Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Streptococcus pneumoniae cells are Gram-positive, lancet-shaped cocci (elongated cocci with
a slightly pointed outer curvature). Usually, they are seen as pairs of cocci (diplococci), but
they may also occur singly and in short chains. When cultured on blood agar, they are alpha
hemolytic. Individual cells are between 0.5 and 1.25 micrometers in diameter. They do not
form spores, and they are nonmotile. Like other streptococci, they lack catalase and ferment
glucose to lactic acid. Unlike other streptococci, they do not display an M protein, they
hydrolyze inulin, and their cell wall composition is characteristic both in terms of their
peptidoglycan and their teichoic acid.
noncovalently bound to the choline moiety of the cell wall and are used to "snap" various
different functional elements onto the bacterial surface. The CBPs all share a common Cterminal choline-binding domain while the N-termini of the CBPs are distinct, indicating their
functions are different. The CBP family includes such important determinants of virulence
such as PspA (protective antigen), LytA, B, and C (three autolysins), andCbpA (an
adhesin).
Genetics
S. pneumoniae has a natural transformation system as a mechanism for genetic
exchange. This process is of medical significance because it clearly underlies the explosion of
antibiotic resistance in the bacterium over the past 20 years. For example, penicillin
resistance is due to altered penicillin-binding proteins (PBPs) that exhibit a low affinity for
beta lactam antibiotics. Comparison of the nucleotide sequences encoding the PBPs in S.
pneumoniae and S. mitis demonstrates that horizontal gene transfer has occurred between
these two bacteria. In the laboratory,S. pneumoniae can also be transformed with genes from
related and unrelated bacteria. As well, in the upper respiratory tract of the host, horizontal
exchanges of genetic information could take place between strains of pneumococci that cohabitate or compete for dominance as normal flora.
Streptococcus pneumoniae can also develop antibiotic resistance by the timeless process of
mutation and selection. The bacterium has a relatively fast growth rate and achieves large
cell densities in an infectious setting, These conditions not only favor the occurrence natural
transformation but also the emergence of spontaneous mutants resistant to the antibiotic.
During transformation, the binding, uptake and incorporation of exogenous DNA occur as a
sequence of programmed events during a physiologically defined state known
as competence. Competent bacteria self-aggregate, easily form protoplasts, are prone to
autolysis and have an increased H+ and Na+ content that leads to increased glycolysis and
enhanced ATP reserves. A unique set of at least 11 proteins is preferentially expressed during
competence. Early in the competent state, a 17 amino acid peptide, known as competencestimulating peptide (CSP) is released from the growing bacteria. CSP induces competence
when it reaches a critical concentration that depends on the cell density, consistent with a
quorum-sensing model.
Pathogenesis
Pneumococci spontaneously cause disease in humans, monkeys, rabbits, horses, mice and
guinea pigs. Nasopharyngeal colonization occurs in approximately 40% of the population.
Pneumonia and otitis media are the most common infections, meningitis being much more
variable. The rabbit and the mouse have been used extensively as animal models of disease,
leading to a reasonable understanding of many of the pneumococcal determinants of
virulence.
Colonization
Pneumococci adhere tightly to the nasopharyngeal epithelium by multiple mechanisms that,
for most individuals, appears to result in an immune response that generates type-specific
immunity. For some people, however, progression into the lungs or middle ear occurs.
resulting in production of interleukin-1, interleukin-6 and tumor necrosis factor from human
cells.
Choline Binding Proteins
The CBP family includes such important determinants as PspA (protective antigen),LytA, B,
and C (three autolysins), and CbpA (an adhesin).
The protective antigen (PspA) is a 6 kDa protein with 10 choline-binding repeats. PspA
appears to inhibit complement-mediated opsonization of pneumococci, and mutants lacking
PspA have reduced virulence. Antibodies against PspA confer passive protection in mice.
Autolysin LytA is responsible for pneumococcal lysis in stationary phase as well as in the
presence of antibiotics. The protein has two functional domains: a C-terminal domain with six
choline-binding repeats that anchor the protein on the cell wall, and an N-terminal domain
that provides amidase activity. Autolysin LytB is a glucosaminidase involved in cell
separation, and LytC exhibits lysozyme-like activity.
CbpA is a major pneumococcal adhesin. It has eight choline-binding repeats. The adhesin
interacts with carbohydrates on the pulmonary epithelial surface carbohydrates. CbpAdeficient mutants are defective in colonization of the nasopharynx and fail to bind to various
human cells in vitro. CbpA also has been reported to bind secretory IgA and complement
component C3.
Hemolysins
In addition to surface-associated virulence determinants, pneumococci secrete exotoxins. Two
hemolysins have been described, the most potent of which is pneumolysin. Pneumolysin is
a 53kDa protein that can cause lysis of host cells and activate complement. It is stored
intracellularly and is released upon lysis of pneumococci. Pneumolysin binds to cholesterol
and thus can indiscriminately bind to all cells without restriction to a receptor. The protein
assembles into oligomers to form transmembrane pores which ultimately lead to cell lysis.
Pneumolysin can also stimulate the production of inflammatory cytokines, inhibit beating of
the epithelial cell cilia, inhibit lymphocyte proliferation, decrease the bactericidal activity of
neutrophils, and activate complement. A second hemolysin activity has been described but
has not been identified. In addition, pneumococci also produce hydrogen peroxide in amounts
greater than human leukocytes produce. This small molecule is also a potent hemolysin.
Pili
As mentioned above, pili contribute to colonization of upper respiratory tract and increase the
formation of large amounts of tumor necrosis factor.
Hydrogen peroxide
H2O2 produced by the pneumococcus causes damage to host cells (e.g. can cause apoptosis
in neuronal cells during meningitis) and has bactericidal effects against competing bacteria
such as Staphylococcus aureus.
Neuraminidase and IgA protease
These exoenzymes produced by the bacteria have a presumptive role in virulence as they do
in other pathogens.
Epidemiology
S. pneumoniae is a transient member of the normal flora, colonizing the nasopharynx of up to
40% of healthy adults and children with no adverse effects. Children carry this pathogen in
the nasopharynx asymptomatically for about 4-6 weeks, often several serotypes at a time.
New serotypes are acquired approximately every 2 months. Serotypes 6, 14, 18, 19, and 23
are the most prevalent, accounting for 60-80% of infections depending on the area of the
world. Pneumococcal infection accounts for more deaths than any other vaccine-preventable
bacterial disease. Those most commonly at risk for pneumococcal infection are children
between 6 months and 4 years of age and adults over 60 years of age. Virtually every child
will experience pneumococcal otitis media before the age of 5 years. It is estimated that 25%
of all community-acquired pneumonia is due to pneumococcus (1,000 per 100,000
inhabitants).
Until 2000, S. pneumoniae infections caused 100,000-135,000 hospitalizations for
pneumonia, 6 million cases of otitis media, and 60,000 cases of invasive disease, including
3300 cases of meningitis. (CDC reported 60,000 cases of invasive pneumococcal disease in
1997, resulting in approximately 6,000 deaths.) The incidence of sterile-site infections haS
shown geographic variation from 21 to 33 cases per 100,000 population. Disease figures are
now changing due to conjugate vaccine introduction. In 2002, the rate of invasive disease
was 13 cases per 100,000 in the United States. However, epidemics of disease have
reappeared in settings such as chronic care facilities, military camps and day care centers, a
situation not recognized since the pre-antibiotic era.
Also of concern, is the increased emergence of antibiotic resistance, especially in the past two
decades. Multiple antibiotic resistant strains of S. pneumoniae that emerged in the early
1970s in Papua New Guinea and South Africa were thought to be a fluke, but multiple
antibiotic resistance now covers the globe and has rapidly increased since 1995. Increases in
penicillin resistance have been followed by resistance to cephalosporins and multidrug
resistance. The incidence of resistance to penicillin increased from <0.02 in 1987 to 3% in
1994 to 30% in some communities in the United States and 80% in regions of some other
countries in 1998. Resistance to other antibiotics has emerged simultaneously: 26% resistant
to trimethoprim-sulfa, 9% resistant to cefotaxime, 30% resistant to macrolides, and 25%
resistant to multiple drugs. Resistant organisms remain fully virulent but seem to have arisen
in less than 10 serotypes. Serotypes 6A, 6B, 9V, 14, 19A and 23F are included in the vast
majority of resistant strains.
Vaccines
Given the 90 different capsular types of pneumococci, a comprehensive vaccine based on
polysaccharide alone is not yet feasible. Thus, vaccines based on a subgroup of highly
prevalent types have been formulated. The number of serotypes in the vaccine has increased
from four in 1945, to 14 in the 1970s, and finally to the current 23-valent formulation (25 mg
of each of serotypes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6B, 7F, 8, 9N, 9V, 10A, 11A, 12F, 14, 15B, 17F, 18C, 19A,
19F, 20, 22F, 23F, and 33F). These serotypes represent 85-90% of those that cause invasive
disease, and the vaccine efficacy is estimated at 60% . However, underutilization of the
vaccine is so extensive that the pneumococcus remains the most common infectious agent
leading to hospitalization in all age groups. This is further complicated by the fact that
polysaccharides are not immunogenic in children under the age of 2 years where a significant
amount of disease occurs. Immunization is suggested for those at highest risk of infection,
including those 65 years or older, and generally should be a single lifetime dose.
In the United States, a heptavalent pneumococcal conjugate vaccine (PCV7) has been
recommended since 2000 for all children aged 2-23 months and for at-risk children aged 2459 months. The four-dose series is given at 2, 4, 6 and 12-14 months of age. Protection is
good against against invasive pneumococcal infections, especially septicemia and meningitis.
However, children exposed to a serotype not contained in the vaccine are not afforded any
protection. This limitation, and the ability of capsular-polysaccharide conjugate vaccines to
promote the spread of non-covered serotypes, has led to research into vaccines that would
provide species-wide protection.