Waste Management 25 (2005) 177182

www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Leaching and mechanical behaviour of concrete manufactured

with recycled aggregates
D. Sani, G. Moriconi, G. Fava *, V. Corinaldesi
Department of Materials and Environmental Engineering and Physics, Marche Polytechnical University, Via Brecce Bianche 12, Ancona 60131, Italy
Accepted 17 December 2004

Abstract
The reuse of debris from building demolition is of increasing public interest because it decreases the volume of material to be
disposed to landll. This research is focused on the evaluation of the possibility of reusing recycled aggregate from construction
or demolition waste (C&D) as a substitute for natural aggregate in concrete production.
In most applications, cement based materials are used for building construction due to their cost eectiveness and performance;
however their impact on the surrounding environment should be monitored. The interstitial pore uid in contact with hydrated
cementitious materials is characterized by persistent alkaline pH values buered by the presence of hydrate calcium silicate, portlandite and alkaline ions. An experimental plan was carried out to investigate concrete structural properties in relation to alkali
release in aqueous solution. Results indicate that the presence of recycled aggregate increases the leachability of unreactive ions
(Na, K, Cl), while for calcium the substitution resulted in a lower net leaching. In spite of the lower mechanical resistance (40%
less), such a waste concrete may be suggested as more environmentally sustainable.

2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction
The disposition of waste materials coming from construction and demolition (C&D) of buildings, including
their disposal and treatment for recycling, is gaining
importance. Historically, the relations between building
and the environment focused on the impact of the building; on the other hand, the present focus of public opinion and legislators is turned to the reduction of both raw
material consumption and waste production.
In parallel, C&D waste disposal is dicult and economically onerous with regard to the diculty in nding
new landll areas. Therefore, a strategy for satisfying all
requirements (nding new raw materials, disposal and
reduction of the waste volume) seems to be recycling.
The cement and concrete industry has already contrib*

Corresponding author. Tel.: +39 071 220 4740; fax: +39 071 220
4729.
E-mail address: fava@univpm.it (G. Fava).
0956-053X/$ - see front matter
2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.wasman.2004.12.006

uted to the solution of analogous problems; a typical

example is the growing widespread use of y ash and/
or silica fume in cement pastes (Malhotra and Ramezanianpour, 2001; Malhotra, 2001). In the same way, recycled aggregates are increasingly used as a substitute for
natural aggregates.
This paper is aimed at evaluating this possibility. In
particular, the feasibility of recycled aggregate concrete
was checked in terms of mechanical performance and
leaching behaviour. The experimental activity was carried out on dierent types of concrete characterized by
low mechanical performances, with the aim of emphasizing the eects of both chemical degradation and
leachability. The dierent types of concrete were manufactured either by using natural aggregate as reference
or totally replacing the natural aggregate with the recycled one or, eventually, adding y ash as a mineral addition. The leachability of these cement-based products
was assessed by means of a dynamic leaching test, in
which solidied cubes were immersed in aqueous solu-

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D. Sani et al. / Waste Management 25 (2005) 177182

tions, and the solution renewed at variable time

intervals.

2. Mix design and experimental activity

Characterization and selection of aggregates, when
they come from the recycling process, are fundamental
steps; in fact the use of selective demolition techniques
only partially compensates for the composition variability. In this work, the recycled aggregate came directly
from an industrial crushing plant (located in Villa Musone, Ancona, Italy), in which debris from building
demolition is suitably selected, ground, cleaned and
sieved in a selective crushing system named R.O.S.E.
(Italian acronym: Recupero Omogeneizzato degli Scarti
per lEdilizia). These aggregates were characterized
according to the procedures of UNI 8520, which is related to the requirements of natural aggregates for their
use in concrete.
The main results relative to recycled aggregate characterization are reported in Table 1. For the preparation of all concrete a commercial Portland cement,
type CEMII/A-L42.5R according to European Norm
EN-197/1, was used. The aggregate fractions (sand
and gravel, both natural and recycled) were suitably arranged, with the aim of reproducing the optimal grain
size distribution of solid particles as indicated by the
Bolomey curve (Collepardi, 1991; Bolomey, 1975). An
ordinary concrete, containing natural inert material
with a maximum diameter of 15 mm, was manufactured and assumed as a reference. The natural aggregate was a suitable combination of common crushed
limestone aggregate and natural sand. On the other
hand, the coarse and ne fractions of recycled aggregate were used to manufacture all of the other specimens by replacing entirely the natural aggregate. In
general, concrete with recycled aggregate is lighter than

Table 1
Recycled aggregate characterization
Sand (05 mm)
Composition (% in weight)
Masonry
Inert
Concrete
Bitumen
Wood, glass, plastic, etc.
Volumic mass (kg/m3)
Water absorption (%)
Releases in water (mg/kg)
Calcium
Sodium
Potassium
Chloride
Chromate

Table 2
Mixture proportions (ingredient dosages expressed in kg/m3)
Concrete

Natural

Recycled

Recycled + fa

Water
Cement
Fly ash (fa)
Sand
Gravel

250
390

730
1100

250
390

310
1240

250
390
120
190
1240

natural, with changes ranging between 5% and 10%. As

a substitute for the sandy fraction, in some mixtures,
y ash was added, maintaining the same cement
amount and the same water-to-binder ratio (w/b).
The concrete mixture proportions are reported in
Table 2; a water/binder ratio of 0.6 and a uid consistency (slump S4) were adopted. Specimens were removed from the moulds after 24 h and air cured for
90 d to minimize transitory phenomena due to concrete
and y ash hydration.
Characterization of the manufactured concrete was
carried out by means of both mechanical and microstructural tests through compressive strength measurements, mercury intrusion technique, X-ray diraction
and dierential thermal analysis.
Leaching of the concrete was monitored by means of
a dynamic leaching test, which is a suitable method for
estimating release of the most representative soluble ions
concerning aggregates and cementitious materials. The
test procedure reects Italian law (D.M.A. 5 February,
1998) that requires leaching of solid cubic specimens
(100 100 100 mm) in the presence of deionised water
at room temperature of 20 5 C. The leaching solution
was periodically renewed during a period of 16 d; the renewal times were: 2, 8, 24, 48, 72, 102, 168 and 384 h.
Analysis of soluble alkalis (calcium, sodium, potassium)
and chloride were performed on sampled solutions
through ionic chromatography (Dionex 4500i, analytical
columns IonPac AS4A and CS12). Further useful information was gathered from electrical conductivity and
pH.

Gravel (515 mm)

3. Mechanical and structural characterization

32
30
35
2
1

25
29
45
0,5
0.5

2280
15.8

2350
7.4

32
30
35
2
1

25
29
45
0.5
0.5

Compressive strength results, as average values of ve

determinations, are reported in Table 3. In general, the
adoption of a high water-to-binder ratio, air curing
and the complete absence of water-reducing admixtures
in the mixtures, justify the relatively low values of the
measured mechanical strength (1830 MPa). In agreement with data reported in the literature (Hansen,
1992; Kasai, 1988; Dhir et al., 1998), the use of recycled
aggregates produces a mechanical strength loss probably
ascribed to fracture on the aggregate rather than in the
cement matrix (Corinaldesi et al., 1999). In particular,

D. Sani et al. / Waste Management 25 (2005) 177182

Table 3
Mechanical and micro-structural concrete characterization

179

Table 4
Content in percentage of some concrete constituents

Concrete

Natural

Recycled

Recycled + fa

Compressive strength (MPa)

Volumic mass (kg/m3)
Total open porosity (%)
Macro-pores (%)
Meso-pores (%)
Micro-pores (%)
Specic surface area (m2/kg)

30 2
2400
12
8
16
76
4200

18 2
1800
23
10
19
71
8700

21 2
2000
19
5
12
83
9600

Ettringite (%)
Gypsum (%)
Portlandite (%)
Quartz (%)
Calcite (%)

Natural

Recycled

Recycled + fa

1.7
2.2
4.4
6.3
44.2

2.0
2.2
3.3
7.9
29.6

2.0
2.5
1.7
5.6
21.3

nic eect, which is obviously increased by y ash addition. The presence of calcite in its crystalline and less
water-soluble form, even if in dierent amounts, was detected in both natural and recycled aggregates (see Fig.
1). Therefore, the greater level of portlandite in the concrete containing natural aggregate seems to indicate a
greater availability of soluble calcium.

the whole natural inert substitution leads to a decrease

in strength of approximately 40%. However, as indicated by the results reported in Table 3, the loss can
be contained by adding y ash, as conrmed by the literature (Ravindrarajah and Tam, 1988; Wainwright and
Cabrera, 1994; Costabile, 2001; Corinaldesi and Moriconi, 2001). Within this context, compressive strength
seems to be inversely related to the total open porosity
values (see Table 3).
Concrete specimens prepared with recycled aggregate
were characterized by the highest percentages of macro/
meso-pores, thus suggesting greater tendency to leaching. As far as y ash addition is concerned, it involves
an increase in the micro-pores at the expense of
macro/meso-pores, rening the concrete microstructure
with respect to ordinary concrete (Corinaldesi et al.,
2001).
The X-ray diraction determinations conrm the
same average composition for all mixtures (see Fig. 1).
However, while the relative percentage between ettringite and gypsum, detected by dierential thermal analysis,
is comparable (see Table 4), the relative content of portlandite is totally dierent. The reduction of portlandite
when using recycled aggregate suggests a light pozzola-

4. Leaching characterization
Electrical conductivity of leachate, observed for the
whole set of observations, ranges from 4 to 8 mS cm 1
as shown in Fig. 2. The highest values were obtained
in the presence of recycled aggregates, while the lower
with natural aggregates. Fly ash addition to cementitious mixtures containing recycled aggregates appears
to diminish the leaching of ions. The variability observed within each concrete mixture may be attributed
to the curing conditions: higher values were obtained
in summer, lower in winter. Leachate pH remains alkaline throughout the whole testing period, oscillating between 10.3 and 11.4; such a range falls in the Italian
reference limits (D.M.A. 5 February, 1998).
The electrical conductivity values, if referred to the
specic surface area of concrete (calculated from the

5000
calcite
4000

Counts

quartz

recycled aggregate + fly ash calcite

3000

recycled aggregate

2000

natural aggregate

1000

0
0

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45

Fig. 1. X-ray diraction analysis of concretes with w/b = 0.60.

50

55

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D. Sani et al. / Waste Management 25 (2005) 177182

10
cumulated ion releases
[mS cm-1]

natural aggregate
recycled aggregate

recycled aggregate + fa

6
4
2
0

100

200
time [h]

300

400

Fig. 2. Electrical conductivity values accumulated during the time test.

5
natural aggregate
recycled aggregate

-1

recycled aggregate + fa

0
0

100

fractional cumulated ion release [mS cm-1 m-2 ]

(a)

200
time [h]

300

400

0,0007

natural aggregate
recycled aggregate
recycled aggregate + fa

0,0006

relative concentration [-]

-1

fractional cumulated ion release [mS cm kg ]

porosity measures reported in Table 3), show a higher

release for concretes manufactured with natural aggregate with respect to those manufactured with recycled
aggregate (see Fig. 3(a)). On the other hand, if referred

to the volumic mass (Table 3), this behaviour is the

opposite (see Fig. 3(b)). Even if apparently incongruous,
this observation is in agreement with the structural
properties of the mixtures: the higher volumic mass of
those types of concrete manufactured with natural
aggregates balances their smaller porosity and specic
surface areas, causing a release lower for unit weight
but higher for unit surface. In any way, y ash addition
gives the lowest values of water ion release: in fact, the
availability of specic ions is reduced by a smaller volumic mass, associated to a rened cement matrix and
therefore to a higher specic surface area (Table 3).
The concentration proles of sodium and potassium
ions accumulated during the time of testing are in
proportion to the electrical conductivity curves
(Figs. 2 and 4); while, as far as calcium prole is concerned, water concentrations observed for the concrete
manufactured with natural aggregate are always the
highest. Taking the content in percentage of concrete
constituents into consideration (Table 4), the high calcium release of the natural concrete can be attributed
to a greater portlandite content and therefore to a greater
content of soluble calcium. In short, ion leachability is
inuenced by a combination of chemical and physical effects and the higher chemical reactivity of recycled
aggregate and/or y ash, as indicated by portlandite
content, justies the lower calcium release rate.
The rate of ion releases was closely examined by calculating apparent diusion coecient (Da) through the
porous cement matrix during the leaching test. The measured concentrations for calcium, sodium, potassium
and chloride were interpolated using a semi-empirical
mathematical expression (Sani et al., 2003; Cote` and
Constable, 1987) based on a simple leaching likediusion mechanism. The regressed values, reported in
Table 5, point out agreement with other values reported

0,0005
0,0004
0,0003
0,0002
0,0001

potassium_natural
potassium_recycled
calcium_natural
calcium_recycled

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2

0
0

(b)

100

200
time [h]

300

400

Fig. 3. (a) Electrical conductivity values referred to the volumic mass

of concrete. (b) Electrical conductivity values referred to the specic
surface area of concrete.

8
12
time [days]

15

18

Fig. 4. Regression lines for potassium and calcium time release in

concrete manufactured with natural and recycled aggregates.

D. Sani et al. / Waste Management 25 (2005) 177182

181

Table 5
Apparent diusion coecients and tortuosity factors
Natural
2

Recycled
1

D (cm s ) 10
Chloride
Potassium
Sodium
Calcium

2.0
2.5
2.3
14.0

Recycled + fa
1

s []

D (cm s ) 10

s []

D (cm2 s 1) 107

s []

0.01
0.01
0.02
0.18

4.0
3.8
3.8
8.0

0.02
0.02
0.03
0.10

n.d.
2.3
3.0
5.0

n.d.
0.01
0.02
0.06

n.d., not determined.

in the literature (Suryavanshi et al., 2002), particularly

when
chloride
apparent
diusion
coecients
(2.0 10 7 cm2 s 1) were compared, although obtained
at dierent boundary conditions.
As expected, the ion apparent diusion coecients
concerning concrete prepared with recycled aggregate
are higher, with the only exception being calcium (see
Fig. 4). The apparent tortuosity factors of Na, K, Cl
ions result quite homogeneous within the same mixture
(Table 5). Otherwise, considering the matrix eect, the
recycled tortuosity factor is 40% higher than that obtained in the presence of natural aggregate (Table 5),
thus conrming the greater leachability of its porous
structure.
Fly ash addition in recycled aggregate concrete supplies the lowest Da and s values, in agreement with the
electrical conductivity results. In general, compressive
strength results, macro/meso-pore levels, and diusionlike leaching behaviours tend to the same ranking.

5. Conclusions
The present research was conducted in order to verify the possibility to use C&D debris as substitute for
natural aggregate in structural concrete production.
The results obtained demonstrate that such substitution
modies both structural and leaching behaviour. In
general, the use of recycled aggregate as a total replacement for natural aggregate causes an increase of the total porosity and a reduction in mechanical strength that
can be attenuated by y ash addition. Although the total porosity increases, the ion leaching rate expressed
for unit of specic surface area is lower and directly related to the percentage of macro/meso-pores. The calcium, sodium and potassium analyses indicate that
dierent processes are operating, but also suggest that
the diusion process is the most relevant leaching
mechanism.
On the basis of these rst observations, the use of recycled aggregate implies a reduction in the rate of calcium
release, in spite of a greater porosity of its microstructure. This eect was ascribed to the lower portlandite level, responsible for the soluble calcium. From this
point of view, the recycled aggregate, if properly
engineered, could have a positive environmental eect.

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