Fatigue performance of sour deepwater

riser welds: crack growth vs. endurance

Colum M. Holtam
TWI North America LLC,
Houston, Texas, USA
David P. Baxter
Atkins Oil & Gas,
Aberdeen, UK
Paper presented at ASME 30th International Conference on Ocean, Offshore and Arctic Engineering, OMAE 2011,
Rotterdam, The Netherlands, June 19-24, 2011, Paper #49581

Abstract
Steel catenary risers (SCRs) are increasingly used in deepwater oil and gas developments. SCRs can be subject to
low-stress high-cycle fatigue loading, for example from wave and tidal motion, vortex induced vibration (VIV) and
operating loads, and corrosive environments (internal and external). When the production fluids are sour, higher
fatigue crack growth rates (FCGRs) are expected and therefore shorter overall life compared to performance in air, as
a result of the interaction between fatigue crack growth and sulphide stress cracking. Successful design of risers is
critically dependent on the availability of appropriate experimental data to quantify the extent to which fatigue lives
are reduced and rates of fatigue crack growth are increased. Historically there has been a discrepancy between
experimental sour fatigue endurance data and fracture mechanics-based estimates of the corresponding stress-life (SN) curves.
This paper summarises the results of recent sour FCGR tests on C-Mn pipeline steel. Tests were performed under
conditions of increasing applied stress intensity factor range (K), on specimens containing shallow initial flaws and
at very high stress ratios (R), to obtain data close to threshold. In many cases it is material behaviour at these low
values of K that dominate the fatigue life (e.g. VIV loading). The FCGR data are then compared to sour fatigue
endurance data, both published and from a TWI Joint Industry Project (JIP). The observed environmental reduction
factor (ERF) for endurance tests is compared to that expected from the difference in fatigue crack propagation rates,
to examine whether FCGR data might provide an alternative means of predicting ERFs.
This paper offers valuable insight into current best practice methods for generating sour FCGR data when qualifying
girth welds for sour service, and the relationship between fatigue crack growth and fatigue endurance.

Introduction
Steel catenary risers (SCRs) are increasingly used in deepwater oil and gas developments. SCRs can be subject to
low-stress high-cycle fatigue loading, for example from wave and tidal motion, vortex induced vibration (VIV) and
operating loads, and corrosive environments (internal and external). When the production fluids are sour (i.e. contain
water and H2S), higher fatigue crack growth rates (FCGRs) are expected and therefore shorter overall life compared
to performance in air, as a result of the interaction between fatigue crack growth and sulphide stress cracking. Sour
production fluids are common in oil and gas applications and therefore successful design is critically dependent on
the availability of appropriate experimental data to quantify the extent to which fatigue lives are reduced and rates of
fatigue crack growth are increased.
In many cases it is material behaviour at low values of applied stress intensity factor range (K) that dominate the
fatigue life (e.g. VIV loading).[1] Experimental crack growth rate data (da/dN-K) are typically determined in
simulated operating environments, and upper bound curves can be used in fracture mechanics calculations to
calculate critical flaw sizes. Experimental data at low values of applied K are often determined using a decreasing
K type test, where the crack is relatively deep by the end of the test.
At low values of K (i.e. approaching threshold) crack growth rates in API 5L grade X65 C-Mn pipeline steel
determined under conditions of decreasing K have been shown to be substantially lower than those determined

under conditions of increasing K (Figure 1).[2] This is believed to be due to an influence of crack depth (attributed to
bulk hydrogen charging from exposed surfaces).[2-4] The reduced influence of a sour environment at low K has
similarly been reported elsewhere. [5,6]

Figure 1. Sour fatigue crack growth rate data generated under conditions of increasing and decreasing K,
illustrating a possible crack depth effect at lower K (<400Nmm-3/2/13MPam0.5).[2] (Arrows indicate increasing
crack depth in each test).

It is possible to compare the results of FCGR tests in a sour environment with fatigue endurance data based on the
predicted growth of postulated flaws. An engineering critical assessment (ECA) is a fracture mechanics-based
approach that is used to evaluate the significance of a flaw, based on a particular combination of material, stress and
environmental conditions. An ECA can therefore provide maximum allowable flaw sizes at the manufacture and
installation stage to ensure that, for example, girth weld flaws do not reach a critical size during the projected life of
the component. This differs from conventional fatigue design philosophy which uses a stress-life (S-N) approach,
whereby an endurance curve is generated from a series of representative tests. S-N design curves can be found in BS
7608[7] and DNV RP-C203,[8] for example, and will typically be based on the statistical mean of the experimental data
minus two standard deviations of log N. The S-N approach can be used to assess the performance of a nominally
defect-free weld, although joint misalignment can be allowed for. However, for welds with known defects, an ECA
approach is required to demonstrate adequate fatigue life.
The assumed FCGR usually takes the form of a Paris law which relates the crack growth per cycle (da/dN) to the
range of stress intensity factor (K) where K = Kmax - Kmin and m and C are constants (Equation 1). [9]

It has previously been demonstrated that the assumed FCGR law has a significant influence when performing ECAs
on internal surface-breaking defects in SCRs operating in a sour environment and subject to VIV fatigue loads. [1] It
was shown that if the apparent diminished influence of a sour environment at low K was indeed a true
representation of material performance under such conditions, then significantly larger initial flaw sizes could be
tolerated by closely fitting the FCGR curve to the experimental data at low K. A larger allowable initial flaw size
leads to fewer repairs and cut-outs, which means faster installation and significant cost savings.

Historically there has been a discrepancy between experimental sour fatigue endurance data and fracture mechanicsbased estimates of the corresponding stress-life (S-N) curves. The aim of this paper is to evaluate whether the results
of recent FCGR tests investigating the near-threshold (low K) behaviour of C-Mn pipeline steel in a sour
environment can be used to more accurately predict sour fatigue endurance behaviour.

Comparison of fatigue crack growth rate and fatigue

endurance data
Figure 2 shows the results of recent FCGR tests on API 5L grade X65 C-Mn pipeline steel in air and in a sour
environment,[10] plotted alongside the previous experimental data from Figure 1. Tests were performed under
conditions of increasing K on specimens notched in the parent material. Very high stress ratios (R) were used (up to
R = 0.9) to facilitate generating data at lower K (from ~100Nmm-3/2/3MPam0.5 to ~650Nmm-3/2/21MPam0.5).
Figure 2. Results of increasing K tests at high stress ratio and starting at low K in air and in a sour
environment, plotted alongside data from a decreasing K test in a sour environment.[10] (Arrows indicate
increasing crack depth in each test).

The sour
environment
was identical
to that used for
the previous
tests in Figure
1, and was
based on
NACE
TM0177
solution B.[11]
This consists
of 5%NaCl
and 0.4%Na
acetate, and is
acidified to pH
3.4-3.6 using acetic acid. The basic solution was saturated with a mixture of 7% H 2S in N2, to give a partial pressure
of 0.007MPa (1psi) H2S, and there was a continuous passage of gas through the test solution to maintain saturation.
All tests were carried out at 25C (3C). The air tests were carried out at a reasonably high loading frequency (510Hz), since the results are not expected to be sensitive to frequency.[12] For the tests carried out in a sour
environment the loading frequency was reduced to 0.1Hz (which is comparable to wave or VIV loading) to allow
time for the environment to interact with the specimen.
It can be seen that there was no apparent reduction in the influence of the sour environment at low K (Figure 2).
The most appropriate advice, therefore, is to use an upper bound curve based on experimental crack growth rate data
(da/dN-K) obtained under increasing K conditions in a representative sour environment. A more in-depth
discussion of the test methods used and analysis of the experimental results is provided elsewhere. [10]
A Joint Industry Project (JIP) included both FCGR and strip fatigue endurance testing of API 5L grade X65 C-Mn
steel welds in air and in a sour environment.[13] The results of these tests have been confidential since the conclusion
of the project in 2005 but became publishable in 2010. Data from the strip fatigue tests in air and in a sour
environment are plotted in Figure 3[13] alongside the Class E mean and design (i.e. mean minus two standard
deviations of log N) curves from BS 7608.[7] The specimens tested in air demonstrated better fatigue strength than the
Class E mean curve.[7] The sour data showed the fatigue strength to be reduced by a factor of approximately 40 on
life. All tests in a sour environment were performed at a loading frequency of 0.2Hz. However, for the sour test
performed at an applied local stress range of 46MPa the loading frequency was increased from 0.2 to 1.0Hz after
2,423,909 cycles.

Figure 3. Fatigue endurance data in air and in a sour environment. [13]

There was an apparent improvement in fatigue performance of the sour test specimens at the two lowest stress ranges.
It was speculated that these tests may have initially been below the threshold for crack growth, so cracking did not get
underway until corrosion had notched the weld root toe further. Alternatively these low stress tests may indicate a real
and disproportionate reduction in crack growth rate at low K. They could also be due to experimental scatter alone.
FCGR tests were carried out under increasing K conditions (from K ~300Nmm-3/2/9MPam0.5 to ~1200Nmm3/2
/32MPam0.5). The sour environment used was identical to that described above and tests were performed at ambient
temperature with R = 0.5 and loading frequencies of 0.1, 0.2 and 1.0Hz. Attempts to generate data at lower K were
reported as being largely unsuccessful (due to crack fouling by corrosion debris). At ~300Nmm -3/2/9MPam0.5 a slightly
higher FCGR was observed at 0.1Hz than the other two frequencies, but this retarded until all three frequencies fell in
line with each other. Regression analysis of all the sour data gave Paris law coefficients of m = 3.24 and C = 3.75x10 13
for K in Nmm-3/2 and da/dN in mm/cycle (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Regression analysis of the increasing K tests in a sour environment. [13]

One of the conclusions of the JIP was that FCGR testing was not a reliable method of predicting environmental
reduction factors (ERFs) - often referred to as knockdown factors - for girth welds in a sour environment, for the
range of growth rate investigated.[13] A greater influence of the sour environment was observed during endurance
testing than predicted using fracture mechanics methods using the sour fatigue crack growth curve in Figure 4. It is
worth noting that for the stress ranges considered (46MPa up to 200MPa) much of the early crack growth
(particularly at low stress) takes place at values of K less than 300Nmm-3/2/9MPam0.5, for which no FCGR data were
obtained. However, in the tests presented in Figure 2, FCGR data have been successfully measured at lower values of
K and it is possible therefore, that FCGR testing may now correlate more closely with the fatigue endurance data.
In order to compare the relative performance of a material during fatigue crack growth and fatigue endurance testing,
a Paris law curve can be used to produce a fracture mechanics based estimate of the corresponding S-N curve, within
the framework of BS 7910.[14] Calculations have been performed using TWI's software CRACKWISE 4, which is
fully compliant with the latest version of BS 7910. [14] A programme of endurance testing using strip fatigue specimens
in a sour environment is expensive and time consuming and no such tests have been performed in the current work.
Comparisons are therefore drawn with the endurance data from the previous JIP.

Input parameters
Initial flaw dimensions

An internal surface-breaking flaw was assumed to be located at a girth weld, close to the weld root toe. The weld was
assumed to be a full penetration girth weld produced using mechanised processes. A typical example is shown in
Figure 5. Welds are known to contain small weld toe intrusions, typically 0.15-0.4mm deep, [15,16] which provides a
convenient upper and lower bound estimate of initial flaw size to be used in an assessment, assuming similar flaws
were present in the strip specimens tested in the JIP. In the analyses, two different aspect ratios of initial flaw height
(a) to flaw length (2c) were assumed; 0.1 and 0.3. Final failure was considered to have occurred when a surface crack
propagated half way through the specimen thickness, i.e. when the flaw height reached 10.3mm based on a 14in. riser
with wall thickness 20.6mm.

Figure 5. Typical pipeline girth weld produced using mechanised welding processes
BS 7910 provides a simplified FCGR equation for C-Mn steels in air, where m = 3.0 and C = 5.21 x 10 -13, to facilitate
initial screening assessments that can be compared directly with calculations based on fatigue design rules for welded
steels (e.g. [7]). However, these coefficients correspond to an upper bound curve. The corresponding mean values (for
R 0.5) are m = 3.0 and C = 2.5 x 10-13.[17] This simplified law was used to calculate the initial flaw size that would
force a calculated S-N curve to fit a Class E mean curve. For an aspect ratio of a/2c = 0.1, the calculated initial flaw
size present close to the weld root toe in order to get the same life as that from a Class E mean curve was 0.12mm x
1.2mm (using the standard 2D Mk solution for an internal surface-breaking flaw[14]). This is comparable to typical
weld toe intrusions[15,16] and provides a degree of confidence in the initial flaw sizes assumed in the analyses.
Stress intensity magnification factor due to presence of weld (M k factor)
The local stress intensity magnification factor at the weld toe is characterised using the parameter M k. Standard
solutions for surface-breaking flaws are provided in Annex M of BS 7910, [14] derived from 2D (and for certain
geometries 3D) finite element analyses. Mk is dependent on what is termed the attachment length, which in the case
of an internal surface-breaking flaw in a full penetration pipeline girth weld is the width of the weld root protrusion.
For the purposes of this work, a weld root width of 4mm was adopted. M k is a maximum near the surface and its
influence decreases as flaw depth increases. Mk is calculated automatically within CRACKWISE 4 for the selected
attachment length and in the current work the standard 2D solutions for an internal surface-breaking flaw in a flat
plate were used (M.3.2.2),[14] assuming a full penetration weld. While it is acknowledged that the 3D solution would
provide a less conservative solution, it requires the ratio of attachment length (4mm) to wall thickness (20.6mm) to be
greater than or equal to 0.5, which is rarely the case for pipeline girth welds.
Fatigue crack growth law
Figure 6 shows a two-stage Paris law based on a regression analysis of the sour FCGR data generated under
increasing K conditions (Figure 2) with m = 4.64 and C = 1.40 x 10-15 for Stage A and m = 2.66 and C = 8.3 x 10-11
for Stage B (for K in Nmm-3/2 and da/dN in mm/cycle). The threshold value of stress intensity factor range (KTH)
was assumed to be 63Nmm-3/2/2MPam0.5 in line with the guidance in BS 7910 for steels in air. However, the threshold
was removed from the analyses at low applied stress ranges to initiate crack growth.

Figure 6. Two-stage mean crack growth relationship in a sour environment based on the latest experimental
fatigue crack growth rate data (Figure 2), plotted alongside the results of increasing K tests in a sour
environment from the previous JIP. [13]
The comparable sour FCGR data from the JIP are also plotted in Figure 6. It is not immediately clear why the FCGRs
observed in the JIP are lower than those observed in the current work. Although the JIP tested specimens notched in
the weld (as opposed to specimens notched in the parent material in the current work) recent analysis has shown that,
for this material-environment combination, parent material, weld metal, heat affected zone (HAZ) and simulated
HAZ microstructures exhibit broadly similar fatigue crack growth behaviour. [3]
Fatigue stresses
For each assumed initial flaw size, assessments were carried out under constant amplitude loading at applied stress
ranges corresponding to the sour fatigue endurance tests in the JIP. The number of cycles to failure (defined as when
the crack propagated half way through the specimen thickness) was calculated, to allow sour S-N curves predicted via
ECA (i.e. fracture mechanics) to be plotted.

Results
Tables 1 and 2 show the fatigue lives predicted via ECA for each initial flaw size based on the sour FCGR curve from
the JIP and the two-stage sour curve from Figure 6 respectively. Also indicated in Tables 1 and 2 are the values of K
at the onset of crack growth and at failure (defined as when the crack propagated through half wall). The actual
observed fatigue lives from the sour endurance tests in the JIP are also shown for comparison. The corresponding
calculated sour S-N curves are plotted alongside the sour experimental data in Figure 7 (JIP sour crack growth curve)
and Figure 8 (two-stage sour curve).
Table 1 Fatigue lives predicted via engineering critical assessment based on the previous joint industry project
sour crack growth curve assuming typical initial surface-breaking defects to be present at a girth weld, close to
the weld root toe.

Initial
flaw size
(mm)

Aspect
ratio,
a/2c

0.15 x 1.5 0.1

0.4 x 4.0

0.1

0.15 x 0.5 0.3

0.4 x 1.33 0.3

Stress
range
(MPa)
46
60
81
110
146
200
46
60
81
110
146
200
46
60
81
110
146
200
46
60
81
110
146
200

Actual life JIP data

(cycles)
3,879,512
1,533,579
212,960
76,652
27,198
9,910
3,879,512
1,533,579
212,960
76,652
27,198
9,910
3,879,512
1,533,579
212,960
76,652
27,198
9,910
3,879,512
1,533,579
212,960
76,652
27,198
9,910

Predicted
life (cycles)
7,440,000
3,140,000
1,190,000
441,000
176,000
63,000
4,470,000
1,890,000
715,000
265,000
106,000
38,000
9,820,000
4,150,000
1,570,000
582,000
232,000
83,500
6,000,000
2,530,000
959,000
355,000
142,000
51,000

K at start
of life
(Nmm-3/2)
50
66
89
120
160
219
61
79
107
145
193
264
40
52
71
96
127
174
48
63
85
115
153
210

K at
failure
(Nmm-3/2)
262
334
464
620
810
1,013
265
346
468
630
844
1,097
263
340
462
618
787
1,042
265
336
465
616
827
1,081

Table 2 Fatigue lives predicted via engineering critical assessment based on the latest two-stage sour crack
growth curve assuming typical initial surface-breaking defects to be present at a girth weld, close to the weld
root toe.

Initial
Aspect
Stress
Actual life K at start
K at
Predicted
flaw size ratio,
range
JIP data
of life
failure
life (cycles)
(mm)
a/2c
(MPa)
(cycles)
(Nmm-3/2) (Nmm-3/2)
0.15 x 1.5 0.1
46
3,879,512
5,240,000
50
230

0.4 x 4.0

0.1

0.15 x 0.5 0.3

0.4 x 1.33 0.3

60
81
110
146
200
46
60
81
110
146
200
46
60
81
110
146
200
46
60
81
110
146
200

1,533,579
212,960
76,652
27,198
9,910
3,879,512
1,533,579
212,960
76,652
27,198
9,910
3,879,512
1,533,579
212,960
76,652
27,198
9,910
3,879,512
1,533,579
212,960
76,652
27,198
9,910

1,530,000
385,000
97,000
29,000
9,000
2,200,000
645,000
165,000
44,000
15,000
5,800
8,820,000
2,570,000
644,000
160,000
46,000
13,000
3,630,000
1,060,000
268,000
69,000
21,500
7,400

66
89
120
160
219
61
79
107
145
193
264
40
52
71
82
108
174
48
63
85
115
153
210

310
437
563
701
976
247
334
452
590
794
1,110
224
280
427
590
730
1,012
254
323
441
590
720
1,070

Figure 7. S-N curves predicted via engineering critical assessment calculations using the joint industry project
sour crack growth curve, plotted alongside fatigue endurance data for specimens tested in a sour environment.
[13]

Figure 8. S-N curves predicted via engineering critical assessment calculations using the latest two-stage sour
crack growth curve, plotted alongside fatigue endurance data for specimens tested in a sour environment. [13]
Figure 7 confirms the finding from the JIP that FCGR testing was not a reliable method of predicting ERFs for girth
welds in a sour environment, for the range of growth rate investigated. As highlighted previously, crack growth data
were not generated at sufficiently low values of K to accurately model the onset of crack growth. Interestingly
however, better correlation is observed at lower stress as these tests exhibited better fatigue performance. An initial
flaw size of 0.4mm with a/2c = 0.1 provides the closest agreement with the experimental data, but the ECA prediction
is still observed to over-estimate the fatigue lives in a sour environment, which is non-conservative.
When the analysis was repeated using the two-stage sour fatigue crack growth curve from Figure 6 there was a
dramatic improvement in the agreement between the ECA predictions and the experimental data (Figure 8). Overall
there was excellent correlation between the sour S-N curves predicted via ECA and the experimental data. The
observed ERF (for endurance tests) is comparable to that expected from the difference in fatigue crack propagation
rates. It would seem that the sour environment has a similar effect on total fatigue life as it does on crack propagation
alone. Examining Figures 7 and 8, the predicted sour S-N curves are not significantly influenced by the choice of
initial flaw aspect ratio.
The fracture mechanics-based predictions presented in Figure 8 suggest that FCGR data may provide an alternative
means of predicting ERFs. Further review and comparison of FCGR and fatigue endurance behaviour in a sour
environment is undoubtedly required, to confirm the present indication that the two are directly proportional.
However, there are relatively few published S-N data for steels in a sour environment, particularly at low stress. [18-21]

Buitrago et al[21] investigated the influence of a sour environment on fatigue endurance in both the low and high cycle
fatigue regimes, including tests on API 5L grade X65 C-Mn steel welds in the same sour environment described
above. Tests were also performed at low stress ranges. The results of the pertinent strip fatigue endurance tests in air
and in a sour environment are reproduced in Figure 9. Loading frequency was 1Hz compared to 0.2Hz in the JIP.

Figure 9. Fatigue endurance data for API 5L grade X65 C-Mn steel weld specimens tested in air and in a sour
environment. [21]
The observed performance in air was significantly better than that observed in the JIP and had a shallower curve,
which is consistent with what one might expect from high quality girth welds. Buitrago et al tested girth welds
produced in the 1G position by a mechanised GMAW process after a STT root pass. The welds tested in the JIP were
produced in the 2G position with GTAW root and GMAW fill and cap. However, the resulting sour S-N curve was
significantly steeper. It was concluded that the use of a constant slope (i.e. one-stage) S-N curve represents a
conservative sour design assumption.
The above published data provides another useful test case for the ECA predictions using the two-stage sour fatigue
crack growth curve. Table 3 presents the results of this analysis in a similar fashion to Tables 1 and 2, this time
alongside the actual observed fatigue lives from the sour endurance tests reported by Buitrago et al. [21] The
corresponding sour S-N curves are plotted alongside the sour experimental data in Figure 10.
Table 3 Fatigue lives predicted via engineering critical assessment based on the latest two-stage sour crack
growth curve assuming typical initial surface-breaking defects to be present at a girth weld, close to the weld
root toe.

Initial Aspect
flaw size ratio,
(mm)
a/2c

0.15 x 1.5 0.1

0.4 x 4.0 0.1

0.15 x 0.5 0.3

Stress
Actual life range
Buitrago et al
(MPa)
data (cycles)
15
23,500,000
20
7,785,439
30
2,587,941
2,204,733 &
40
1,117,474
50
907,739
70
372,359
100
230,921
161
71,610
15
23,500,000
20
7,785,439
30
2,587,941
2,204,733 &
40
1,117,474
50
907,739
70
372,359
100
230,921
161
71,610
15
23,500,000
20
7,785,439
30
2,587,941
2,204,733 &
40
1,117,474
50
907,739

250,000,000
38,145,000

K at start K at
of life
failure
(Nmm-3/2) (Nmm-3/2)
22
102
33
167

10,040,000

44

223

3,560,000
752,000
148,000
20,000
105,000,000
16,000,000

55
77
110
176
26
40

254
380
504
868
110
165

4,210,000

53

218

1,490,000
318,000
65,500
10,900
421,000,000
64,100,000

66
92
132
213
17
26

249
380
537
910
105
147

16,880,000

35

205

5,990,000

44

243

Predicted life
(cycles)

70
100
161
15
20
30
0.4 x 1.33 0.3

40
50
70
100
161

372,359
230,921
71,610
23,500,000
7,785,439
2,587,941
2,204,733 &
1,117,474
907,739
372,359
230,921
71,610

1,260,000
246,000
30,800
173,000,000
26,390,000

61
87
140
21
31

343
537
902
107
170

6,940,000

42

216

2,460,000
522,000
104,000
15,000

52
73
105
169

250
390
513
811

Figure 10. S-N curves predicted via engineering critical assessment calculations using the latest two-stage sour
crack growth curve, plotted alongside fatigue endurance data for specimens tested in a sour environment. [21]
The S-N curves predicted via ECA are much shallower than the published test data. Consequently, fatigue
performance is under-estimated at high stress and over-estimated at low stress. Table 4 presents predicted fatigue
lives based on Stage B only from Figure 6. This represents a conservative upper bound sour crack growth curve. The
corresponding sour S-N curves are plotted alongside the sour experimental data in Figure 11. The slope of the
predicted S-N curves now more closely matches that of the experimental data and fatigue lives are consistently underestimated.

Figure 11. S-N curves predicted via engineering critical assessment calculations using an upper bound sour
fatigue crack growth curve, plotted alongside fatigue endurance data for specimens tested in a sour
environment [21]
Table 4 Fatigue lives predicted via engineering critical assessment based on an upper bound sour crack growth
curve assuming typical initial surface breaking defects to be present at a girth weld, close to the weld root toe.

Initial Aspect
flaw size ratio,
(mm)
a/2c

0.15 x 1.5 0.1

0.4 x 4.0 0.1

Stress
Actual life range
Buitrago et al
(MPa)
data (cycles)
15
23,500,000
20
7,785,439
30
2,587,941
2,204,733 &
40
1,117,474
50
907,739
70
372,359
100
230,921
161
71,610
15
23,500,000
20
7,785,439
30
2,587,941
2,204,733 &
40
1,117,474
50
907,739

8,500,000
3,960,000
1,345,000

K at start K at
of life
failure
-3/2
(Nmm ) (Nmm-3/2)
16
84
22
113
33
168

626,000

44

224

346,000
141,000
54,000
15,400
5,800,000
2,710,000
920,000

55
77
110
176
20
26
40

282
387
517
898
83
112
168

429,000

53

225

237,000

66

282

Predicted
life (cycles)

70
100
161
15
20
30
0.15 x 0.5 0.3

40
50
70
100
161
15
20
30

0.4 x 1.33 0.3

40
50
70
100
161

372,359
230,921
71,610
23,500,000
7,785,439
2,587,941
2,204,733 &
1,117,474
907,739
372,359
230,921
71,610
23,500,000
7,785,439
2,587,941
2,204,733 &
1,117,474
907,739
372,359
230,921
71,610

97,000
37,500
10,500
10,300,000
4,800,000
1,630,000

92
132
213
13
17
26

398
564
882
83
112
166

760,000

35

225

420,000
171,000
66,000
18,700
7,280,000
3,380,000
1,150,000

44
61
74
140
16
21
31

282
384
535
900
85
112
168

535,000

42

224

296,000
120,000
46,500
13,000

52
73
105
169

283
379
543
840

Discussion
S-N curves have been predicted via fracture mechanics using a two-stage sour FCGR curve, developed from
increasing K tests starting at very low K. There was excellent correlation between the predicted S-N curves and
the results of sour strip fatigue endurance tests from a previous TWI JIP. This suggests that FCGR and fatigue
endurance behaviour in a sour environment are directly proportional, and FCGR data may provide an alternative
means of predicting ERFs.
However, the same predicted S-N curves did not correlate as well with endurance data published by Buitrago et al. [21]
This is perhaps not surprising considering the significantly better air performance demonstrated by the welds tested
by Buitrago et al. It was shown that the initial flaw sizes assumed in the above analyses were comparable to the size
of flaw required to achieve the same life as a Class E mean curve, based on a simplified mean crack growth curve for
steels in air.[17] However, the welds tested by Buitrago et al exceeded Class E mean performance, therefore smaller
initial flaw sizes would need to be assumed in order to force a calculated S-N curve to fit the experimental air curve.
Also, referring to the actual fatigue lives in a sour environment reported in Tables 3 and 4, the values of K at the
start of life were significantly lower than 100Nmm-3/2/3MPam0.5, the lowest value of K for which actual FCGR data
has been measured (Figure 2). Additional test data are therefore required at lower values of K (i.e. <100Nmm3/2
/3MPam0.5). Possible frequency effects have also not been explored in this paper. Adopting an upper bound sour
crack growth curve (i.e. Stage B from the two-stage curve) improved the correlation between the predicted S-N
curves and the experimental data and ensured a conservative prediction of fatigue life.
Further investigation is required to establish whether the observed ERF (for endurance tests) is comparable to that
expected from the difference in fatigue crack propagation rates. However, there are a number of lucrative benefits if
FCGR data can provide an alternative means of predicting ERFs. For example, sour corrosion FCGR tests are, in
general, considerably cheaper and quicker than fatigue endurance tests. If fracture mechanics calculations based on
experimental FCGR data can be shown to provide accurate estimates of fatigue endurance data in sour environments
then significant cost and time savings might be achieved during the initial stages of deepwater development projects.
Furthermore, industry is increasingly interested in generating corrosion fatigue data at realistic service (i.e. low)
stress ranges. Sour fatigue endurance tests under constant amplitude loading are often unfeasibly long and expensive
due to the low frequency required in corrosion fatigue testing. FCGR testing at low K may provide an alternative
means of investigating fatigue behaviour in this regime.

There is much debate regarding the concept of ERFs (or knockdown factors). It is possible that two different welding
procedures may exhibit a different fatigue endurance in air, but a similar performance when tested in a sour
environment. The better performing weld (in air at least) is therefore assigned a greater fatigue life reduction factor,
and a somewhat more stringent sour design curve. In other instances, fatigue performance in air may significantly
exceed that required. The determined fatigue life reduction factor, between strip tests in air and in a sour environment,
can then be very large. Applying this reduction factor to the design curve results in a very stringent sour design curve,
and penalises the use of a girth welding procedure that results in good (in air) fatigue performance. The only way to
eliminate the uncertainty with deriving ERFs from small scale strip fatigue specimens alone is to conduct full scale
fatigue tests in a sour environment. To date such tests have not been feasible but a JIP aimed at conducting such tests
commenced in 2010.
[10]

Conclusions and recommendations

Sour corrosion fatigue behaviour of C-Mn pipeline steels is a complex research area influenced by numerous
environmental and mechanical variables. This paper provides encouragement that it may be possible to use fracture
mechanics calculations based on experimental FCGR data to provide sufficiently accurate and conservative estimates
of fatigue endurance in sour environments. Although further review and comparison is required, the potential benefits
of being able to predict total fatigue life via FCGR data justify the continued investment in this area, particularly the
development of FCGR test methods in sour environments.

References
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