Journal of Interpersonal

Violence
http://jiv.sagepub.com

Acculturation Stress, Drinking, and Intimate Partner Violence

Among Hispanic Couples in the U.S.
Raul Caetano, Suhasini Ramisetty-Mikler, Patrice A. Caetano Vaeth and T.
Robert Harris
J Interpers Violence 2007; 22; 1431
DOI: 10.1177/0886260507305568
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http://jiv.sagepub.com/cgi/content/abstract/22/11/1431

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Acculturation Stress,
Drinking, and Intimate
Partner Violence Among
Hispanic Couples in the U.S.

Journal of Interpersonal
Violence
Volume 22 Number 11
November 2007 1431-1447
2007 Sage Publications
10.1177/0886260507305568
http://jiv.sagepub.com
hosted at
http://online.sagepub.com

Raul Caetano
Suhasini Ramisetty-Mikler
Patrice A. Caetano Vaeth
T. Robert Harris
University of Texas School of Public Health

This article examines the cross-sectional association between acculturation,

acculturation stress, drinking, and intimate partner violence (IPV) among
Hispanic couples in the U.S. The data being analyzed come from a multicluster random household sample of couples interviewed as part of the second wave of a 5-year national longitudinal study. The overall survey response
rate for the second wave is 72%. Participants are Hispanic couples 18 years
of age or older (N = 387). Results show that, among men, lower acculturation
is positively associated with higher acculturation stress, which is directly related
to a greater likelihood of involvement in IPV. These associations are also present among women. However, data for women show an additional path linking
higher levels of acculturation directly to IPV. Drinking is not associated with
IPV, independent of gender. Acculturation, directly or through acculturation
stress, increases the likelihood of IPV.
Keywords:
tion stress

acculturation; intimate partner violence; Hispanics; accultura-

his article examines the association between acculturation, acculturation stress, drinking, and intimate partner violence (IPV) in a national
sample of Hispanic couples. Most published analyses of the relationship
Authors Note: Work on this article was supported by a grant (R37-AA10908) from the
National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism to the University of Texas School of
Public Health. Data collection also had the support of a National Alcohol Research Center
grant (AA05595) from the National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism to the Alcohol
Research Group, Public Health Institute, Berkeley, California.
1431
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Journal of Interpersonal Violence

between ethnicity and IPV in the general population indicate that Hispanics
have higher rates than Whites. For instance, Straus and Smith (1995)
reported a rate of IPV of 23% for Hispanics and 15% for Whites. These
authors also reported a rate of severe IPV that was 2 times higher among
Hispanics than among Whites. Cross-sectional analyses of the 1995 baseline survey in the larger study, of which the present article is a part, did not
show statistically significant differences between Hispanic and White couples when the effect of sociodemographic factors, drinking, impulsivity,
and family history of violence were taken into account (Caetano, Cunradi,
Clark, & Schafer, 2000). Other studies (Kantor, 1990; Kantor, Jasinski, &
Aldorondo, 1994) reported similar results once the effects of age and
socioeconomic factors were controlled in the analysis. Although Lown and
Vega (2001) did not have a White comparison group in their sample of
Mexican American women in California, they reported a rate of male-tofemale partner violence of 10.7%. In the 1995 baseline survey conducted by
the authors, the rate of male-to-female partner violence among Hispanics
was 17%. This rate is higher than that by Lown and Vega (2001) probably
because it is based on reports by both partners.
Acculturation to U.S. society has been associated with problematic
behaviors, such as increased drinking, drug use, alcohol problems, depression, and other mental health problems in a number of studies with
Hispanics (Ballas, Organista, & Kurasaki, 2002; Caetano, Field, & Nelson,
2002, Caetano & Medina-Mora, 1988). The evidence, however, is not
always consistent for IPV. In the latter area, two out of four studies found
higher acculturation to be positively associated with an increased likelihood
of perpetration of IPV (Jasinski, 2001; Sorenson & Telles, 1991). Jasinski
(2001) reported a positive effect of generational status (3rd generation) on
IPV. Sorenson and Telles (1991) reported higher rates of IPV perpetration
for U.S.born Mexican Americans compared to those born in Mexico.
Kantor et al. (1994) did not find an effect of acculturation on IPV once the
effects of socioeconomic factors were controlled in the analysis. Caetano,
Schafer, Clark and Cunradi (2000) reported a cross-sectional effect for
medium acculturation on IPV. A 5-year longitudinal analysis of the same
data did not fully confirm this finding (Caetano, Ramisetty-Mikler, &
McGrath, 2004). In this latter analysis, the only significant finding indicated that couples in which there was a mixture of partners with high and
medium level of acculturation were at less risk for male to female partner
violence than couples in which both partners were low in acculturation.

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Caetano et al. / Acculturation Stress and IPV

1433

Methodological differences across these studies, especially in the measurement of acculturation, may explain the contrasting results.
A concept closely related to that of acculturation is acculturation
stress. This is stress that occurs when the acculturation process causes
problems for individuals, that is, problems arising from conflicts between
the immigrant culture and that of the host society (Berry, 2003; Born,
1970). Unfortunately, many analyses of the effects of acculturation on
health and behaviors have not measured acculturation stress. When
results of these analyses show acculturation as a risk factor for health
problems, this effect is assumed to be associated with stress inherent to the
acculturation process. A few authors have proposed that this assumption
may not always be warranted, and that especially in regards to drinking, an
increase in drinking with acculturation may not always be a response to
stress but a normal adaptation of immigrant groups (especially among
women) to more liberal U.S. drinking norms (Black & Markides, 1993;
Caetano & Medina-Mora, 1988; Markides, Ray, Stroup-Benham, &
Trevino, 1990). Studies assessing acculturation stress and its effects on
health among Hispanics have reported positive associations between acculturation stress and self-rated health status, depression, suicidal ideation,
adolescents self-esteem, and family conflicts (Finch, Humner, Kolody, &
Vega, 2001; Finch & Vega; 2003; Gil & Vega, 1996; Gil, Vega, & Dimas,
1994; Hovey & Magana, 2000; Romero & Roberts, 2003). Finally, and
more pertinent to the analysis herein, Firestone, Harris, and Vega (2003)
reported a statistically significant association between acculturation stress
and wife abuse among Mexican Americans in California.
The association between drinking, alcohol problems, and IPV has been
well established. Studies based on samples of battered wives and alcoholics
have reported on the role of alcohol use during the violent event on the part
of the perpetrator (Amaro, Fried, Cabral, & Zuckerman, 1990; Murphy,
OFarrell, Falls-Stewart, & Freehan, 2001). Analyses of community samples
have also shown a strong and positive association between drinking, alcohol
problems, and IPV (Caetano, Cunradi, et al., 2000; Cunradi, Caetano, Clark,
& Schafer, 1999; Leonard, 1993; Leonard & Quigley, 1999). However,
alcohol is neither a sufficient nor a necessary cause for the occurrence of
IPV. Other factors to be considered in the chain of causation are, for
example, personality variables that may be associated with alcohol
abuse/dependence and general marital dysfunction and IPV (Murphy &
OFarrell, 1994; Murphy et al., 2001). Chronic alcohol use might also cause
or exacerbate organic brain damage associated with aggressive or violent

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Journal of Interpersonal Violence

outbursts (Rosenbaum, 1989). Alcohols role in IPV may also be explained

by individuals expectations that alcohol has a disinhibitory effect on
behavior (Field, Caetano, & Nelson, 2004; Leigh & Aramburu, 1991).
When these individuals drink, their behavior tends to fulfill their expectations about the effects of alcohol, which may lead to the perpetration of
IPV. Among Hispanics, Lown and Vega (2001) reported that Mexican
American women with alcohol abuse or dependence were 5 times more
likely than women with no history of partner violence to be either alcohol
abusers or dependent.
This article examines the association between acculturation, acculturation stress, drinking, and IPV. The analyses assume that acculturation and
acculturation stress are independent concepts, and that acculturation stress
is associated with IPV directly or the association is mediated through drinking. Finally, the analyses also control for the effects of sociodemographic
factors (age, income, education, employment).

Methods
Sample and Follow-Up Rates
This article reports analysis of data from the second wave (2000) of a
two-wave longitudinal study. This is because data on acculturation stress
was not collected during the first wave of interviews. At the time of the first
interview (1995), participants in this study constituted a multistage random
probability sample representative of married and cohabiting couples in 48
contiguous United States. All couples 18 years of age and older living in
randomly selected households were eligible to participate. This process
identified 1,925 couples, of which 1,635 couples completed the interview
for a response rate of 85%. Included in the sample were oversamples of
Black and Hispanic couples. In 2000, the 1,635 couples previously interviewed were contacted again to participate in the five-year follow-up. At
follow-up, both members of 15 couples were either dead or incapacitated,
leaving 1,620 couples (1,635 15) to be reinterviewed.
Interviews were successfully completed with 1,392 couples, or 72% of
the 1,925 couples from the 1995 original eligible sample (or 85% of the
couples actually interviewed in 1995). Among these couples 1,025 were
intact and homogeneous regarding White, Black, or Hispanic ethnicity,
with both members self-identifying as belonging to the same ethnic group.
Of these couples, 387 were Hispanic (73% of the 527 Hispanic couples
interviewed in 1995), and the present analysis is limited to these couples.

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Caetano et al. / Acculturation Stress and IPV

1435

Data Collection
Face-to-face interviews were conducted in respondents homes with
standardized questionnaires. Once a household was screened to assess
the eligibility of household members (adults 18 years of age or older, of
Hispanic origin as determined by self-identification), a respondent was
then randomly selected for among eligible household members. The
selected subject was then approached, and those who agreed to participate
in the study signed a written informed consent before being interviewed.
Interviews were conducted either in Spanish or English depending on participants request. All interviewers were bilingual and were hired and
trained by the fieldwork agency, the Institute for Survey Research at
Temple University. Most of the interviewers had done work with the same
agency in prior general population surveys and thus had experience of
general population interviewing. Interviewers were trained in the use of
the questionnaire during a three-day meeting organized by the fieldwork
agency and monitored by the senior author. Interviewers were also under
constant supervision of experienced field supervisors during all the fieldwork. Members of the couple were always interviewed independently.
Interviews in which this independence appeared to be compromised were
discarded (n = 20).

Measurements
IPV. Participants were asked about the occurrence of 11 violent behaviors that they may have perpetrated against their partners, or that their partners may have perpetrated against them, during the past year. The violence
items were adapted from the Conflict Tactics Scale, Form R and included
the following: threw something; pushed, grabbed, or shoved; slapped;
kicked, bit, or hit; hit or tried to hit with something; beat up; choked; burned
or scalded; forced sex; threatened with a knife or gun; used a knife or gun
(Straus, 1990). Violence was considered present when reported by one of
the members of the couple. Male-to-female (MFPV) and female-to-male
(FMPV) partner violence variables are dichotomous (yes/no) and were created based on the gender of the perpetrator and by considering reports from
both partners. The no category includes couples who did not report either
MFPV or FMPV.
Ethnic identification. Respondents who identified themselves as Black
of Hispanic origin (Latino, Mexican, Central or South American, or any

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1436

Journal of Interpersonal Violence

other Hispanic origin) and White of Hispanic origin (Latino, Mexican,

Central or South American, or any other Hispanic origin) were classified as
Hispanic. Respondents also identified their national origin. However, the
small number of couples in Hispanic national groups other than Mexican
Americans precludes an analysis by national origin.
Acculturation level. The scale is built from 12 questions covering the following information: daily use of and ability to speak, read, and write English
and Spanish; preference for media (books, radio, and T.V.) in English or
Spanish; ethnicity of people with whom respondents interacted at church, at
parties, and in the neighborhood in which respondents currently live and lived
while growing up; and finally, a series of questions about values thought to
be characteristic of the Hispanic lifestyle. With the exception of the items used
to assess language use, all other items are coded in a 4-point Likert-type
(strongly agree to strongly disagree) scale. The scales reliability was assessed
with Cronbachs alpha (0.91) and the splithalf method (0.87, Guttman split
half coefficient). The scale correlates positively with being U.S. born (0.58)
and with number of years of life in the U.S. (0.22), and correlates negatively
with age (0.36). It also has positive correlations with drinking and alcohol
problems. All these correlations are in the expected direction and empirically
confirm the scales construct validity.
Acculturation stress. This is an 11-item scale covering topics such as
conflicts with family members and friends because of changes in values,
problems with communication in English, and adjustment problems associated with participants ethnic culture. These items come from the work of
Mena, Padilla, and Maldonado (1987), Vega and Gill, (1999), and Straus
(1995). Respondents assessed how stressful each item had been to them
using five categories ranging from extremely stressful to not at all stressful.
Principal components factor analysis of these items showed a main factor
with an Eigen value of 4.7 accounting for 43% of the variance in the data.
Loadings on this factor varied from 0.412 to 0.813. Cronbachs alpha for
the scale was 0.86.
Average alcohol consumption. The respondents frequency of drinking
over the 12-month period prior to the survey was coded into 11 categories
ranging from never to three or more times a day. Quantity of consumption was assessed by asking for the proportion of drinking occasions
on which the respondent drank one or two, three or four, and five or six

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Caetano et al. / Acculturation Stress and IPV

1437

glasses each of wine, beer, and liquor. This information on quantity and frequency of drinking wine, beer, and liquor was combined and used to estimate the average number of drinks of alcohol consumed weekly. A drink
was defined as one ounce of spirits, a four-ounce glass of wine or a twelveounce can of beer, each of which contains approximately 12 grams of
absolute alcohol.
Binge drinkingfrequency of drinking five or more drinks on occasion.
The information on drinking wine, beer and liquor was also coded to identify
the frequency of drinking occasions in which respondents drank five or more
drinks. This is a 4-level variable and uses the combined information on quantity and frequency of drinking any alcoholic beverage (wine, beer, and liquor)
to estimate the frequency of consuming five or more drinks on a single occasion. Considering the past year consumption, the participants were asked to
report on how often (frequency: three or more times a day; two times a day;
once a day; nearly every day; three to four times a week; one to two times a
week; two to three times a month; about once a month; less than once a
month but at least once a year; less than once a year; and never in the past
year) did they drink wine, beer, or liquor. This information in combination
with how often they had five or more of each of these drinks (nearly every
time; more than half the time; less than half the time; once in a while; and
never had five or more drinks) was used to compute the frequency of binge
drinking: (1) four or more times a month, (2) one to three times a month, (3)
less than once a month, and (4) not in past year/abstainers.
Background (sociodemographic) variables. Age: the age of respondents
was measured continuously in years. Education: each respondent was asked
about the highest grade or year in school that he/she completed. Based on
their responses, participants were categorized into three groups: less than
high school; those with a high school diploma or general equivalency
diploma (GED); and those who had more than high school education (those
with technical or vocational training beyond high school, those with some
college or holding college/professional degrees). Employment: male respondents were categorized into two employment categoriesunemployed
(retired, unemployed and other disabled, in school, volunteer, in job training
program) and employed part or full-time. Female respondents were grouped
into three employment categorieshomemaker; unemployed (retired,
unemployed, and other); and employed. Income: respondents were asked
to identify the category into which their total 1999 pretax household
income fell: (1) $4,000 or less, (2) $4,001 to $6,000, (3) $6,001 to $8,000,

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1438

Journal of Interpersonal Violence

(4) $8,001 to $10,000, (5) $10,001 to $15,000, (6) $15,001 to $20,000, (7)
$20,001 to $30,000, (8) $30,001 to $40,000, (9) $40,001 to $60,000, (10)
$60,001 to 80,000, (11) $80,001 to $100,000, and (12) more than $100,000.
A representative value for each couple was then set at the midpoint of their
stated category, except for those reporting incomes greater than $100,000,
which was set at $100,000. Household income was then used as a continuous variable.
Data analysis. The current analyses include 387 Hispanic couples either
married (94%) or living together. Descriptive and bivariate analyses were
conducted with the Software for Survey Data Analysis (SUDAAN) to take
into account the potential influence of the complex multicluster sampling
design in estimating standard errors (Research Triangle Institute, 2004).
Analyses were also conducted on data weighted to correct for probability
of selection into the sample and nonresponse rates. In addition, a poststratification weight was calculated to adjust the sample to known population
distributions on certain demographic variables (ethnicity of the household
informant, metropolitan status, and region of the country).
The analysis of the relationships between acculturation, acculturationrelated stress, drinking, and IPV uses cross-tabulations and structural equation modeling. These models were specified on the basis of anticipated
theoretical relationships and previous work with this sample. Models were
specified and evaluated with the Mplus program (Version 3.0; Muthn &
Muthn, 2005). Mplus allows for the use of categorical exogenous variables, dichotomous and ordinal endogenous variables, and the use of sampling weights and controls for the stratification and clustering effects due to
the multistage sampling design when estimating path or structural equation
models. All endogenous variables (acculturation, acculturation stress, alcohol, and violence variables) were regressed on background variables (age,
education, employment, and income). The fit of models was determined by
examining consistency across multiple descriptive fit indexes. Hu and
Bentler and others have suggested that the following goodness of model
fit statistics and the associated values support a good fit: Tucker-Lewis
index (TLI > .95), comparative fit index (CFI > .95), and Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA < .06; Hu & Bentler, 1999;
Loehlin, 2004; Muthn & Muthn, 1998). Similarly, a good fit is supported
by the Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (SRMR) which measures
the standardized difference between the observed covariance and predicted
covariance. A value of zero indicates perfect fit. This measure tends to be
smaller as sample size increases and as the number of parameters in the

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Caetano et al. / Acculturation Stress and IPV

1439

model increases. A value less than .08 is considered a good fit (Muthn &
Muthn, 1998).
The data were also weighted to address differences in initial selection probabilities prior to parameter and model estimation, with the total weighted N
equal to the actual number of respondents (to avoid biasing significance
tests of coefficients by weights > 1).

Results
Association Between Acculturation,
Acculturation Stress, and IPV
Table 1 represents mean levels of acculturation and acculturation stress
for men and women according to the presence or absence of violence
between couples. Among men, the mean acculturation level is higher for
the group reporting any violence (p < .03) and the group reporting victimization by FMPV (p < .05) than it is for the group reporting no violence.
The mean level of acculturation stress is also higher in the any violence
group (p < .003), the MFPV group (p < .002), and the FMPV group (p <
.02) than it is in the group reporting no violence.
Among women, both acculturation and acculturation stress are significantly higher in the groups reporting violence than in the group reporting no
violence. The differences between group means are particularly large for the
measure of acculturation stress. Levels of statistical significance for t tests of
differences between means in acculturation stress are all smaller than .0004.

Structural Equation Models

The model in Figure 1 shows gender-specific paths between acculturation, acculturation stress, and IPV. Statistically significant paths (p < .05)
are identified with an asterisk. For men, the paths indicate an inverse relationship between acculturation and acculturation stress, and a positive association between higher levels of stress and IPV. None of the drinking
variables is associated with IPV. For women, there are two distinct paths to
IPV: the first indicates a direct association between acculturation and IPV,
the second show the same inverse association between acculturation and
acculturation stress observed among men, and then a positive and significant association between acculturation stress and IPV. Among women, as it
happens with men, the drinking variables are not associated with IPV.

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Journal of Interpersonal Violence

Table 1
Mean Level of Acculturation and Acculturation Stress for Hispanic
Men and Women by Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)
No Violence

19.59 (0.88)
(n = 268)
5.67 (0.36)
(n = 266)

19.23 (0.72)
(n = 267)
5.11 (0.48)
(n = 264)

Any Violencea

MFPVb

Men
Level of acculturation
21.34 (0.66)
20.27 (0.98)
(n = 93; p = .03)
(n = 74; p =.35)
Level of acculturation stress
8.77 (0.90)
9.62 (1.12)
(n = 92; p =.0003)
(n = 74; p =.002)
Women
Level of acculturation
21.36 (0.79)
20.87 (0.82)
(n = 94; p =.01)
(n = 75; p =.02)
Level of acculturation stress
8.81 (0.78)
9.0 (1.05)
(n = 94; p .0001)
(n = 75; p =.0004)

FMPVc

21.69 (0.77)
(n = 75; p =.05)
8.10 (0.91)
(n = 74; p =.02)

21.43 (1.04)
(n = 76; p =.03)
8.87 (0.85)
(n = 76; p .0001)

Note: MFPV = male-to-female partner violence; FMPV = female-to-male partner violence.

Standard errors are provided in parentheses next to mean values. No violence is the comparison group for bivariate association between violence and acculturation variables and p values
represent the significance levels.
a. Includes couples reporting MFPV, FMPV, or both.
b. Excludes FMPV-only cases.
c. Excludes MFPV-only cases.

The fit indices indicate that the model has a good fit (2 = 77.9, df = 43;
CFI = 0.97, TLI = 0.93, RMSEA = 0.049, and SRMR = 0.034). The predicted and residual covariance matrices and modification indices (not
shown) tended to show between-partner correlations of alcohol volume,
acculturation level, and acculturation stress, which are fully accounted for
in the model.
Once this model was fit, two independent models assessing the same
pattern of relationships but using MFPV and FMPV as the outcome were
tested. These two models (not shown) yielded path coefficients similar to
the one tested for any IPV.

Discussion
The results in this article show that both acculturation and acculturation
stress are associated with an increased likelihood of being involved in intimate

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1441

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0.24 *

0.18 *

Female
Acculturation Stress

0.26 *

0.21 *

Male
Acculturation Stress

0.20 *

0.03

0.03

Female
Alcohol Vol.

Male
Alcohol Vol.

0.01

0.06

0.62 *

0.82 *

0.014

Female 5 +

Male 5 +

0.06

ANY
IPV

0.06

Note: All residual correlations are significant: male and female volume, male and female acculturation level; male and female acculturation stress. Fit
indices: 2 = 77.9, df = 43, comparative fit index = 0.97; Tucker-Lewis index = 0.93, root mean square error of approximation = 0.049, SRMR = 0.034.

Female
Acculturation

0.26 *

0.07

Male
Acculturation

0.01

0.05

Figure 1
Relationship Between Acculturation Stress, Drinking, and Intimate Partner
Violence (IPV) Among Hispanic Couples

1442

Journal of Interpersonal Violence

partner relationships marked by perpetration or victimization by violence.

Previous research with Hispanics had not explored this association with
IPV, but showed that acculturation stress is a factor of risk for a number of
factors such as depression, suicidal ideation, and family conflicts (Finch &
Vega, 2003; Gil, Vega & Dimas, 1994; Hovey & Magana, 2000; Romero &
Roberts, 2003).
The initial assumption for this analysis was that acculturation would lead
to acculturation stress, which would increase the likelihood of IPV, either
through drinking or directly. This assumption was only partially confirmed.
First, there is indeed a link between acculturation and acculturation stress, but
this is an inverse association by which those low in the acculturation process
report more stress. This suggests that acculturation per se, that is, increased
adoption of U.S. culture norms and values, does not necessarily lead to stress.
In fact, stress seems to be associated with lack of acculturation, probably
because of the tension brought about by the incongruence between ones
own values and mores that are associated with the country of origin, and the
new culture of the adopted country. Those who are more acculturated do
not report stress because they have successfully adopted the values of the
new country.
Second, the assumption that the effect of acculturation stress on IPV
would be mediated by drinking was not supported. Drinking is not associated with domestic violence. In fact, the stress associated with the process
of adaptation to the new country is directly responsible for the increased
likelihood of involvement in a violent relationship. This is present both
among men and women. However, the data for women also show a direct
path from acculturation to IPV that is not present among men. This difference
in associations suggests that there may be two mechanisms by which acculturation and acculturation stress are associated with IPV. The first mechanism
would operate in those couples in which the woman is high in acculturation
but the man is low in acculturation and high in stress. The conflicts created by
this difference in acculturation level between the two partners add to the high
level of stress reported by the man would then lead to IPV. The second mechanism is not based on conflicts because of differences in acculturation level
between man and woman, but it occurs because both partners in the dyad are
high in acculturation stress and thus cannot respond appropriately to conflicts
in the relationship, which then leads to IPV.
Similar effects of acculturation on IPV were seen in previous crosssectional and longitudinal analyses of the study reported here. In these
analyses, medium acculturation or incongruence of acculturation levels

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Caetano et al. / Acculturation Stress and IPV

1443

between couples (Caetano, Schafer, et. al. 2000; Caetano et al., 2004) were
associated with IPV. Stress is a factor that could be present in these two situations. Stress could result from lack of a firm cultural anchor in couples in
medium acculturation status, or from conflicts associated with the incongruence in acculturation levels.
The lack of an association between drinking and domestic violence
herein is not totally surprising. Although drinking and alcohol problems
have been associated with IPV in a number of studies (Caetano, Cunradi,
et al., 2000; Cunradi et al., 1999; Leonard & Quigley, 1999; Leonard &
Senchak, 1993; Murphy et al., 2001), previous analyses of this data set did
not confirm this association among Hispanics. Cunradi et al. (1999) did not
report differences in mean number of drinks consumed per week between
Hispanics reporting MFPV or FMPV and those not reporting violence. In
bivariate analyses, alcohol problems were associated with both MFPV and
FMPV among Hispanic men but not among Hispanic women. However,
multivariate analysis controlling for sociodemographic factors did not confirm the association between alcohol problems and violence.
There are a number of reasons why the association between drinking
and IPV is not present among Hispanics. It is possible that the nature of
relationships among Hispanics is such that violence between partners
occurs in a way that is not connected with alcohol as much as among
Whites or Blacks. For instance, Hispanics do not seem to associate drinking with an expectancy of becoming aggressive as much as Blacks do
(Field et al., 2004). Also, most of the drinking reported in general population surveys is light drinking, and most of the violence is moderate violence. Johnson (1995) characterized this type of violence as common
couple violence to differentiate it from the more severe forms of violence found in institutional samples, which he called patriarchal terrorism. The associations between drinking and violence in these data may
not be as strong as those seen in clinical data, which covers heavier styles
of drinking and more severe violence.

Strengths and Limitations

This study has several strengths. It collected information on IPV from
both partners, thus enhancing the probability of identification of spousal violence (Sets & Straus, 1990; Szinovacz & Egley, 1995). Interviews were conducted in English or Spanish, thus allowing for the selection of respondents
couples who were not English speakers. The design also had limitations. The

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Journal of Interpersonal Violence

data under analysis are cross-sectional in nature, and do not allow for considerations of time order as well as for the control of past behavior on present behavior. Data were collected for the 12 months prior to the survey.
Other limitations of the study are: 15% of the eligible couples at baseline
refused to participate. In 2000, the proportion of originally eligible couples
not interviewed was 28%. Selection biases may be present if in 1995 or
2000 nonparticipating couples were more likely to have experienced IPV.
Also, the analyses did not consider the frequency of violence, and did not
differentiate couples with reciprocal violence from those where the violence was perpetrated either by males or females alone. Finally, the analysis covers intact couples only. This may bias results given that couples who
separated because of partner violence are not included.

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Raul Caetano, MD, PhD, MPH, is professor of epidemiology and regional dean of the
University of Texas Houston School of Public Health in Dallas. He is also adjunct professor
of psychiatry at the University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas and clinical
professor of psychiatry at the Department of Psychiatry, University of Hawaii. His research
has focused on the epidemiology of alcohol consumption, drinking problems, and domestic
violence among U.S. ethnic minorities, especially Hispanics.
Suhasini Ramisetty-Mikler, PhD, MPH, currently works as a faculty associate at the
University of Texas Houston School of Public Health in Dallas. She is a coinvestigator on two
research studiesEthnicity, Alcohol, and Spousal Violence and Alcohol Epidemiology in
Hispanic National Groupsfunded by NIAAA (PI: Caetano). Her research interests include
intimate partner violence and long-term effects of drinking on violence among ethnic groups
and the longitudinal relationships between intimate partner violence, alcohol consumption patterns with indices of couple functioning (dissolution).
Patrice A. Caetano Vaeth, DrPH, is an assistant professor or health promotion and behavioral
sciences at the University of Texas Houston School of Public Health in Dallas. She is also an
adjunct assistant professor of internal medicine at the University of Texas Southwestern
Medical Center at Dallas as well as an adjunct assistant professor of behavioral sciences at the
University of North Texas School of Public Health. Her research interests focus on gender and
ethnic disparities in chronic disease.
T. Robert Harris, PhD, is associate professor of biostatistics at the University of Texas
Houston School of Public Health in Dallas. His research includes alcohol use and related problems among women and college students and across ethnic groups; brominated flame retardants in the environment and human tissue; lead and bismuth in brain tissue of Alzheimers
and Parkinsons disease victims; and regression with spatially correlated errors.

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