solid into

elements of volume, and let Am represent the mass of such an
element. Let h and h + AA represent the least and the
greatest
solid about
Am
Am
distances of any particle of

from the axis. Then if
is
as
concentrated
at
the
least
its
moment
of
inertia
regarded
distance,
would be
2
7t
Am
greatest distance,
If the
moment
and
Am
if
regarded as concentrated at the

2
inertia would be (h -fA/t) Am.
is
moment
its
of
of inertia of the entire solid is
^ A Am
2
denoted by M,
<
where the two sums include
M<
all
^(h + AA) Am,
the elements of volume into which
the solid was divided.

-.
Lim J
/i
-=
Am
volume increases
when
the
indefinitely while
number
their
of
the elements of
magnitude approaches
the limit zero.
Hence we
define
M by the equation
(1)
It is to
be noted that the cases of
cases of (1).
The computation
M requires
us to express (1) as a definite

of coordinates, the choice of a
particular system of coordinates depending

Ex. Find the
are but special
some system
of
integral in terms of
130-132
moment
of inertia of a
upon the
solid.
homogeneous sphere of density p about
a diameter.
We shall take the center of the sphere as the origin of coordinates, and the
diameter about which the moment is to be taken as the axis of z. The
problem
will then be most
easily solved by using cylindrical coordinates.
The equation
is
the density
of the sphere will be r2
also h
r,
so that
we have
z2
a2 and
,
dm =
prdrdedz, where p
to find the value of the triple integral
252
Integrating first with respect to z, we find the limits, from the equation of
2
2
the sphere, to be
r2 and
r2
Integrating next with respect to r,
we have the limits and a, thereby finding the moment of a sector of the sphere.
To include all the sectors, we have to take and 2-n- as the limits of 6 in the last
Va
integration.
M = p JoC
Therefore
As a
Va
27r
"
~ rZ
J - Va2 -
r*dddrdz.
r2
result of the first integration,
M = 2 p JoC
Making the next
we have
M=
V Va
f2 dedr.
by a reduction formula or a trigonometric sub
integration
stitution,
f
Jo
2n
Âr
pa5
dd
-,% Trpa
5
.
In
45 the attraction between two particles
and the component in the direction OX of the attrac
142. Attraction.
was
defined,
tion of
any body on a
particle
where
was derived
as
LirnV
Âm,
n=oc^ T*
Am
represents an element of mass of

the body, r may be considered the shortest
distance from any point of the element to
the particle, and 6 is the angle between
i
OX
and the
line r {
This expression
is
entirely
general, and similar expressions may be de

rived for the components of the attraction
in the directions
Now
OY and
OZ.
we can
use double and triple

the
integrals
application of these formulas
that
is simplified.
Ex. Find the attraction due
to a
homogeneous
circular cylinder of density p, of height A, and radius

of cross section a, on a particle in the line of the axis
of the cylinder at a distance 6 units

one end of the cylinder.
Take the
dinates
particle at the origin of coor

and the axis of the cylin-
94),
(fig.
der as OZ.
FIG. 94
Using cylindrical coordinates,
we have dm = prdrdddz and n = Vz2
From
the
symmetry
the directions
component
OX
and
of the figure the resultant
OY
in the direction
are zero,
OZ.
and cos 0;
from
components
-f
r2
of attraction in
for the resultant
PROBLEMS
Therefore, letting
Az
represent the component in the direction OZ,

g
where the
Joo
Jb
(z
A, = ,"-
Zlt
we have
ft
limits of integration are evident
253
f
Jo
(h
+ V62 +
+ V& +
2
2
7jv>
a2
2
r2 )*
from
fig.
dedrdz,
94.
- V(6 +
- V(6 +
2
/i)
A)
+
a
a2) e*0
2
).
PROBLEMS
Find the moment of inertia of the area between the straight lines x + y = 1,
and y = 1 about an axis perpendicular to its plane at 0.
2. Find the moment of inertia of the area bounded by the parabolas y 2 = 4 ax
4 6x + 4 62 about an axis perpendicular to its plane at 0.
4 a2 y2 =
1.
1,
3.
Find the moment of inertia of the area of the loop of the curve
x) about an axis perpendicular to its plane at 0.
4.
Determine the moment of inertia about an axis perpendicular
x2 (a
62 ?/ 2
to the plane
at the pole of the area included between the straight line r

a sec 6 and two
straight lines at right angles to each other passing through the pole, one of these
lines making an angle of 60 with the initial line.
5. Find the moment of inertia of the area of one loop of the curve r = a cos 3 6
about an axis perpendicular to its plane at the pole.
6. Find the moment of inertia of the area of the cardioid r = a(cos0 -f 1)

7. Find the moment of inertia of the area of one loop of the lemniscate
r2 = 2 a 2 cos 2 about an axis perpendicular to its plane at the pole.
8. Find the moment of inertia of the total area bounded by the curve
r2 = a 2 sin
9.
r2
Find the moment of inertia of the entire area bounded by the curve
= a2 sin 3 6
10.
Find the moment of inertia of the area of a circle of radius a about an

any point on its circumference.
axis perpendicular to its plane at
11. Find the
moment of
cluded in the curve

12.
inertia of the area of the circle r
a which
is
not in
r=a sin 2 6 about an axis perpendicular to its plane at the pole.
Find the moment of inertia about the axis of y of the area bounded by
= a 2 and the line 2 x + 2 y 5a = 0.
the hyperbola xy
13.
Find the moment of inertia about the axis of x of the area of the loop
of the curve 62 ?/ 2
x 2 (a
x).
Find the moment of inertia of the area of one loop of the lemniscate
about the straight line through the pole perpendicular to the
r2 = 2 a2 cos 2
initial line as an axis.
14.
APPLICATIONS OF MULTIPLE INTEGKALS
254
15. Find the

above the initial
moment
line,
initial line as
an
a(cos0
1)
axis.
16. Find the moment of inertia of the area bounded

by a semicircle of radius
a and the corresponding diameter, about the tangent parallel to the diameter.
17.
5a
18.
Find the area bounded by the hyperbola xy
a2 and the
Find the area bounded by the parabola x 2
~x +4a
2
19.
2x+2y
line
0.
8 a3
of inertia of the area of the cardioid r
about the
4 ay
and the witch
3 and the circle
Find the area bounded by the limaôn
2cos0
2 cose.
20. Find the area bounded by the confocal parabolas y 2

4 bx + 4 &2
=-
21. Find the area bounded
by the
circles r
a cos
8,
22. Find the areas of the three parts of the circle x 2

which it is divided by the parabola y 2 = ax.
23. Find the_area cut off from the lemniscate r 2
line r cos
a sin
a 2 cos 2
4 ax
4 a2
0.
2 ax
by the
into
straight
a.
24. Find the area of the surface cut from the cylinder x 2
cylinder y
z2
a2
y2
a 2 by the
25. Find the area of the surface of a sphere of radius a

intercepted by a right
a, if an element of the cylinder passes through the
circular cylinder of radius

center of the sphere.
26. Find the area of the surface of the cone x2

2
cylinder x
y2
2 ax
y2
27. Find the area of the surface of the cylinder x2

by the plane XOY and a right circular cone having
along OZ, and its vertical angle equal to 90.
z2
cut out by the
0.
y2
its
2 ax
bounded
vertex at 0,
28. Find the area of the surface of the right circular cylinder z 2
sin a) 2 = a2 included in the first octant.
its
axis
(x cos
29. On the double ordinates of the circle x 2 + y 2 = a 2 as

bases, and in planes
perpendicular to the plane of the circle, isosceles triangles, each with vertical
angle 2 a, are described. Find the equation of the convex surface thus formed,
and
its total area.
30. Find the area of the surface z
x2
= xy included
in the cylinder (x 2
+ y2 2 =
)
2.
31. Find the area of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a 2 included in the

cylinder
with elements parallel to OZ, and having for its directrix in the plane
a
single loop of the curve r = a cos 3 6.
x ~ y
XOY
32. Find the area of that part of the surface z
which on the plane
XOY
2
is
bounded by the curve
the projection of
(I
CQ0,
PROBLEMS
255
33. Find the area of the sphere x 2 + y 2 -f z 2 = 4 a2 bounded by the intersec

and the right cylinder, the elements of which are parallel to
tion, of the sphere
OZ and
the directrix of which
is
the cardioid r
a (cos0
1)
in the plane
XOY.
34. Find the center of gravity of the plane area bounded by the parabola
#i + yl = at and the line x + y = a.
35. Find the center of gravity of the plane area bounded by the parabola
x2
= 4 ay
and the witch y
=
2
36. Find the center of gravity of the plane area bounded

2
2/
x3
2a
- and
-x
its
by the
cissoid
asymptote.
37. Find the center of gravity of the area of the part of the loop of the
= a 2 x4 x6 which lies in the first quadrant.
curve a 4 ?/ 2
38. Find the center of gravity of the area in the

the curves x^
y*
a 3 and x 2
2
?/
a2
39. Find the center of gravity of the plane area

the curve x^
y%
quadrant bounded by
first
bounded by OJT, OF, and
a$.
40.
plate is in the form of a sector of a circle of radius a, the angle of the
sector being 2 a. If the thickness varies directly as the distance from the center,
find its center of gravity.
41.
How
far from the origin is the center of gravity of the area included in
= a cos 2 ?
a loop of the curve r
a(cos0
by the cardioid
1).
43. Find the center of gravity of a thin plate of uniform thickness and den
form of a loop of the lemniscate r2 = 2 a 2 cos 2 6.
sity in the
44. Find the center of gravity of a homogeneous body in the form of an
octant of the ellipsoid
a2
+ - + -2 =
b2
1.
45. Find the center of gravity of the homogeneous solid bounded

= k&, z = A- 2 x(fc 2 &i), x 2 + y 2 = 2 ax.
surfaces z
46.
by the
>
The density
of a solid
bounded by the
directly as the distance from the plane FOZ.

portion of this solid lying in the first octant.
a2
Z2
y2
/p2
ellipsoid
62
=1
varies
c2
Find the center of gravity of the
47. Find the center of gravity of the homogeneous solid bounded by the
surfaces z
48.
0,
0,
homogeneous
6,
solid
62 z 2
is
y (a
x 2 ).
bounded by a sphere of radius a and a right

which
the vertex of which is on the

,
3
surface of the sphere, and the axis of which coincides with a diameter of the
sphere. Find its center of gravity.
circular cone, the vertical angle of
is
49. Find the center of gravity of a right circular cone of altitude a, the den
each circular slice of which varies as the square of its. distance from the
sity of
vertex,
256
50. Find the center of gravity of an octant of a sphere of radius a,

density varies as the distance from the center of the sphere.
the
if
51. Find the center of gravity of a homogeneous solid bounded by the sur
faces of a right circular cone and a hemisphere of radius a, which have the
same base and the same vertex.
52. Find the volume
bounded by the surface x*
y*
z*
a*
and the coor
ax
dinate planes.
53. Find the volume of the part of the cylinder x 2
between the planes z
k\x, z = k%x(ki
kz).
included
<
54. Find the total volume bounded
55. Find the volume included in the
dinate planes and the surface y2

56. Find the volume in the
x2
a2
16
first
octant of space between the coor
first
1
[
8z
and y
octant bounded by the surfaces z
= 2x
0,
0, z
by the surfaces az
volume bounded by the cylindroid
62.
y)
2
,
= y 2 (a2
x 2 ) and the planes
xy, x
z2
+ z = a,
= 0.
y and the planes
2.
60. Find the volume of the paraboloid y 2
61
=(x +
b.
59. Find the
0.
58. Find the volume bounded
1
[
5 7. Find the volume bounded by the surface b2 z 2
= 1.
^+^+
by the surface
-f
z2
8 x cut off
by the plane
2.
= ax 2 + by 2 y 2 = 2 ex x 2 z = 0.
Find the volume bounded by the surfaces x 2 + y2 = ax, x2 + y 2 = bz, z = Q.
Find the volume bounded by the surfaces
63. Find the total volume bounded by the surface x^

64. Find the volume cut
inder of radius -
y%
z*
a*.
from a sphere of radius a by a right circular cyl
one element of the cylinder passing through the center of the
sphere.
65. Find the volume bounded by the surfaces z

66. Find the volume
bounded by the surfaces
67. Find the total volume
= a(x -f ?/),
= 0, z = ar2
bounded by the surface
(x -f
z 2) 3
a(x
b cos
y2 ).
6.
= 27 cfixyz.
(Change to polar coordinates.)

68. Find the volume bounded by a sphere of radius a and a right circular
cone, the axis of the cone coinciding with a diameter of the sphere, the vertex
being at one end of the diameter and the vertical angle of the cone being 60.
69. Find the total
volume bounded by the surface
(x
y2
2 2
-f z )
axyz.
Find the volume of the sphere x2 + y 2 + z 2 = a2 included in a cylinder

with elements parallel to OZ, and having for its directrix in the plane
one
70.
XOY
loop of the curve r
a cos 3
9,
PROBLEMS
257
volume bounded by the plane JTOF, the cylinder x2 -f y 2 2 ax

the
circular cone having its vertex at 0, its axis coincident with
and
right
0,
OZ, and its vertical angle equal to 90.
71. Find the
72.
Find the
total
volume bounded by the surface r2
73. Find the moment of

density Pl about OX.
of
74. Find the
moment
cular cylinder of density

75.
A solid
ticle is
76.
is
Find
angle 2 a.
in the
its
inertia of a
homogeneous
height
A,
and radius
z2
ellipsoid
of inertia about its axis of a

p,
-f
ar(cos0 -f 1).
x2
z2
y2
(-
homogeneous
-\
1,
right cir
a.
of a right circular cone of altitude h and vertical

of inertia about its axis, if the density of any par
distance from the base of the cone.
form
moment
proportional to
its
of a solid sphere of radius a varies as the distance from a

Find its moment of inertia about the diameter perpendicular
The density
diametral plane.
to the above diametral plane.
homogeneous solid of density p is in the form of a hemispherical

Find
inner and the outer radii of which are respectively TI and r 2
moment of inertia about any diameter of the base of the shell.
77.
shell, the
its
solid is bounded by the plane z = 0, the cone z = r (cylindrical coor

and
the cylinder having its elements parallel to OZ and its directrix
dinates),
one loop of the lemniscate r2 = 2 a2 cos 2 in the plane XOY. Find its moment
of inertia about OZ, if the density varies as the distance from OZ.
78.
79.
Find the attraction of a homogeneous right circular cone of mass

and vertical angle 2 a on a particle at its vertex.
Jf,
altitude h,
80.
is
portion of a right circular cylinder of radius a and uniform density p

the center of which coin
6(6>a),
bounded by a spherical surface of radius
cides with the center of the base of the cylinder. Find the attraction of this
portion of the cylinder on a particle at the middle point of its base.
81. Find the attraction due to a hemisphere of radius a on a particle at the

its base, if the density varies directly as the distance from the base.
center of
The density
of a hemisphere of radius a varies directly as the distance

its attraction on a particle in the straight line perpendic
ular to the base at its center, and at the distance a from the base in the direc
82.
from the base.

tion
away from
Find
the hemisphere.
homogeneous ring is bounded by the plane JTOF, a sphere of radius

2 a with center at 0, and a right circular cylinder of radius a, the axis of which
coincides with OZ. Find the attraction of the ring on a particle at O.
83.
CHAPTEE XIV
LINE INTEGRALS AND EXACT DIFFERENTIALS
Let C (fig. 95) be any curve in the plane
the
two
and
be two func
connecting
points L and K, and let
tions of x and y which are one-valued and continuous for all
points
on C. Let C be divided into n seg
XOY
143. Definition.
ments by the points P^P^P^..., Pn _ lt

and let Ax be the projection of one of
OX
these segments on
jection on
That
Y.
-n
n points
L,
Pv P,
%_
v.
Ay
sum
as
approach zero as a limit
n
is
Let the value of
be multiplied by the
for the same point
corresponding value of Ax, and the value of

by -the corresponding value of Ay, and let the
i=n-l
limit of this
xif
T-
ior all values of
The
pro
it
x
for each of the
Ay its
Ax = xi+l
Ay = y i+1 y where the values of Ax

and Ay are not necessarily the same
FIG. 95
is,
and
sum be formed
increases without limit and
Ax and
denoted by
(Mdx + Ndy),
/(C
and
is called a line
integral along the curve C. The point
may
coincide with the point L, thus making C a closed curve.
If x and y are expressed in terms of a
single independent vari
able from the equation of the curve, the line
integral reduces to a
definite integral of the

ordinary type;
always convenient or possible, and it

properties of the line integral directly.
We
but this reduction

is
is
not
important to study the
shall give first a few examples,

showing the importance of
the line integral in some practical problems.
258
DEFINITION
259
Ex. 1. Work. Let us assume that at every point of the plane a force acts,
which varies from point to point in magnitude and direction. We wish to find
the work done on a particle moving from L to
along the curve C. Let C be
divided into segments, each of which is denoted by As and one of which is rep
resented in fig. 96 by PQ. Let F be the force
acting at P, PR the direction in which it acts,
PT the tangent to C at P, and the angle
RPT. Then
F in
the component of
the direc
tion
PT is F cos 0, and the work done on
ticle
moving from P
to
Q is Fcos 6 As,
The work done
infinitesimals of higher order.

in
moving the
particle along
W = LimVFcos0As = C
**
Now
let
and OX.
is,
J C
therefore,
Fcoseds.
be the angle between
Then
a and
<j>
a par
except for
PR
=
cos 6
cos
cos
<f>
W = Jcc\(F cos
cos
FIG. 96
and OX, and
a+
the angle between
-f sin
F sin
sin a.
<f>
PT
Therefore
sin a) ds.
But F cos a is the component of force parallel to OX and

usually denoted by
X. Also Fsin a is the component of force parallel to OY and is usually denoted
= dx and sin
= dy 42). Hence we have finally
by Y. Moreover cos
is"
<j>ds
<pds
W=
C (Xdx + Ydy).
(C)
Flow of a liquid. Suppose a liquid flowing over a plane surface, the

lines in which the particles flow being indicated by the curved arrows of
fig. 97.
We imagine the flow to take place in planes parallel to. JTOF, and shall assume
Ex.
2.
We
^/
C^--
the depth of the liquid to be unity.

wish to
amount of liquid per unit of time which
find the
^*^~
flows across a curve C.
Let q be the velocity of the liquid, a the angle

which the direction of its motion at each point
makes with OX, u = q cos a the component of
velocity parallel to OX, and v = q sin a the com
ponent of velocity parallel to OF. Take an ele
ment of the curve PQ = As. In the time dt the
particles of liquid which are originally on PQ will
flow to P Q/, where PP = QQ = qdt (except for
FIG. 97
infinitesimals of higher order). The

the amount in a cylinder with base
PP
amount
PQ is
of liquid crossing
altitude unity.
PQQ/P and
=P
of this cylinder is
PQsin0 qdtsm6As, where
amount of liquid crossing the whole curve C in the time dt
Liin
V qdt
**
sin 0As
and the amount per unit of time
q sin 6As
dt
q sin eds.
is
q sin 6ds
J(C)
is
therefore
The volume
PQ. Hence the
LINE INTEGEALS
260
To put
standard form,
this in the
Then
a and
q sin 6ds
sin 6
cos ads
q sin
be the angle
let
cos
sin
cos
q cos
Therefore the amount of liquid flowing across
vdx
ads
sin
made by PQ with OX.
Hence
sin a.
vdx
C per unit
-f
udy.
of time
is
+ udy).
Ex. 3. Heat. Consider a substance in a given state of pressure p, volume u,

and temperature t. Then p, u, are connected by a relation /(p,
= 0, so
)
that any two of them may be taken as independent variables. For a perfect gas
pv = kt, if t is the absolute temperature, and the state of the substance is indi
,
cated by a point on the surface of
fig.
55, or equally well
by a point on any one
of the three coordinate planes, since a point on the surface is uniquely deter
mined by a point on one of these planes.
shall take t and v as the inde
We
pendent variables and shall therefore work on the
Now
if
is
the
amount
of heat in the substance
there result changes dp, do, dt in p,

itesimals of higher order,
v,
and
the fundamental relation /(p,
73,
t)
cv
dp
plane.
and an amount dQ
is
added,
respectively, and, except for infin
dQ = Adp + Bdv +
From
v)
(t,
0, it
Cdt.
follows that
dt
whence we have
Hence the
total
amount
of its state indicated
of heat introduced into the substance
by the curve C
Q=f
Ex.
x
a,
4.
6,
(Mdt
+ Ndo).
C (fig. 98) tangent to the straight lines

of such shape that a straight line parallel to
Consider a closed curve
Area.
by a variation
is
d,
and y
e,
and
either of the coordinate axes intersects
it
in
not more than two points.
through any point
P
if
MPi =
A=
C\jodx
Ja
=A
y 2 dx
= - f ydx,
*JtT\
FIG. 98
the last integral being taken around

the hands of a clock.
- f
va
s>a
Jb
-X
MP
2 = yz
y and
Then,
the area inclosed by the curve,
where
is
Let the ordinate

intersect C in PI and
in
a direction opposite to the motion of
FUNDAMENTAL THEOEEM
Similarly,
NQ =
Xo,
the line
if
NQ
intersects
and Q 2
in Q!
201
where
NQi =
Xi
and
we have
s*e
A=
Jd
r*e
x z dy
x^dy
J.i
~d
Xe%idy + Je
I
xidy
xdy,
Jf(C)
the last integral being taken also in the direction opposite to the motion of the
By adding the two values of we have
hands of a clock.
2A = C (-ydx + xdy).
J
(C)
If
we apply
b sin
this to find the area of
Then
166).
(I,
an
ellipse,
we may
take x
a cos 0,
A_
HH>
144.
curves,
Fundamental theorem. In using
we need some means

in
directions
which the curve
be traversed.
may
when
around closed
between the two
integrals
of distinguishing
the curve
is
Accordingly,
a portion of
the boundary of a specified area,

we shall define the positive direction around the curve as that in
//
^Jk
JH
H*A
mil
which a person should walk in

order to keep the area on his left
hand. Thus in fig. 99, where the
shaded area
is
FIG. 99
bounded by two
curves, the positive direction of each curve
With
this convention, the
line integrals is as follows
If M, N, -
A and
on
indicated by the arrows.
dx
its
of
and - - are continuous and one-valued in a
cij
area
is
fundamental theorem in the use
boundary curve
closed
C, then
r r /dM
\\ \^^
jj(A)\vy
where the double integral is taken over
taken in the positive direction around
A and
C.
the line integral is
LINE INTEGRALS
262
To prove
we
this,
shall first
assume that the closed area is

143, and shall use the notation
the form described in Ex.
4,
that example and
Then
dM
fig.
98.
dxdy
= C ax C
-,
v iu
of
dy
of
>
- C M(x,
rc
= C M(x,
2/ 2 )
Ja
M(x,
dx
Ja
7/ 2 )
dx
y^ dx
M(x,
y^)
dx
Ja
= - C Mdx,
(1)
!/<O
the last integral being taken in the positive direction around C.

Similarly, ^
it
(JJ-\
-,
-.
^^
/c\\
2)
a
subtracting (2) from (1) we have the theorem proved for
closed curve of the simple type considered.
The theorem is now readily extended to any area which can be
By
cut
up
into areas of this simple type.
For example, consider the
area bounded by the curve C (fig. 100).

the
By drawing the straight line
LK
area
r
A"
is
divided into three areas
and the theorem applied
of these areas.
By
A",
adding the three
we have on
the new equation
obtained
equations
left-hand side of
to each
the
the
double integral over the area bounded

by (7, and on the right-hand side the
line integral along C and the straight

traversed twice in opposite directions. The integrals
therefore cancel, leaving only the integral
along the line
line
LK
LK
around
C.
LINE INTEGRALS OF THE FIRST KIND

The theorem
also true for areas
is
263
bounded by more than one
Consider, for example, the area bounded by two curves
curve.
and C
(%
By drawing
101).
LK
the line
the area
is
turned
bounded by a single
the theorem may be
and
curve,
into one
applied to it. It appears that

the line integral is taken twice
LK
in opposite directions,
along
and these two integrals cancel
The
each other.
j
1.1
1.1
result
i
i.
that
is
FlG 101
-
the double integral over the area

is equal to the line integral around each of the boundary curves
in the positive direction of each. In the same way the theorem is
shown
Ex.
to hold for areas

If
Jf
y and
N=
bounded by any number

x,
we have
ff 2 dxdy = agreeing with the result of Ex.
C(ydx
- xdy),
93.
4,
145. Line integrals of the first kind,
are two functions of x
and
y,
such that
2p
- =
,dN
aar
>
ana
to
a portion of the
>
are continuous
ana
(1)
The
line integral
line integral
is zero.
(2)
Ndy) around any
(Mdx
-f
(Mdx
+ Ndy}
closed curve
x>
The
a function of
the coordinates
between
any two points
of the points, and
is
There exists a function
Conversely, if
then
dy
=
dx
any one of the
<f>(x,
y} such that
is
independent
the curve connecting the points.

(3)
the discus-
one-valued, t/ien
dx
dy
of
and
M and N
plane in which M, N,
(x, y]
..
If
|jj
dx
dy
sion is restricted
of curves.
=M,
=N
conclusions (1), (2), or (3) is fulfilled,
LINE INTEGRALS
264
To prove
once evident that
is at
,
consider the fundamental theorem of
(1),
dy
if
closed curve.
>
ox
144.
It
(Mdx+Ndy) = Q around any
be any two points, and C and C

To prove (2), let L and
them. Let / be the value
two
curves
connecting
any
(fig. 102)
of the line integral from L to
along C, and I the value of the
I is the value of the
Then
line integral from L to
along C
line integral
K to L along
from
Now
by
/=/
Therefore
To prove
x
tegral
X
where
(a?
is
(3),
consider the line in
(x, y)
(Mdx+Ndy),
FIG. 102
(1)
/<**)
a fixed point
and
a variable point. By (2)

and is therefore fully
(x, y)
this integral is independent of the path
determined when (x y}
is
Hence, by the definition
given.
we may
function of two variables,
of a
write
/<,*>
(Max + Ndy) = 9 (x,
yj.
S*(.x+h, V )
Then
f(0.+ Ay)-
I
<
/(a*
2/0)
and since this integral is independent of the curve connecting the

upper and the lower limits, we may take that curve as drawn first
to (x, y) and then along a straight line to (x + h, y). Then
(a-,
= C
**
s*(x + h,y)
y)
(Mdx
,
2/o)
Xx
since in the last integral y
Then, by
is
(Mdx
^( x
V)
Jt
M(x,y)dx,
constant and dy
30,
<(#
-f-
h, y)
d>
whence
Ndy)
(x
(f>
+ h,
(x, y)
y}
rf-
= liM(%,
y),
0.
+ -ZV#y)
LINE INTEGRALS OF THE FIRST KIND

Ji
Letting
approach zero and taking the
limit,
265
we have
%-*<*>
we may show
In like manner
and the third conclusion
that
theorem
of the
is
It is to be
proved.
determined except for an arbitrary constant which

be added. This constant depends upon the choice of the fixed
noted that
is
(f>
may
differs from
point L. If another point L is chosen, the value of
L
the
of
the
line
in
value
that obtained
using
by
integral between
1
<
and
We must now show that, conversely, if any one of the conclusions

=
of the theorem is fulfilled, then dx
dy
Let us
whatever
assume that the integral around any closed path
first
is
zero
we wish
i
to
show +1,
thatf
---- = n
is
not zero at
point K.
pothesis,
all points, let
Then, since
dM -dN is
dx
dy
us suppose
If
0.
dy
it is
----
ox
dx
dy
not zero at a particular
and
are continuous functions by hydx

also a continuous function, and hence has, at
dy
points sufficiently near to K, the same sign which it has at K.

It is therefore possible to draw a closed curve around K, so that
- has
dx
dy
curve.
the same sign for
Then
rr/dM
I
JJ\dy
and therefore
dN\
-
dx ]
all
points in the area bounded by the
dxdy taken over
(Mdx + Ndy) taken around the bounding curve
not zero. But this
is
contrary to the hypothesis that
taken around any curve whatever
is zero.
C
I
(Mdx
now assume that

|
at all
dx
Mdx + Ndy) between any two points
independent of the curve connecting the points. This
is
+ Ndy)
Hence
*y
points.
Let us
this area is not zero,
is
is
equivalent
LINE INTEGRALS
266
assuming that the integral around a closed curve
to
hence, as already shown,
d&
-
=M
M,
cd>
*-
dx
= N.
and
follows that
it
dy
such that
exists
<
dM = dN
Then
zero,
dx
dy
assume that a function
us
Finally, let
is
dM = dN
>
each
since
is
dx
dy
equal to -^-^-.
dxdy
The theorem
Ex.1.
r cos
which does not
0,
r sin
from a
-,
In fact,
to
-f
TT,
then
0,
inclose the origin,
same value, and therefore

varies
and therefore
If
Work.
X and Y are
from
Cdd.
its initial
if
the
polar coordinates,
Now,
value
for
any path
a back
to the
dd
is,
TT.
in this example, equal to 6
components of force
tan- * -
in a field of force,
and
-y
,
dx
dy
Hence
If the path winds once around the origin,
Ex.
2.
we introduce
=-
varies
Cdd = 0.
of the general theorem
These conditions are met

if
The function
-p-
then^=g= ff~^V
and continuous.
curve does not inclose the origin.
completely proved.
taken around a closed curve within which M. N. and
0, if
y*
their derivatives are finite
placing x
now
N=^
Let3f=-^,
=
x2
of this article is
then the work done on a particle moving around a closed curve
is
zero, and the work done in moving a particle between two points is independent
of the path along which it is moved. Also there exists a function 0, called a
force function, the derivatives of which with respect to x and y give the com
y. It follows that the derivative
ponents of force parallel to the axes of x and

of
in
as this
forces
111). Such a force

Examples are the force of gravity and
the distance from a fixed point and directed along
any direction gives the force

is
in that direction (Ex.,
called a conservative force.
which are a function
of
straight lines passing through that point.
Ex.
3.
Flow of a liquid. If we consider a liquid flowing as in Ex. 2, 143, it is

amount which flows over a closed curve is zero, since as much
clear that the net
must leave the closed area as

which
liquid
is
given out or
closed curve, is zero
enters, there being no points within the area at
drawn
off.
Hence f (
and consequently
dy
usually denoted by ^, such that
d\f/
ox
= 0.
dx
o4>
v,
dy
u.
vdx
There
udy), taken over
any
exists also a function,
LINE INTEGRALS OF THE SECOND KIND

146. Line integrals of the second kind,
and
dM =. dN
-
N are such functions that

~
gral
(Mdx+Ndy)
Ex.
1.
J
Let us
/l)
(ydx
of the
line inte-
depends upon the path, and there exists no func
xdy).
integrate along a straight line connecting
first
of the line
and hence the value

let
the value
case
(0, 0)
The equation
Next,
dx
M and N are partial derivatives.
tion of which
(ri
>
=. j
dy
dx
dy
267
y=
is
z,
of the integral
and therefore along

is
and P!
this line
ydx
(fig.
103).
- xdy = 0,
zero.
us integrate along a parabola connecting
and PI, the equation of which
is
yl
x.
Xl
parabola
)
Along
this
- xdy} = -^
y-,
(ydx
O
Next, let us integrate along a path consisting of the
two straight lines OM\ and J/iPi. Along OJ/i, y =

and dy = 0- and along J/iPi, x = xi and dx = 0.
/*9t
reduces to
Jo
xidy
Hence the
line integral
x\yi.
Finally, let us integrate along a path consisting of the straight lines
and dx
Therefore the line integral reduces to
and
NiP
Ex.
Along
lf
2.
Work.
If the
*s
OZVi,
0;
and along
\fidx
= &\y\.
components of force
X and
Jo
JViPj, y
y l and dy
ONi
0.
in a field of force are
T7"
"Tp-
such that
-^
then the work done on a particle moving between two
points depends upon the path of the particle, the work done on a particle
moving around a closed path is not zero, and there exists no force function.
Such a force is called a nonconservative force.
Ex.
3.
Heat
If a
substance
is
brought, by a series of changes of temperature,
pressure, and volume, from an initial condition back to the same condition,
the amount of heat acquired or lost
by the substance is the mechanical equiva
lent of the work done, and is not in
general zero. Hence the line integral
Q = J (Mdt +Ndv) around a
closed curve
is
not zero, and there exists no function
whose partial derivatives are

and N. In fact, the heat Q
t and
TJ, not being determined when t and v are
given.
is
not a function of
Ex. 4. Adiabatic lines. The line integral

C(Mdt +Ndv)of Ex. 3
along a curve whose differential equation is
Mdt + Ndv =
0.
is
zero
if
taken
LINE INTEGRALS
268
We will change this equation by replacing the variable

done by means of the fundamental relation /(p, 75, t) = 0.
shown
It is
vdp
is
by
p,
which can be
in the theory of heat that for a perfect gas the equation then
becomes
where 7
a constant.
The
ypdv
0,
is
If, then, a gas expands or contracts so as to obey this law, no heat is added
to or subtracted from it. Such an expansion is called adiabatic expansion, and
the corresponding curve
The mathematical
is
an adiabatic curve.
called
interest here
is in the concrete illustration of a line integral

being zero along any portion of a certain curve or family of curves.
In the line integrals of the kind before
us,
there
is
)>
still
meaning
to be attached to
M and N.
and
For, suppose the inte
taken along the straight line y =

Au be the value of the integral that
gral to be
let
f*(x
Au =
+ Ax,
from x to x
+ Ax,
is,
y)
(Mdx
/(*
+ Ndy)
2/)
M(x,
y)
dx
y),
30)
where
Consequently
Lim
Similarly,
Lim
We
It
shall write these
is
to
be
=M(x,
y).
= N(x,
y}.
two equations
as
/rfu\
AfoA
\dx] y
\dy/ x
noticed
that
these
derivatives
are
of
different
character from the .partial derivatives of Chap. XI, since u is

not a function of x and y. The property proved in
117 does
not hold here.
EXACT DIFFERENTIALS
Ex.
6.
Heat. Returning to the notation of Ex.
dt/v
is
3,
269
we have
\dv
the limit of the ratio of the increment of heat to the increment of
tem
as sensibly
perature when the volume is constant. Therefore, if we consider
constant while the temperature changes by unity,
may be described as the
amount of heat necessary to raise the temperature by one unit when the volume
is
constant.
Similarly,
JVmay be
amount
described as the
volume by one unit when the temperature
We
147. Exact differentials.
two functions
of
have seen that
<f>
such that
=M
= N.
dd>
dx
dx
Mdx + Ndy
is
called
>
there
^x
Then
d4>,
dy
an exact differential*
+ Ndy) =
M and N are
cy
Mdx + Ndy = ^dx + ^dy =

and
if
-^ =
x and y satisfying the condition

dd>
exists a function
of heat necessary to change the
constant.
is
(/>
(x v y,)
Then
(XQ
c/>
also
),
b, .vo)
the integral being independent of the curve connecting

(# yQ ) and
may be found by computing the line inte
(x v y^). The function
,
/ex
c/>
gral along a conveniently chosen path, but

Q
venient to proceed as follows
M(x, y)dx, where y
which contains
of
</>
contains
y.
where f(y)
is
We may
is
is
x,
Since
= M(x,
but not necessarily
*In
y), it
follows that
all
the part which
write, therefore,
relation
-j^=N.
Then
yy
is
usually more con-
considered constant, will give that part
a function of y to be determined.
made by using the
which
it is
an equation from which f(y)
may
This determination
CMdx +f (y) = N,
fiyj
be found.
where the emphasis is on the fact that both x and y are varied,
is
Here the emphasis is shifted to the fact that
is exactly
obtained by the process of differentiation, and hence it is called an exact differential.
110,
d<f>
called a total differential.
d<j>
LINE INTEGRALS
270
This method
valuable in solving the equation
is
=
when
the condition
is
called
an exact differential equation.
where
c is
an arbitrary constant and
manner
Such an equation
satisfied.
dx
dy
the
0,
Its solution is
the function obtained in
is
</>
just described.
Because of the importance of the method of obtaining

it
is
in a rule as follows
we
give
Mdx, regarding y as constant and adding an unknown
Integrate
(/>,
function of y
differentiate the result with respect to y and equate

the resulting equation determine the
new result to
; from
unknown function of y.
the
If
more convenient, the above
following
rule
may
be replaced by the
Integrate
Ndy, regarding x as constant and adding an unknown
function of x
differentiate the result with respect to x and equate

the resulting equation determine the
new result to
; from
unknown function of x.
the
Ex.
1.
(4x
10x7/
= 30 x?/2
Here
3y*)dx
12 y s
ceeding according to the rule,
Then from
15 X 2 ?/ 2
whence /
=
(?/)
57/
4
,
12 xy s
and the equation
5y*)dy
is
= 0.
therefore exact.
Pro-
we have
(4x3
= N. we
2 2
(15 x ?/
ax
ay
I0xy8 -3y*)dx +f(y)
have
12
XT/
and/(7/)
+ f (y) =
7/
5.
therefore
X4
5 X 2 7/ 3
The
15 X 2 7/ 2
12
XT/
7/4,
solution of the differential equation
3X7/4
2/5
is
THE INTEGKATING FACTOR

i
Ex.2,
----g-- \ dx+
xV2/ 2
Here
dy
-x
--
(1/2
the second rule,
_ X 2)2
(x)
and the equation
sx
therefore exact.
is
Following
we have
= Jf, we
whence /
= f
J
From
271
= 0,
dy
2
= log(y + Vy 2 - x 2 ) + /(x).
x2
have
x
- x2 (y + V?/ 2 - x 2 )
x V?/ 2 - x 2
and /(x) = c. Hence the solution of the differential equation is
2 - x2
=c
log (y + Vy
)
2
2 cy + c 2 = 0.
x
,
which reduces
148.
to
The integrating
We
factor.
when
have seen that
Mdx + Ndy
is
But in all cases there

dx
dy
exist an infinite number of functions such that, if Mdx
Ndy is
one
of
it
becomes
an
exact
differential.
them,
multiplied by any
not an exact differential
Such functions are

of
fjL
the
(Mdx
Ex.
1.
called integrating factors. That

integrating factors of Mdx
Ndy, then,
+ Ndy)
is
an exact
The expression ydx
ydx
x2
by
//,
is
one
definition,
differential.
xdy
ydx
is, if
not an exact differential. But
is
xdy
xdy
,1
x\
d tan- i ,
are exact differentials, and the functions
y]
x2
x2
are integratine factors
z/
xy
To show that integrating factors always exist, we

assume ( 173) that the differential equation
shall
Mdx + Ndy =
need
to
(1)
has always a solution of the form
f(x
where
c is
y, c)
0,
an arbitrary constant, and that

<M#,y)
c.
(2)
(2)
can be written
(3)
LINE INTEGRALS
272
d(f>
HT
Now
/ox
(3) gives
dv
us
dx
= --
dx
d(f>
8y
,
and
X1
M
dy = --
us
(1) gives
and since
the solution of
(3) is
That
the same.
f-
dx
these two values of
(1),
must be
y-7/v*
is,
d<
<ty
dx
~^
dy
M~N
where
some function
ft is
of
x and
IL
Consequently
y.
and therefore /n is an integrating factor.

To prove that there is an infinite number
of integrating factors,
multiply the last equation by /($), any function of
But
Hence
is
f(4>)
Ex.
path
is
fJ/((f>)
Ndy
=/(</>)
ety.
the exact differential of the function
jEeai.
It
an integrating factor
has been noticed
not zero, and consequently
in the theory of heat that
exact differential, and

called the entropy.
149.
/*/((/>)
d<f>
is
2.
Then
(/>.
No
is
146,
Mdx + Ndy.
Ex.
3) that
fin
write
known
is
TdQ around
not an exact differential.
around a closed path
we may
general method
but the factors are
dQ
of
is
zero.
a closed
It is
found
Hence
is
an
known
d<f).
The function
0, thus defined,
is
for finding integrating factors,
for certain cases.
We
give a
list of
as an exercise for the student to verify
the
by
simpler cases, leaving it
differentiation that each of the equations mentioned satisfies the
condition for an exact differential equation after it is multiplied
by the proper
factor.
THE INTEGRATING FACTOR
273
d_M__d_N
1.
JL
If
then
=/(<)
e*
is
of
of
2.
JL
If
f.
M.
*
=/(;y), then e
is
Mdx+Ndy=0.
3.
M and N are homogeneous
If
4.
If
is
xM+yN
of
M = yf^xy), N = xf^xy)
factor of
Mdx+Ndy =
and
of the
Mdx + Ndy =
0.
- is
then
same degree, then
an integrating
Q.
X
5.
As
e^
is
of the linear
equation
--
a practical point, the student should look for an integrating

he has tried to integrate by other methods.
factor only after
Ex.
1.
(4
x2 y
3 y 2 } dx
(x
3 xy)
dM
Here
dy
0.
<w
1^ =
^V
r^
x
x is an integrating factor.
Consequently e^
the
becomes
equation
factor,
(4
the integral of which
Ex.
2.
(x
x 3 ?y
x4 y
+ 2xy% =
y*)dx
Since this equation
+ (x4 - 3 x 2
- %x 2 y 2 = c.
3 xy 2 } dx
is
is
?/)
After multiplication by the
dy
0.
it
homogeneous,
1
xM + yN
has the integrating factor

1
~
x3
x?/
After multiplication by the factor, the equation becomes
x2
\X 2
the solution of which
or
is
log (x
2
,
dx-\
7/
0,
log x
2xy
--
= c.
x
dy
0,
LINE INTEGRALS
274
For
this equation
Hence
it
we have
also
has also the integrating factor
x2
After multiplication by
The equation may
this,
is
also be solved
150. Stokes s theorem.
limited to a plane,
the equation becomes
may
C.
by the substitution y
The theorems
of
vx(
78).
144-145, which are
be extended to space as follows
are three functions of x, y,

line integral
I
(Pdx
If
P, Q, R
z, the
and
+ Qdy + Rdz)
along a space curve is defined in

a manner precisely similar to the
143.
definition of
Let the integral
be taken around a closed curve

FIG. 104
(fig.
dS
104) and
C.
Let
cos a, cos
cos
7 be the direction cosines
dR
surface
C
be
be the element of area of the surface and
bounded by
/3,
let
dP
of its normal.
Then
~
\cy
= - C (Pdx + Qdy + Rdz),

J(C)
where the double integral is taken over the surface S and the
single integral is taken around C, and the direction of the line
have the relation of
integration and that of the normal to
fig.
104.
STOKES
To prove
this, let
z=f(x,
THEOREM
275
be the equation of S, and consider
y)
P(x,y,z)dx.
J(C)
Then, since P(x,
P which
y,
z)=P[x, y,f(x,
correspond to points
which correspond
to points
XOY. Hence
on
on
144
C",
is
l}dx.
ff
-fdxdy,
S on
the plane
d% = dP
dPdz
~dy~ dy
dz dy
is
+
^_rr(
JJu\ty
)
(8
112)
cosy dS.
- 1 = cos a
cos
/3
(3),
for points
computed
fW
cos 7,
and
on
S.
(3)
92) dxdy
we have
- Cpdx = ff
J
(C)
XOY.
fa ty/
dx cy
Substituting in
(2)
JJ(S)vy
where the right hand of this equation

Hence from (1) and (2) we have
But
(1)
J(C )
Cl>dx=
the projection of
Now
the values of
y},
Pdx = -
j(C )
where S
= I}(x,
the same as the values of JJ

the projection of C on the plane
J(C)
But by
y)]
C are
cos
cos
dz
JJw\ty
0} dS.
/
Similarly
(Rdz = ff
J(o
JJfa
cos
{3
cos
a}d&
dy
in these
Strictly speaking, the differential dS is not the same
three results, since the same element will not project into dxdy
dydz, and dzdx on the three coordinate planes. But since in a
t
double integral the element of area may be taken at pleasure with

out changing the value of the integral ( 129), we may take dS as
equal in the three integrals.
required result.
Adding the equations, we have the
LINE INTEGRALS
276
we have tacitly assumed that only one point

over each point of the coordinate planes, and
7 are acute angles. The student may show that these
In the above proof
of the surface
that a,
/3,
is
restrictions are unessential.
151.
theorem
From
the preceding discussion
we
derive the following
If P, Q, and
are three functions of
dx
dy
cz
and
x, y,
dx
dy
z,
such that
dz
and
the discussion is restricted to a portion of space in which the

functions and their derivatives are continuous and one-valued, then
1.
The
line
ine integral
(Pdx + Qdy -\-Rdz] around any closed curve
is zero.
2.
is
The
line integral
(Pdx -f- Qdy -f Rdz) between any two points
independent of the path.

3.
There exists a function

TT~
<f>(x,
7T~
dx
and Pdx
Qdy
Conversely, if
The proof
y, z),
~7~
>
***
dz
dy
+ Rdz
is an exact differential d$.

any one of the above conclusions is
ap
= a^
3Q
= dR
dy
dx
dz
dy
is
such that
as in
145, and
is left
fulfilled, then
a^ = ap
dx
dz
to the student.
PROBLEMS
1.
Find, by the method of Ex.

a cos 3 0, y = a sin 3 0.
4,
143, the area of the four-cusped hypo-
cycloid x
2. Find, by the method of Ex.

cycloid and the fixed circle.
3.
143, the area
4,
Find, by the method of Ex.
4,
between one arch of a hypo-
143, the area
between one arch of an
epicycloid and the fixed circle.

4.
Show
case, the
that the formula for the area in Ex.

formula for area in polar coordinates.
4,
143, includes, as a special
PROBLEMS
/(!)
Show that the integral
5.
ent of the path, and find
its
/>(3,
that the integral

value.
find its
x (x
2 y) dx
(2
x2
2
?/
iZy] is
independ-
value.
Show
6.
[2
/
^(0, 0)
277
4)
(xdx
+ ydy)
independent of the path, and
is
t/(5 0)
7. Find the force function for a force in a

plane directed toward the
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the origin.
origin,
8. Find the force function for a force in a plane directed toward the
origin
and inversely proportional to the distance from the origin.
9.
Prove that any force directed toward a center and equal to a function of
the distance from the center
conservative.
is
/(!,!)
10.
Find the value of
[(y
x)
dy
ydx] along the following curves:
(O.O)
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
11.
the straight line x = t, y

the parabola x = t 2 ,y =
= 2
=
the parabola x=t, y

the cubical parabola x
Find the value of f
t,
- y*)dx + 2 xydy]
[(x
t;
t;
t*.
along the following paths
^(0,0)
(2)
a straight line between the limits

the axis of x and x = 1
(3)
the axis of y and y
(1)
12. Find the value of
[y*fa
Xy
+ x2
1.
dy] along the following paths
(O, 0)
(1)
(2)
13.
y = 2xy = 2x 2
Find the value of f

/(0 2
paths:
(1)
(2)
[(l+y z )dx + (l+x 2 )cfy] along
y=6x + 2;
=-5x*+ 2;
Show
the following
>
+ 2x
that the following differential

equations are exact, and integrate
14.
(2x-y +
l)dx
+ (2y-x-l)dy =
0.
-2
xy
2
?/
dy
dy
_
.
0.
them
LINE INTEGKALS
278
Solve the following differential equations by means of integrating factors
20.
(1
19. (x 2
y )dx
x2 y)dx
_x
22. (x
23.
dx
(x?/
24. (5x
dx
xy
y) (dx
2 xy 2
28.^
1
0.
(x
x 3 ) dy
0.
Q.
x)
dy
dx
(2
xy
cos x) dx
0.
(x
(y tan x
26. sin (x
dx
dy
+y)dy =
+ xy 2dy = 0.
\xe
-y)dx +
25. dy
27. (y
21. ye
T3
?/
2
7/
y cos
dy)
x 2 y 3 ) dx
(2
0.
x 2 ) dy
(x 4- y)
x 2y
x)
0.
= 0.
= 0.
dy
dy
xv
CHAPTP:R
INFINITE SERIES
The expression
152. Convergence.
a 1 +a a +a 8 +a 4
where the number
terms
of the
is
+a
+.
(1)
..,
unlimited,
is
called
an
infinite
series.
An infinite series is
sum of the first n
Thus, referring to
Then,
said
or
to converge,
to be
when
convergent,
the
terms approaches a limit as n increases without limit.

(1),
we may
place
Lim sn = A,
if
n= x
is said to converge to the limit A.

The quantity A is
frequently called the sum of the series, although, strictly speaking,
it is the limit of the sum of the first n terms.
The convergence of
the series
(1)
be seen graphically by plotting
may
number
scale as in
which
series
in
happen
I,
is
two ways
s p s2 ,
,,--,*
not convergent is called divergent. This

may
either the sum of the first n terms increases
without limit as n increases without limit; or s n may

a limit, but without becoming indefinitely great.
Ex.
less
fail to
approach
Consider the geometric series
1.
Here
on the
53.
sn
than
=
1,
a
r"
ar
ar2
-f
ar
ar2
ar"
-1
ar 3
Now
if
is
numerically
approaches zero as a limit as n increases without limit

279
and
INFINITE SERIES
280
Lim
therefore
= oo
sn
creases without limit as
without
limit.
If r
If,
however, r
is
numerically greater than
1,
n increases without
the series
and
alternately a and
s n is
0,
and therefore
limit;
than unity, and diverges
Ex.
the series
1,
is
limit.
when
Therefore, the geometric series converges to the limit

less
increases
If
and hence does not approach a
when
sn
--
increases without limit with n.
sn
r n in-
is
a-fa + a-fa +
and therefore
1,
r is numerically
r is numerically equal to or greater
than unity.
Consider the harmonic series
2.
consisting of the
HH
+
sum
J>l
+
^"
-<
of the reciprocals of the positive integers.
H+
+1
i,
Now
+ 1 -H = i.
i >f+ 4
way the sum of the first n terms of the series may be seen to be
than
any multiple of l for a sufficiently large n. Hence the harmonic
greater
and
in this
series diverges.
153. Comparison test for convergence. If each term of a given

series of positive numbers is less than, or equal to, the correspond
series converges.
ing term of a known convergent series, the given
is greater than, or equal to, the
a
series
term
each
of
given
If
corresponding term of a known divergent series of positive numbers,
the given series diverges.
Let
!+
as +
be a given series in which each term
is
(1)
a positive
number, and
\+\+\+\+--
(2)
known convergent series such that a k = b k

Then if s n is the sum of the first n terms of
be a
the
let
first
n terms
of (2),
and
the limit of
s ^ it
(1), s n
the
sum
of
follows that
**<<*
since all terms of (1), and therefore of (2), are positive. Now as
increases, s n increases but always remains less than B. Hence
B.
approaches a limit, which is either less than, or equal to,
The
first
part of the theorem
is
too obvious to need formal proof.
now proved
the second part
n
sn
is
THE EATIO TEST FOE CONVEEGENCE
281
In applying this test it is not necessary to begin with the first

of either series, but with any convenient term. The terms
before* those with which comparison begins, form a polynomial the
term
value of which
is
of course finite,
and the remaining terms form
the infinite series the convergence of which

Ex.
is
to be determined.
Consider
1.
Each term
after the third
is
less
than the corresponding term of the convergent
geometric series
Therefore the
Ex.
first series
converges.
Consider
2.
V3
V2
Each term
harmonic
after the first
is
series
154.
first series
The
Vn
greater than the corresponding term of the divergent
1111
+ + + +
Therefore the
V5
V4
diverges.
If in a
ratio test for convergence.
numbers the ratio of the (n +l)st term to

a limit L as n increases without limit :
converges; if
L>1,
series of positive
nth term approaches
the
then, if
the series diverges; if
L<1,
L=l,
the series
the series
may
either diverge, or converge.
a^ +
Let
h an
be a series of positive numbers, and
let
an + l
-\
lim
(1)
= L. We
have
three cases to consider.

1.
Taker any number such
L<1.
the ratio
approaches
that
L<r<
as a limit, this ratio
1.
Then, since
must become and
remain
less
than r for sufficiently large values of
be less than r for the rath and
all
n.
subsequent terms.
Let the ratio
Then
INFINITE SEKIES
282
Now
compare the
series
+^*
*
with the series
Each term
of (3),
series
with
comparison
2.
without
of (2) except the first is less
than the corresponding
test,
(3)
Hence
than unity.
-^
approaches
this
it
is
(1) converges.
limit, this ratio eventually
Suppose
a geometric
(2) converges by the
a convergent series since
and therefore
Since
Each term
happens
as a limit as
increases
becomes and remains greater

mth and all subsequent
for the
than the corresponding
of the series (2) is greater
of the divergent series
Hence
3.
is
Then
terms.
term
2)
its ratio less
than unity.
(3)
and
L>1.
V + y+ V +
+
term
++*++
(2)
L = l.
and therefore
(1) diverges.
Neither of the preceding arguments
amples show that
in this case the series
may
is
valid,
and ex
either converge or
diverge.
Ex.
1.
2345
Consider
The nth term
is
^
3n
term to the nth term
is
and the (n
-=
>
l)st
The ratio of the
term is^
and
3n
Therefore the given series converges.
(n
-f l)st
ABSOLUTE CONVERGENCE
Ex.
2.
Consider
The nth term
* + * + ...
and the
is
(r
l)st
term
+ ....
g
is
\n
(n
l)st
term
|n
to the nth
term
is
(n
+ ^ n+1 =
+ n
-_,
283
--
The
ratio of the
and
Therefore the given series diverges.
155. Absolute convergence. The absolute value of a real num

is its arithmetical value
independent of its algebraic sign.
Thus the absolute value of both -f 2 and
2 is 2. The absolute
ber
value of a quantity a is often indicated by

It is evident that
\a\.
the absolute value of the sum of n quantities is less than, or
equal
to, the sum of the absolute values of the quantities.
when the absolute values of its terms form a

and is said to converge absolutely.
series converges
convergent series,
Let
ai
be a given
series,
a z + az +
a^-\
---(1)
and
KI +
a,|
+ K| +
(2)
K|+--<
the series formed by replacing each term of

(1) by its absolute
value.
assume that (2) converges, and wish to show the con
We
vergence of
Form
(1).
the auxiliary series
K+|
|)
The terms of (3)

of (2). For a k =
+ K+|
2 |)
3 |)
+ K+|a
|)+....
(3)
are either zero or twice the

corresponding terms
\
ak
when a k
is
negative,
and a k
a k when a k
is
positive.
Now, by
hypothesis, (2) converges,
and hence the
2N+2|,|+2|a +
8
converges. But each term
corresponding term of
parison test.
(4),
2|
series
|+...
of (3) is either
equal to or less
and hence
(3)
(4)
than the
converges by the
com
INFINITE SERIES
284
Now
the
let sn
first
sum
be the
n terms
of (2),
n terms
of the first
and
sum
the
s"
Then
of (1), s n the
of the first
sum
n terms
of
of (3).
*-<-<
and, since
s"
Hence the
We
and
sn
shall consider in this
Hence the
The power
aQ
where a
We
a lt a 2 a s
,
series.
a :x
,
applied, since in testing for
terms are considered positive.
all
power
series is defined
a z z? + a & x* -\-----\- a n x n -\----
\x\
<
=x
lt
it
the series
aQ +
converges, and
numbers not involving x.

theorem If a power series con
converges absolutely for any value of x such
XT\.
For convenience,
by
are
shall prove the following
verges for x
that
limit.
chapter only absolute convergence.
153, 154 may be
tests of
absolute convergence
156.
approaches a
limits, s n also
approach
series (1) converges.
let
[a;
= X,
an
=A
\
a^ + a^xl + a xf +
n,
we wish
show
to
A + A^X + A X* + A
Q
x{
= Xr By
hypothesis
a n x? H----
(1)
that
X+
Z
+A X
+-
(2)
X X
converges if
r
Since (1) converges, all its terms are finite. Consequently there
must be numbers which are greater than the absolute value of
<
any term
A n Xi
<
of (1).
Let
M be
one such number.
Then we have
for all values of n.
Then
Each term
sponding term
of the series
of
(2)
is
therefore less than the corre
the series
But (3) is a geometric

Hence, by the comparison
series,
X
X Xr
which converges when
test, (2)
converges
when
<
<
THE POWER SERIES

From the preceding discussion it
may behave as to convergence in one
1.
It
2.
It
3.
It
285
follows that a power series

of three
ways only
may converge for all finite values of x (Ex. 1).

may converge for no value of x except x = (Ex. 2).
may converge for values of x lying between two finite
numbers
+R, and
and
diverge for all other values of
(Ex. 3).
In any case the values of x for which the series converges are
together called the region of convergence. If represented on a
number
the region of convergence in the three cases just

enumerated is (1) the entire number scale, (2) the zero point only,
(3) a portion of the scale having the zero point as its middle point.
Ex.
1.
scale,
Consider
x
Lim - =
n
of x and
n
2.
[re
for
Ex.
is
its
finite
any
__
+
^711
rpn
The nth term
+ ?!+... +
l)st
term
value of
Hence the
x.
is
x2
[2
Ix"-
\n
1
,
|_3
x3
the (n
----h
[n
The nth term

x.
Lim
is
nx"-
1
,
the (n
x Lim
1 -f
(
n
n=m
n = ao \
and
when
1.
diverges
|x|
|x|
ber scale between
1 and + 1.
>
power
series converges for
number
xn ~ l
any value
scale.
0.
l)st
-)
term
x.
nx"
is
-l
(n
+
+
l)x
Hence the
f(c)
n
,
-f
their ratio
series converges
on the
of convergence lies
x for values
and we may write
avx
and
is
when
n]
The region
series defines a function of
region of convergence,
it
is
term is |nx n and their ratio is nx.

values of x except x = 0. Therefore
----H
+ 2x + 3x 2 -f4x 3 +
their ratio
Consider
l
<
/j*
and
l)st
all
the series converges for no value of x except x
is
Consider
The nth term
[n
This ratio increases without limit for
3.
npn
the (n
region of convergence covers the entire
Ex.
a 2 x2 + a s x s +-.-
+a
of
xn +
num
x within the
(4)
being understood that the value of f(x) is the limit of the

of the series on the right of the equation. We shall denote
sum
286
INFINITE SEEIES
n(
x) the polynomial obtained

by taking the
the series in
(4).
Graphically,
etc.,
we
shall
if
first
n terms
of
Thus
we
plot the curves
have a succession
= s^x)
of curves
=s
z (x),
=s
a (x),
which approximate
to
the curve of the function

y=f(x). These curves we shall call
the approximation curves, calling y =
s^x) the first approximation
curve, y = s z (x) the second approximation curve, and so on. The
grapli of
= f(x)
we
shall call the
limit curve.
Ex.
4.
The
limit curve
hyperbola
Let
(fig.
is
the portion of the
105)
between z
1 and z = 1. The first
ap
proximation curve is the straight line
y = 1, the second approximation curve
is the straight line y = I +
z, the third
approximation curve is the parabola y = 1
+ z + z 2 etc. In fig. 105 the limit curve
,
drawn heavy and the first four approxi

mation curves are marked (1), (2), (3), (4).
is
be noticed that the curves, ex

(1), cannot be distinguished from
each other for values of z near zero.
It is to
cept
X=-l
The power
portant property, not possessed by all kinds of
very similarly to a polynomial. In particular
series
has the im
series, of
behaving
1.
2.
The function defined by a power series is continuous.

The sum, the difference, the product, and the quotient
of
two
functions defined by power series are found by taking the sum, the
difference, the product, and the quotient of the series.
MACLAURIN
f(x)=a +
If
3.
AND TAYLOR
ajc
+ a z? +
2
...
SERIES
anx
287
then
sib
f(x) dx
Xb
/-*
a dx +
c/a
If
then
and the
lie in
f(x)
= 0,^+
(x)
s*b
djXdx
s*b
a 2 x*dx
an
ya
t/a
i/a
provided a and &

4.
the region of convergence.
+ a^- + a^H- a
2 az x
3 asx
series for the derivative
3
3
H-----h a n a?-\---.
+ na n x
~l
has the same region of convergence
as that for the function.
For proofs
of these
theorems the student
is
referred to advanced
treatises.*
157. Maclaurin s
and Taylor
When
series.
a function
is
expressed as a power series, it is possible to express the coeffi

cients of the series in terms of the function and its deriva
For
tives.
By
let
differentiating
we have
f (x)=a + 2a x+ 3a
2
=
"(x)
^ 2 +4a 4 ^ 3 H----- na n xn
4 3 2
-
ap +
+ n(n - l)(n- 2)a n xn - +
/>(*)=[n(-l)(n-2)...3.2]a.
Placing x
,=/(0),
o,=/
+ ....
in each of these equations,
(0),
~l
\-
we
find
Consequently we have
^+...
This
is
Maclaurin
s series
^+....
31, (6)).
See, for example, Goursat-Hedrick, Mathematical Analt/six, Chap. IX.
(1)
INFINITE SERIES
288
Again,
if
in the right-hand side of
f(x)
we
place x
+ ajc + a^ + ***?+
2
=a+x
f(x)
or,
and arrange according
+ &X + &X + &8

2
by replacing x by
its
value x
to
<*>&
powers
of
x we have
,
+ &X B +
a,
By differentiating this equation successively,

in the results, we readily find
and placing x
Hence
This
Taylor s series ( 31, (4)).

have here shown that if a function can be
expressed as a
the
series
be
in
the
form
or
In
31
power series,
may
put
(1)
(2).
we showed that any function which is continuous and has con
tinuous derivatives can be so expressed.
Usually when a known
is
We
function
expressed by either (1) or (2), the region in which the

expression is valid as a representation of the function is coincident
with the region of convergence of the series.
can be
is
Examples
given in which this
meet them in
is
not true, but the student
is
not likely to
practice.
158. Taylor s series for functions of several variables. Con

sider f(x, y) a function of two variables x and
If we place
y.
where
a, b,
I,
and
f( x
=a+
lt,
are constants
>
y}
= f( a +
= b + mt
and
lt,1>
is
a variable,
+ mt)=F(t).
we have
TAYLOR
Now, by expansion
SERIES
289
into Maclauriii s series,
(1)
and, by
111 and 118,
When ^ = 0, we have x = a and y = b. Hence ^(0) =/(, &), and,

we denote by a subscript zero the values of the derivatives of
f(x, y) when x = a,y = b,
if
By substitution
we have
/(*. y)
=/(,
in (1), noting that
lt
=x
)+(* - +(y )
*)
a and
INFINITE SERIES
290
Another form of this

b = k.
Then
and y
series
In a similar manner, we
The terms
of the
may
be obtained by placing x
may show
a=
that
nth degree in this expansion
may
be indicated
symbolically as
159. Fourier s series.
an
+ cos +
+ \ sin +
as
ctj
a;
where the
coefficients
series of the
cos 2 x
5 2 sin 2
a?
+
+
P &2
form
+
+ b n sin nx +
a n cos
w^c
(1)
do not involve x and are
determined by the formulas derived in

160, is called a Fourier s
series.
Every term of (1) has the period* 2 TT, and hence (1) has
that period. Accordingly any function denned for all values of
x by a Fourier s series must have the period 2 TT. But even if
a function does not have the period 2 TT, it is possible to find a
Fourier
of
series
x between
f(x)
is
which
and
TT
will represent the function for all values

TT to TT
TT, provided that in the interval
called a periodic function, with period k,
if
f(x
-\-
k)
f(x).
FOURIER
SERIES
291
single-valued, finite, and continuous except for

finite discontinuities,* and provided there is not an infinite number
the function
of
maxima
or
We
is
minima
in the neighborhood of
any
point.
now
try to determine the formulas for the coeffi

TT
cients of a Fourier s series, which, for all values of x between
160.
and
TT,
will
shall represent a given function, f(x),
which
satisfies
the
above conditions.
Let f(x)
= -^ -f
+
sin x +
a 1 cos x
2.
+ &j
To determine
TT,
The
+
+
-j-
+
sin wa; +
a n cos nx
&n
(1)
TT
to
is
77
7
aQ
by dx and integrate from
(1)
result
whence
cos 2 x
& 2 sin 2
multiply
<x
term by term.
T
f(x) dx,
Vj-n
7
"
(2)
since all the terms on the right-hand side of the equation, except
vanish.
the one involving
,
To determine the
multiply (1) by
Since for
term.
cos
all
coefficient of the general cosine term, as
nx
and integrate from

integral values of m and n
dx,
sin
cos
u-
mx cos nx dx =
TT
to
TT,
an
term by
0,
mx cos nx dx =
rcos nx dx
; =
(m
?i)
and
TT,
C/-7T
the terms on the right-hand side of the equation, except the

one involving a nJ vanish and the result is
all
f(x) cos
nx dx
=a
n 7r,
whence
an
C
I
f(x) cos nx dx.
(3)
* If
e) and /(Zi+<0 have different limits as e
z, is any value of x, such that/fo
approaches the limit zero, then/(z) is said to have a finite discontinuity for the value
x = x\. Graphically, the curve y =f(x) approaches two distinct points on the ordinate x = Xi, one point beinj? approached as x increases toward cc,, and the other being
approached as x decreases toward x\.
INFINITE SEEIES
292
be noted that (3) reduces to
It is to
when n
(2)
0.
In like manner, to determine b n multiply (1) by sin

TT to TT, term by term.
The result is
integrate from
,
=i
f^J-n
For a proof
formulas
;)
of the validity of the
and (4), the reader
(2), (3),
Ex. 1. Expand x in a Fourier

TT and TT.
between
is
sin
nx
dx,
nx dx.
and
(4)
above method of deriving the

referred to advanced treatises.*
s series, the
development
to hold for all values
of x
By
(2),
(:37r,0)
FIG. 106
Hence only the
sine terms appear in the series for x, the values of the

determined by giving n in the expression for b n the values
in succession. Therefore 61 = 2, 6 2 =
and
f 63 =
coefficients being
1, 2, 3,
sin
~~
sin 2
,,
sin 3 x
~~~
The graph of the function x is the infinite straight line passing through the
origin and bisecting the angles of the first and the third quadrants.
The limit curve of the series coincides with this line for all values of x be
and
tween
TT
vanishes
when x
points
TT,
TT,
for every term of the series

TT
but not for x =
TT and x
TT or x = TT, and therefore the graph of the series has the
;
0) as isolated points (fig. 106).
TT and TT, and giving k the values

taking Xi as any value of x between
in succession, we can represent all values of x by x\
2 for. But the
3,
By
1, 2,
See, for example, Goursat-Hedrick,
Mathematical Analysis, Chap. IX.
FOURIEK
SERIES
293
2 kir as
TT, and accordingly has the same value for Xi
Hence the limit curve is a series of repetitions of the part between
2 &TT, 0).
TT and x = TT, and the isolated points (
x =
It should be noted that the function denned by the series has finite discon
tinuities, while the function from which the series is derived is continuous.
series
has the period 2
for Xi.
not necessary that/(#) should be defined by the same law

TT to TT.
In this case the integrals
throughout the interval from
It is
two
defining the coefficients break up into

shown in the following examples:
Ex. 2. Find the Fourier s
and TT, where f(x) = x + ?r if
Here
series for f(x) for all values of

TT
<
<
and /(x)
0,
V-
(x
TT)
dx
On
(x
TT)
cos nx dx
+ f
x)
+ C
= TT
dx
x between
TT
xifO<x<7r.
= TT
x) cos
(IT
integrals, as
nx dx\
irn*
bn
more
or
=-
cos mr)
(1
v
(x
sin
TT)
nx dx
C\TT
- x) sin nx dx
-A
FIG. 107
Therefore the required series
4 /cos x
TT
+ ^l~l2~ +
The graph
107).
72
of /(x) for values of
When
111
+^+
(fig.
is
"^+
Q2
is
When
"-~^
the periodicity of the series
the broken line of
fig.
r,2
TT
and
TT,
it is
the broken line
+ -^ +
(
32
52
7T\12
the series reduces to 0.
broken
line
seen, as in Ex.
107.
\
")
IT is
-+2
o-4
)*
!
o
limit curve of the series coincides with the
From
cos 5 x
x between
the series reduces to
0,
Tj-2
cos 3 x
Byerly, Fourier s Series,
p. 40.
1,
ABC
\=
ABC
K,
f or
Plence the
at all points.
that the limit curve
INFINITE SERIES
294
Ex.
and
TT,
Find the Fourier s series for /(x), for

where f(x) = 0if-?r<x<0, and f(x) =
Here
= -1
7T
an
dx
\J-TT
TT
rn
TT
dx )
i/O
The graph of
from x =
of x
finite
r).
is
sinSx
sin3x
"~
/sinx
2
the function for the values of x between

TT
discontinuity
to
0,
and the straight
when x =
TT
ir.
<
cos
TT
TT
<
1
1 /**
= -|
IT sin nx dte = - (1
Therefore the required series
if
TT
cos nx dx
values of x between
all
3.
line
AB
TT
and
TT is
the axis
108), there being a
(fig.
0.
FIG. 108
The curves
(1), (2), (3),
and
respectively to the equations
(4)
are the approximation curves corresponding
=-+
2 sin x,
{sin
hr
(2)
sin 3 x\
TT
sin 3
They may be
readily constructed
by
the
(3)
sin 5 x\
method used
5
in
to be noted that all the curves pass through the point fO,
I,
1,
/
149, Ex.
which
is
5.
It
is
midway
and 0, which correspond to the finite discontinuity, and

that the successive curves approach perpendicularity to the axis of x at that point.
between the points
INDETERMINATE FORMS
The indeterminate form -
161.
295
Consider the fraction
/M,
a)
x)
4>(
and
a be a number such that f(a)
let
=a
place x
we
in (1),
and
cf>
(a)
obtain the expression -, which
0.
If
we
is literally
meaningless.
customary, however, to define the value of the fraction (1)

as the limit approached by the fraction as x approaches a.
In some cases this limit can be found by elementary methods.
It is
when x=a,
Ex.
n1
T2
1.
When x =
fraction
When
becomes and have
a, this
by a
x,
we may
a,
divide both terms of the
2
"
for all values of x except x
a.
Equation
(1)
is
true as x approaches a,
and hence
Ex.
2.
When
=
1
0, this
becomes
-Vl-x
-.
When
l-Vl-z
1
1
Lim
Ex.3.
Vl
x2
0,
+ Vl + Vl - X 2
a;2
= Lim
When
0,
sinx
iice
1+ Vl-X 2
sn 2
x = 0, this becomes
Maclaurin s series, and have
When
II
we have
Lim
x = o sinx
1.
we may expand each term by
INFINITE SERIES
296
into series, used in Ex. 3, suggests a

to determine the limit approached
The method by expansion

general method.
by
f&L
we wish
Since
a s x approaches a,
we
=a+h
will place
and expand by
$(x)
Taylor
We
s series.
have
we have from
===
</>()
0,
() +
becomes -
|^
0,
(2)
*"
<)+
||
/ (a) =
and hence, unless
and
<f>
(a)
0,
(2)
Therefore, since A
however,
(>+
f(x}
-
Lim
If,
<#>
,|/"(*)
^^
= a,
= 0.
and
__
_ _+/+
/
a;
"(a)
II
[g
/(a)
as
+ hf (a) + /() + ,^/
f(a)
+h
But by hypothesis f(a)
Now
31, (5))
(a)
(o)
cp
9>()
and
<f>
In this case
= f (a)
=a
(2)
(a)
(a)
0,
the right-hand side of (3)
becomes
whence
unless
/"(a)
and
In the latter case we
0.
<"()
may go back
and repeat the reasoning.

Accordingly we have the rule
again to (2)
To find
x
the value
= a, replace
ative
and
the
numerator and
substitute
the process.
- when
of a fraction which takes the form
= a.
If
the
the
denominator each ly
new fraction
is also
its
->
deriv
repeat
INDETERMINATE FORMS
pX
Ex.
4.
To
find the limit
approached by
pX
By
Ex.
If
To
5.
we
x=o
x=o
We
f~f>X
=o
e~ x
2 cos x
2.
when x =
0.
e~ x
e~ x ~\
2 sin x
x cosx
Jx=o
Ver
=|- 2
L
2 cos x
-f
e~ x ~\
xsinx
cosx
Ja:=o
=-4 = 2.
161 assumes the possibility

power series. It is, how
sometimes necessary to consider functions for which this
162.
of the rule in
of the expansion of f(x)

ever,
assumption
new
Jz=o
sinx
xsinx
The derivation
=-2 =
X~\
xsinx
Ve*
xsinx
6^
= 0.
we have
2 cos x
therefore apply the rule again, thus
Lim
_1_
cosx
when x
297
sinx
approached by
apply the rule once,
Lim
sinx
find the limit
e*
Urn-
the rule,
is
not valid.
and
into
<f>(x)
We
shall accordingly give the following
proof of the rule.
Consider formula
(3),
30, namely,
it follows that if
F(b) = and F(a) = 0, then F
some number between a and b. Let us apply
From this
where f
is
(^)
= 0,
this to
the arbitrarily formed function
where F(b)
tion.
and F(a)
0, as
may
be seen by direct substitu
Then
whe nce
Now,
in (1), let/(n)
= 0,
<#>()
= 0,
and place
f(a
+ h)
/ ()
= a + h. We
have
INFINITE SEKIES
298
As h
0,
= a,
since
Lim
which may be written

If
f (a)
and
f(x)
Lim 4^-f
If,
however,
(a)
and
Lim fix)
The
(3)
(3) gives
f
(a)L
= :Lf-^-
<ft(a)
gives
0, (3)
fix)
results.
The indeterminate form
163.
= Lim fix)
161 thus
rule of
Hence
^- = Lim
not both zero,
(a) are
<j>
+ &.
<<
If
f|.
/(a)
the fraction ii-2 takes the meaningless form

fraction
is
=00 and
||.
=
<(a)
The value
oo,
of the
then defined as the limit approached by the fraction as
x approaches a as a
limit.
We
shall
now
prove that the rule for
- holds also
for a
finding the value of a fraction which becomes
~which
becomes
fraction
To prove
this,
becomes
we
shall take first the case in
when
we have
a?
= 00. By placing
which the
b = x, a = c
/()-/() _ / (?)
is
equivalent to
^
,
take
162,
Now we assume that

we may
in (1),
/-.... ,.
tw-wrw)
which
fraction
so great that
approaches a limit ^ as x
f (c)
^-^
</>
(6 )
>
f (}
and therefore ^-y^
co.
Hence
differs
from
INDETERMINATE FORMS
k by as
much
little as
we
greater than
This fixes
please.
little as
have, from
where
e1
and
WQ
e2
f/ ff
may be
proper choice of
By
please.
(1),
To extend
= a,
we
we
as small as
a;
differ
from zero
and
x,
then,
we
Hence
please.
which
this result to the case in
place
each
take x so
f(x)
4>(x)
by as
we may then
~- may
-- and
that
299
becomes
4rr
when
4>(*)
= a H---
Then
Then
becomes
when y
^=
Lim
r ..
Therefore, from (2),
oo.
Liin
r
4>(7/)
..
&(
dv
Now
lUld
p"(
Hence
* (y)
</>
)=/
2/
W g = -i
=-
=
and Li m
r
(*)
* (#)
= Lim
.*.
<#
Hence we have
()
(3)
From
(2)
and
(3) follows the proposition that

^
Ex. To find the limit approached by
as x
we wished
becomes
xn
By
the rule,
Lim
x =*
iQff
n
xn
O*
= Lim
x=
T*
nx n ~ l
= Lim
-=
a-=*nx
0.
infinite.
to prove.
INFINITE SERIES
300
There are other indeterminate
164. Other indeterminate forms.
forms indicated by the symbols
oo-oo,
O-oo,
The form
and
f(a) =
<
(x),
oo arises
0,
when, in a pro duct f(x)

(x), we have
oo arises when, in /(#)
The form oo
<f>
= oo.
we have f(a) = oo,
<f>(a)
oo.
(a)
<f>
These forms are handled by expressing

as the case
Ex.
may
= a.
when x
x 3 e-*2
1.
When
oo,
The
becomes
this
When
or
z
xZ
have, however, x e~
3x
= Lim -= Lim
3x2
Lim
Xs
,
which
0.
Lim x n e~ xZ =
00
of n.
secx
2.
We
0.
Then
oo.
xs
co
X=
Ex.
$(x),
rule of
In the same manner
any value
OT/(X)
(x)
Lim
for
/(#)</>
form of a fraction which becomes

161 may then be applied.
be, in the
when x =
becomes
r.
00,
tanx.
this is oo
We
oo.
sec x
have, however,
tan x
sin
x
,
cosx
which becomes - when x
TT
=-
Then
Lim
;
(sec
tan x)
= Lim
TT
^_
~
The forms 0,
00
00, I
may
If
log
Lim
x=a
</>(^)
TT
sin
= Lim
cos x
~2
^_
~
rr
-- =
cos x
sin
0.
arise for the function
Wf
when x = a.
If we place
we have
_._
= $(x) logf(x).
(x
[f(x)]* \
log/(a;) can be obtained
the limit approached by
u can be
found.
by the previous methods,
PROBLEMS
301
Ex.
3.
When
(1
x}*.
0, this
becomes
Place
1*.
then
Now, by
Hence
log
161,
u approaches the limit
and u approaches the
limit -
PROBLEMS
1.
Prove that the series
i 1
i
L
2a2^4^4448
l
where there are two terms of the form

terms of the form
when a
2.
>
converges
and 2^ terms
of the
four terms of the form
"
form
152),
with the series in Ex.
= 1,
(k
>
1,
Test the following series for convergence or divergence
25
22
"-
6-
1-2
3-4
6.6
(2n-l)2n
1-2
2.3
34
nn+
),
eight
converges
or with the harmonic series
and diverges when a^l.
23
2, 3,
prove that the series
when a
4a
1.
By comparison
(Ex. 2,
INFINITE SERIES
302
*+++-*+-.
11.
10.
--
-.
1.2-3
2.3.43.4.5
n(n
1)
2)
Find the region of convergence of each of the following
14., +
15.
+S
2
21. log(x
22.
+ Vl +
^ -=
7bx
Expand each
four terms
24.
I
2
lo
+ Ax
+
2
a
^
a3
2n-l +
2.4.6...(2n-2)
+ ll?
2
...
^,-
"
(2
....
2n-l
2)
a"
of the following functions into a
Maclaurin
s series,
obtaining
25. log(l
26. e sina;
Expand each
29. x 2
secx.
x between
2-4
x*)
23. sees.
er
^+l
2 2a;
series
TT
27.
sinx).
e 8111
-1
*.
28. log cos
x.
of the following functions into a Fourier s series for values of
and
TT
30.
31. /(x), where /(x)

32. /(x), where /(x)
33. /(x), where /(x)

34. /(x), where /(x)
= - TT if - TT
= x if TT
= -7rif
= Oif
<
<
x
x
<
<
0,
0,
-7r<x<0,
-7r<x<0,
e.
and/(x)
TT if
and /(x)
if
and/(x)
x2
and /(x)
x
if
<
<
if
<
<
x
x
TT.
<
<
x
<
<
TT.
TT.
TT.
PROBLEMS
303
variable
Find the limit approached by each of the following functions, as the
approaches the given value
cosx
cos a
66.
cscx
CHAPTEE XVI
COMPLEX NUMBERS
165.
Graphical representation.
form x +
iy,
by the equation
i*
of the
a complex
where x and y are
1 (I,
number by
12).
the letter
z
z,
complex number
real
In this chapter
thus
we
number
i is
defined
is
numbers and
shall denote
= x + iy.
The number x
is the real part and the number

iy is the imagi
nary part of z. When y = 0, z becomes a real number and when
x
When both x = and
0, z becomes a pure imaginary number.
and z = when, and only when, a; = and y 0.
y = 0, then 2 =
To obtain a graphical representation of
;
complex number, construct two axes of

OX and OY (fig. 109), take any
point P, and draw OP. Then the complex
number x + *y is said to be represented
coordinates
*
by the point P or by the vector OP.
For if a complex number, z
x-\- iy, is
known, x and ?/ are known, and there corresponds one and only
one point P and one and only one vector OP.
Conversely, to a
either
FlG 109
of
P or
OP corresponds one and only one pair of values

and
therefore
one and only one complex number. In
y,
connection the axis of x is called the axis
of reals, since
numbers are represented by points upon it and the axis of
point
a vector
x and
this
real
is
called the axis of imaginaries, since

pure imaginary
numbers
are represented
of
by points upon it.

If we take
as the origin and OX as the initial
polar coordinates, we have x = r cos 0, y = r sin
and therefore
*A
vector
is
x-\-iy
line of a
system
6,
= r (cos + i sin 0).
a straight line fixed in length and direction hut not necessarily in
position.
304
ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION

The number
= ^/x + y\
2
which
called the modulus of the complex
length of the vector OP.
The angle 6
is
always taken positive,
number and
105
1
tan"
is
is
equal to the
is
called the
argu
made
ment, or amplitude, of the complex number, and is the angle
added to
with
by the vector OP. Any multiple of 2 TT may be
OX
the argument without altering the complex number, since

r [cos (6 -f 2 for)
+ i sin (6 +
2 for)]
The modulus is also called the

number and is denoted by \z thus
,
= r (cos + i sin
absolute value of the
(9).
complex
fife
and subtraction.
166. Addition
iy^
and
22
*i
In
and
fig.
let
a?
+ iy^
+* =
2
110
0%
( î
then,
by
+*
(2/i
x z)
and
let I{
If
z^_
=x
definition,
FIG. 110
2/2)-
I* represent the
and OP^ be the corresponding
two complex numbers,

vectors.
Construct the
has the
3
parallelogram OJ(P^. Then it is easy to see that
x 2 y l + y 2 ) and therefore represents the complex
coordinates (x l
number z^+z y The
addition of complex
numbers
is
thus seen to
be analogous to the composition of forces or

velocities.
Since 0/f=|^|,
OP =
2
z2
|,
and
OP =\z + z
3
\,
*i+*,N*il+K
(*!>
the equality sign holding only

OPZ have the same direction.
when
and
To subtract z2 from 2 P we first change the

sign of z 2 and add the result to z r Graphically,
Fi.
the change of sign of z 2 corresponds to replacing
Ill
Ill) by 1J, symmetrical to 2 with respect

to 0, or to turning the vector OP^ through an angle of 180. The
corre
parallelogram OPJIP^ is then completed, giving the point &
2
(fig.
sponding to
zl
z2 .
COMPLEX NUMBERS
306
and
167. Multiplication
then,
by
we
If
~r
^2
division.
If
z^
= x^+ iy^ and z = x + iy^

2
definition,
we have
use polar coordinates,
cos ^2
(
zl
=r
(cos
+ sm ^2)* an(^
= r^ [(cos cos
sin
sin
2^2
+ * (sin cos + cos sin
= r,r [cos (^ + + i sin (0 + ^
sin 0J,
l9
6>
2)
2 )]
2)
2 )].
Hence, in the multiplication of two complex numbers, the
mod
and the arguments are added. Graphic

the vector corresponding to a product is found
by rotating
uli are multiplied together

ally,
the vector of the multiplicand in the

positive direction through an
angle equal to the argument of the multiplier, and multiplying
the length of the vector of the
multiplicand by the modulus of the
multiplier. In particular, the multiplication by i is represented
by
and the multiplication

rotating a vector through an angle of 90
1 is represented
a
vector
by
by rotating
through an angle of
;
180,
as noted in
The quotient
Hence,
if z
166.
a
is
Zo
number which multiplied by
= r^cos O + i sin
l
and
X)
z2
=r
(cos
+ i sin
gives 2
2 ),
Graphically, the vector corresponding to a quotient is found by

rotating the vector of the dividend in the negative direction through
an angle equal to the argument of the divisor, and
dividing the
length of the vector of the dividend by the modulus of the divisor.
168. Involution
The value
of z
n
,
where n
is
obtained by successive multiplication of 2 by

Therefore, iiz = r (cos 6 + i sin 0),
positive integer,
itself.
and evolution.
is
=r
(cos
nO
+ i sin n6).
(1)
The
root 2,
where n
raised to the nth
is
number which
we
have, at first
Accordingly
a positive integer,
power gives
2.
is
INVOLUTION AND EVOLUTION

_
skrht, z
z
= r| cos - + i sin -e\
But
if
= r [cos (0 + 2 &TT) + i sin (0 + 2 &TT)],
ger,
we have
307
we remember
where k
is
(S
165) that
zero or an inte
also
1
= r|co8((6
2 kir\
/0
-i-f-t8in|
.
if"
\n
n f
forY]
(2)
n yj
\n
i
There are here n distinct values

the
n values
0, 1, 2,
(n
of z, obtained
by giving
Since the equation
1).
=c
to
has only
i
n roots (I,
means the
In this result r
42), (2) gives all the values of z.
number
of
numerical
root
the
r, such as may
positive
be found by use of a table of logarithms.

By a combination of (1) and (2), we have
= r P\ cos(
+^
/p0
+ i sm[*
+
where ^
0, 1, 2,
(//
+ i sin
cos
z
7.-
The nth
(3)
1).
Finally,
\f
2/hwr
n
[
C os(--
roots of unity can be
= cos
m6)
+ i sin(
found by placing r
2 far
h
w0)].
and
sm
The points which represent these roots graphically are the ver
polygon of n sides, inscribed in a circle with
and radius unity, the first vertex lying on the axis of
center at
tices of a regular
T*pO 1 Q
V/- 1 = cos (2 + l)7T + i sm (2/
Similarly,
+l)7T
n
169. Exponential and trigonometric functions. The exponential

and the trigonometric functions are defined in elementary work in
a manner which assumes that the variable is real. For example,
the definition of sin x requires the construction of a real triangle

with an angle equal to x, and the definition of ex involves actual
COMPLEX NUMBERS
308
involution and evolution.
In order to be able to regard the inde
pendent variable as a complex number, we adopt the following

definitions
When
z is real,
each of these functions
is
the corresponding real
function, since these series are those found in
When
place z
=
/
(I
31.
complex, each of the series converges. To show

r(cos 6 4- i sin 0) in (1), for example. We have
z is
r cos 6
cos 2
this,
cos 3 6
----
-\
12
If
.
+ i (r sin + nr sin 2 +
V
If
sin 3
Each term of the two series in parentheses is less in absolute

value than a corresponding term of the known convergent series
1
+f+
r
,
H-
Therefore each of these series converges
153) and hence (1) converges.
shown
series (1), (2),
and
It is necessary,
(3)
may
From
(1)
it
may
be
each of the
properly be used to define a function.

new proofs of the properties of
new
definitions.
we have
are the
From
It follows that
however, to give
the functions, based upon the
which
In the same manner
that (2) and (3) converge.
fundamental properties
(1), also, if
we
replace z
by
of
iz,
z
1
[2
[3
[4
the exponential function.
we have
EXPONENTIAL AND TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS 309

From
with reference to
this,
which establishes a
iz
and
(2)
+ i sin
cos z
2,
(4)
we have
= cos 2 i sin
~
g2 _ e
sin z =
whence
obtain the formula
between the exponential and the
relation
trigonometric functions.
By changing the sign of z in (4)
e~
we
(3),
lz
2,
iz
(5)
2*
-iz
e
= e +-iz
cos z
(6)
From (4), (5), and (6) it is easily shown that the trigonometric
formulas obtained in elementary work for real variables are true
for complex variables also (see Exs. 1 and
2).
We
and
shall use these relations to separate the functions

(1), (2),
(3) into real and imaginary parts, as follows
:
* + iV
iy)
_ e x e _ ^ cog
y
iy
ix
~y
(e
i
[e~
y
+e~
-
-+-
sm x +
(cos
= cosh y sin x
-f-
sin x)
--
.e y
sinh
(cos
e~ y
cos
cos x.
Similarly,
,
coss(*-Hy)
(x
iy)
y
v
= e +- e~ cos x
.e
0,
.e
e~ y
ly
cos xy
sin
sinh y sin
we have
sm
e~ v
= cosh y cos x
If
=
2
= i sinh y,
.
= cosh y.
x.
sin x)]
COMPLEX NUMBERS
310
Ex.
Prove
1.
From
(5)
and
sin 2z
2.
From
cos 2 z
1.
(6),
sin*.
Ex.
Prove sin (zi
cos*.
z2)
(5),
sin z\ cos z 2
2
?2 2
[e* ie
e~ iz ie~ iz z]
The logarithmic
170.
sin z\ cos z 2
function.
are deduced
= w log
from the
The logarithm
ber.
cos z\ sin z 2
= ew
For, let
log
2,
sin z 2 )
i
sin
2)]
then, by definition,
z.
properties of the logarithmic function,
log 2
sin Zi) (cos z 2
If 2
w = log
The
sin z\) (cos z 2
(cos Zi
_ [(cos z\ +
cos z\ sin z 2
1=0,
namely
log
co,
definition, as in the case of real variables.
of a
complex number
is itself
a complex
num
us place
z
= x + iy
r (cos 9
sin 0)
= re
ie
.
Then
log z
= log r + log
*=
+ * - - log (a? + /) + * tan-
log r
2i
log r is the logarithm of the positive

154
be found as in I,
Here
number
r,
y
-
*&
and may
We may now find the logarithm of a real negative number. For,

_ a s such a number, we may write a = a (cos TT + i sin TT) = e
whence
= log a +
log (- a)
l7r
if
r.
In particular,
log
1)
= *V.
ANALYTIC FUNCTIONS
311
be noticed that, in the domain of the complex numbers,

is not a unique
quantity. For
It is to
a logarithm
where k
is
zero or an integer.
log z
We may
Therefore
=w+
express this as follows
periodic function with the period

infinite
number of
kiir.
The exponential function
2 ITT, and
the logarithm
values, differing by multiple* of
is
has an
2 ITT.
We
171. Functions of a complex variable in general.

have
seen that functions of a complex variable obtained
by operating
on x 4- iy with the fundamental operations of algebra, or
involving
the elementary transcendental functions, are themselves
complex
numbers of the form u + iv where u and v

x and y. Let us now assume the expression w
what conditions it must satisfy in order that
of z = x -\- iy.
t
In the
first place, it is
of the
word
when
z is given,
it
may
be a function
to be noticed that in the broadest sense
"
function"
are real functions of
= u + iv, and inquire
(I,
20),
is
always a function
of
z,
since
x and y are determined and therefore u and v are

determined. But this definition is too broad for our present
purpose,
and we shall restrict it by demanding that the function shall have
a definite derivative for a definite value of
restriction is seen as follows
z,
we may
z.
The
force of this
In order to obtain an increment of

at
increments
A# and Ay to x and y
assign
pleasure
:
&z = Ax + iky. The direction in which

which
Q (fig. 112),
corresponds to z + kz in the graph
representation, lies from P, which corresponds to z, depends
respectively and obtain
the point
ical
then on the ratio
- which
may have any value whatever.
Cor-
Aw,
l\x
responding to a given increment Az,
where
(110)
takes an increment
COMPLEX NUMBERS
312
= Ax
Dividing by Az
Ay = 0, we have
-+-
iky and taking the limit

/
3u
Lrm
du
>dv
and
mdv \dy
dy/ dx
dy
Ax =
as
Unless special conditions are imposed upon u and v the exprest
nil
sion on the right-hand side of the above equation involves
>
the value of
point
(fig.
and
ctsc
depends upon the direction in which the
Lim
Now
112) approaches the point P.
the right-hand side of
(1),
when
0, is
--
du
when
+i
-j-
oo is
the value of
and
its
value
M dv
-2
&
Equating these
two values, we have
^^
"
A
=0.
This, then,
the necessary condition
is
that
7
be the same for the two values -/

CtOG
the sufficient condition that
Lim
A =
"
and -^
6t^C
from
^>
for
It is also
oo.
all
d?/
(1) is simplified
if
dx
- should
A0
AZ =
should be the same for
A*
values of
Lim -
(2)
by aid
of (2),
disappears
-f^x
it.
Now
(2) is
equivalent to the two conditions
du _2_v_
dx
dy
dv
du _
dy
(3)
dx
the equations (3) are the necessary and sufficient condi

iv should have a derivative with respect
tions that the function u
Hence
to
+ iy
which depends upon
function u
analytic function
iv
of
which
+ iy.
the value
satisfies
of x
+ iy
only.
conditions (3)
is
called
an
CONJUGATE FUNCTIONS
313
172. Conjugate functions. Two real functions u and v, which

171, are called conjugate functions. By
satisfy conditions (3),
171, with respect to x,
differentiating the first equation of (3),
the second with respect to
y,
and adding the
results,
we have
Also, by differentiating the first equation of (3),

respect to y, the second with respect to x and
t
difference of the results,
is,
each
taking
the
we have
Bx*
That
171, with
df
of a pair of conjugate functions
is
a solu
tion of the differential equation
^+
,
a?
Let us construct
and v
=c
now
2<
^~
the two families
173) of curves
=c
a point of intersection of two of these

y^
curves, one from each family, the equations of the tangent lines
at fo, yj are (115,
Ex.1)
2
But from
If (x v
(3),
is
171,
Hence the two curves
intersect at right angles; that is,

every
curve of one family intersects
every curve of the other family
at right angles.
We express this by saying that the families
of curves
corresponding to two conjugate functions form an
orthogonal system.
COMPLEX NUMBERS
314
of conjugate functions and of orthogonal systems of

be found by taking the real and the imaginary parts of
any function of a com
Examples
curves
may
plex variable.
Ex.
1.
From
(x
iy)
= x 2 - y 2 + 2 ixy.
this it follows that
2
y and 2 xy are conjugate
functions, and that the curves
x2
2
Ci and xy = c 2 form
y
an orthogonal system (fig. 113).
In fact, the system consists of
two families of rectangular hy
perbolas, the one having the
x2
coordinate axes for axes of the

curves and the other having the
coordinate axes for asymptotes.
FIG. 113
Ex.
2.
logVz
Hence
log(x
+ iy)
+ tan-i
i
log
tan- 1 - are conjugate funcX

2
2
tions, and the curves x + y
Ci and y = c^x form an
orthogonal system (fig. 114).
In fact, one family of curves
consists of circles
with their
centers at the origin, and the

other consists of straight lines
through the
origin.
FIG. 114
PROBLEMS
Find the sums of the following pairs of complex numbers and the difference
obtained by subtracting the second from the first, and express the results
graphically
1.
2i, 4
+
4
5i.
3.
+ 8i
4.
0-10
-8+
i,
3+21
12
i,
9i.
PROBLEMS
315
Find the products of the following pairs of complex numbers and the quotient
by the second, and express the results graphically
of the first
TT
5.
cos
sin
7T
7T
7T
6.
Msm 4
-i cos
6
.
7T
27T
coB-^
co8-+tn- ,
+
2 +
1 +
x +
1
7.
7T
8.
27T
+ .Bin--.
9.
V3 +
\/3,
V.3, 3
i,
-1+
_
11. (2
12.
1)2.
(1
13. (1
i.
14. (1
i)3.
i)
4-
20. ^8.
V^S.
1S+V^1.
cosî cosz 2
sinz\ sinz2Prove, for complex numbers, CQS(ZI + z 2 )
=
sin
for
sin2
z
z2
+
2
z\
2
complex
Prove,
numbers,
2sin^-(zi+
cosl(zi
15. ^1.
22.
V2.
Find the following roots and locate them graphically
21.
._
i
Find the following powers and express the results graphically
- V3) 2
16.
<CTI.
17. ^T.
19.
23. Prove sinh iy
25. log(-2).
24. Prove cosh iy
sin y.
26. log(l
i).
27.
log(-l
Find the orthogonal systems of curves defined by the

parts of the following functions
29.1.
z
30. log
&
i^l
z
a
31.
Find the orthogonal systems of curves defined by the
real
)-
cos y.
i).
28. log
i.
and the imaginary
parts of the following functions, using polar coordinates

32. z
33.
V.
log(-a*).
real
:
and the imaginary
CHAPTEE XVII
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF THE FIRST ORDER
173. Introduction.
Consider the equation
/(s,y,c)0,
in
which
c is
(1)
If c is
given a fixed value,

is supposed to take
the equation of a certain <curve and if c

values, the totality of the curves thus represented by (1)
is
family of curves.
To determine the curves
fixed point
(1),
P(x v
y^),
of the family
we may
is
(1)
all
called
which pass through any

and y l for x and y in
substitute x 1
thereby forming the equation
f(x v y v c)=Q.
(2)
The number of roots of (2), regarded as an equation in c, is the

number of curves of family (1) which pass through Pv and their
equations are found by substituting these values of c in (1).
The direction of any curve of family (1) is given by the equa-
tion(115,(l))
8/
ex
dy
~&x=~Jf
<
>
Yy
which, in general, involves c. In general, however, we may elimi
nate c from (1) and (3), the result being an equation of the form
ft 1J
If
we
substitute the coordinates of P^ in (4), the values of

-/ctx
which
satisfy the resulting equation are the slopes of the respec

tive curves of (1) which pass through r
Hence (4) defines the
same family
of curves that is defined
by
(1),
but by means of
the directions of the curves instead of the explicit equations of

316
INTRODUCTION
Hence
the curves themselves.
(4) is called the differential
family of curves represented ~by

have seen how an equation of type
tion of the
We
317
equa
(1).
(1) leads to
a differential
Conversely, to an equation of form (4) there

a
family of curves which may be represented
always corresponds
an
by
equation of form (1). For if the coordinates of a point I[
equation of type (4).
(fig.
115) are assigned to x and y in (4), (4) determines one or more

Jf.
Following one of these directions, we may
directions through
move
to a second point
in (4), a direction is
the coordinates of P^ are substituted

determined in which we may move to a third
If
ZJ.
point y Proceeding in this way, we trace a broken line such that

the coordinates of every vertex and the direction of the following
segment at that point sat
isfy (4).
broken
each
The
limit of this
line, as the length of
segment approaches
the limit zero,
is
a curve
such that the coordinates

of
each point and the direc
tion of the curve at that
^ ]G
point satisfy (4). Since in

this construction JJ may be any point of the plane, there is evi
dently a family of curves represented by (4), as we set out to
prove.
The constant
in the equation
of
the family
may
be
taken, for example, as the ordinate of the point in which a curve

x r Hence
of the family cuts the axis of y or any other line x
every differential equation of
The problem
solution (1)
is,
of proceeding
however, a
the simpler cases.
Some
form
(4)
from a
difficult one,
of these cases
volume for equations in which

These are the following
-j-
has a solution of form
(1).
differential equation (4) to its
which can be solved only in

have been discussed in this
appears to the
first
power
only.
I.
Variables separable.
la.
Homogeneous
(78)
Ib.
Equation
(ap
equation.
of the
77)
form
+ 1$ + cj dx + (a
+ bjj + r,) dy =
0.
79)
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER
318
II.
The
Ila.
Bernouilli
III.
The exact
equation.
linear equation
(80)
equation.
81)
147\
149\
Solution by integrating factors.
Ilia.
While the above methods often prove
serviceable, the student

should appreciate that they may all fail with a
given differential
equation, since the above list does not contain all possible differen
tial
equations which are of the
-^
degree in
first
Moreover, the
ax
in general involve integrations of which the
solution will
results
can be expressed as elementary functions

only in the simpler cases.
174. Solution by series. The solution of a differential
equation
may usually be expressed in the form of a power series.
EX.
^=X
dx
y2.
Assume y = a + a& +
we have
i
2 a2 x
+ 3 a3
a2x2
x2
a3z 3
-\
Substituting in the given equation,
= x 2 + (a +
-\
ix
a 2 x2
+ a 3 x3 +
which the coefficients of like powers of x on the two

must be equal, since the equation is true for all values of
in
Equating
ai
2a 2 =
3 a3
whence
a:
2
Hence the required solution
175.
sides of the equation

x.
a 2x
a2
2
aoi,
=I+
=
=
af
2
,
8
,
is
a 3x 2
Equations not of the
first
^ (1
3 a 4 x3
)
degree in the derivative. If the
differential equation of the first order is of

higher degree
first
in
by p, we
>
new methods
shall
we have
coefficients,
2
-)
make
1.
2.
3.
of solution are necessary.
three cases
Equations solvable for p.

Equations solvable for y.
Equations solvable
for x.
than the
Denoting
EQUATIONS SOLVABLE FOK
319
1>
176. Equations solvable for p. Let the given equation be an

equation of the nth degree in p, and let the roots of the equation,
where p v
-, p n
regarded as an algebraic equation in p, be p v p 2
,
P n are functions of x and y,

may be written in the form (I,
P->
Then the equa
or constants.
>
tion
(pPi) (P-P
42)
"-(P
Z)
~Pn)
0.
(1)
But (1) is satisfied when and only when one of the n factors is
and hence the solution of (1) is made to depend upon the
solutions of the n equations
zero,
Let the solution
p =
be
of
(x, y, c 2
p^
)=
be f^(x
0, etc.,
Since each of these constants
constants.
y,
cj
where
is
0,
the solution of
are arbitrary
2,
arbitrary, however,
no necessity of distinguishing among them, we

them all by the same letter c.
Now form the equation
there
is
A(*>
c
y>
) -M*>
c
y>
)-
/>>
y,
o.
and
will denote
(3)
<0
of x and y which make any factor of (3) zero satisfy

by making the corresponding factor of its left-hand member
zero.
Hence (3) is a solution of (1), since the values of x and
which
y
satisfy (3) are all the values of x and y necessary to
and since (3) contains an arbitrary constant, it is the
satisfy (1)
The values
(1)
general solution.
Ex.
1.
_p3
2 p2
Uy _ x _ zy^\ p _ 2 (2 y - x2 - z \ = 0.
i
Solving this equation for p,
p=
The
solution of the first equation
equation,
when
is
written in the form
dx
and
and
its
solution
Hence the
is
(y
x.
2z-fc =
evidently y
is
0.
The second
seen to be a linear equa-
in the
solution of the original equation
y
p = - %, +
-- y = - x,
+ x 2 ex = 0.
The third equation may also be written
its solution is z 3
3 xy + c = 0.
lion,
we have
y
p = JO - x
2,
2x
c) (y -f
x2
ex) (z
form of a linear equation, and
is
3 xy
=
<)
0.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIEST OKDEE
320
Ex.
/dy\
2.
y[
)
\dx/
is
dx
0.
p=
we have
Solving for p,
The
2x dy
n
-f
equation-
a homogeneous equation, and

The equation
solution
its
is
Vz 2 +
/-
Vx* + y
2
y"
y2
Q.
~y~ ~^
is
also a
homogeneous equation, and its solution is Vsc 2

Hence the required solution is y 2 + 2 ex
c 2 = 0.
177. Equations solvable for y.
>
Solving this equation for y,
0.
Let the given equation be
y P)
u<
(J-)
>
we have
the equation
y=F(x,p).
(2)
Differentiating (2) with respect to x,
and replacing ^ by p, we
have the equation
in
which
and
a;
^>
are the variables.
Let the solution of
(3)
^(x,p,c)=Q.
be
(4)
between (1) and (4), we have a function of #, y

Eliminating
and an arbitrary constant which is, in general, a solution of
(1).
But the process of solution may bring in extraneous factors or
^>
otherwise lead to error, and the solution should be tested

by
substitution in
(1).
If the elimination
cannot be performed, equations (1) and (4)

be taken simultaneously as the parametric
representation
may
163) of the solution,
(I,
Ex.
1.
xp
Solving for y,
By
or
2 yp
ax
we have
being the variable parameter.
0.
??
differentiating (1) with respect to x,
(1)
we
obtain
(HK8-*
EQUATIONS SOLVABLE FOR

The
for
first
p=
factor placed equal to zero gives

we have 2 ax
in the given equation,
Va.
y Va
321
If this value is substituted
0,
which
found on
is
trial
This solution, however, involves no arbitrary

of a different type from that already considered. It will be
to be a solution of the equation.
constant, and hence

182.
discussed in
we
is
Placing the second factor equal to zero, and solving the resulting equation,
find p = ex. Substituting this value of p in (1), we have, as the general
solution,
Ex.
As
2.
Clairaufs equation, y
= px
this equation already expresses
+f(p).
y
in
terms of x and p, we proceed imme
diately to differentiate with respect to x, with the result
As
Ex.
in
solution.
placing the
1,
first
factor equal to zero cannot give us the general
Neglecting that factor,
we have
dj)
0,
whence p
c.
Substituting
(ZX
this value for
in the original equation,
Hence the general solution
we
have, as the general solution,
of Clairaut s equation may be written down

c in the given equation. The ease of this
immediately by merely replacing p by

solution
makes
equation
may
Ex.
3.
it
desirable to solve
be Clairaut
= px +
Since the equation

its
solution
Vl + p 2
is
any equation for
y, in the
hope that the new
equation.
in the
form of Clairaut
equation, with/(p)
= a Vl
-f-
p2
is
ex
Vl +
c2 .
i
178. Equations solvable for x.
If
the given equation can be
solved for x, with the result
we may form
new
equation,
r *(!)
with respect to
Let the solution of (2) be
by differentiating
(1)
y,
and replacing
,c)=0.
dx
-j-
by
-1
p
(3)
322
Then (1) and (3) may be taken simultaneously as the

parametric
representation of the solution of (1). Or p may be eliminated from
(1) and (3), the result being a function of x, y, and an arbitrary
constant, which is, in general, a solution of (1), but which should
be tested by substitution in
Ex.
2p
Solving for x,
logp
0.
we have
Differentiating with respect to
dy
(1).
is
= 2p +
we
?/,
logp.
(1)
obtain the equation
= (2p + I) dp,
= p 2 + p + c.
(2)
(3)
Since the result of eliminating p from

(1) and (3) is complicated,
(3) as the parametric representation of the solution of
and
we
take
(1)
(1).
179. Envelopes.
Let
f(x,y,
c)=0
(1)
be the equation of a family of curves formed

by giving different
values to the arbitrary parameter c. If
any particular value of c is
increased by Ac, the equation of the
corresponding curve is
f(x,
y, c
+ Ac) =
0.
(2)
The limiting positions of the points of intersection of

(1) and (2),
as Ac = 0, will be called limit
points on (1). We wish to discuss
the locus of the limit points.
One method
is
x and y in terms
= 0,
Ac
of
evidently to solve (1) and (2) simultaneously for

and Ac. The limiting values of x and y, as
of c
will be the coordinates of a limit

point expressed in terms
If
c is eliminated from these values of x and

y, the result is
the Cartesian equation of the locus of the limit
points.
second method is as follows: Any point of intersection of
c.
(1)
and
(2) is a
point of
f(x,y,
+ Ac)
/(a, y,
c)
Ac
so that we may use
(3) in place of (2). As it is only the limiting
positions of the points of intersection of (1) and (3) that are to be
considered, we may take the limit of (3) as Ac
0, i.e.
ENVELOPES
Then
c
curve passing through the limit points. Eliminating

obtain the equation of the required locus.
(4), we
(4) is a
between
323
and
(1)
Ex. Find the locus of the limit points on the straight

mx a Vl + m 2 = 0, m being the variable parameter.
We
First method.
first
lines represented
solve the equations
+ m 2 = 0,
a Vl + (m + Am) 2 = 0,
y _ m 4. A?n) x
+ m 2 - Vl + (m + Am) 2
x = a
Am
a Vl
mx
(1)
(2)
with the results
Taking the
(3)
am
by
(4)
limits of (3)
and
(4), as
Am =
0,
we have
(5)
Vl +
?n 2
the coordinates of any limit point expressed in
terms of m.
we have
Eliminating m,
x2
It is thus evident
(fig.
straight lines represented
From
Second method.
a2
116) that the locus is a circle tangent to

by the given equation.
<f
from
(1)
and
is
0.
VT+ m2
(8),
x2
the locus of which
each of the
(1),
dm
Eliminating
FIG. 116
(7)
(8)
we have
y
a2
the circle found by the
0,
first
method.
180. In the illustrative example of the last article, the locus of
the limit points of the family, as those curves approach coincidence,

is a curve
tangent to every curve of the family. Hence the question
is
suggested, Is the locus of limit points always tangent to every
curve of the family ? To answer this question, we proceed as follows

Let (x v T/J) be a limit point on one of the curves represented by
/(,.
/.
<)=<>.
(i)
324
Then
its
coordinates satisfy (1) and
?=dc
The tangent
to the curve of the family at (x v y^) is
where the meaning
of
is
as in Ex. 3,
113.
The equation of the locus of the limit points may be found theo
of c in terms of x and y from (2)
retically by substituting the value
in (1). Then the equation of the tangent to -the locus of the limit
points at (x v
or
y^
is
113, Ex. 3)
+
But since
dc
which
is
reduces to
0, (5)
the same as
Hence, in general, the locus
(3).
tangent to every curve of the family.

points
There may be limit points, however, which lie
of the limit
is
on a locus that
For
is not tangent to every curve of the family.
of the family have one or more singular points,
let
i.e.
each curve
points for
/P/"\
Z.J-SB 0,
(rl~f\
fa/9
)=
\cyjx
locus of the limit points
But
0.
Then such
for,
from
(1),
points will be a part of the
we have
at a singular point the first terms vanish,
dinates of any singular point satisfy f(x,
ftf
and
0,
and
c/c
at a singular point the equation of the tan

indeterminate, and hence the locus of the limit points
are limit points.
gent becomes
y, c)
and hence the coor-
But
SINGULAR SOLUTIONS
may
may not be tangent to each curve of

we shall separate that part of the locus
the family.
or
ingly,
325
Accord
which
of limit points
tangent to each curve of the family, and give it the special name
* is that
part of the locus of the limit
envelope. That is, the envelope
a
curves
which
is
tangent to every curve of the
points of family of
is
Hence, in finding the equation of the envelope,
family.
sary to find the locus of the limit points,
it is
neces
throwing out any extra
neous factor brought in by the elimination, and also discarding any

part of the locus which is not tangent to each curve of the family.
The second method of finding the locus of limit points

the
method of determining the condition that f(x, y, c) =
exactly
181.
is
0,
an algebraic equation in c, shall have equal roots (I,

64).
Hence, if we form the discriminant of f(x, y, c) = 0, regarded as an
equation in c, and place it equal to zero, the locus of the resulting
if it is
equation will contain the envelope. If there are any additional

they are the loci of singular points, or correspond to extrane
ous factors brought in by the elimination.
loci,
Ex. The equation of the example in

(x
The discriminant
a2 )
ra 2
4 (x 2
Hence the condition for equal
this
is
a 2 ) (y 2
roots
x2
and
179
- 2 xym +
may
(y
of this quadratic equation in
2 XT/) 2
a2 )

a2 )
0.
is (I,
4 a2 (x 2
37)
2
?/
a 2 ).
is
2
?y
a2
0,
the equation of the envelope, since there are no extraneous factors.
182. Singular solutions.
Let
(1)
/<**4)-0
be the general solution of a differential equation of the

<l>(x,y,p)=0.
first
order,
(2)
Then every curve of the family represented by (1) is such that

the coordinates of every point of it and the slope of the curve at
that point satisfy (2). If the family of curves has an envelope, the
slope of the envelope at each point is that of a curve of the familyIt follows that
the envelope
is
a curve, such that the coordinates
* Some writers call the whole locus of the limit

points the envelope, while other
writers define the envelope as a curve tangent to every curve of the family.
326
and the slope
of every point of it
the curve at that point sat
of
a solution of (2).
of
It is not a particular case of the general solution, since it cannot
be obtained from the general solution by giving the constant a
isfy (2).
Hence
the envelope is
the equation
particular value,
and
called the singular solution.
is
we may
find the singular solution, if one exists, by

Accordingly,
of
the family of curves represented by the
the
envelope
finding
This
method
solution.
requires us to find the general solu
general
tion
first
but we
may
find the singular solution, without
the general solution, as follows
knowing
Let (1) and (2) (fig. 117) be two curves of the family represented
by (1), intersecting at %( x v î) an ^ navm g the respective slopes p 1
and p 2 Then x v y v p v and x v y v p 2 satisfy (2). As curves (1)
and (2) approach coincidence, in general, JJ
.
approaches a point of the envelope as a limit,

and p l and p 2 become equal. Hence the locus
of points for which (2), regarded as an equation
in p, has equal roots must include the envelope,
The equation of this locus may
if one exists.
/(2)
FIG 117
be found by placing the discriminant of the equation, regarded as
an equation in p, equal to
zero.
As
in the determination of envelopes, so here, extraneous factors

appear in the course of the work, and they can be eliminated
may
most
by
easily
they satisfy
Ex.
1.
testing
them
Find the singular solution,
The general
a2
0.
one
exists, of the differential
if
ex
a Vl
c2
is
xz
is
a singular solution,
a2
177,
Ex.
3)
of this family of straight lines
Hence there
equation
solution has been found to be
and the envelope
if
= px + a Vl + p 2
y
First method.
x2
in the differential equation, to see
it.
179, Ex.)
the circle
i.e.
o.
Second method. Writing the differential equation as a rational algebraic equa

we have
a _
_ 2 xyp + (y2 _ fl2) = 0?
(a
fl2) p2
tion in p,
the discriminant of which
Since x 2
solution.
y2
a2
is
4 a2 (x2
4-
y2
a2 ).
satisfies the differential equation,
it
is
the singular
ORTHOGONAL TRAJECTORIES
Ex.
x
_f
2.
(p).
derived
if
327
In solving Clairaut s equation ( 177, Ex. 2), we neglected the factor

The equation x -f / (p) = 0, however, is the equation which would be
Clairaut s equation were differentiated with respect to p. Hence the
p between this and Clairaut s equation would give us an equa

which would include the singular solution, if one exists. In Ex. 1 of 177
we found the solution 2 ax 2 y Va = 0. This is now seen to be a singular
elimination of
tion
solution of the given equation.
183. Orthogonal trajectories.
curve of the family represented
curve which intersects each
by the equation
/(*,y,)
(i)
called a trajectory. In particular, if the given

angle is a right angle, the curve is called an orthogonal trajectory.
It is only this special class that we shall consider.
at a given angle
is
To determine the equation
we
first find
(1) in
of the family of orthogonal trajectories,

the differential equation of the family represented by
the form
(173)
(2)
Since the trajectory and the curve of the family intersect at right
angles, the slope of the curve of the family is minus the reciprocal
of the slope of the trajectory.
--
Hence,
if
we
replace -j- in (2)
by
dx
>
the resulting equation
the differential equation of the family of orthogonal trajectories.

The solution of (3) is the equation of the orthogonal trajectories.
is
Ex. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of hyperbolas xy
The
= a2
differential equation of this family of hyperbolas is
Hence the
differential equation of the orthogonal trajectories is
(-!)
is
+ =
x2
y2
c.
Hence the orthogonal trajectories are hyperbolas, concentric with the given
hyperbolas and having their common axis making an angle of 45 with the
common
axis of the given hyperbolas
(fig.
113).
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIEST ORDER
328
184. Differential equation of the first order in three

variables.
The integrable
case.
Any
family of surfaces
/(,
c)=0
y, *,
(1)
a differential equation of the form
satisfies
Q.
and the elimination

gives
of
if
(1).
- dx +
<
whence
which
differ
an equation of the form (2) always has a

To answer this question, we notice that
be written
may
As
equation by means of (1)
this
(2).
Conversely, we ask
solution of the form
(1)
from
(2)
is
an exact
(3)
it
by some
only when
dy
>
_>
dz
(3)
()>
(151).
must either be the equation (2) or
Hence equation (2) has an integral
differential equation
does not contain
from
>
c, it
factor.
made exact by means of a

an integrating factor. A
special case of an exact
differential equation is one in which the variables are
separated.
(1)
it is
exact or can be
factor, called
We
shall accordingly consider three cases of

equation (2),
Case
I,
Case
II,
namely
equations in which the variables can be separated.

exact equations.
Case III, equations having

integrating factors.
CASE
may
I.
If
the variables can be separated so that the

equation

f, (x) dx
where any
coefficient
+ / (y) dy + / (z) dz =
may
0,
(4)
reduce to a constant, the solution
is
evidently of the form
dx
+/,($ dy +
/,() dz
c.
(5)
EQUATION IN THREE VARIABLES

Ex.
1.
(x
a)
yzdx
(x
Dividing the equation by (x
Hence
the solution
rx + a
zdy
b)
dx
?/
-
c)
ydz
0.
we have
a) yz,
+ (x-a)(z +
dy
0.
rz + c.
dz =
k,
dz
is
I J x
or
a) (y
329
ry-
-\-b
dx+ J
2 a log (x
or
a)
6 log
dy+lJ
y
log [(x
+
a)
z
c
Za
log z
b
y z
c
]
k,
k.
CASE II. The necessary and sufficient conditions that (2) shall
be an exact differential equation are ( 151)
8P_
dy
3Q
3Q_8fi
8fi_dP
dx
cz
ex
These conditions being
and the problem is

If we omit from
cy
fulfilled,
cz
equation (2)
is
of the
form
to find
</>.
(2)
one term, say Rdz,
Pdx + Qdy =
we have
the equation
0,
(8)
which, because of (6), is an exact differential equation (

obtained from (7) by considering z as constant. Therefore,
147)
if
we
integrate (8), holding z constant, we shall have all that part of $

which contains either x or y. The arbitrary constant in the solu
tion of (8)
"constant"
must be replaced by an arbitrary function of z, since

in this connection means "independent of x and
y"
If,
then, the solution of (8)
is
^(x,
where
(f) l
is
known and
<f>
(f
(f) l
y,
= &(),
an unknown function, we have

(x y,
>
z)fa(z).
we should have equation (2), and comparison

an equation from which to determine
(z).
Substituting in (7)
with
(2) will give
<f>
330
Ex.
2.
(?/
2
-f z )
This equation
Omitting the
xdx
(z
x 2 ) ydy
we have
last term,
2
(y
z2 )
2
(?/
z2 )
(x
zdz
?/ )
is
?/
xdx
2 (z 2
(z
z 2x2
x 2 ) ydy
z2
F(z)
we have
this solution,
x 2 ) ydy
= 0,
= 0.
[2 (y* -f
x2 ) z
c.
x 2 ?/
CASE
III.
If
z 2x2
2/
2 z2
+^
(2)]
we have
this equation with the given equation,

Therefore the general solution is
Comparing
F(z)
0.
the exact equation
xdx
Forming an exact equation from

2
exact.
is
dz
(z)
0,
whence
k.
equation (2) has an integrating factor
ft,
then
pPdx + pQdy + pRdz =

is
an exact
differential equation,
P)
=
(M>),
Equations (10)
may
(M?)
and therefore
(M) =
(^),
(^P).
(10)
be placed in the form
dy
ex
dx/
dQ --
dR\
-
fji
(9)
dz
-- dp
Sfji
li,
dy ]
dx
dy
ty
dy
=
dz
dz]
dz
_.
dx
equation by R, the second equation by P,

and the third equation by Q, and adding the three resulting
Multiplying the
equations,
first
we have
dy
This
is
\dx
dz]
\dy
dx
then a necessary condition that must be fulfilled in order

may be an exact differential equation or that (2) may
that (9)
have an integrating
(11)
is
factor.
also sufficient; that
an integrating
factor.
It
may
is, if
be shown that the condition
(11)
is fulfilled,
equation
(2)
has

Let us
form
(2).
now
331
suppose that (11) is satisfied for a given equation of

if it were possible to find the integrating factor
Then
we should form the equation (9), and, omitting the last term,
should solve the exact differential equation
ft,
fiPdjc
But since
as in Case II.
+ fiQdy =
not known,
is
//,
Pdx+Qdy =
alent equation
0,
we may
solve the equiv
0,
= 0, where F(z) takes

writing the solution in the form /(a?, y, F(z))
the place of the arbitrary constant. From this point on, the work
is
similar to that in Case II.

Ex.
3.
yz*dx
2
(y z
xz 2 ) dy
5
y dz
0.
This equation has an integrating factor.

Regarding y as constant, we have the equation
y*dz
0,
F(y)
0.
yz*dx
From
this solution
we form
dx
If
we
is
the differential equation
+ F/(2/)
divide the given equation
whence, by comparison,
so that
by
-|
?/z
(-
0.
(y)
whence
~ ~ dz =
we have
--- F
(y)
dy
F(y)
0,
cy.
Therefore the general solution of the given equation
is
x + - + cy = 0,
J
?/
or
The student should

and
y
z
0.
notice the difference between the equations
Mdx + Ndy =
Pdx + Qdy + Rdz =
Q
0.
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIEST ORDEE
332
The former has always an integrating factor and a solution

(
f(x, y, c)=
173). The latter has an integrating factor and a
solution/^,
y, z, c)
P^dx
By
condition (11)
differential equations of the

Let the two equations be
ables.
where
when
only
Two
185.
7J,
Qv
8,
I,
R v P^
Q 2 R^
,
order in three vari
first
+ Q^dy + R^dz =
0,
are functions of x, y, and
z,
or constants.
we have
dx dy dz
:
R,
P!
P,
Q,
K,
Q,
dx
-
or
= dz
R
Q
dy
Q2 R V Q =
Q^R Z
R^, and
shall
we
consider
Accordingly,
equations in form
P=
where
is satisfied.
R^
R=
(2) only.
gives a direction in space ( 97), (2) assigns a
specific direction at each point in space.
Moving from point to
point in the direction determined by (2), we trace a curve in space.
Since
dx:dy:dz
Hence the
since
it
a curve
solution of (2) consists of a family of space curves, and

requires two simultaneous equations to represent such
89),
it
follows that the solution of (2)
simultaneous equations.
If the first of the equations
CM K*
(2), i.e.
is
a pair of
Ct rJ
>
is
independent of
an equation in two variables, the solution of which

written in the form
*
\_n
it is
z,
be
may
/ 1
&
I/
Similarly, if the remaining equations of (2) are independent of x

or of y, their solutions are respectively
/.l*
and
Any two
8 (aj,
* 4) -0,
z, c 8 )
0.
(4)
(5)
of the three equations (3), (4), (5) taken simultaneously
constitute the solution of (2).
EQUATIONS IN THEEE VARIABLES

dx
dy_dz
JJ/X. 1.
xy
we have y =
From
333
The equation
=
xy
may
c\z.
be written
x
whence
dy,
x
c 2 ev.
Therefore the complete solution consists of the equations
= ci,
c z ev
taken simultaneously.
only one of the equations
If
can be solved by the above
(2)
Suppose, for example, that

we
first of equations (2) with the result (3)
may then solve (3) for either x or y and substitute in one of the
two remaining equations, thus forming an equation in y, z, and c l
method, we may
we have solved the
proceed as follows
or x,
z,
and
taneously with
Ex.2.
The
solution of
d#
for
This solution taken simul
solved.
the solution of
(3) constitutes
Equating the
which can be
^ = ^=
d
x
(.2).
dz
*
xyze
first
= is y c& 0.
y
and the third fractions, we have dx
in this equation,
we have
d(x
Cixe?dx
x
1) e
=
log
dz
-
Substituting
whence
c 2 z.
Therefore the complete solution consists of the equations

y
CiX
0,
X
1) 6
Ci (X
log C 2 Z
both of the previous methods fail, we may proceed as follows

By the theory of proportion we may write
If
dx
_ dy _ dz _
~~~"
k^dx
+ k^dy + k dz
where k v k2 k s are arbitrary functions

There are three cases to consider
,
of
y,
and
z,
or constants.
1.
kv k
fraction
k3
may
and one
solved (see Ex.
of
3).
be so chosen as to give between the fourth

the original fractions an equation which can be
DIFFEKENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIEST OEDEK
334
k v kz k3
2.
k^dy +
of the cases of
make k^P
be so chosen as to
may
Then \dx
k 3 dz
its
184,
and
0,
solution
+kQ+kR=
s
this equation falls
if
0.
under one
one of the equations of the
is
solution of the given differential equations (see Ex. 4).

3.
may form a new equation
We
\dx +
+ k dz _
+ k^dy + k dz
== k(dx
k[p + k& + kfi
^P + ^C + AVR
k^dy
f
so choosing the multipliers Jc v k 2 ks , k[, k2)
k3 as to
equation solvable by previous methods (see Ex. 5).
make the new
Ex.3.
*
^=
x
x + y
dZ
Let
z
ki
dx
x
Then
From
+z
=
find
z).
is
=
y
x+z
we have
dz
dy
Ci (y
Substituting this value of x in the equation
(1+
1.
d y~ d z
=-
&3
1,
dz
we
k2
0,
dy
ci)y
ciz
log (z
y)
(1
c2
Therefore the general solution consists of the two equations
ci(y
log (z
z),
y}
c2
Ex
dX
dz
= -dy =
x
x + y + z
1
Jjg
Then
ki(y
and hence
But
z)
^-
x)
from

x
- dy
evidently
+ k s (x +
+ k 3 dz
k 2 dy
dx
Substituting the value of y

Ci
k2 (
this equation is
is
1
J.
kidx
T.
].
z)
0,
0.
dz
0,
c\.
this equation in
is
consists of the equations
ci,
ci
log (x
ci)
e2
y-
we have

Ex.
dx
5.
dz
dy
z
+x
Let
fci
dx
y
let k\
also, letting ki
1,
0,
fc 2
kz
=
=
1,
ks
d (x
"2(x
ks
+
+
d (x
x
2(x
+
+
y
y
+
+
z)r_
z)
and we obtain the equal fraction
we
obtain the equal fraction
_ d (x -
+ z)
+ z)~
1.
dz
0,
1,
fc 3
z+x
Vx +
whence
*^
z
1
k2
dy
T^lioti
Again,
335
y)
_ d (y
y-x
+z=
z)
z-y
186. Differential equation of the first order in three variables.
The nonintegrable
case.
Consider again the equation
Pdx + Qdy+fidz=Q.
(1)
Geometrically, the equation asserts that the direction dxidy: dz

Q R. Consequently, the geo
perpendicular to the direction
metrical solution of (1) consists of loci perpendicular to the curves
is
denned by the equations
^=^
~P
We may
= ^z
~Q
fi
therefore seek the solution of (1)
surfaces
first
in a family of
f(x,y,z,c)=0,
(3)
This is the form of

will be orthogonal to the curves (2).
the solution discussed in
184, and does not always exist. This
leads to the geometric theorem that it is not always possible to
which
find a family of surfaces orthogonal to a given family of curves.

the solution of (1) in the form (3) does not exist, it is
When
still
possible to find curves
which
satisfy (1)
and hence cut the
curves (2) at right angles. In fact, we may find a family of such

curves on any surface assumed at pleasure. For let
<(>
y,*)=o
(4)
be the equation of any arbitrarily assumed surface.

dz
dx
dz
0.
Then, from
(4),
(5)
336
Equations
(1)
and
(5)
may then
be taken simultaneously. Their

which lie on (4) and satisfy
solution will be a family of curves

condition (1).
Ex.
xydx
ydy
zdz
0.
(1)
This equation cannot be satisfied by a family of surfaces. It may,

however,
be satisfied by curves which lie on any assumed surface and cut at right
angles
,
the curves
^
^=
xy
or (Ex.
Hence the
satisfy
and
Then
(4)
(1),
from the sphere x 2
circles cut
y2
let
(4)
a 2 by the planes x
us assume the hyperbolic paraboloid
=
=
Then
ydx
and, from
(6)
and
(1),
-f
-y -xz
solution of (6)
is
known
xdy
dz
dy
=
xy
to be z
xy.
(5)
0,
(6)
dz
x2 y
zy
xy.
Using
xdx
whence
Then
z2
(3)
1).
Again,
One
(2)
= c 2 ev.
Cl z,
y
2
2
2
x + y + z = a2
xdx + ydy + zdz = 0,
dx = 0, whence x = c.
Let us assume the sphere
and from
185),
1,
(1
the curves defined
by
(5)
and
y)
Vl +
x2
tf\
y2
this,
we have
dy
c.
(8)
(8) also satisfy (1)
PROBLEMS
Express the solution of each of the following equations in the form of a

4.
p 2 - 3p -
5.
zi/(p
10
l)-(3:
10.
0.
2
2
?/
)p
8.
- 2 2 = 0.
p3 + 2 yp2 _ X2p2 _ 2 x 2 yp =
p 2 (x 2 - a2 2 - 4 a2 = 0.
9.
p*
6.
7.
x 2p 2
xyp
H.
0.
12.
?/
+ Zpy ctn x -
y2
0.
0.
13.
14.
15.
py 2 - 2p*xy + p*x 2 =
1.
2 2px = 0.
T/(! + p
y = yp* + 2px.
2
2 - 2
xyp 3 + x 2
(1 +
)p
2 y - 2p = p*.
p 3 - 4 xyp + 8 y 2 = 0.
)
7/
series
PROBLEMS
337
- p 2 + 1 = 0.
18. p 2 + 2 p X 3
=
19. p(x + y)* = l.
0.
y(p + y)-p*x
2
= p 2x + p.
22.
x = 4p + 4 p.
2
2
2
23. y = p 2 - 2 p.
xfyp - x (x + y)p + (x - y) (x + 2/) = 0.
- s
2
2
p 3 - (x 2 + xy + y 2 )p + xy (x + xy + y*)p x y* = 0.
2 2 x = 0.
26.
p
2xp + x 2 + 4y 2 =
2p
y + 2py
2
2 8
2 2
=
= 0. (Let y
z.)
y*
4xy p + 4p y (x
1) + 1
e 3 (p - 1) + p 3 e 2 ^ - 0.
(Let & = v, e* = u.)
2
z
py*(px -y) + x = Q. (Let y = v, x = w.)
16. x2p 2
17.
20.
21.
24.
25.
27.
28.
29.
?/
0.
Find the general and the singular solutions of the following equations
30.
31.
32.
33.
+ x -2xyp + y*-l= 0.
3x - 4xp + p 2 = 0.
2
2 - a2
2 - 2
xyp - x = 0.
)p
(x
4 2
=
x
y
xp + p
(l
34.
?/
35.
a2
2 xy)p
x 2p 2
x 2 yp
a3
0.
4 xyp
8 y2
0.
38. Find the singular

62 -f
+ (1
- y* = p*y*.
36. x 3p 2
37. Find the singular solution of the equation

/
p3
= 0.
and the general solutions of the equation y
= px
a 2p 2 and interpret them geometrically.

,
+ (x yz + yz) dy + (x 2 2 - x 2 + y 2 - 1) dz = 0.
40. (y + z}(2x + y + z)dx+(z + x)(1y + z + x)dy + (x + y)(2z+x + y)dz = Q.
41.3 xî/zdx + (2 2 z + z) dy + 2 (y + yz 2 dz = 0.
42. (y + 2 - 6 - c) dx + (z + x - c - a) dy + (x + y - a - b) dz = 0.
43. (y 2 + yz) dx + (z 2 + zx) cZy + (y* - xy) dz = 0.
-
39. (xy*z
xz)
dx
?/
?/
45.
(1
46.
?/z
dx
+ 2/)dx + (1 + x + y)dy + (x + y)d =

+ (y 2 z - xz 2 dy - 2 (y + z) dz = 0.
zxdy + (x2 + 2 )dz = 0.
)
47. ?/zdx
0.
?/
?/
Solve the following systems of simultaneous equations
dx
48
dy
dx
dy
yz
zx
dx
dx
dz
_dy
zx =
dz
--
xy
^
dy
dz
-f
DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS OF FIRST ORDER,
338
dx
KQ
dx
54
xdy
x2 + z 2
dz
dy
dz
_
dx
KK
x+y-z
x
2y
oti.
dz
(x-y)z
dz
dy
- z~
-x~ x-y
dx
dy
x-y-z
y-z-x
CQ
__ = -
56.
dx
= dy = az.
dy
2xy
i.
x2
x~2x-y~z-xy
00.
dx
60.
fc.
x2
61. Find the envelope of the family of lines y
y2
z2
= 2 mx +
xy
?n 4 ,
2 xz
being the
variable parameter.
62. Prove that each line of the family
c 2x
a 2 ?/
ac 2
0,
a being the vari
able parameter, forms with the coordinate axes a triangle of constant area, and
find the envelope of the family.
63. Find the envelope of the parabolas y 2
64.
65.
The semiaxes
a(x
a).
straight line moves so that the sum of its intercepts on the coordinate
axes is always equal to the constant c. Express the equation of the family of
lines in terms of c and the intercept on 0-Z", and find their envelope.
of the ellipse
x2
v2
b2
--h
vary so that ab
c 2,
where
c is
a constant. Express the equation of the ellipse in terms of a as a variable

parameter, and find the envelope of the family of ellipses thus defined.
66. Find the envelope of the family of straight lines formed
B
in the equation y = mx
2 pm
slope
pm
by varying
the
67. Find the envelope of a family of circles having their centers on the line
2 x and tangent to the axis of y.
68. Find the envelope of a family of circles which have the double ordinates
y 2 = 4px as diameters.
of the parabola
69. Find the envelope of a family of straight lines which move so that the
portion of each of them included between the axes is always equal to the
constant c.
70.
Find the envelope of a family of circles which have their centers on the
2 =
&px and pass through the vertex of the parabola.
parabola y
71. Find the equation of a curve such that the tangent cuts off from the co
ordinate axes intercepts the sum of which is always equal to the constant k.
72.
Find a curve
in
which the projection upon OY of the perpendicular from

is always equal to the constant a.
the origin upon any tangent
73. Find the equation of the curve in which the part of the tangent included
between the coordinate axes is always equal to the constant a.
74. Determine the equation of a curve such that the portion of the axis of x
intercepted by the tangent and the normal at any point of the curve is always
equal to the constant k.
PROBLEMS
75.
339
Find the polar equation of the curve in which the perpendicular from the
is always equal to the constant k.
pole upon any tangent

76.
Find the polar equation of a curve such that the perpendicular from the
pole upon any tangent

77.
is
k times the radius vector of the point of contact.
Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of parabolas y 2
78. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of

ellipses
X being the variable parameter.
79.
Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of
---_ =
-|
fl2
ellipses
a2
a2
1,
80. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the family of parabolas 2

y =4ax+4a2 .
81. Find the orthogonal trajectories of a family of circles each of which

tangent to the axis of y at the origin.
82. Find the orthogonal trajectories of the
family of circles each of
passes through the points

83. If fir,
0,
r, 0,
r2
84. Find
2 a 2 cos 2
-rH
Uv/
the
is
is
which
1, 0).
is
the equation of a family of curves, prove that
the equation of the orthogonal trajectories.
orthogonal trajectories of the family of lemniscates r2
0.

family of cardioids r=a(cos d
+ 1).

family of logarithmic spirals
r = e0.
CHAPTEE XVIII
187. Definitions.
The equation
JA
where
p v p^
pn _
lt
pn and
,
a)
f(x) are independent of
y, is a
linear differential equation. If the coefficients p v p 2

, p n _ lt p n
are constants, the equation becomes the linear differential equation
,
with constant
where a v a z
In both
coefficients,
(1)
a n _ v a n are constants.
and
(2)
f(x)
is
a function of x,
which may reduce
to a constant or even be zero.
We
shall begin
venient to express
with the study

-jctx
by Dy,
To do
of (2).
this, it is
-~
D*y,
ax\ by
ax
by
D y,
n
con
and to
rewrite (2) in the form
D y + a^-^y +n
or,
+a
_^Dy
+a
y =f(x),
more compactly,
a,)y =f(x).
(3)
The expression
in parenthesis in (3) is called an operator, and we

are said to operate upon a quantity with it when we carry out the
indicated operations of differentiation, multiplication, and addition.
Thus,
3
(Z>
if
we
2
operate on sina? with
D + 3D
2
5) sin
=
=
3
Z>
cos x
2 cos x
340
2
2Z>
+ 3D
2 sin x
3 sin
x.
5,
we have
3 cos x
5 sin
EQUATION OF FIRST ORDER

Also, the solution of (2) or (3)
is
341
expressed by the equation
where the expression on the right hand
of this equation is not to

be considered as a fraction but simply as a symbol to express the
solution of (3). Thus if (3) is the very simple equation Dy =f(x),
then
becomes
(4)
means
In this case
integration with respect to
x.
What
the
more complicated symbol (4) may mean, we are now to study.

188. The equation of the first order with constant coefficients.
The linear equation of the first order with constant coefficients is
or,
(D
symbolically,
This
is
(1)
a special case of the linear equation discussed in

80, and
a, f2 (x) =f(x) in formula (5) of
only to place f^x)
we have
80 to obtain the solution.
The
a)y =f(x).
We
have in this way
solution (2) consists of
two
The
parts.
first part, ce
an arbitrary constant, does not contain f(x), and,

is
not a solution of
ax
is
zero.
f( x ^d X) contains /(#), and, taken
since (1)
Hence
ax
is satisfied
e~
ax
f(x)dx
by
is
in distinction to this, ce
The sum
of the
ax
(2)
when
contains
taken alone,
The second part,
if
- ax
I
(1),
unless f(x)
(1)
ax
alone,
is
a solution of
has any value including
0.
called & particular integral of

(1), and,
called the complementary function.

complementary function and the particular inte
is
the general solution (2). The complementary function can

down from the left-hand member of equation (1), but
the determination of the particular integral
requires integration.
gral
is
be written
342
Ex.
1.
Solve
dx
+ 3y= 5x
3
.
The complementary function

5 e~ 3x
e3
*x dx

Ex.
2.
Solve
dx
is
ce~ s *
x3
-{-
-1
J- x
is
integral
\<.
*2
-jj-
sin x.
The
cer*.
is
- x C ex s i n xdx
Therefore the general solution
189.
The particular

e
ce~ 8x
is
is
L s in
x-
ce~ x
-f
The
The operator
particular integral
is
cos x.
^ sin x
19,
Ex.
5)
cos x.
solution of linear equations of
coefficients depends upon the solution

higher order with constant
Hence a knowledge of the oper
order.
first
of the equation of the
ator
is of
prime importance.
i
obtained by operating with

tions
which occur frequently
"~~~~
J_s
cu
=c
give a few of the results
upon
certain elementary func-
Ct
In writing these formulas
in practice.
the complementary function, which
We
is ce
ax
in all cases,
is
u.
(1)
ss
te
_^
k
a
MX
unless k
a.
nnâ
unless k
(3)
(5)
(6)
D-a
k
a =0.
(4)
-f+r
omitted.
(k
cCf
(k
a)
= a.
-i
~m + 1
(8)
EQUATION OF SECOND ORDER

1
a sin kx
a,
cos kx
k cos
lex
6SS
343
+ k sin kx
-unless a =
-J+JT
<*
(11)
These formulas may all be proved

by substituting the special
functions concerned in the general formula
188, (2)). For (3),
(
(7), (9), and (11) the student may refer to Exs. 4, 5, and 6,
19.
The derivation of (10) is as follows:
188,
By
D - ki sin kx
-.
=e
ux
r
\
e~
kix
(2),
sin
kx dx.
If we attempt to use the method of Ex.

5,
19, it fails to work,
but by replacing sin kx by its value in terms of the
exponential
functions ( 169, (5)) we have
Formula
(12)
is
derived in a similar manner.
The equation of the second order with constant coeffi

cients. The symbol
(D a)(D l)y means that y is to be operated
on with D
b and the result
a.
Now
operated on with D
190.
D ~^}y = ~~
ax
l>y,
and hence
(I)
where
p=
ab.
b),q
This result, obtained
by considering the real meaning of the
operators, is the same as if the operators
a and
l had
(a
344
been multiplied together, regarding

Similarly,
we
as an algebraic quantity.
find
= [D - (a + b) D +
2
(2)-b)(D-a)y
ab] y
= (D - a) (D - I) y.
That is, the order in which the two operators

used does not affect the result.
pD +
Moreover,
b so that (1)
-h
if
(Z>
pD +
q)
In
is satisfied.
is
fact,
what
is
we have simply
I are
and
2
Z>
For such an equation has the form
the same thing,
(& + pD +
g)y=f(x),
q are constants and f(x)

p
reduce to a constant or be zero.
and
where
as an algebraic quantity.
of solving the linear equation of the second
q, considering
This gives a method
order with constant coefficients.
or,
a and
possible to find a
to factor
it is
given,
Equation
whence, by
(1)
may
be written
may
188,
(2)
a function of x which
is
(2),
ax
"
188,
Again applying
(2),
dx
we have
\
e/
".\
/-
= cebx+ e C e -b*( c e
x
There are
I.
If
now two
>
+e"
If
(3)
cases to be distinguished
becomes
3= b, (3)
~
bx
x
Ce~ axf (x) dx\ dx.
y = c / + c/** + e C(e
= b, (3) becomes
ax
ax
ax
y = (c + Cl x)e +e CCe~ f(x)dx
JJ
(a
II.
Ce- axf(x)dx)dx.
b)x
(4)
(5)
In each case the solution consists
of
two
parts.
The one
is
the
complementary function c^+c/* or (c 2 + c^)

It can be written down
arbitrary constants but not involving f(x).
e"*,
involving two
EQUATION OF SECOND ORDER
345
from the left-hand member of the equation, and is, in fact, the solu
0.
The other part of the
tion of the equation (D
a)(D
solution
is
the
and
involves f(x). Its
particular integral,
general
or
necessitates
two
computation by (4)
integrations.
(5)
l>)y
Formula
(4)
when a and
holds whether a and b are real or complex. But

conjugate complex, it is convenient to modify
b are
the complementary function as follows
= m + in,
Then the complementary function
Let us place
=m
in.
is
= ^"[^(cos nx + i sin nx) -f c (cos nx

= e mx C\ cos nx + C sin nx),
C = c + c C = i(c^ c
Since c and c
(
where
(6)
2,
sin nx)]
2 ).
stants, so also are C\
and C2 and we obtain

,
are arbitrary con
forms of the
all real
complementary function by giving real values to C^ and C2

The form (6) may also be modified as follows Whatever be the
values of Cl and C2 we may always find an angle a such that
.
cos
*
>
sin
C2
Then
(6)
becomes
where a and k = V (7 2 + C 2 are new arbitrary constants.

find
an angle ft, such that sin

(6) becomes
ft
^L
l
,
cos
ft
Or,
we may
Then
This equation
may
be written
(D + 2) (D + 3) ?y = e*.
The complementary function is therefore Cie~ 2x +
ticular integral,
we proceed
(D
3)
as follows
=-
D -f
&=
2
is
e~
c 2 e-
3:r .
To
find the par
346
Ex
*>L
.
dx2
*+
dx
=x
1/
This equation may be written (D + l) 2 y = x.

Therefore the complementary function is (ci
ular integral,
we proceed
(D
as follows
1
1)
D+1
=
Ex.
(x
1)
e- x
-\-
c 2 x)
r
e- * xex dx
er x
To
find the partic
(x
1.
1)
e?dx
2.
*/
is
Consider the motion of a particle of unit mass acted on by an attract
3.
ing force directed toward a center and proportional to the distance of the par
ticle from the center, the motion being resisted by a force proportional to the
velocity of the particle.
If
we
take s as the distance of the particle from the center of force, the
ds
ks and the resisting force is
h
where k and h are
attracting force is
positive constants.
Hence the equation

d2s
of motion
ds
ks
dt 2
dt
DH
The
factors of the operator in (1) aref
We
have therefore to consider three cases
W _ 4k
<
o.
The
e
solution of (1)
2
(
I.
is
is
then
Ci cos
+ C 2 sin
>
or
The graph of s has the general shape of that shown in I, 155, fig. 161. The
particle makes an infinite number of oscillations with "decreasing amplitudes,
which approach zero as a limit as t becomes infinite.
II.
h2
4k
>
The
0.
solution of (1)
is
then
rrn>
makes no
The
particle
III.
h*
The
particle approaches rest as
4k
0.
The
oscillations,
but approaches rest as
solution of (1)
is
becomes
infinite.
becomes
infinite.
SOLUTION BY PARTIAL FRACTIONS

191. Solution
when
Another method
partial fractions.
by
the equation
347
of solving
tfy =/<*),
(1)
the factors of the operator are unequal,

express the solution in the form
is
as follows
We may
=
~~
2)
-f-
pD + q
a)(D
(D
b)
Now we
have seen that in many ways the operator

may be
handled as if it were an algebraic quantity. This raises the ques
tion
whether
it
into partial
proper to separate
is
(D
fractions.
Algebraically
we
(D
and the question
l)
in (1)
to
b)
JL
l)\D
Is
is,
a solution of equation (1)
The way
(D
have, of course,
a)(D
a]
answer
this question is to substitute this value of
and observe the
result.
We
y
have then, on the left-hand side
of (1),
a-b
"
~
a
"-"
af\x)l
=/(*)
Consequently
Writing
(2)
(2) is a solution of (1).
out in
we have
full,
[
f"
C<T~f(x)dx,_/
b*
C<T*f(x)fa (3)
,_/
348
It is to be noted that the
complementary function
is
the same
but the particular integral appears in another form.

b.
This method fails if a
as in
190,
(4),
Vy
dy_
dx*
dx
Since this equation
may
be written
(D-2)(D+ B)y = e**,

is Cie 2x + c 2 e~ 3x
To find
the complementary function

we proceed as follows
the particular integral,
=
D2
5
e
+D_6
ID -
2x
D+3
is
The general equation with constant
192.
methods
coefficients.
The
solving a linear equation of the second order with

constant coefficients are readily extended to an equation of the
nth order with constant coefficients. Such an equation is
or,
of
symbolically written,
+ ai D
(D
The
factors
first
step
may
and
a^D + a^y =f(x).
(2)
- r,) (D - r
2)
. .
(D- rj =/(*),
(3)
r n are the roots of the algebraic equation

r
It
(2) as
(D
,
-l
to separate the operator in (2) into its linear
is
and to write
where r v rf ,
+ a^~ +
be shown, as in
(3) are equivalent,

(2)
is
immaterial.
(3)
+ a.^r + a =
n
0.
190, that the left-hand members of

of the factors in
and that the order
GENERAL EQUATION
The general
now
solution of (1) consists
plementary function and the particular
and
of the left-hand side of (3),

special case in which f(x) is zero.
two
parts, the
com
integral.
down from
written
is
form
of
349
the factored
the solution of (1) in the

If r v r 2
., rn are all distinct,
the complementary function consists of the n terms
,
c/ *+c/^+
where c v
If,
2,
however,
terms of
(4)
cn
if
and
two
+ cx -h
factors of (3) are conjugate

(4)
may
cosines, as in (6),
The particular integral
1.
tors
may
--
(5)
>
complex numbers, the
190.
is
found by evaluating
be done in two ways
The expression
be replaced by terms involving
This
(4)
are arbitrary constants.

r appears as a &-fold factor in (3), k of the
corresponding terms of
sines
/*,
must be replaced by the terms

c
Also,
is
may
f(X )
be evaluated by applying the opera
in succession from right to
left.
This
leads to a multiple integral of the form
(*&-*..
(6)
The left-hand
side of (5) may be separated into

partial frac
the factors of (5) are all distinct, this leads to an
integral of the type
2.
tions.
When
f (x) dx +
/(*)&.
some of the factors
must be combined with
If
of (3) are repeated, the

previous
this.
(7)
method
THE LINEAK DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
350
In evaluating
(6)
and
they are
since
omitted,
the constants of integration may be

care of in the complementary
(7)
taken
function.
The general solution is the sum

and the particular integral.
193. Solution
of the
by undetermined
complementary function
coefficients.
The work
of find
ing the particular integral may be much simplified when the form
of the integral can be anticipated.
The particular integral may
then be written with unknown, or undetermined, coefficients, and

the coefficients determined by direct substitution in the differential
Since both (6) and
equation.
cations of the operator
.LJ
in
many
From
cases.
an aggregate
192, consist of successive appli
(7),
we may apply
189
the formulas of
ct
189,
(2),
it
follows that
/(a?) consists of
if
of terms, the particular integral is the
sum
of the
term by itself. From (1), 189, it

term oif(x) affects only the coeffi
parts obtained by taking each

follows that the coefficient of a
cient of the corresponding part of the particular integral.

189 we can deduce the following:
the other formulas of
When /(#)=
a Q x m + a 1 (tfn
~1
From
a m _ l x-{-a m (m a positive
+
m
the
is
of
the
form
particular integral
Ajt + AjP^ +
integer),
d- m
-i x + A m unless the left-hand member of the differential equa
1.
contains the factor
tion
solution
is of
r
.
the form x (A xm
r
A m+l xr ~ +
In the latter case the particular

+A l xm ~ l +
+ A m _ l x +A m ), while
terms of the form
+ A m+r _ x+A m+r

l
occur in the
complementary function, and hence need not be assumed as part

of the particular integral.
When f(x) =
ae kx the particular integral is of the form Ae*x

unless the left-hand member of the differential equation contains
2.
a factor
(D
k)
In the latter case the particular integral
r kx
~l
is
of the
A r _ l x A r)e
while terms of the form (A l x
+
occur in the complementary function, and hence need not be
form
Ax
assumed
3.
the
kx
in the particular integral.
When f(x) = a sin kx or,a cos kx, the particular integral is of

form A sin kx -f B cos kx, unless the left-hand member of the
differential equation contains the factor
2
(Z>
2 r
+k
In the latter
SOLUTION BY UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS

r
case the particular integral is of the form x (A sin kx

r~l
(A l sin kx +
while terms of the form x
+B
cos kx) occur in the
coskx)
351
+ B cos kx)
+ (A smkx
}
complementary function, and hence need
not be assumed in the particular integral.

4.
When f(x) = axme kx (m
gral is of the
the left-hand
a positive integer), the particular inte

~l
fcx
Am _ lx
unless
m )e
of the differential equation contains a fac
form (A xm + A 1 xm
member
form (A m+l x r
~1
+A
is
of the
M^^+AX ^ while terms
of the
case the particular integral
In the latter
(D k)
m
form x r (A Q xm + Ajc -*l
tor
+A m+r _ x+A m +
kx
occur in the comple

l
be
in the partic
not
assumed
need
hence
and
function,
mentary
-\
r )e
ular integral.
The above statements may all be summed up in the following

rule, which may also be sometimes used when f(x) is not one of
the forms mentioned above
If u
is
a term of f(x), and if u^
functions (disregarding constant
t&
8,
coefficients)
u k are
all the distinct
which can
he obtained
from u
by successive differentiation, then the corresponding part

-\-A k u k
of the particular integral is of the form Au + A l u l +
unless u is a term of the complementary function, or such a
term multiplied by an integral power of
x.
In
the latter case the
particular integral is of the form

where r is the number of times the
+ Aû^
),
which
in
the
complementary function the term u, or
factor,
gives
u divided by an integral power of x, appears in the left-hand
corresponding part
xr (Au
member of
of
the
+ A ku t
the differential equation.
The above rule is of course valueless unless the functions u v u 2

uh are finite in number. In applying it to functions other than
those already discussed, the student should consider that he is mak

ing an experiment. If a function assumed in accordance with the
rule
is
found to satisfy the differential equation, the use of the rule

When it fails, recourse may always be had to the gen
is justified.
eral formulas (6)
When/(#)=
and
(7),
kr
the
<j>(x),
192.
work
of finding the particular integral
may
be lightened by substituting y
tion.
Then, since all derivatives of
= e kx z
e
kx
in the differential
contain the factor
equa
kx
,
the
352
new
an equation
This
kx
,
and there
which the left-hand member
for z in
is
<t>(x).
this equation is solved for
..
be divided by
may
z,
readily found (see Ex.
is
is left
When
2).
dx s
may
dx 2
dx
be written
D(D
I)
whence the complementary function
?/
xe 2x
is c\
e*,
The term xe 2x
x
(c? 4- c^x) e .
if
suc
2
cessively differentiated, gives only the new form e *. Hence the corresponding
part of the particular integral has the form Axe 2x + Be 2x The term ex gives no
,
new form
if
differentiated
but since
appears in the complementary function
it
corresponding to the double factor (D

ticular integral
is
Cx 2 ex
y
in the differential equation,
24xe 2 * +
24 =
Then
whence
the corresponding part of the par
we have
(5
A+
2 B) e 2x
54 +
1,
2 Cex
= xe2x +
= 0,
=
# -|,
27^
solution of the differential equation
ci
xe Sx sinx.
2.
= 4xe 2x + Be zx + Cx 2 e x
^-=j,
The general
Ex.
I)
Substituting
d y
---
\-
c 3 x) e^
(c 2 -f
l xe 2a:
C=
1,
C=
1.
is,
e*.
accordingly,
-%&*
<Zx
We
place y
e Sx z.
There results

integral we assume
z
is
e- 3 r
-
(c 1
sinx
4- c 2
cosx).
For the particular
= 4x sin x + .Bx cos x + C sin x + E cos x,
and, on substitution, have
(QA - 6B)xsinx
+ (64+ 9E)xcosx + (64 - 27? + 9C- e^sinx

+ (24 + 6U + 6C + 9^)cosx = xsinx.
Therefore
4 - 6 B = 1,
64 + 95 = 0,
64-25+ 9C- 6^ = 0,
24 + 65 + 6(7 + 9^ = 0,
4 - ^,
5=
whence
C = ~ T! 7,
^ = T$fy
-A
Therefore the general solution of the original equation
Cisinx
c2
cosx
es x
(y ^ x sin x
x cosx
is
T F sinx + T f | r cosx).
SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
353
Systems of linear differential equations with constant

The operators of the previous articles may be employed
solving a system of two or more linear differential equations
194.
coefficients.
in
with constant coefficients, when the equations involve only one

independent variable and a number of dependent variables equal
to the
number
The method by which
of the equations.
this
may
be done can best be explained by an example.
S+
f+
These equations
be written
may
(D
We may now
4)
- 3 Dy =
=
4) y
Dx + (D2 +
sin 2
t,
cos 2
1.
eliminate y from the equations in a
We
used in solving two algebraic equations.

the coefficient of y in (2), and have
(I)
(2)
manner analogous
operate on
first
16)x-3(D 3 + 4D)y =
since
D2 + 4) sin 2t =
3D, the
coefficient of
4 sin 2
y in
1 -f
4 sin 2
We
0.
(1)
with
since 3
D cos 2
then operate on
(5)
ci sin 4
c2
cos 4
c 3 sin t
c4
cos
J sin 2
3D
(D
The constants
of x
and y given
in
cc
and (8)
and
((>)
(c
D2 +
16)
ci) sin
cos 4
12
(c e
and on (2) with D + 4, and sub

from that of the latter, we have
=-
ci) cos 4 1
c 7 sin
Making
- 12 (c 5 +
6 cos 2
(7)
c 8 cos
^ cos 2
these substitutions,
c2 )
(6)
$.
(8)
are, however, not all independent, for the values

(8), if substituted in (1) and (2), must reduce the
latter equations to identities.
12
17
is
c 5 sin
in (G)
(3)
with
is
Similarly, by operating on (1) with

tracting the result of the former operation
(2)
4,
(4)
By adding (3) and (4) we have

17D 2 + 16)x = -6sin2,
1.
and have
(1),
sin 2
D +
.
0,
= -6sin2,
=-
to that
12
(C B
+
+
cos 4
(c 7
c 2 ) sin
(c 7
(c 8 -f c s ) sin
c 4 ) cos
c 4 ) sin
we have
sin 2
+
+ cos 2 =
cos 2
(c 8
sin 2
c 8)
cos
1.
354
In order that these equations

C6
Hence the solutions
=
=
y
The method
ci sin
(6),
Dy =
=
?/
The constant C
4
Ci
is
and
c% sin
cos 4
Ci
Ci sin
cos 4
c2
we may
= -C 3
C8
c 3 sin t
cos 4
c4
c\ sin
cos
C4 .
cos 4
c2
c 2 sin
c 3 sin
cos
c3
^ sin 2
(9)
Z,
^ cos 2
(10)
Having found
We
(1).
cos
c4
c 4 sin t
found to be zero by substitution
-f
cos
c3
be modified as follows
C7
substitute this value in
we must have
satisfied,
are
(2)
may
of solving
the value of x in
.whence
=Ci,
of (1)
be identically
may
= -C 2
C5
l sin 2
l cos 2
in (2),
as before
have then
C.
and we have again
the solution (10).
195. The linear

The equation
with variable
coefficients.
^coefficients p v p 2
p n _ lt p n are functions of x, can
in
of
solved
terms
be
elementary functions. In fact, such
rarely
an equation usually defines a new transcendental function. We
where the
may, however, easily deduce certain simple properties

Consider
tion of (1).
which
differs
from
V Vv y^
(2),
yn
the equation
first
the right-hand side
(1) in that
Vn are
-\>
y = c iVi+ c 2/2+
where
2,
The fact that

substitution in
upon the
cn
-i2/-i+
c n yn
>
3)
(3) is a solution of (2)
That
(2).
* solutions
of
is
+c
cn _
is zero.
linearly independent
then the general solution of (2)
of the solu
(3)
fact that it contains
is
may easily be verified by direct
the general solution of (2) depends

arbitrary constants, and the number
of constants in the general solution of a differential equation is equal
to the order of the equation.

* The n functions
t/,, y 2
no relation of the form
This statement
we
shall not prove.
yn-i, yn are said to be linearly independent
2 2/ 2
exists
i2/i
where a v a 2
H-----\-a.n-\y n
a n -i, a n are constants,
-\
+ a n yn = 0,
and = means
"
identically
equal."
if
there
355
VARIABLE COEFFICIENTS
Keturning now to
If y
and u
where
l/n-v Vn
y*
any particular
>
is
is
y
c
The
tution.
2,
cn
we may say
are n H near ty independent
:
(1),
= c,y, +
c,y,
+c
yn +
u,
(4)
fact that (4) is a solution of (1)
The
solutions of (2),
solution of (1), then the general solution
fact that
it
is
may
be verified by substi
the general solution
we
shall accept
without proof.
now
It appears
ular integral of
that the complementary function and the partic

192 are only special cases of (4). There exists,
however, no general method of finding the solution

coefficients of (1) are not constant.
Methods
we
of solution
may, however,
(4)
when
exist in special cases,
the
and
shall notice especially the equation
a n are constants. This equation has the

-, a n _ v
is multiplied by a power of x
derivative
each
that
peculiarity
It can be reduced to a linear
derivative.
of
the
equal to the order
where a v a 2
equation with constant coefficients, by placing
For
dx
..,-.
dx
dz
dz
dz~
dz
dz
dz>
dz ]
dz\
dz\
~
~dz*
where
D=
dz
d?
"
_dz
~dz
THE LINEAK DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION
356
Hence
x
ctx
dx s
whence
dx 2
Placing x
ez
GI
= Dy,
dx
and making the substitution as above, we have
c s e~ 2s H
by
series.
c2 z
196. Solution
e2z
GI
c2
(logx)
The solution
z2
of a linear differential
equation can usually be expanded into a Taylor s or a Maclaurin s

series.
This is, in fact, an important and powerful method of
We
shall limit
investigating the function defined by the equation.
ourselves, however, to showing by examples how the series may be
obtained. The method consists in assuming a series of the form
where
and the coefficients a Q a v a 2

are undetermined. This
then substituted in the differential equation, and
and the
coefficients are so determined that the equation is
identically satisfied.
-
series is
We assume a series of the form given above, and write the expression for each
term of the differential equation, placing like powers of x under each other.
We have then
d 2y
(m-t-r)a,rX
=
-3^
dx
m+ r +
Adding these results, we have an expression which must be identically equal to

zero, since the assumed series satisfies the differential equation. Equating to
zero the coefficient of x
1 "-
1
,
we have
m (m
4)
0.
(1)
SOLUTION BY SEKIES
xm
to zero the coefficient of
Equating
(m
(m
1)
we have
3) ai
(m
2)
m+r
Finally, equating to zero the coefficient of x
relation
(
We
m+r+
1)
shall gain nothing
(m
0.
(2)
we have
- 3)a r + 1 + (m +
357
more general
the
2)a r
0.
(3)
m is assumed
by placing a = in equation (1), since
Hence to satisfy (1) we must have either
a<&
as the first term of the series.
m=
Taking the
and from
of these possibilities,
first
(3),
ai
jj-
(4)
4.
m=
namely
0,
we
have, from
(2),
ao,
(r
This last formula
m=
or
7T a r-
(4)
o)
1) (r
enables us to compute any coefficient, a r + i, when we know

= J a 1 = 1 a a 3 = 0, and therefore all
the previous one, a,.. Thus we find a 2

coefficients after as equal to zero.
Hence we have as one solution
of the differential equation the polynomial
Returning now to the second of the two possibilities for the value of m, we
m = 4. Then (2) becomes
6 ai + 2 a = 0,
take
and
(3)
becomes
ar + i
4-2
=
(r
Computing from
5)(r
(6)
r-
l)
this the coefficients of the first four
terms of the
series,
we
have the solution
We
have now in
tion.
Hence, by
and
(5)
(7)
2.
Legendre
two independent solutions of the
s equation.
Assuming the general form

d 2y
dx 2
= m (m
d y
~^~=
differential
equa
195, the general solution is
Ex.
5-6-7
6-6
1)
aox m
Ciyi
x2)
(1
C2 y2 .
of the series,
~2
-f
Ow
2x
ax 2
1)
ax
+ n (n +
1)
0.
we have
-1
wiaix"
-f (in -f
2)(m
+ 1) a 2 x m +
-m(m-l)aox
2x
dx
n(n
waox m
358
to zero the coefficients of x m
Equating
m (m
(m
(m
2)
(7/1
1)
a2
1)
and x m we have
"-
0,
(1)
+ 1) mai 0,
- (m - n) (m +
(2)
1)
0.
(3)
To find a general law for the coefficients, we will find the term containing
x m + r-2 i n each of the above expansions, this term being chosen because it con
tains a r in the first expansion. We have
----\-(m
zjf-ss
dx 2
r}
(m
1)
2^ = ---- (m + r - 2)(w + r -3) a
+r-2
a,.x"
+r-2
_2X"
dx 2
_2x^ =
---- 2(7M + r-2)a r _ 2 x- +
dx
n(n
The sum
+ l)y=
(n
l)a r _ 2 x
nt
"-
-,
---,
+r-2
of these coefficients equated to zero gives
(m
(m
r)
1)
ar
- (m - n +
We may satisfy (1) either by

m = 0. Then, from (2), a\
take
placing
is
By means
ar
(4)
of (6)
=-
we determine
+
r
(n
2)
m=
;
(m
1)
ar -
0.
m = 1. We
or by placing
from (3)
1)
(4)
shall
lf.\
2)(n
1)
ar _ 2
(6)
the solution
arbitrary
n(n
and from
[3
(n-l-
[6
we have in (7) the general solution of the dif

In fact, the student will find that if he takes the value
the second series in (7).
?7i = 1 from
(1), he will obtain again
Particular interest attaches to the cases in which one of the series in (7)
reduces to a polynomial. This evidently happens to the first series when n
By
is an even integer, and to the second series when n is an odd integer.
Since
and
a\ are arbitrary,
ferential equation.
giving to a
or a\ such numerical values in each case that the polynomial
SOLUTION BY SERIES
is
when x equals
equal to unity
unity,
we
359
obtain from the series in
(7)
the
polynomials
4-2
PS
4-2
0-7 5, x
4-2
7-5 s,
x
4-2
5-3
-4-2
x,
each of which
satisfies a Legendre s differential

equation in which n has the
value indicated by the suffix of P. These
polynomials are called Legendre s
coefficients.
Ex.
3.
BesseVs equation,
Assuming the
d 2y
series for
x2
dy
(x
(m
To
2)
n 2 ]a 2
^2
(m
r)
(m
dy
*-=
-
2
?/
".
[(m
from
(1)
(2), (3),
first
(3)
0,
we have
l)a,.x
<m
three powers of x,
0.
a2
coefficients,
r)2- n 2]a r
be satisfied by
and (4) we have
may
Oi
0.
m+r
r;
Equating to zero the sum of these
Equation
-f
+ m
obtain the general expression for the

coefficients,
x2
+i
l) ai x
Equating to zero the sum of the coefficients of the

have
[(m
we have
in the usual form,
- n2
7/1
n.
^
2(2 n
We
flt
2)
we have
ar _ 2
-.
0.
(4)
will take first
^-a
+
r(2n
r)
m=
n.
Then
360
By
we
use of these results
m=
by placing
Similarly,
obtain the series
we
n,
-n--T2
1 4.
2(2
obtain the series
-----
y4
*
\-
2)
4- (2n
2)(2n
4)
\
.
(6)
now, n is any number except an integer or zero, each of the series (5) and
converges and the two series are distinct from each other. Hence in this
case the general solution of the differential equation is
If,
(6)
If
0,
the two series
(5)
and
(6)
are identical.
If
is
a positive integer,
series (6) is meaningless, since some of the coefficients become infinite. If n is a

negative integer, series (5) is meaningless, since some of the coefficients become
Hence, if n is zero or an integer, we have in (5) and (6) only one par
ticular solution of the differential equation, and another particular solution must
be found before the general solution is known. The manner in which this may
infinite.
be done cannot, however, be taken up here.

The series (5) and (6) define new transcendental functions of x called BesseVs
functions. They are important in many applications to mathematical physics.
PROBLEMS
1.
8^ + 2 V = 0.
+ 8^ + 16^ = 0.
10.^
dx
dx
2
dx
2.
j|
3.
4.
+ 8y = a;* +
Jsinx.
= e^+e-cosx.
^-2y
dx
12.
^ + y = 8e-* +
13.
aj^.
dx
8.
dx
4y
-.!,
= G sm 2x.
dx2
15.
e-
^>_
dx 2
=
2V-Sy
dx
5
^=
dx
0.
dx 2
16.
8.
0.
dx
17.
18.
13y
0.
? + 2^-8y=*dx
dx*
14.
__x
= _?
x
0.
^ - 6^ +
dx*
dx
5.
+ 9y =
11.
^ + 8^-100 =
^ + 3^-47/ =
^ + 3^
^ + ^dx 2
dx
dx2
dx
dx 2
dx
dx*
dx
PROBLEMS
361
21.
dX 3
(X-3)2
r
5e
o
2:c
sm3x.
dx
dx2
An d y
42. 3
-j
d y
~
= x8
23. *UL
24.
^| +
nf,
d 2 ?/
26
dx 2
rrt
O11
oft
32
^C??/
f-
^ 2 ?/
^-
+o
?/
x 2 e~ x 4-
,1
e 3 *.
/7r
46
d 3^
d 2y
=2x
/7r
^y
-J
di
47-
^rO.
OT
dv
-^ + dx =
?/
dy
dy
^2/
dx4
dx
x sin 2
d7
d"V
2sin6zsin3x.
fa
(ia.
on
?/
= 2a: +
23
dQ
dx 2
dy
37.
1-
te*
-+-
fl-^rnsrr
gQ
"
-^
q2
__
IS
10
362
51.
#-Sx
+
dx
dx
52
53
*+"
0.
dx 3
*-.ft + *-<**
a*^ + (x-2x2)^-0y =
dx 2
59.
0.
of series
60.
dx2
dx
6^0.
*
dx
x^
+ ^+
dx
dx
x2
dx
(x-x
dx 2
+ 3x2
56. x
means
+ 8*
v="<**.
Solve the following equations by

57.
54. x
62.
dx 2
(x
6)y
x- W =
0.
0.
dx
63.
particle of unit mass moving in a straight line is acted on by an
attracting force in its line of motion directed toward a center and proportional
to the distance of the particle from the center, and also by a periodic force equal
to a cos
kt.
Determine
its
motion.
particle of unit mass moving in a straight line is acted on by three

an attracting force in its line of motion directed toward a center and
proportional to the distance of the particle from the center, a resisting force
proportional to the velocity of the particle, and a periodic force equal to a cos kt.
Determine the motion of the particle.
64.
forces,
65.
the motion of the particle in Ex. 64 consist of

which increase without limit as the time increases
Under what conditions will
oscillations the amplitudes of
without limit
CHAPTER XIX
A partial
197. Introduction.
differential equation is
an equa
which involves partial derivatives. The general solution of

such an equation involves one or more arbitrary functions. Thus
tion
f(x
y,
x)
is
solution
113, Ex. l),no matter what
z=
f(x-\-at)-\-f^(x
is
of
the
equation
--h
vx
cy
the form of the function/. Also
at) is a solution of the
=a
equation
ex
ct
no matter what are the forms of the f unctions /x and/2

Only in comparatively few cases can the solution of a partial
In general, the
differential equation be written down explicitly.
(
1 18,
Ex.
2),
nature and the properties of functions denned by such equations

must be studied by the methods of advanced mathematics. In a
practical application, the problem is usually to determine a func
tion which will satisfy the differential equation and at the same
time meet the other conditions of the practical problem.

198. Special forms of partial differential equations.
Partial
sometimes occur which can be readily solved

successive
integration with respect to each of the variables, or
by
which can be otherwise solved by elementary methods. No general
discussion can very well be given for such equations, but the fol
differential equations
lowing examples will illustrate them.

Ex.
1.
-5L =
0.
dxcy
By
integration with respect to y,
we have
where
is
an arbitrary function.
z
where both
and
Integrating with respect to x,
02 (z)
03 (y),
are arbitrary functions.
303
we have
364
?U-a%.
Ex.2.
ax 2
If
x were the only independent variable, the solution of
ax
GI sin
c2
this equation
would be
cos ax.
This solution will also hold for the partial differential equation if we simply
impose upon Ci and 2 the condition to be independent of x but not necessarily
independent of the other variables. That is, if z is a function of x and y, we
have for the solution of the differential equation
c,
where 0i(y) and
0i (y ) s in ax
(y) cos ox,
2 (y) are arbitrary functions.
te.a^-^=o.
ax
a?/
Placing x
ay
M,
and x
ay
we have
u,
***_.*.*;+
aw
2
a?/
a 2z
e*z_s2z
az 2
and the
When
1,
becomes
The
01 (U)
0! (Z
<f>i(x
2 (fl).
is
ay)
iy)
ax2
(x
ay).
-- -- =
as the solution of the equation
199.
of the given equation
we have
au2
1) is
Hence the solution
"^
the solution of which (Ex.
awai?
118)
ay
0.
linear partial differential equation of the first order.
Consider the equation
*
where P,
Q,
the variables
and
x, y,
-*
are constants or functions of one or
and
z.
The solution
*
which, substituted in
(1),
=/(,
reduces
it
more
of
of (1) is a function
y),
to an identity.
(2)
LINEAR EQUATION OF FIRST ORDER

Now
of
365
equation (2) represents a surface, the normal at any point
which has the direction
fore asserts that the
normal
to (2) at
112).
any point
Equation
is
(1) there
perpendicular to
P\Q:R (98, (5)). Consequently we may start

from any point on (2) and, moving in the direction P:Q\R, remain
always on the surface. That is, the surface (2) is covered by a
the direction
family of curves each of which
equations
dx
is
a solution of the simultaneous
_dy _dz
~P~~Q~ R
Now
(2) is
any solution
and hence we reach the conclu
of (1),
sion that the solution of (1) consists of all surfaces which are cov
ered by a family of curves each of which is a solution of (3).
We may
(3),
proceed to find these surfaces as follows

185, the solution
Let us solve
obtaining, as in
u (x,
Then,
if
we form
y, z)
= cv
(x, y, z)
(4)
the equation
(5)
<l>(u,v)=Q,
where
=c
any function whatever, we have a surface which is

covered by curves represented by (4). For if in (4) we give c x and
= 0, the corresponding curve lies on (5).
c such values that
c
2
(c v
2)
is
<
<
by means of (5) we have assembled the curves (4) into

surfaces, and have therefore the solution of (1). We may formu
That
late
is,
our result into the following rule
To
solve the equation
for
solve first
the equation
where
is
<f>
= dy = dz
Q
= cv
= cr
= 0,
v)
v
$ (u,
an arbitrary function,
ferential equation.
dy
P
u
=R
+Q
dx
equations
the solution
Then
dx
tlie
is the
solution of the partial dif
366
Ex.
We
C
-
mz)
(ny
ex
form the equations
ly.
(1)
cy
mz
ny
nx)^ = mx -
(Iz
dy
=
nx
Iz
_
^_
mx
(2 )
ly
the solutions of which are
x2
Hence
the solution of (1)

2
(x
z2
cb
Ix
+ my +
nz
0.
c2
(3)
is
2
?/
2 2 , te
+ my +
712)
(4)
Geometrically, the first equation of (3) represents all spheres with their cen
ters at the origin, and the second equation of
which
represents all
planes
(3)
are normal to the line
Hence the two equations
(3) taken simultaneously represent all circles whose

centers are in the line (5) arid whose planes are perpendicular to
Equation
(5).
(4), then, represents all surfaces which can be formed out of these circles
that
is, all surfaces of revolution which have the line (5) for an axis.
These surfaces
;
of revolution
form the solution
of
(1).
200. Laplace s equation in the plane.

equation in the plane,
Solutions of Laplace
have already been found in

172, 198. Another method of
Let us place V = XY,
dealing with this equation is as follows
where
is a function of x alone and Y is a function of
y alone,
and ask if it is possible to determine
and Y so that
s
:
equation
may
be
satisfied.
Laplace
Substituting in the given equation
and dividing by XY, we have
L** + 1^1=0
X
which may be put
in the
"
Y df
dx 2
form
~
dz?
Y dy
2-
According to the hypothesis, the left-hand member of

contain y and the right-hand member cannot contain
(2)
cannot
x.
Hence
LAPLACE
EQUATION IN THE PLANE
367
a2
they are each equal to some constant, which we will denote by
Then (2) breaks up into two ordinary differential equations,
-a*Y=0.
(4)
ay-
190, the solution of (3)
By
and the solution
is
of (4) is
Y= B
cos
ay
-f
I>
Hence
sin ay.
V = e ax sin ay,
V = e~ ax sin ay,
V e ax cos ay,
V = e~ ax cos ay,
are particular solutions of the given equation.
a2 we should
the value of the constant had been denoted by

have obtained the particular solutions
If
V = eay sin ax,

V = e~ ay sin ax.
V = eay cos ax,

V e~ ay cos ax,
The particular solutions thus obtained

the imaginary parts of the functions
The sum
plied
by an
are, in
az
e~
az
,
e~
fact,
iaz
,
the real and
and
iaz
(
172).
of (1), each multi

of (1), as is easily
solution
is
a
also
constant,
arbitrary
of
two
or
more particular solutions
Hence we may form the
verified.
F=A
, -f-
VA
e~ mv sin
particular solutions
mx + 2,Bme~ my cos mx
(5)
m=l
m=l
m= oo
m= oo
V = A + ^ A memy sm mx +
Bm e my cos mx.
m=l
(6)
rn=l
Solution (5) has the property of reducing to
A when y =
oc,
while
solution (6) becomes infinite with y.

Ex. Find the permanent temperature at any point of a thin rectangular plate
TT and of infinite length, the end being kept at the temperature unity
and the long edges being kept at the temperature zero.
of breadth
If
is
the temperature,
it is
known
that u satisfies the differential equation
+-
368
we
If
take the end of the plate as the axis of x, and one of the
long edges as
we have to solve (1) subject to the conditions
the axis of y,
Condition
(4) is satisfied
if
if
=
=
if
if
TT,
condition
(2)
=
U = 0,
(3)
0,
(4)
1.
(5)
by the solution
m=
^T A m e-
my sin ?nx
-f
m=l
By
0,
<>,
m= oo
0,
oo
7^ m e~
W cos rax.
2/
=1
(2),
m=l
for all values of y,
and hence
Bm =
,
which
satisfies (2),
(3),
and
determine the coefficients
^V -4 m e~
m=l
m ^ sin
In order that
(4).
solution
is
now
= *,
Our
for all values of m.
reduced to
it
A m that
rax,
may
satisfy (5),
we must
m sin mx.
so
(6)
m=l
But
(6) is
multiply
.
a special form of a Fourier s series
- -(6)
2 /I
TT (
by
sin
mx dx, and
cos m7r\
whence
A =
I
4
2
- e~^v
sin3x
3
is
from
integrate
159, 160).
As a
to. TT.
41~
AS = *
Therefore
+ ~e~ 5 v sin 5x +
it satisfies all
201. Laplace s equation in three dimensions.
If cylindrical coordinates are used,

(1)
8r*
and in polar coordinates
dr
\W +
W +,W_
d?-
(1)
becomes
dr
sm<j>ci<l>\
becomes
ld*V
r~fr
d<f>
the conditions.
The general form
of Laplace s equation in
rectangular coordinates is
VV_
result,
the solution of our problem, since
we
we have
Accordingly,
"
LAPLACE
EQUATION IN THKEE DIMENSIONS 369
We
of this text.
(3) in
angle
of
shall, however, consider particular solutions
diedral
of
the
is
V
which
in
case
independent
the special
In that case
0.
a /
r
0r
Letting V
function of
</>
beyond the limits
of these equations is
The general discussion
ar~
and
0,
(3)
a /
"
reduces to
sm
dv
0r
7t<,
alone,
where
we may
a function of r alone and
is
4>
is
dif
replace (4) by the two ordinary
ferential equations
- a?R =
0,
(5)
dr /
(6)
sin
2
where a
(j)
d(j)
d(f>
Expanding (5), we have
is
where
a =
2
m=
is,
+ V^ + i-
m (m + 1),
by
and
sin
(j)
(6)
195,
From
this
value
to
(f>
In the particular case in which

Legendre
we have
d(f>
Changing the independent variable from

we have Legendre s equation ( 196, Ex. 2),
4>
of
becomes
s coefficient
is
an
integer,
JJ(Q=.(C08^).
Therefore the particular solutions of (4) are
t,
where
we may
= cos
<,
choose for
370
Ex. Find the potential due to a circular ring of small cross section and radius
a.
taken as the origin of
and the axis
If the center of the ring is
OZ
is
form
since,
coordinates,
perpendicular to the plane of the ring, Laplace

*
*v\
from the symmetry
This equation
V is
of the problem,
is satisfied
equation assumes the
-a /sin0 aFX
_)=0,
(1)
independent of
6.
by
V=
where
Am
At any
(2)
Bm are arbitrary constants.

point on the axis OZ distant r from the origin
and
VOa
where
(3)
2
-f r
is the mass of the

ring (see Ex. 9, p. 90).
= 0, cos0 = 1, and by 196, Ex. 2, Pm (cos0) =
Then, when
same time the right-hand members of (2) and
must be
i.e.
At
1.
the
equal
(3)
m=
and the
coefficients
If r<a(31,
Am
and
Bm
Ex.4),
must be chosen
Va2 + r 2
Hence
if
and
if
6tC
~a
a
r>a,
--- -
we
r<a,
--2
V2 + r
a3
we
2 a2
J^ = ^
andifr>a,
so as to satisfy this equation.
a
(
a \r
place all the
4 a4
g + LJ g? _
2 r3
.\
4 r5
equal to zero,
A -
^=
0,
^4 2
B =
0,
B2 =
place all the ^4
equal to zero,
B =
.a,
and obtain the solution
"
PROBLEMS
1.
Z-
^-a
W dx =
d
a*z.
a* 2
=
^sx 29
^-
ax
an
3.
?x 2
ez
-5
+ 62 =
ax
0.
0.
6.
^ + 4^w ^
-
axay
w.
y
PKOBLEMS
7.
x*
371
13.
7/2.
ex
dxdy
ez
_
8.
ex
,
9.
10.
_=
ez
,,
14.x
!.
ly
=
--yex
cy
15. x
0.
2ZX- + 2Z2/- =
ex
10
12.
19.
ex
cy
--\-y
*--xy
ex
16. XZ
Z2.
ex
- x
ex
cz
K
ex
ay
cy
<
ez
-to
18. y
1.
eiy
Find particular solutions of the equation
nometric functions of x and
ex
z.
2
?/
0.
ey
+y Z EZ =Xy.
cy
ex
CZ
ly
ey
(x
CZ
z)
y.
cy
^= ^
a2
in
terms of trigo
t.
20. Find particular solutions of Laplace s equation in the plane in polar
d*V ---cV --F=

-1
,.
coordinates
cr2
c2
0.
r2 c^ 2
r dr
21. Find the permanent temperature at any point in a semicircular plate of

radius unity, the circumference of which is kept at the temperature unity and
the bounding diameter of which is kept at the temperature
0, given that the
temperature u satisfies the differential equation of Ex. 20.
22.
The equation for the
a2
where u is the
ex 2
and x is measured parallel to the direction in which
temperature at any time
the heat flows. If a slab of thickness TT is originally at the
temperature unity
linear flow of heat
is
ct
throughout, and both faces are then kept at a temperature 0, find the tempera
any point of the slab, the slab being so large that only the flow of heat
ture at
normal
to its
bounding faces need be considered.
ANSWERS
(The answers to some problems are intentionally omitted.)
CHAPTER
Page 33
II
12. log(logx).
13. log(tan-ix).
19.
-log
(a
20
25.
4(1
-- _
24. log
6cosz).
(1
x2)2
26
21
Ve 2 * + tan2x.
n) [log(x
+ o)]-i
tan-ix-l!.
27.
Page 34
28.
Oa
29.
2
e *
- 2 Va 2 - x 2
30. x
37. - (esc bx
b
6)3.
38.
-ctn (ax
a
ctn bx).
6).
31.
32.
33.
x
| sin 4x.
43. log(cscx ctnx)
44.
C os3x.
42.
34.
-=(Vox-Vte)*
35
? sin4x
36.
-L
+
6a [sine (ox
45.
6)
- cos
2cosx.
-2
(ax
46>
6)1
tan x
47.
ctnx.
- sec 3 x) 2tanx-secx-x.
<
tan 3 x
x.
ANSWERS
i
98.
log(2x+V4x2-3).
99.
V2
375
101.
log (2 x
*2
102.
100.
+ 2-V2
3x-V2
103. log (x
tan
a - Vz* -
Page 36
104. lo
105. log (x
sin
a + Vz 2 +
2 x sin
a+
l).
106.
2
107.
V3
3x
--
+ V3
-3
V5
108. ilo
x-5
- 6x +
109.
3).
\/3
110.
111.
v2
log(2x
112. |
10).
lo
113. i
114.
115. 2
116. 3
+ x -f 2 - 4 log(2x + 1 + 2 Vx2 + x + 2).

Vx2 + 4x - 1 + log (a + 2 +
Vx^T^^).
Vx2
117.
V2
2+V3
119. 5 sin-i ?-
V5
120.
+ 2 Vl -
4x
x2.
Vs
121. ~ Iog(4x2
122.
4xsec
-3Vl-2x-x
tan a)
log
2^+sec^-
2 x tan
a-
l)
ANSWERS
376
,2x4-3
123.
124. i log(x
125. log(x
-f
+ Vx -
Vx 2 -
l)
2V5
- i sec- ~
1
V5
.
sec-ix.
131.
log a
4 log a
127.
1
128.
4 log a
a2x
a- 2 *
132.
)
133.
129.
c(l
134.
2
2m log 6
n log a
n log a
log a)
+ m log 6
~l
135.
<
136.
137.
log a
log (a*
4- 1
+Va + 2 a* 4- sec
2a:
138.
a).
140.
2x -alog(e4-l).
141. 2 log
x
(e
1)
x.
pax
sec- 1
152.
ab
153. x
154.
_b
+ 4 Vx 4- 41og(Vx
2 - 6 x 46) (2 x
(5 x
sV
155.
63
log(a
bx)
1).
4-
3)1
156
157. 3
158. isec- 1 -.
V Vx2 + a2 (3 x4 - 4 a2x 2 + 8 a4
^x4 - 3V
14 x 3 - 5
159. T
160.
161.
49(5
162.
-7x
4(1
163. log
151. J (x 2
2 a2 )
Va2 + x2
164.
3 2
)
2x2
x2 ) 2
Vx 2 +
4-
179.
(sin
ax
ax cos ax).
183
2 2
*
-(a x sec- ax
181.
.
185.
x2
sin
ax
l).
2 x cos ax
2 sin ax
a2
a3
-|
a
1 86.
- Va 2x 2 -
[(3
a2x 2
6) sin
ax
3 3
(a x
6 ax) cos ax].
-2 log ax + 2].
-G log ax + 2 J2
2
2 ax sin 2 ax - cos 2 axl.
[2 a x
187. x [(log ax)
188. 27 * 3 [9 (log ax) 2

189.
--
8 a2
2:r
+ cos2x +
190.
ê
191.
êx [5(cosx + sinx) - (cos3x + 3 sin 3 x)].
192.
ê
193.
(2
sin2x).
[^(3sm4x - 4 cos 4 x) + T 3 (3sin2x 2 2 - a 2 x 2 ].

[(2 a x
1) sinax + ax Vl
sx
4 a2
2 cos 2 x)]
ANSWERS
378
2
21
22.
-a 2
a2 log
+ Vz 2 -
a2 \
23.
24.
5
2-
25
-.
2
| log
Page 62
35.
IT.
36.
.6366.
Page 63
48. .8746.
47. .016.
46. .4621.
CHAPTER IV
Page 80
1.
170 f.
2.
|a
3.
22.
67r
-|
23.
24.
|7ra
25. 5?.
27
00
1
Q
33. i7ra d \e a
-(-3
^^3
77-2^25
Tj-a-3
-1).
-2).
4 Trafr2
42.
39. 27T 2 a6cL
43.
73
40.
3a2
41.
(3
^^(^
ft).
ft
97
Tra 2 h.
2
)*.
the distance from the diameter of
semi-circle to the axis).

38.
7ra 3 (31og2
36. ITT (a 2
.
34. 47ra 3 (21og2

35.
4_
44
44.
_
T^ 5
ANSWEKS
37 J
Page 83
45.
_5A_ (3 h* +
47. 1 7ra 3 (l
+ 240 pW).
4Q pah*
cos a:) (a
is
46.
the radius of the sphere
vpW (5 a - 3
and 2 a
ft).
the vertical angle
is
of the cone).
48. 07r(l
a3
54.
55.
56.
%)ha (a
2
4 /m (a
4
58.
-a
is
the radius of the cylinder
the radius of the cylinder
is
7T\
1
)
53.
* a&2
?,
Vpip 2 (pi and p z
57. 2rrh 2
Tra 3
50.
(a is the radius of the cylinder).
tan
(TT
rra 8
49.
OVOTr).
(a is
and h
and h
is
is
the altitude).
the altitude).
are the respective parameters of the parabolas).
the radius of the sphere).
2/
Page 84
7ra 2 6.
59.
60. T Q4j a 3 (a
6
a& 2
61.
is
the parameter of the hypocycloids).
67.
a
--}
-U-ej.
(
68
63. 1152 cu. in.
64.
65.
^[(4 + 0A)-8].
log(e
+
a
78
8a
73
l-
4 (a 2
-
71
73>
a&
2
-f 6 )
74
116
+
177
75. 1007
in
ft.
e-i).
66. Ga.
Page 85
77.
* a.
78.
80. 27ra(h 2
hi) (a
irVA +
81.
82
---
83. 27ra 2
is
>*-*.
x-
79. 80.
|7ra.
the radius of the sphere).
84.
iTra 2
gg
87. 27T& 2
88.
2.
3/7ra
siu-ie
(e is
the eccentricity of the ellipse).

89. 47ra 2 (2
-V2).
CHAPTER V
(Hs the length of the wire).
C(C+f)
ANSWERS
380
r- sin-
(I
is
the length of the wire) in a direction

bisecting the angle
9.
10.
^/I
a
2
^ 2 - V(c +
11.
0.
L=Y
v^Ttf/
\c
a 2 ).
Page 100
21.
sm
12.
2
14.
22. | a below the surface.

2
23.
w.
2ac).
15
3 (a
^ba
24
I a below the surface.

25. 2 a6 2 iy (the axis 2 a being in the
below the
2
c)
surface.
18.
surface).
26. fir -n-b below the surface.
27. 2250 Ib.
20.
28. 781.25 Ib.
16.
Page 101
29. 2234| ft.-lb.
30. 769.4 Ib.
31.
33. 88.4 tons.
34.
104 If tons.
41 tons
36.
37.
(fa, fa).
(0,
fa).
32. 8333 _L foot-tons.
35.
k ^}.
38.
(If,
-^.
39.
On
40.
\5
4 /
the axis, three fifths of the distance from the vertex to the chord.
k, 0)(x = k is the equation of the ordinate).
\3
7T
43
42.
,5
7T,
(t
57
Page 102
**
48.
\5
m2 m*}I
176 ?
fp,
5 (2
9
52.
49.
46.
51.
50.
medians.
(-, \2 2
V
TT)/
/i^,ii^&)
3?r
47. Intersection of the
+ -^-1.
12p/
On
the radius perpendicular to the base of the hemisphere and three

eighths of the distance from the base.
54. On the diameter of the sphere perpendicular to the
planes, at a distance
\ (hi + hz) from the center.
53.
=
y =
55. x
58.
56.
a.
^ yi
(y
is
y=
|fc.
57.
5
T^ 6
(6
4 pa).
the ordinate of the point of intersection of the line and the
parabola).
59.
60.
At
the base.
fir
b.
the middle point of the radius of the hemisphere perpendicular to
ANSWERS
61.
381
On
the axis of the cone, two thirds of the distance from the vertex to the
On
the radius of the hemisphere perpendicular to the

base, two thirds
from the base to the vertex.
base.
62.
of the distance
CHAPTER VI
Page 117
21. I log(4x 2
22.
23.
24.
zJx2
1x2
+ 4x +
J-
log [(x
+ 4x +
2)
tan-i(2x
-!)( +
3)6].
Iog(9x2
6 Iog(x2
- 2x -
12x
8)
1)
1).
22 ~^
1
tan-i^t?.
V2 log^
x
9.
Sx
lo-ff
~1
- 1 + V2
(X
1
)*.
2)
ANSWERS
382
31.
- 2x +
x2
30.
^ (x
32. Iog[x 3
1 log(2x
1)
+ V- lo S(x +
3 )-
3)
2x
2) -f
(x
34.
(2x-l)]
33. log(x
1)
x)
log (3
2)2
log[(x-l)V2x
2 (2 x
3)
Page 118
35.
log (x
2x
38. x
2).
39.
oX
log(3x-2).
x-
logx.
-i^- z + 8-^rij
>
Vx 2 -
-2+V2
V2
4x
43.
1
x2
46.
\
-
48.
-2x+3
x2
5
45. - log
2
3x 2
47. x
lOg
2 /x
\x 2 +
44.
(X
+
+
2
;
g log (x
2
2)
tan-
V6
-^
3 tan-
V^9
(x
1)
tan-
+ V3
+x
2 (x 2 + 3)
V3
2V2
+
(x
V51
V61
51.
52. 3 log
1).
4x-3
3)
3V3
/
05
V3
(2x
V3
tan-
VO
V3
+
2 x
2V3
V2
-2X)+1
49.
50.
= tan- *
V2
-f-
1
h-
4V2
_V3
13
53. log
2x +
17
3V3
g
xV2 xV2 +
+ 7x
2
2(2x -l)
ANSWERS
CHAPTER
383
VII
137
+ 4 V1 +
/
2 log (x
- V, 1 +
x)
= log
(8x6-1) (3x6 +
14.
17.
18.
+ x 4 + log (x 2 + \/4 + x 4 ).
+ 3x - 2
/V2
tanV2
4
19.
V5
1
20.
22.
1)8.
log
V2 + V2 x 2 + 3 x +
V3 + 3X-V3-X
V3 + 3x+V3-x
x
.
lo
V3
Vx 2 + 2x +
2(1
23.
log(l
+ V5
+
h3).
/l-3x
6x)
2(2x
21.
24.
2(28x
12 x
-8)
243(1- x-2x 2 )^
3x
17x-6
Jt2f?.
-4=tan-i
25 V2 -3x-2x 2
\l-2x
V2
^
sin 6 x
27. cos^3x( T1T cos8 3x
7
| sin x.
cos3x).
Page 138
28. I cos x
29. sinx
30.
cos x
sin 8 x
cos x
cosx.
gin
x\ /.
2x _
sin 6 x.
^
2
v
Icos(2x+l)[cos
(2x+l) -31.
x
] ros4x
,
31.
33.
/I
(-sm 4 ox
a \4
\
-sin 6 ox).
.
384
ANSWERS
8/
A Vco
38.
2*(cos*2z-7).
1+ sin-
39.log
---sin8--2sin-.
n
41
"i .
f\
rp
1-sin-
*!
lOg
- --
l-cos2x
l+cos2x
2
Sln 8
42.
sin
12cos*3x
43.
tan 2 3 x
44.
1.
log sin 3 x
j*JL
JL] S
8cos 2 3x
16
i log cos 3 x.
l ctn 2 3 x
45.
ân3|_2tan|
- TL
50.
o1
-^ctn3x(l+
---
4cos22x
54.
l-sin2x
Ctn
"
ctn*3x+
sin2
sin2x
15 cos !?
4sin 4 53.
ctn23x
rf
5 cos5
52
ctn* 3 x.
-|ctn*|+ctn|-8ctn--af.
^tan^x - ctn^x) + 2 log tan*.
sin2x
sin 3
x.
46.
47.
+ îo
16
ctrt
-(sinax
a\
+ 2cscax-icsc 3 axV
8-/
55.
52
-sec 5 -.
l (
cos2x _
4sin22x
ANSWERS
66.
i [x Vx
a2
385
+ Vx 2 + a 2)].
a 2 log(
x
67.
68.
2 a3
1
Vx +
2
a2
2a 2x 2
-
x(2 x
8
70.
Vx 2 +
a2 )
log(x
2
2
2
2
-x(2x - a ) Va - x
8
71.
a2
+ Vx 2 +
sin-i-.
a
- TV(3x2 + 2a 2 )(a2 v
75.
76.
77.
- V2 ax
x2
78.
V2ax -
x2 )
x
73.
74.
79.
(2
80.
81.
82.
x2
ax
(x
3 a)
V2 ax -
cos5
sin
--
sin
(1
72.
2 (a2
a2 ).
x cos 2 x
3 a2 )
V2 ax -
TjL
si n
3 sin x
2cos2 x
x cos 3 x
a sin- 1
+ -sin-i^-^.
x2
x2
x2
sm-i*-^.
+ y ^ sin x cos x +
1
3
log (sec x
2
.
tan
x.
x).
83.
2 cos 3
86.
2 sin 2 x
3x+
tan 3
84.
85.
2x-3cos2x
---3.
4sin 2 2x
4 cos4 x
.
log (esc 2 x
ctn 2 x).
Page 139
/
15
h?
87.
a 25
a 2. ilog
")92.
97.
88.
15
93.
CJ
89.
06
4n
94. f 7ra6.
95. 3 Tra 2
99.
i-4-
100.
90.
30
91.
Tra 2
96.
^(7r-2)a
2.
101.
102. 4 A/2
a.
104. 4
105.
106. Tra 3 tan
103.
Tr 2 a 3 .
107.
0.
ANSWERS
386
Page 140
108.
(Tra,
109.
(Tra,
a).
256a
111
256a \
315
\315Tr
a).
110.
TT/
112.
2(47r-3V3),
CHAPTER
VIII
Page 154
1.
3 x2
2.
e x8
3.
Vl
4.
tanx
2 x3
siny
=
c
?y
Vi +
-f
2 ?/
c.
c.
y2
c.
cosy.
7.
x2
8.
21ogx + (sin- 1 -)
cosx sin y
9.
Page 155
10.
xsin-
11. x \ex
x)
16.
17.
18.
+ y) 5
+ 4x?/ - 2 - Gx - 2y =
(y + 3)(x + y + 1) = c.
(x + y)* + 2y = c.
2y = sinx cosx + ce~ x
= (x + l)2(ex + c).
y = ^(x + l) + c(a; + l).
?/
c.
29.
?/
31.
?/
32.
y=
21. logx?/
22. x 2
c2
37.
23.
38.
- X
Cl
41.
?/
42.
r=^W(X-
c2
x2
sin-
c2
sin ax
+
+ c2
y = -y =
y = J x 3 logx - ^ x 3 + cix + c 2
.
39.
c
a;
36.
40.
ex
34.
24.
3) -f
+c
X 2 (l- 2 = C(l-f-X 2 ).
x 2 logx 2 + (x 3 + y 3 )5 = ex 2
y (ex + 1) = e x + x + c.
3
(secx + tanx)(l + 2/4 y = ce 2 * - (2 x 2 + 2 x + 1).
y = (x+ c)eax
33.
+ l(x 2 -y2) =
= + 2cy.
2
y = 1 + x + cVl + x
= l + c x-Vl x
^21
-J-
gtan"
e tan
35.
Cix
c.
-sin^
ce
|(2 x
i /I
30.
7/
c.
cosx - 2 cos 2 x.
=-
28. y 2
19. x
c.
12. (x
15.
c2.
26.
13. x 2
14.
25. y
c.
= ce*.
= 2c?/ +
6.
43. (y + I) 2 = Cl x + c 2
44. y + Cilog(y - ci) f x
47.
c2
c2
48.
T/
=
(1-
+ Vc
51.
X2
-l)]+C 2
Cicosh[fc(x
c 2 )].
ANSWEKS
387
Page 156
52. y(x
tan
54
y
tan-
62.
64.
65.
?/3
-cosh [A: (x
a cosh
sin-
k cosh
71. ciy 2
x=
--
c.
the constant ratio.)
Ce
63. x 2
-f
y2
ex.
Vk*x -
4 x2
c.
(k
is
(k is the constant ratio.)
Ci)
(y
c2 ) 2
c2
the given constant.)
(c is
fc
K*
*"=
70. (x
e*
the constant length.)
is
(a
o
66. y
(& is
c)].
8x
r"
60
2.
--
58. y
= cx n
= ax 2 +
=
.
"^2
59.
Q(k x
=-l+
?/
57. y
ce
56.
9.
ex- 1
2~
55. 4
-4)2
y
53.
-1
(x
c2 ) 2
(k is the constant ratio.)
1.
fc
Page 157
72.
Harmonic motion.
73.
and x
74.
c+-*/^fVax-x
- -sin-i
a when v
0.
Same velocity as
the
if
where
A:
is
body
fell freely.
75.
About
the constant ratio,
miles per second.
CHAPTER X
Page 195
1.
(1,
3.
x2
2.
2, 2).
z2
2x
4y
2z
43
-L9,
iy>,
49-).
0.
6.
11.
cos--
13
2x-37/ +
16.
ay
6z21 = 0.
Page 196
14. x
+ y + z - 6 = 0.
- 2y - 2z + 2?r =
17. TTX
18. e (x
19. x
ef )
+ 2y +
9
20.
Viiio
28.
e- f (y
-0 =
3z
7
e-
+ V2(z
v7 2) =
0.
25. x
26.
Viso Viso
x-z + 2 = 0.
kz
0.
0.
27.
29.
0.
2 y
0.
sin-i].*.
(i, 2, i), (i, 4, ^).
llx+ 13y-37 =
0,
3x+13z+
10
0.
ANSWERS
388
Page 197
30. (2,
31.
x-l = y-l = 2-l
~T~
33.
e*
&
34.
35.
2y +
36. cos-
=
z
0,
V2
V2
-,
VlS
(1,
47.
(0, 1, 2),
42.
43.
0.
0.
-2^,
46.
41.
e~
-ey =
44.
40.
-2
x-1
~2~
Vl3
1, 1).
+ I6y + 7z + 8 = 0.
3x-2?/-z + 4 = 0.
z + lly + 52 = 0.
z-6y + 2-2 = 0,
3z + y + 32-l = 0.
-2 = 0.
93 x - 46 y + 13 z - 179 = 0.
39.
3
32.
37. (1,
1, 2).
a;
-2,4),
(f,
y,y).
CHAPTER XI
Page 218
10.
AA =
12.
AF=
sin
sin (a
18. xix
21
/_
dA =
.396 sq. in.,

5.11 cu. ft.,
h sin
ft
dV=
(zi
cos (a
+
a) =
0.
c2
sin 2 (a
j8)
yi?/
n,
ad
ft
.398 sq.
5.09 cu.
a) (z
11.
in.
62
cd
a2
52
(a,
V=
8 abc
C 2/
a,
a).
aK
a2
3V3
.057 in.
22. (a, a, a),

a, a,
a, a), (
a), (a,
23. Point of intersection of the medians.
24.
dL =
.057 in.,
/3)
~
a2
AL =
ft.
b2
c2
a2
6*
52
Page 219
32
_+
a2
!l*L J- Ii
62
c2
39. cos-
2ac
49.
0.
c2
ANSWERS
389
Page 221
1^ + 2-^-
\,
cx 2
cycx
1
70. Trlog
+V1 -a2
71. log(a
CHAPTER
l).
XII
Page 234
CHAPTER
XIII
Page 253
64a 4 Va/l
1.
fs Va6 (a +
2.
4.
a*
if
3
2
6) (5 a
V3.
2 ab
5 6 2 ).
8.
iTra 4
9.
iTra 4
Tra4
10.
11.
1056
\3
lUp)
12.
13
T%7ra
3465
4
63
14.
Page 254
15.
16.
(107T- /)a 4
21.
24.
8 a2
22.
25.
2a 2
17.
18.
26. 2
2
|) a
(27T-
27. 8 a 2
19. OTT.
--a
23.
20.
29. x 2
(y
z tan a) 2
30.
a2
28. 2
a2 esc 2
or.
2
.
a+ a
2 a2 (ctn
csc 2 a).
31.
32.
-37T).
Page 255
33.
10a 2 [7r-V2-log(l+V2)].
/32a
(*,|a).
35. /O
\
3a
57r
5(67r-4)/
36.
40.
41.
+ 8 )\
105
TT
39
V 15 *-
357T/
Q0
/288a
50.
\1757T
I
)u the axis of the

sector,
128V2a
H5a\
37
42.
43.
]a,
/ 26Ga
256 a\
\3157r
315W
288 a\
- I.
1757T/
distant from the center of the circle
0).
] Tra, 0).
ANSWERS
390
5a
5a(k,+ko)\
iO,
48.
49.
46.
-)
*-=:
/8a
(
106 10c\
,_,-).
distant from
47.
On
the axis of the cone,
On
the axis of the cone, | of distance from vertex to base.
its
26
/4a
8a
.
vertex.
Page 256
the origin, and the octant
a), the center of the sphere being at
octant bounded by the coordinate planes.
the axis of the cone, midway between the vertex and the base.,
50. (^ a,
51.
On
a,
-|
being in the
first
74.
75.
^L
76.
fcTrA6
fora6
tan*a.
(fc
is
}2
irpa*h.

(fc
the coefficient of variation.)
is
77. -firirprf-rf).
of variation.)
78. | ka &
(k is the coefficient
.
QM(l /i
81.
-3a
i3^
(JW
82
83.
cos a)
8Q
TTpq (2 6
tan 2 a
"
(M is
a)
the mass of the hemisphere.)
is
25 a 2
&
(3f
is
the mass of the hemisphere.)
the mass of the ring.)
CHAPTER XIV
Page 276
3
1.
7ra 2
2.
^(36
7.
-.
-2 a).
Page 277
5.
2.
8.
6.
k logr
i- i I
;
and
(fc
-
r as in
Ex.
7).
(k is the constant ratio, r is the distance.)
+ ?/ - xy + x + ^ 2 + xv - C x 2
14. x 2
15.
16.
(x+
5. 3.
0.
<j
_L
llA;Ll
5
17. x 2
18. lo
c.
ANSWERS
391
Page 278
19. X*
3 X7/2
xy
tan-ix
20.
_x
21. e -;+log
22
23. xy
c.
^ + 3V
10
24
r-7/2.
2x + sm
26
log C os2(z
-l<x<l.
18. All values of x.
-l<x<l.
19.
All values of
16.
-l<x<l.
20.
-l<x<l.
17.
-l<x<l.
no
24.
X2
21.
22
x2
--
....
27.
..-.
28
_^
x
2
29
cosx
4i
sinh air
cos 2 *
I2
a
<X<
a sinh
2 sinh
TT
CTTT
3jr
4
_
+
sinx
\1 2
cos3x
2 /cos x
cos3x
~3^~"
3 sin x
2520
cos 2 x
_
~
a2
2 sin 2 x
22
a2
-f
"7
3 sin 3 x
32
a2
K~ +
^l
I2
45
sin5x
~32~
I2
12
+ !l^x
cos x
\rM^-oTT7 +
_2/cosx
32
TT /
TT
4 / îf
+ +
23
cos 3 x
22
~^
30
~b
_^_^_17x
-l<x<l.
x.
5a;4
x-
y2
c.
32
=c
CHAPTER XV
15.
31
2/ )
4y cosz =
28.
14.
30
-f
27.
Page 302
25.
x2y2
2x
log*- l--
+ log^c.
x
x3y
25.
cos^x
~52~
sin 2
-~2~-
a;
sin3x
+ ~Q
cos5x
~~52~
234
_ sin 2 z
/sinx
(,"1-
3 sin 3 x
sin 4
cos 3 x
~|
I2
22
32
Page 303
40
37
39
0.
42.
43.5.
-f
44. 0.
46.0.
47.0.
2.
45. 0.
48
38.],,,".
ANSWERS
392
CHAPTER XYII
Page 336
1.
2.
3.
=
=
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
+ a*x +
3
a:
3 ao
(a
l)x
--
/a 4
^jx
+ rr-f^
(a
5a
4a
+ a x + (a + )x* +
+a x+a
6. (x 2 y - c) (y - ex) = 0.
+ c) (y + 2 x + c) = 0.
2 - x 2 - c 2 = 0.
7. (y-c)(y-ce-* )(3y-x 3 -c)=:0.
ex) (y
(y
= 0.
c (x + a) ec (x + a) e] [x
a
a
[x
2
2
2
y sin x + 2 cy + c = 0.
2
13. c 2 (1 -f y 2 - 2 c 3 xy + c 4 x2 = 1.
2 c 2 xy + c 3 x2 = 1.
cy
2
14. x = logp + p + c, y = _p +
c2
p2
y = 2cx
2
2
2 = 2 ex
=
c
15.
c
+
y
x)
y
(c
y
4. (y
5.
111
^
x2
5x
Page 337
19. x
= sin 2 (y +_c).
= p log Vcp, x = (l +
= ex 2 + c 2
+ y = cti\(c-y).
22
16. x 2
17.
y
18. y
(P
23. (l
-Vy
24. (cy
25. y
26.
27.
28.
30.
31.
32.
log
Vcp) log vep.
I)
2
l)
e 2")(x 3
= cpW,
ce
3?y
(1
c) (XT/
cy
1)
0.
2
(!-4?y) + 4x -2c[(l-4?/)cos2x + 2x sin
- ex) 2 - c 2 + 1 = 0.
e = cex + c^.
Vl - c 2 2 - x 2 = 1.
y = ex
2
3
x
+ c) (2 y - x 2 + c) = 0,
(2 y
x 2 = 2 cy + c 2 + a 2 x 2 + 2 = a 2
2
(Z/
^=
29
2 x]
ca a
.
c2
0.
+ l.
c
?/
2/
0.
- 1 = 0.
37. 27 y - 4 x 3 = 0.
c, 4 xy
_ a 25 2 _ 0, y = CX + Vb 2 + a C
2 = c.
2 2
40. (x + y) (y + z) (z +
1) z
(x + 1) (y
x 3 + y 2 + z 2 + logyz 2 = c.
xy + yz + zx
(a + b) z = k.
(c + a) y
(& + c) x
2 =
34. (y
ex)
38. &2 X 2 + a 2^2
+ I) 3
-x 4 -c) = 0.
_(P-1)
--a2v^Ti.
4 (x
2 y + c) 2
20. 9 (x
x Iogcx)(2x 2 y 2
21. (y
39.
41.
42.
x)
c.
ANSWERS
43. 2/(z
44
z)
c(7/
z)
0.
393
47.
loz =
51
!!
+ yl
?
2xy =
+ V_
Z
45. log(x
y)
lQnz
Cf
c.
+ 2 = M2/ 2 + &2 ), tan-1 5 ~

x 2 - 2/2 = ci, 7/2 - z 2 = C2
2
x =
2
=
Vx
-f 1, 2 =
y
(x + ci)
48. x 2
49.
50.
52.
Page 338
53. x 2
54. x 2
55. x
z2
~ Cl
+ Ci
+ ci = 0.
=<*
log
2
- xy = ci, z + x 2 - c 2 x
+ v=c *,2y = * +
l
<*.
c2
*+
_!
65.
Cl
c2
- c 2 ^.
= cie 2
66. 27 p^2 = 4(x - 2p) 3
a = c
2 =
x
6T. 3 2 - 4y = 0.
2 y.
y
-y ciz,
2 =
68.
X + T/+ z-Ci, x 2 + 2/2 + z 2 = c|.
4px + 4p 2
22
=c
=
=
69.
x*
c
e
2
x
z
x +
+
+
-y 2
ci,
2
2
70. x 3 + (x + 2p) y* = 0.
+ z 2 = c 2 z.
y = ciz, x +
2 - 2
71. (x 10 y 3 + 27 x = 0.
k(x + y) +
2
72. x 2 - 4 a (a - y) = 0.
4x2/ = c
73. x* + y = a
x 2 - 4 2/2 = 0.
2 (x - c) = k log (A;
V^ - y) T Vfc2 - 4 y2
-
56. x
e"
z/
57. x
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
74.
?/
2/
7/
2/
2/)
A;
0.
-i
Page 339
75. r
^=^0
To.
7*
81.
A
A
85. r
78. x 2
CC
82. x 2
84.
2x 2 +
77.
k.
family of circles tangent to

+ y 2 - ex + 1 = 0.
?/
?/
c2
80. y 2
c.
= e^
86. r
c(l-cos0).
CHAPTER
f or
c-
common
- o\
XVIII
Page 360
1.
2.
y
y
y
y
y
y
=
=
=
=
=
=
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
T*.
ce- 3 * + -J x 2
ce2x + e3x +
| x
ê
(sin
(3 sin x
5r +
x
cosx).
cosx).
+ 3x)e- +|(2x-l)e
ce- 4 x + 5 - ^V (2 cos 2 x -f sin 2 x).
e [c + 2x- Iog(e 2 r + 1)].
sin 5 x + 5 cos 5 x) +
ce 2x
(2 sin x +
-J-g (2
j
a;
-.
(c
= ex 4
= 4 ax +
.
OX at 0.
family of lemniscates having the line e
79. y
2 a2 logx
cos x).
axis.
4 a2
ANSWERS
394
8.
9.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
= Cl e 2 * + c 2 e-4*
10. y = Cl + c 2 x) e-**
= cie5x +c 2
11. y = cisinSx + c 2 cos3x.
y = e 3x (c!cos2x + C 2 sin2x).
x ~ Wy = cie* + c 2 e- 3 * - J x 4 - f x 3 - y z 2 x
y = GI(? + c 2 e- - 2 + f cos2x.
y = cie 2 * + c 2 e~ 5a; + ^j(9sin3x - 19 cos 3 x).
y= cie* + c 2 e- 4 *- f.
y = ci + c 2 e- 3 * + TL x4 + 1 x 3 - x 2 + x.
y = (ci + J x 3 -x 2 - f x)e 2 *+ c 2 e~ 8a:
y
7/
Page 361
19.
20.
=
=
=
21. y
22.
=
=
=
24. y
26. y
27.
y=(ci +
23. y
25.
+ c 2 x + l x 2 ex + 4 e 2 *.
3 - 6x 2
+
(ci + Caxje-^ + x
3 *.
c
x
e
+
2
log (x
[d
3)]
(ci
y.=
28.
GI sin
e 2x
c 2 x)e- 2 *H
2x
c2
125
(7 sin
3x
g2x
cos 2 x H
18 x
(sin 2
25.
24 cos 3
x).
2 cos 2 x).
c 2 cos x
J cos 2 x + ^3 cos 8 x.
+ (c 2 + x) sin 2 x.
1 x + x cos 2 x
GI cos x V3 + c 2 sin x V3 +
^
1 x) cos3x].
e 2x [cisin3x + (c 2
ci sin
cos 2 x
c\
2 sin 2 x.
e,
29. y
e~ x (ci cos 2 x
30.
e2
cos
ci
=d+
= GI +
32.
?/
33.
cie^
c 2 sin 2 x) -f
(|
h c 2 sin
C 2x
c2
C 3 e 3x
cos x
e
?/
35.
=
=
(ci
x2
3 x2
x
^) e~
3.
10 x
c 3 sin x.
-*/
2
(c 2 cos
xV3
hc 3 sm
xV3
34.
x2
31. y
+ c 2 x) cos x + (c 3 + c 4 x) sin x.
+ C!X + c 2 + c 3 cosx + c 4 sin x.
y
36. y
= -(e^-e-^+e^/2 / côs
4
V
_;
c2
37.
Cie~
e2
X
f
c2
cos
(2 sin
V2/
-^ +
_
sin-^-
V2
V2
c4
sin-^Y
V2/
cos x)
1
x
y ^ e~
(2 sin
3 cos x).
ANSWERS
= &^*(ci cos2x 4- c 2 sin 2 x) + e~ * (c a cos 2 x 4

e 8:r
+ &x*-?nT x
2
3
C
x
47
2x 4
3 e*.
= Ci 4 c 2 x 4 (1 x
x
c
^ x2 sin 2 x.
y = (ci + c 2 x) cos 2 x 4 (c 3 4
2
2 *.
x
)e
y = ci 4 x 4 (c 2 4- c 3 x +
- 3 x 2 + x 3 - } x4 + ^ x5
x
y = cie~ + c 2 + c 3 x
38. y
39.
40.
41.
42.
-^
c4
sin2x)
?/
43. x
ce 2 ,
ce2 .
6_
= ce 2 4f e5<-2e 2 y = ce 2 - fe^-e2
+ 1 e + ^V (5cos2 + sin2 ),
x = c est + c 2 e2
c
=
+ ^ e - ^V (17 cos 2 + 19 sin 2
3
2
cie
y
^ e- 2 c 2 e4 + ^.
x = cie + cae4 + -U-, y = Cie
4
3
x = c^ 3 + cae4 + 3, y = 2 Cie + Cae + 2.
2
+^ 3
x = ci + c 2 e 2 + c 3 e~ + -^ - |
- 2c 2 e2* + C8 e- + f
^2 + 3
y = 2ci + I
2
+ i 3
x = d + c 2 e 2 + c 3 e- 4- | - J
L<
44. x
45.
395
2<
).
<
46.
47.
48.
<
<
49.
50
<
3.
cos
-^ +
03 sin
V2
=
ec
cos
^
V2/
4- e
V2
^- +
V2
c 4 sin
^2 /c 3 sin -^ -
c 4 cos
c3
cos
- d sin -^^ +
V2/
V2/
V2
-)
V2/
Page 362
51.
52.
?/
?/
=X
53. y
54.
?/
CiX
[ci
+ ^x 3
cos (log x2 )
cos (2 logx)
ci
x2
c 2 x2
55. y
CiX
56.
z/
Cl
57.
4
4
ti
ca
4
2
(log x)
4- c 2 sin (log
C 2 sin (2
cos (logx)
4-c 2 x 2
x 2 )]
-]
logx)
c2
log x
c 3 sin
(logx)
c3
(5
-^-
(logx)
logx
2
2).
2
.
4^-^(logx)
2-3
22
21 x 2
x3
j,
59. y
S8.
ri
(35-42x +
4 x 3 ) 4-
(3
- 14x4-21x 2 ).
(r
2)
ANSWERS
396
3.8
61
- i (nz-3) + L-4
Cl
= cjl +
62.
"x.
ir
+ ^LZlil^ + n(-4)(,-18)
[2
|4
|_6
+ *(n-4)(n-16)...rn-(2r-2)1
...
4.6.6...(r
^FT^T
[8.6.7.8*
"
[2r
C2
xFl +
^^ + (!L^Hî^)
[3
63. s
Cl
cos
^+
ci
cos
Atf
a (A 2
a(h
c 2 sin
)(
jp) cos kt
9 )(^
25)
C os
W.
Page 370
(A
and
[n
(2r
9)
1)2]
n
2
(^
is
the constant
ratio.)
2 akh sin to
yfc.
did sin kt
sin A:, if
|2r
a(h*-k*)coskt
1) (n
|_7
"
65. h
[6
^+
c 2 sin kt
(n
^4
are the constant ratios.)
k.
CHAPTER XIX
25)
ANSWERS
397
Page 371
5.
6.
8.
= e- 2 2/[0i(x)cosy -f 2 (x)sin?/].
= ^x 2 y 2 -f 0i(y) + 02(z).
y,
(x
2
9.
(x
?/
2)
2)
0.
x2
8z
<t>[e-
(2x
<
0.
1^-
xyz\
0(^2/5
16.
\~
11.
0(x
2,
2
?/
2
)
(?/\
=
x
21.
22.
=-
77
?y
Ir sin x
(e\
= 0.
tan-i-J
- r 3 sin 3
sinx
- e3
0.
17.
(x
/
+
2<
(x
18.
0.
- r5 sin 5 x
sin3x
2
?/
2
,
z,
?/
xz
z 2)
?/ 2 \
I
+).
- e5
25
sin5x
-V
/
0.
0.
INDEX
Roman numerals
(The
Abscissa,
I,
refer to the volume, the Arabic to the page.)
36
Arc, differential in space rectangular
Absolute convergence, II, 283

Absolute value of complex number,
II,
305
length in plane polar coordinates,
Absolute value of real number,

Acceleration, I, 202
Adiabatic
line, II,
II,
283
207
differentiation,
equations
implicit,
I,
II,
I,
tegration, II, 94, 96
center of gravity by double inte

gration, II, 246
311
Angle between normal and focal

of ellipse,
derivative in polar coordinates,
radii
191
space curves,
II,
derivative in rectangular coordi

nates, I, 204
II, 47
;
determination by double integra

tion, II, 239, 240
184
straight lines in plane,
I,
57
determination by line integral,

260
lines in space, II,
183
determination
1,345
vectorial,
I,
I,
304
in
coordi
polar
nates, II, 67
329
determination in rectangular co
ordinates, II, 64
Arc, derivatives in plane polar coordi

nates, I, 347
derivatives in plane
coordinates, I, 196
II,
determination in oblique coordi

nates, II, 66
between tangent and radius vector,

eccentric, of ellipse,
I,
348
plane curves, I, 211

planes, II, 186
between straight
195
I,
Archimedes, spiral of, I, 332

Area, center of gravity by single in
integration, II, 26, 113, 119

Amplitude of complex number, II, 305
Analytic function,
length in space rectangular coordi

nates, II, 179
limit of ratio to chord,
178
Equations)
188
(see
I,
II, 77
length in plane rectangular coordi

nates, II, 75
Algebraic functions, classification, 1, 43

graphs, I, 121
between
between
between
between
coordinates, II, 180

I, 195
length defined,
moment
of
rectangular
of
differential in plane polar coordi
of inertia, II, 236
any surface,
ellipse,
I,
II,
304;
241
II,
65,
66,
261
nates, II, 79
of lemniscate, I, 348
of parabolic segment,
differential in plane rectangular
coordinates, II, 78
95
399
I,
216
II,
INDEX
400
Area
Center of gravity, of parabolic seg

ment, II, 95
of rose of three leaves, II, 69

of sphere, II, 242
of surface of revolution, II, 79
of plane area
projection of, II, 177
tion
representing definite integral,

41
II,
of complex number, II, 305

Asymptote, defined and illustrated, I,
Argument
128
of hyperbola,
I,
145
tion, II,
by multiple
single integration, II, 86

of cylinder, II, 252
of pressure of circle, II, 98
of wire, II, 87
of ellipse, I, 141
of hyperbola, I, 145
147
cumference,
of, II,
149
II,
360
II,
93
and general equation,
I,
II,
59
Cardioid, I, 337
radius of curvature,
Cassini, ovals of, I, 338
I,
II,
I,
I,
303
special case of ellipse, I, 142

tangent to known line, I, 136
through known point, I, 136

through three known points, 1, 138
with center on known line, I, 137
362
Catenary, equation and graph,

equation derived, II, 143
parametric equations,
polar equation, I, 342
pressure on, II, 89, 98

special case of conic, I, 149
Bisection of straight line, I, 39

Boyle-Mariotte s law, I, 43
I,
264
involute of, I, 311

of curvature, I, 354
Beams, bending moment
of conic,
I,
134
Bernouilli s equation, II, 148

Bessel s equation, II, 359
property of,
Center of circle,
supplemental,
definition
175
BessePs functions,
Binomial theorem,
of limits in definite integral, II, 49

of contact, I, 248
Chord
Circle, auxiliary of ellipse, I, 304

center of gravity of quarter cir
of revolution, II, 69
of symmetry, I, 121
I,
96
of spherical segment, II, 97

Center of pressure, II, 98
Change of coordinates (see Coordinates)
Auxiliary circle of ellipse, I, 304

Axes of coordinates (see Coordinates)
radical,
by double integra
246
of plane curve, II, 92

of quarter circumference, II, 93
of solid, II, 248
II,
integration, II,
252
I,
single integra
of solid or surface of revolution,
by
Axis of parabola,
by
94
of plane area
of hyperbolic spiral, I, 333
Attraction,
II,
Cissoid,
I,
281
152
134
238
of curvature, I, 356
Center of gravity, defined in plane, II,
90
defined in space, II, 245
of elliptic segment, II, 96, 247
I,
151
polar equation, I, 341

Clairaut s equation, II, 321
Coefficient, differential, II, 7
of element of a determinant,
I,
undetermined, in differential equa

tions, II, 350
undetermined, in partial fractions,
II,
104
Collinear points in a plane,

in space, II, 188
I,
38
Comparison test for convergence, II, 280
INDEX
Complex numbers, argument,
conjugate,
denned,
I,
II,
305
I,
304
II,
functions of,
307
II,
304
graphical representation, II,
modulus
operations with, I, 32
Complementary function,
Components
of force,
of velocity,
I,
I,
II,
II,
II,
I,
change in partial derivatives,

208
I,
229
I,
II,
I,
tangent,
234
I,
343
I,
246
through five points, I, 241

treatment of numerical equations,
I, 240
See also Ellipse, Hyperbola,
rabola
Pa
Conjugate axis of hyperbola, I, 145

complex numbers, I, 32
diameters of conic, I, 258
rectangular in plane,
I,
35
rectangular in space, II, 158

Curvature, center of I, 356
,
circle of,
I,
definition,
radius
354
I,
353
of, in
parametric form,
I,
of, in
polar coordinates,
I,
361
Conoid,
Constant, defined,
I,
of integration,
Contact, chord
193
oblique in space, II, 159

polar in plane, I, 329
polar in space, II, 231
radius
262
I,
217
II,
360
functions, II, 313
hyperbolas,
II, 173
I,
cylindrical, II, 231

oblique in plane, I, 223
247
I,
193
change of plane origin,

change of space origin,
in oblique coordinates, I, 244
polar equation,
221
change of direction of space axes,
general equation,
polar,
II,
change of direction of plane axes,
252
limiting cases,
II,
234
112
237
I,
to
polar, II, 231
change in multiple integrals,
200
Conies, classification,
definition, I, 148
I,
341
I,
change from space rectangular to
349
165
diameter,
polar,
cylindrical, II, 231
305
34
Concavity of plane curve,

Conchoid, I, 334
Cone,
224
I,
change from space rectangular
305
of, II,
Coordinates, Cartesian,
change from plane rectangular to

oblique, I, 224
change from plane rectangular to
32
31
401
radius of, in rectangular coordi
40
I,
of, I,
206
II,
12
248
point of, I, 105

Continuity of function of one variable,
I, 101
of function of
two
variables, II,
center of gravity,
II,
92
degree, I,
direction of space curve, II, 182
166"
equations of space curve,
200
Convergence, absolute,
comparison
nates, I, 354
Curve, Cartesian equation of plane
curve, I, 44
II,
test, II,
definition, II, 279
ratio test, II, 281
region of, II, 285
283
280
II,
of
parametric equations
curve, I, 302
170
plane
polar equation of plane curve,
330
second-degree curves,
I,
229
I,
INDEX
402
Curve, slope of plane curve,
tangent to plane curve,

tangent to space curve,
with given slope, I, 207
99
I,
Derivative of rectangular coordinates

with respect to plane arc, I, 196
104
I,
II,
189
of rectangular
See also Arc, Area, Curvature

II, 316
Curves, family of,
intersection of,
common
with
second,
161
I,
points of intersec
tion, I, 171
tangent
Cylinders,
to, I,
II,
I,
361
Descartes folium,
315
rule of signs,
applications
integrals,
geometry,
II, 64,
to
236
applications to mechanics, II, 86,
236
change of coordinates, II, 234

change of limits, II, 49
defined, II, 39
differentiation, II, 216
double,
II,
element,
222
II,
179
I,
I,
132
87
Determinants, defined,
elements, I, 4
173
expansion,
Definite
I,
See also Differentiation
169
II,
Cylindroid,
110
I,
sign of first, I, 106

sign of second, I, 1 1 1
theorems on,
Cycloid, I, 305
radius of curvature,
coordinates with
respect to space arc, II, 182

partial, II, 198
minors,
I,
I,
I,
properties, I, 6
solution of equations,
Diameters, conjugate,
of conic, 1, 252
of ellipse,
I,
I, 1,
12-23
258-262
256
I,
of parabola, I, 254
Differential, defined for one independ
ent variable, II, 6
64
evaluation, II, 47
graphical representation,
II,
41
defined for several independent

variables, II, 201
limits of, II, 40
exact, II, 269
properties, II, 45
formulas, II, 10
graphical representation for one
triple, II,
with
with
230
infinite integrand, II, 53

infinite limits, II, 52
Degree of plane curve,
166
I,
Derivative, applications,
I,
application to velocity,
defined, I, 102
higher,
I,
202, 203
I,
198
111, 187
higher partial,
I,
214
203
tions of s
of f(x, y)
tions of
and
t,
II, 206,
when x and
214
y are func
t, II, 202, 214
of polar coordinates with respect
to plane arc, I, 347
202
200
total, II,
illustration of partial, II, 199

of f(x, y) when x and y are func
II, 8
higher order, II, 10

of plane arc, II, 78
of space arc, II, 180
partial, II,
II, 212,
illustrations of,
independent variable,
graphical representation for two

independent variables, II, 206
when equal to zero, II, 209

Differential equations, (aix + biy
dx
(a%x
b2 y
146
Bernoulli
Bessel
s, II,
s, II,
Clairaut
148
359
s, II,
321
defined, II, 141
c2 )
dy
+ Ci)
= 0, II,
INDEX
Differential equations, first order, ex
istence of solution, II, 316
first
order not of
first
degree, II,
318
403
Differentiation, collected formulas, II,
10
defined,
I,
102
general formulas,
Laplace
s,
Laplace
368
s,
in plane, II, 366

in three dimensions,
Legendre
s, II,
linear, II,
340
II,
I,
184
of algebraic functions, I, 178

of definite integrals, II, 216
of exponential functions,
I, 284
of hyperbolic functions, I, 290
of implicit functions, I, 188
357
II,
constant coefficients, any

order, II, 348
210
linear,
of inverse hyperbolic
functions,
linear, constant coefficients, first
order, II, 341
of
linear, constant coefficients,
second
order, II, 343
constant coefficients, solu

tion by partial fractions, II, 347
linear, constant coefficients, solu
linear,
tion
by undetermined
cients, II,
coeffi
350
145
linear, II, 146
re sume
317
II,
variables
sepa
rable, II, 144
order of,
II,
partial, II.
143
363
Pdx + Qdy + Edz =
0,
integrable
0,
noninte-
328
Pdx + Qdy + Edz =

grable case, II, 335
problems in geometry,
II,
141,
in mechanics,
II,
142,
151, 327
problems
149, 153, 346, 367, 370
partial, II, 198
independent of order,
II,
213
successive, I, 187
use of logarithm, I, 288
See also Derivative, Differential
Direction, cosines defined, II, 180

cosines found from two equations
of line, II, 186
normal to plane, II, 184
of plane curve in polar coordi
nates, I, 345
of plane curve in rectangular co
ordinates, I, 197
of space curve, II, 182
of straight line in space, II, 180
Directrix of circle, I, 149
of conic, I, 148
of ellipse, I, 149
of hyperbola,
of parabola,
second order, special cases, II, 149

singular solutions, II, 325
simultaneous of first order, II,
332
I,
I,
149
146
Discontinuity defined,
examples
283
101
I,
of, I, 41, 128, 268, 282,
II,
292, 294
291
finite defined, II,
simultaneous,
linear,
coefficients, II,
solution
func
of
partial, linear of first order, II, 364
case, II,
trigonometric
276
of logarithmic
functions, I, 284
of polynomials, I, 103
of trigonometric
functions, I, 272
of w, I, 185
354
Mdx + Ndy = 0, exact, II, 270

Mdx+ Ndy = 0, homogeneous, II,
Mdx + Ndy - 0,
Mdx + Ndy = 0,
Mdx + Ndy = 0,
inverse
tions, I,
partial,
linear, variable coefficients, II,
I,
292
by
constant
series, II, 318,
Discriminant defined,
I,
117
i
353
:;:r,
of cubic equation, I, 114, 117

of quadratic equation, I, 73, 1 17
INDEX
404
Discriminant of quadratic equation in

two variables, I, 236
Equations, fractional roots, I, 90

first degree in two
variables, I, 52
Distance between two points in plane,

I, 36
degree in three variables, II,

161
first
between two points in space, II, 178

of point from plane, II, 191
of point from straight line, I, 63
Divergence,
e,
multiple roots,
I,
simultaneous, I, 161
simultaneous linear,
Elasticity, I, 204
Element of definite integral, II, 64
of determinant, I, 4
Eliminant,
Ellipse,
solution
angle between normal

I, 191
304
I,
II, 65, 66,
and
I,
I,
factoring, I, 77
of roots, I, 82
transcendental,
I,
293
I,
79
of ellipse, I, 358
differential in three variables,
II,
Exact
and simplest equation,
in
139
evolute,
by
with given roots,

Evolute, I, 357
261
center of curvature, I, 357

center of gravity of segment,
96, 247
definition
12
sum and product
I, 1
focal radii,
area,
I,
I,
simultaneous linear homogeneous,

1,21
23
I,
116
rational roots, I, 89
second degree in two variables,
229
280
Eccentric angle of ellipse, I, 304

Eccentricity of conic, I, 148
Elimination,
92
I,
I,
Newton s method of solution, 1, 1 14

number of roots, I, 80
279
II,
the number,
irrational roots,
II,
276
two variables,
II,
269
Expansion, coefficient, I, 204

Exponential equations, I, 295
358
expressed by general equation of

second degree, I, 231, 235
length, II, 77
Exponential function, differentiation,

I, 284
expansion,
parametric equations,
I,
303
special case of conic, I, 148

radius of curvature, I, 355
II, 58,
308
integrals, II, 25
of real number, I, 279
referred to conjugate diameters,

I,
259
Factoring of quadratic polynomial ,1,79
Ellipsoid, equation, II, 165
volume,
II, 73,
solution of equations by,
249
Factors, integrating,
Energy, kinetic, I, 203

Entropy, II, 272
Envelopes, II, 322
Epicycloid,
I,
Epitrochoid,
II, 314, 327

of liquid, II, 259, 266
Focus of conic, I, 148
orthogonal,
Flow
309
Equations, complex roots,

depression of, I, 79
I,
82
differential (see Differential

tions)
discriminant,
I,
117
I,
equa
of ellipse, I, 139
of parabola, I, 146
of Descartes, I, 132
Folium
77
328
list of integrating, II, 273

of polynomial, I, 81, 83
Families of curves, II, 316
307
I,
II, 271,
INDEX
Force,
I,
linear
General solution,
202
function, II,
Fractions, differentiation,
integration, II,
113
Generators, rectilinear, II, 172

Graph, I, 40
I,
182
Gravity
Harmonic
II,
311
250
I,
275
I,
property of polars,
249
I,
Heat, as line integral, II, 260
complementary, II, 349

conjugate, II, 313
continuous, one variable,
dependent on path,
derivatives, II, 269
I,
101
continuous, several variables,
II,
200
I,
division of line,
motion,
43
decreasing,
Center of gravity)
(see
partial, II, 104
Functions, analytic,
Bessel s, II, 360
differential
equation, II, 350
266
Forms, indeterminate, II, 295

Fourier s series, II, 290
classes, I,
405
106
entropy,
II,
267
272
II,
Helix, direction, II, 182

equation, II, 172
length, II, 180
differential equation, II,
defined, one variable, I, 40

defined, several variables, II, 158
Homogeneous
defined by equation of second de

gree, I, 127
Homogeneous equations, I, 21
Homogeneous functions, II, 145
Homer s method referred to, I, 92
graphical representation, one vari

able, I, 44
Hyperbola, conjugate,
graphical representation, two vari

ables, II, 159
implicit, I, 188; II, 210
increasing,
I,
I,
I,
100
increment, several variables, II, 200

involving fractions, I, 128
I,
142
146
I,
referred to conjugate diameters,

I,
259
special case of conic,
44
periodic, II, 290

total differential, II,
262

referred to asymptotes, I, 224
value, II, 54
notation,
I,
and simplest equation,
definition
equilateral,
106
increment, one variable,
mean
145
200
See also Algebraic, Exponential,
Hyperbolic, Logarithmic, Trans

cendental, Trigonometric func
tions
Gas, graph of Boyle-Mariotte s law,
1,43
illustrating differential, II, 8
illustrating function, II, 168
I,
149
Hyperbolic functions, defined,

differentiation, I, 290
I,
288
differentiation of inverse, I, 292
expansion,
II,
63
integrals leading to inverse, II, 24

inverse,
I,
291
Hyperbolic spiral, I, 332

Hyperboloid of one sheet,
of
two
II,
163
sheets, II, 165
Hypocycloid,
I,
309
four-cusped,
I,
132
illustrating partial derivative, II,
199
temperature-pressure-volume sur
face, II, 168
Imaginary unit,
numbers
I,
(see
31
Complex numbers)
surfaces, II, 160
INDEX
406
Implicit functions, general discussion,
210
II,
Line integrals
special case, I, 188

Increment of function of one variable,
100
I,
of functions of several variables,
200
II,
See also Definite, Indefinite, and
Indefinite integral, defined, II, 41
of
4- J3)
Vax 2 +
dx
bx
II,
12
Integrating factors,
II,
273
Integration, by parts, II, 30, 51

by substitution (see Substitution)
of, II, 12
definition, II, 12
elementary formulas, II, 26

fundamental formulas, II, 13
of rational fractions, II, 113
differential equations,
of simple
II,
141
possibility of, II, 32
26
II,
II,
constant
Vq + 6x, II, 29, 119

2
containing Va + bx + x II, 121
x 2 II, 122
containing Va + bx
2
x 2 II, 29
containing Va
2
2
containing Vx + a II, 29
2
2
Vx
a
containing
II, 29
containing
fundamental formulas,
dx
Integrand, defined,
infinite, II, 53
29
preliminary discussion,
special
methods
205
I,
119
of, II,
See also Definite and Indefinite
dx
of
6 cos
a cos x
b sin
integrals
Intercepts,
129
II,
6 sin x
of e ax sin 6x dx, e ax cos 6x dx, II,
31
sinxdx,
ctn m x
xsecxdx,
of
of
II,
M",
of x
(a
II,
28
II,
32
+ 6x)^dx,
Indeterminate forms,
Indicator diagram,
II, 120,
II,
130
II, 130,
135
II, 43,
54
Moment of inertia)
Infinitesimal, defined, II, 1
Infinitesimals,
fundamental theorems
on, II, 4
Infinity,
I,
I,
126 11,292
;
203
Latus rectum, I, 211

Legendre s coefficients, II, 359
Legendre s equation, II, 357
Lemniscate, I, 340
area,
295-301
Inertia (see
order
Kinetic energy,
1,
equation, in plane, II, 366

in three dimensions, II, 3(58
14
reduction formulas,
See also Integration
161
Isolated points, examples,
Laplace
Va2 -x2 dx,

Va2 + x2 dx,
169
I,
I,
csc"xdx,
II, 128
of
common
with
curves
points, I, 171
number of points,
Involute, I, 357
of circle, I, 311
cos w xdx, II, 123
of sin m xcosw xdx, II, 124, 135

of tanxdx, ctn w xdx, II, 126
of tan
53
of plane curves,
of rational fractions, II, 113

of sec M xdx, cscxdx, II, 127
of
I,
Intersection,
of, II, 1
I,
348
Cartesian equation,
Integral, particular, II, 349
341
I,
97
of ratio of arc to chord,

1
cos h
sin h
,
and
Limits of
29
Inflection, point of, II, 112, 194
I,
Length (see Arc and Distance)

Lima9on, I, 336
Limit, approached by variable, defined,
I,
195
I.
270
of (1
h}*
and
1
I,
283
INDEX
Limits, theorems relating to, I, 178
of definite integral, change of,
II,
49
407
Logarithmic function, differentiation

of, I, 284
expansion,
defined, II, 40
52
infinite, II,
II,
59
complex number, II, 310

of real number, I, 279
of
II, 267
Line integral, defined, II, 258
dependent on path, II,
independent of path, II, 203
Line, adiabatic,
Maclaurin
related to double integral, II, 2G1
Line,
two
determined by
I, 60
straight,
for functions of
determined by point and direction
in space, II, 190

direction cosines, II, 186
direction in plane, I, 55
II,
intersection in plane,
normal equation
I,
perpendicular lines in plane,
I,
perpendicular lines in space,

183
302
57
II,
polar equation in plane, I, 342

satisfying two conditions in plane,
1,58
I,
104
Linear partial differential equations,

><it
See also Equations and Differential
problems,
I,
II, 259,
I,
I,
velocity,
I,
204
34, 35
I,
200
vibrations, II, 346

deflection of girder, I, 110
damped
elasticity,
I,
204
flow of liquid,
gas
(see
II, 259,
Gas)
harmonic motion,
heat
266
202
I,
(see
I,
275
Heat)
height of atmosphere, I, 287

indicator diagram, II, 43
kinetic energy, I, 203
lever,
I,
192
266
236, 251
motion of particle
Motion)
280
pendulum,
316
Logarithm, Naperian,
force,
mean velocity, II, 54

moment of inertia, II,
momentum, I, 203
equations
Liquid, flow of,
Locus, I, 45
54
II,
202
I,
components of
components of
force,
tangent to space curve, II, 189

Linear algebraic equations, I, 1
Linear differential equations, II, 146, 340
:
value of function,
Mechanics and physics problems, ac
coefficient of expansion,
in plane, I,
tangent to plane curve,
192, 275
catenary, II, 142

center of gravity, II, 90, 245
center of pressure, II, 98
64
parallel lines in plane, I r 56

parallel lines in space, II, 183
parametric equations
variables, II,
attraction of cylinder, II, 252

beams, bending moment, II, 149
Boyle-Mariotte s law, I, 43
61
in plane,
I,
celeration,
170
I,
II,
adiabatic lines, II, 267

attraction of wire, II, 87
direction in space, II, 180

equation in plane, I, 50
equations in space,
two
108
I,
theorem,
by first derivative, I, 108

by second derivative, I, 112
test
Mean
58
determined by point and direction
II,
problems,
test
187
I,
205
determined by two points in space,
in plane,
defined,
discussed by Taylor
60
points in plane,
II,
287
s series, II, 55,
Maxima and minima
2(>7
II,
153
(see
INDEX
408
Mechanics and physics problems, po

203
tential, II,
Numbers,
rational, I, 28
29
real, I,
potential due to ring, II, 370
See also Complex numbers
pressure, II, 88
pressure-temperature-volume sur
face, II, 168
projectile,
formulas for
314
I,
refraction of light,
I,
saturated steam,
42
I,
192
Order of
II,
367
work (see Work)

Minima (see Maxima)
Minors of determinant, I, 4
Modulus of complex number,
Moment, bending,
Moment
II,
II,
305
149
area, II, 236

rectangle, II, 224
251
particle, falling in resisting
medium,
harmonic,
in circle,
path
I,
Paraboloid,
projected upwards,
I, 199
I,
203
II,
346
elliptic, II,
tion, I, 207
II,
equation of straight
to plane, II, 184
line, I,
to plane curve, I, 191

to straight line, I, 59
to surface, II, 204, 211
classification, I, 28
31
I,
I,
28
II,
304
64
I,
148
162
166
I,
315
Partial fractions, II, 104

derivative, II, 198
differential, II,
Newton s solution of equations, I, 114

Normal equation of plane, II, 185
I,
95
tangent plane, II, 205

Parametric equations, I, 302
differentiation,
with given velocity and accelera
irrational,
95
tangents at end of
I, 132
to
hyperbolic,
vibrating in resisting medium,
complex,
II,
II,
path of projectile, I, 314

referred to diameter and tangent,
I, 255
semicubical, I, 131
special case of conic,
314
uniform,
Numbers,
327
latus rectum,
313
of, I,
II,
cubical, I, 74
definition and simplest equation,
referred
275
314
I,
in ellipse,
292
I,
I,
Ordinarte, I, 36
length, II, 77
203
I,
differential equation, II, 143

sphere, II, 251
Momentum,
342
146
any plane
Motion of
II,
Parabola, area of segment, 1, 216;

of inertia, defined, II, 236
solid, II,
D -a
Orthogonal trajectories,
Ovals of Cassini, I, 338
198
I,
340
II,
of infinitesimal, II,
temperature in long plate,

uniform motion, I, 199
velocity,
Operator, differential,
202
differential equations, II, 363
Particular integral,
II,
349
Parts, integration by, II, 30, 51
Pedal curves,
Pendulum,
II,
I,
319
153
Periodic function,
II,
290
Physics (see Mechanics)

Plane determined by normal and point,
II, 184
determined by three points,
II,
190
INDEX
Plane, direction of normal, II, 184
distance of point from, II, 191
equation, II, 161
normal equation,
II,
parallel planes, II, 183

II,
through given straight

Polars, I, 247
192
derivative of,
I,
factors, I, 81,
83
first
degree,
I,
fractional,
I,
329
43
I,
multiple,
I,
number
sum and
50
product,
Ruled surfaces,
I,
I,
78
82
leaves, I, 331
area, II, 69
121
Segments of
Pressure, II, 88
center of, II, 98
II,
172
addition of,
line,
Series, convergent, II,
I,
32
279
divergent, II, 279
98
circle, II, 89,
Fourier
Prismoid, II, 75
Prismoidal formula,
II, 74,
Products, graphs of,
I,
I,
173
harmonic,
Maclaurin
83
314
in
II,
II,
279
280
s, II,
operations with,
power, II, 284
55, 287
II, 59,
286
solution of differential equations
by,
curvature
290
s, II,
geometric,
Projection in plane, I, 34
in space, II, 176
parametric
form, I, 360
of curvature in polar coordinates,
318, 356
II,
Taylor
s, II,
65, 287
Sine, graphical construction, I, 267

Singular points of curve, II, 324
solution of differential equation,
1,361
curvature in rectangular co
ordinates, I, 354
vector, I, 329
Rate of change, I, 203
Ratio test for convergence, II, 281

Rationalization of integrals, II, 119
Reduction formulas, algebraic,

trigonometric,
80
rational, I, 89
relation to factors,
square root
of
116
of, I,
of unity, II, 307
Potential due to ring, II, 370

rate of change, II, 203
Radius of
90
86
location,
Rose of three
Projectile, path of,
82
I,
I,
nth degree, I, 74
second degree, I, 70
on
80
II,
irrational, I, 92, 114
97
of, I,
168
II,
69
solid, II,
Roots, complex,
line, II,
of system of coordinates,
I,
equation of surface,
Ring-surface, area,
volume, II, 71
183
reciprocal, I, 251
Pole of straight line, I, 247
Polynomial, defined,
Revolution, center of gravity of sur

face or solid, II, 96
volume of
185
perpendicular planes,
tangent, II, 204, 211
409
II,
II,
134
Region of convergence,
II,
325
99
Space coordinates (see Coordinates)

Sphere, area, II, 242
equation,
moment
II,
I,
of straight line, I, 64
Solid (see Center of gravity, Moment
of inertia, and Volume)

II, 178
285
Resultant, I, 23
Revolution, area of surface,
130
II,
Slope of plane curve,
79
of inertia, II, 251
Spiral of Archimedes,
I,
332
II,
97
INDEX
410
Spiral, hyperbolic,
Transformation of coordinates
332
I,
333
Statistics, graphs, I, 41
Stokes s theorem, II, 274
logarithmic,
Trigonometric equations,
polar,
I,
I,
expansion,
general discussion,
II,
integration, II, 123
119
inverse,
suggestions for, II, 29

I,
I,
I,
269
inverse, expansion, II, 59, 62

in definite integrals, II, 49
polar,
293
I,
II, 58, 62, 308

integrals leading to inverse, II, 19
210
351
Substitution, integration by, II, 27
Sub tangent,
of real
210
351
Trochoid,
Successive differentiation, I, 187

Supplemental chords, I, 264
number,
I,
266
306
I,
Undetermined
coefficients
(see
Absolute and
I, 40
Mean
of second order, II, 162-168
Value
of revolution, II, 168
Variable, defined,
ruled, II, 172
Variation of sign in polynomial,

Vector, II, 304
tangent plane to, II, 204, 211

See also Area, Center of gravity,
Moment of inertia, Volume
Symmetry,
Tangent
method
of elimination,
axis of,
to circle,
I,
I,
1,
24
radius,
I,
value)
I,
to conies, general equation,
329
I,
104;
II,
I,
246
of parabola,
Volume, any
common
210
I,
144
147
I,
solid, II,
to
two
249
cylinders, II, 74
to space curves, II, 189, 212
cylindrical coordinates, II, 232
to surface, II, 204, 211
ellipsoid, II, 73,
with given slope, I, 163

Taylor s series for one variable,
II,
II,
prismoidal formula,
233
II,
solid of revolution, II,
for several variables, II, 288

Temperature of long plate, II, 367
as parameter,
Total differential,
Tractrix, II, 142
249
polar coordinates,
55, 287
Time
I,
II,
313
solid
Witch,
Work,
II,
I,
Transcendental equations, I, 293

Transcendental functions of complex
number, II, 307-311
Transcendental functions of real
ber, I, 266
num
II,
72
149
defined, II,
I,
194
40
dependent on path,
327
74
69
with parallel bases,
points of inflection,
200
Trajectories, orthogonal,
87
329
Vectorial angle,
Velocity, I, 198
of hyperbola,
190
I,
(see
components, I, 200
Vertex of ellipse, I, 141
121
to conies, simplest equations, 1, 190
to plane curve,
Co
efficients)
Surface, normal line, II, 204, 211
Sylvester s
Co
Trigonometric functions, differentia

tion, I, 272
differentiation of inverse, I, 276
Straight line (see Line)

Strophoid, I, 152
Subnormal,
(see
ordinates)
I,
II,
267
expressed by indicator diagram,

II, 43
expressed as line integral, II, 259
independent of path, II, 266
Zero,
I,
29
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A COURSE IN

PKOFKSSOKS OF MATHEMATICS IN THE MASSACHUSETTS

GINN & COMPANY

NEW YORK CHICAGO LONDON

WOODS AND FREDERICK

here laid upon the

fundamental processes, and the conception of the definite

well grounded in these matters are the more

feature of this part of the book

a chapter on simple differential

equations in close connection with integration and long before the

With the ninth chapter

the study of functions of two or more

introduced and accompanied by the use

elements of solid analytic

special feature here

latter part of the

complex number, and

consists of chapters on series, the

many things properly belonging to an ex

In conclusion the authors wish to renew their thanks to the

continued helpful suggestion and criticism, and to extend

thanks to their former colleague, Professor

University, for the construction of the

drawings particularly in space geometry.

1-2. Order of infinitesimals

5-6. Graphical representation

Differentials of higher orders

ELEMENTARY FORMULAS OF INTEGRATION

Integrals of trigonometric functions

16. Integrals of exponential functions

24. Properties of definite integrals

The mean value

and Maclaurin s series

Element of a definite integral

of a plane curve in rectangular coordinates

Area of a surface of revolution

47. Center of gravity

48. Center of gravity of a plane curve

51. Center of pressure

INTEGRATION OF RATIONAL FRACTIONS

53-54. Separation into partial fractions

58. Integration of rational fractions

SPECIAL METHODS OF INTEGRATION

60. Integrand containing fractional powers of a

63. Integrand containing integral powers of

Integrals of the form

68. Integrals of the

69. Integrals of the

forms ftan m o; sec n xdx and Cctnm x

67. Integrals of the

71. Algebraic reduction formulas

INTEGRATION OF SIMPLE DIFFEREN

variables can be sepa

The homogeneous equation Mdx Ndy =

82. Certain equations of the second order

FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES

Functions of more than one variable

Rectangular coordinates in space

87. Surfaces of revolution

89-90. Space curves

PLANE AND STRAIGHT LINE

between two points