Studenta: Gritco Mihaela

Grupa: T-124

2013
Tourist Resource
Management

22.05.2013

Theme 1. The subject of study Tourism Resources Management

1. Introduction to the tourism resources management.
Key words: tourism, tourist, traveler.

Objectives:
O1- to define tourism and the meaning of tourist;
O2- to present several scientists opinions concerning tourism definition;
O3- to find some demonstrative methods.

01- to define tourism and the meaning of tourist

Tourism- the business activity connected with providing accommodation, services and
entertainment for people who are visiting a place for pleasure.
Tourist- 1.a person who is traveling or visiting a place for pleasure; 2. (BrE) a member of
a sports team that is playing a series of official games in a foreign country.
Tourism is travel for predominantly recreational or leisure purposes or the provision of
services to support this leisure travel. It can be notices that the high proportion of tourist
resources (especially of human origin) is ignored. It lead to the wording of the incomplete
definition. The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who travel to and
stay in places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for
leisure, business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated
from within the place visited. The term tourism and tourist are sometimes used
operatively, to imply a shallow interest in the cultures or locations visited by tourists.
Tourism represent a business activity connected with providing accommodation services
and entertainment for people who are visiting a place for pleasure. When we thing of
tourism, we think primarily of people who are visiting a particular place for sightseeing,
visiting friends and relatives, taking a vacation, and having a good time. They may spend
there leisure time engaging in various sports sunbathing, talking, singing , taking rides,
touring, reading, or simply enjoying the environment also people who participate in a
convention, a business conference , or some other kind of business or professional
activity. Tourism is a composite of activities, services, and industries that delivers a travel
experience: transportation, accommodations, eating and drinking establishments, shops,

entertainment, activity facilities, and other hospitality services available for individuals or
groups that are traveling away from home. It encompasses all providers of visitor and
visitor-related services. Tourism is the entire world industry of travel, hotels,
transportation, and all other components, including promotion that serves the needs and
wants of travelers. Finally, tourism is the sum total of tourism expenditures within the
borders of a nation or political subdivision or a transportation-centered economic area of
contiguous states or nations. This economic concept also considers the income multiplier
of these tourist expenditures. Any tourist activity is based on flow of people geared to
tourist researches during which the consumption of tourist product and the infrastructure
are put together. Tourism as a human activity is inconceivable (concept) without the
presence of human factor, actually the human being. At the dawn of the 3 rd millennium
the tourism will sooner become following the general tendency of human social evolution,
the most effective economic field (it is sometimes called the smokeless industry). Thats
why the study of this discipline must receive all the information concerning the stage of
tourism phenomenon. The tourist phenomena includes all the motivations activities of a
leisure and health nature extended in a given place and a given moment.

02- to present several scientists opinions concerning tourism definition

Human beings are especially curious concerting the word in which they live. They need
and want to know what other places look like- the people, their culture, the animals and
plant life, and landforms may be elsewhere. Although travel can be undertaken for many
reasons, the most common are pleasure, business, and study. The subject of travel is very
exciting and fascinating. Humanlike beings have been moving from place to place for
about 1million years. Tourism is a rapidly growing international business and it is vital for
many countries, due to the large intake of money for businesses with their goods and
services and the opportunity for employment in the service industries associated with
tourism. The terms tourism and travel are sometimes used interchangeably. In this
context travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful journey.
Poser, from his view, tourism represents a local or regional concentration foreigners on a
temporary basis which generates mutual relationships with the native population.
Scientist Frailer in its manual of Swedes people economy in 1905 shows that tourism is a
phenomenon of our days based on the increasing need for recovering and change in home
environment on birth and development of a feeling for nature. Hunziker and Krapf, in
1941, defined, tourism as the sum of the phenomena and relationships arising from the
travel and stay of non-residents, insofar as they do not lead to permanent residence and are
not connected with any earning activity. In 1976 Tourism Society of England defined it
as Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destination outside the
places where they normally live and work their activities during the stay at each
destination. It includes movement for all purposes. In 1981 International association of
Scientific Experts in Tourism defining tourism in terms of particular activities selected by
choice and undertaken outside the home environment. The United Nations classified three

forms of tourism in 1994 in its Recommendations on Tourism Statistics: Domestic

tourism, which involves residents of given country traveling only within this country;
Inbound tourism, involving non-residents traveling in the given country; and Outbound
tourism, involving residents traveling in another country. Recently, the tourism industry
has shifted from the promotion of inbound tourism to the promotion of outbound tourism
because many countries are experiencing tough competition for inbound tourists.

O3- to find some demonstrative methods

The tourism industry is one of the most important source of income and foreign exchange,
and it is growling rapidly. It is the bittersweet character of contemporary travel that is both
its bane and its strength. Receptive tourism is now growing at a very rapid rate in many
developing countries, where it is often the most important economic activity in local GDP.
Any attempt to define tourism and to describe its scope fully must consider the various
groups that participate in and are affected by the industry. Their perspectives are vital to
the development of a comprehensive definition. Four different perspectives of tourism can
be identified:
The tourist. The tourist seeks various psychic and physical experience and satisfactions.
The nature of these will largely determine the destinations chosen and the activities
enjoyed.
The businesses providing tourist goods and services. Businesspeople see tourism as an
opportunity to make a profit by supplying the goods and services that the tourist market
demands.
The government of the host community or area. Politicians view tourism as wealth factor
in the economy of their jurisdictions. Their perspectives is related to the incomes their
citizens can earn from this business.
The host community. Local people usually see tourism as a cultural and employment
factor. Of importance to this group is the effect of the interaction between large numbers
of international visitors and residents. This effect may be beneficial or harmful, or both.
Directly or indirectly, tourism is part of the fabric of most of the worlds industries,
including transportation, retailing, advertising, sports, sporting goods and equipment,
clothing, the food industry, and health care. Tourism also plays a part in most
communication media, particularly in the travel sections of newspapers. Development of a
field depends on (1) uniform definitions, (2) description, (3) analysis, (4) prediction, and
(5) control. Modern tourism is a discipline that has only recently attracted the attention of
scholars from many fields. Consequently, many definitions of tourism and the tourist
are based on distance traveled, the length of time spent, and the purpose of the trip. This
makes it difficult to gather statistical information that scholars can use to develop a
database, describe the tourism phenomenon, and do analyses.

Conclusion: Tourism is a dynamic activity taking a lot of space, it involves different

transportation links. The romance of travel may not be what it was in the days of steam,
safaris and stewards but it is the most important industry in the world.

2. The position in the system of economic and geographical

sciences.
Key words: economy, link ,impact.
Objectives:
01- to find the relation between tourism and economy;
02- to stress the importance of tourism with geography;
03- to characterize the tourism with other sciences.

O1- to find the relation between tourism and economy

The developments of tourism phenomena in addition leisure and physical has an
importance of an economic nature. Considerable income are obtained throw the
consumption of a tourist product. There is a tendency to estimate the efficiency of a tourist
activity. The development of tourism phenomenon in addition to leisure an physical
recovering, has an importance of economic nature. Considerable incomes are obtained
through the consumption of tourism product. There is tendency to estimate the efficiency
of the tourism activity, besides it beneficial effects of human being, by the income
resulting from the development at this one. Tourism is becoming a top economic field.
The natural factors (relief, nature features, climate hydrography) often participate
proportionally in the setting up of the tourist resources potential of many regions of the
world, determining the rhythm and the intensity of the tourism phenomenon. Tourism
being a particularly of human activity is aimed a different age group, professions and
social classes. Tourism is a dynamic activity taking a lot of space. It involves different
transportation links. Tourism throw its final outcome of an economic nature is an integral
part of material and spiritual values exchanges. Tourism, third pillar of the economy after
the E.P.Z. manufacturing sector and Agriculture, contributes significantly to economic
growth and has been a key factor in the overall development of Mauritius. In the past two
decades tourist arrivals increased at an average annual rate of 9 % with a corresponding

increase of about 21 % in tourism receipts. In 2000, gross tourism receipts were 14.2
billion rupees (508.3 million US $) and contributed to about 11% of our GDP. Tourism
may be called to play an even more important role in the wake of the After- GATT
Agreements. Tourism is the fastest growing industry in the world, contributing 6% to the
world economy. Because of its importance to both domestic and world economies,
tourism has been examines closely by economists, who focus on supply, demand, balance
of payments, foreign exchange, employment, expenditures, development, multipliers, and
other economic factors. This approach is useful in providing a framework for analyzing
tourism and its contributions to a countrys economy and economic development. The
disadvantage of the economic approach is that whereas tourism is an important economic
factor, it has noneconomic impacts as well. The economic approach does not usually pay
adequate attention to the environmental, cultural, psychological, sociological, and
anthropological approaches. he economic figures cited show that tourism has grown to be
an activity of worldwide importance and significance. For a number of countries, tourism
is the largest commodity in international trade. In many others it ranks among the top
three industries. Tourism has grown rapidly to become a major social and economic force
in the world. The WTTC Report examines travel and tourism in 24 countries belonging to
the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) that account for
about 75 percent ($2.550 trillion) of the worlds tourism industry gross output in
1994.Politicians at all levels are typically very concerned with tourism They look
increasingly at tourism as a tool for economic development.

02- to stress the importance of tourism with geography

Geotourism is tourism that sustains, or even enhances, the geographical character of a
place, such as its culture, environment, heritage, and well-being of its residents. There for
demography and human geography play a major role in the definition of human potential.
The concept was introduced publicly in 2002 report by the Travel Industry Association of
America and National Geographic Traveler magazine. National Geographic senior editor
Jonathan B. Tourtellot and his wife, Sally Bensusen, coined the term in 1997 in response
to request for a term and concept more encompassing than ecotourism and sustainable
tourism. Geotourism incorporates the concept of sustainable tourism- that destinations
should remain unspoiled for future generations- while allowing for enhancement that
protects the character of the locale. Geotourism also adopts a principle from its cousin,
ecotourism- that tourism revenue can promote conservation- and extends that principle
beyond nature travel to encompass culture and history as well: all distinctive assets of a
place. Geotourism is tourism that sustains, or even enhances, the geographical character of
a place, such as its culture, environment, heritage, and the well-being of its residents.
Geotourism adds to sustainability principles by building on geographical character- sense
of place- to create a type of tourism that emphasize the distinctiveness of its locale, and
that benefits visitor and resident alike. All the elements of geographical character together
create a tourist experience that is richer than the sum of its parts, appealing to visitors with
diverse interests. Travel businesses do their best to use the local workforce, services, and
products and supplies. Tourism revenues in turn raise local perceived value of those

assets. There are also close links with sciences concerning nature (geomorphology,
climatology, etc.) through natural resources potential (relief, water, climate, vegetation,
fauna), tourism activity is an interaction with transportation and foreign trade.
Environmentally aware travelers favor businesses that minimize pollution, waste, energy
consumption, water usage, landscaping chemicals, and excessive nighttime lighting.
Relation between geography and tourism are named Geotourism, it also can influence on
tourism, here are specified the environment.

O3- to characterize the tourism with other sciences

Tourism through its final outcome of an economic nature, is an integral part and material
and spiritual values exchanges. Tourism activity is common with such sciences as:
geology, history, biology, psychology, medicine, chemistry which also participate in the
setting up of tourism potential of a given region. Tourism function is indissoluble related
to statistics, marketing, finance, economy, accounting, management, macro and
microeconomy, economical science and other economical sciences. According to its
evolution, tourism is major industry that is growing with the help of many sciences and
economic branches. In macroeconomics this scale of tourism is influencing positive the
GDP by increasing it and also by spending foreigners in local economy.
Consequently the national wealth is growing. It is influencing positive the commercial
balance outside payment balance, generate new jobs, etc.
But in microeconomics its impact expressed an particular cases, for instance supply and
demand of different products. On the other way microeconomics analyses the solutions of
the problems about the resource scarcity, alternative choice, consumer and producers
behavior, which is very important for the economic aspect of tourism. Geography
represents a science that influences direct on tourism, i.e. all types including: physical,
economic and human. It offers information about the resources, natural and antropical
turistical sites, environment, climate, landscapes and some economic aspects about them.
Ecology has influenced tourism deeply. As a result appeared the term ecotourism, which
means: responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and improves
the well-being of local people. Statistics the science without emotions has also a link
with the tourism. It helps to make prognostications, to improve strategies, to correct
policies on the base of statistic data and collecting, processing, analysis, and finally
presentation of this data.
Tourism with help of Marketing has improved its sales as the result the income rose
stormy up. Marketing strategies have opened to the tourism new horizon and huge
possibilities. It is important to pay a considerably attention to represents the most influent
factor in taking decisions (often in case of consumer behavior). Mathematics gave tourism
the diminution of the various costs, by different formulas, solutions (especially economic
mathematics. In this way can be mentioned the example of the transportation problem,
which provides (in condition of a correct solving) the most cheap way of delivery of a
product. In case of tourism it can take the form of the most cheap itinerary, etc.
Informatics facilitated the work with the data from tourism and other domains. It is refer
to the stock of the information, its processing, presentation and withdrawing. Also it were

designed many programs, which improved the accessibility and processing the data in this
domain. From Management tourism has learned how to administrate with success a firm,
in particular case a branch of economy. To instruct the personnel, to respect the term, and
to respect the clientele and finally how to capitalize efficient human, financial and
material resources. Accounting is a very important science that is linked with tourism. In
tourism domain all financial transactions must be legal and transparent. For instance, if a
firm is a placed in a legal economy, we know that a good book-keeper can guaranty that
the firm wouldnt have fiscal problems. Also judging by yearly accounting results and
reports it can be made some prognostications for the near future and not only.
Demography is also a very important science for tourism. It affects smokeless industry
in several aspects:
1)The number of population-if the number is higher, the number of possible tourists is
higher;
2)Increase in life expectancy-if it is height at the old age is more time for leisure
inclusively to travel.
Seismology offers tourism information about seismic dangerous zones, i.e. has a direct
effect on the respective zones and their degree of visitation. In the last time are provided
some strategies to decrease the number of such zones by making the attractive for tourists
who love dangerous and spectacular places, for instance-volcanoes.
Hydrology gives tourism the information about the tide periods, weather (situation in
the seas, oceans, river regimes and character, dangerous zones). It can offer some
recommendations about a specific aim-space of visitation.
Meteorology-is linked to tourism from the beginning. It present the situation concerning
the weather which is a direct influence on the tourism activity, i.e. it is useful not only
concerning the clothes of tourists, but also the activity in tourism infrastructure, such as
airplane flight bus route, etc. History represents the quizzical secret of tourism. It
permanently offers new destinations, because history is a endless science which is a
constant changing and passing.
The interdependence between archaeology and tourism is the following it often
invests in tourism with various discoveries from different epochs, that present a turistic
interest and as a result stimulating the tourist flow. Also the archaeology often gives the
discoveries to the mausoleums, which are a part of tourism infrastructure. Law is one of
the basic science at which tourism has to pay attention, because all operations ought to be
according to the legislation (if the firm want to operate in a legal field). The law is also
very important for the tourist in order to know that he has his rights and duties.
Psychology is also related to tourism. Managers from this economic sector and their staff
ought to have the cleverness to motivate a tourist to travel and to buy their services, in this
case are provided some strategies. Religion is one of the most important factor that is
linked to tourism. The driver forces are pilgrims, which travel far away from their usual
residence to fulfill their dreams and to discover themselves. Religion also represent a
balm for tourists spirits and a refuge place either they are in high spirits or vice-versa.
After all tourism activity is a question of a psychological insight of each individual.

Conclusion: We have just know the retort: The strength only appear , when they are
more than one person, in this case, to conclude, I could say that tourism with the help of
many sciences and economic branches had become-one of the important branch of
economy. Only the word tourism for all the people in the world create the impression
about entertaining and relax and, of course, to find something new that daily appears in
our epoch.

3.Principles, methods and means of study.

Key words: Principles, methods and means.

Objectives:
01- to specify the main principles, methods and means of study.

O1- to specify the main principles, methods and means of study

Tourism activity uses a series of principles, methods and means of study that are common
for all geographical sciences, but also uses properly methods, that are specific.
PRINCIPLES
Spatiality

METHODS

Causality

Integration

Observation

Analysis
MEANS

Synthesis

Description

Descriptive
model

Explication
MODELATION
Mathematical
model

Hierarchy
Cartographical
model

Tourism development can be sustainable provided that the following sustainable tourism
principles are observed:
the principles of specialty- according to which the research of tourism phenomena make
use as a key method of observation and is means of study- the description. Due to this
pattern (model) the descriptive model is being widely used to inform the potentional
tourism and popularization of visitors mass. Investigation uses it- self this model for
underlining of some qualitative elements of tourism phenomena, that are quantitative
difficult to estimate.
principles of causality (cause)- which aim is the study of appearance (emergence)
assertion and development of tourism process. As a activity method it has recourse (use)
to the detailed analysis of phenomena carried out by means of explanation that can be
accomplished by a mathematical model, formula etc. An important place has the analysis
in details of geographical spaces of reception. Tourism appears as an effect of act of some
independent or reunited causes in one casual ensemble , that need to decipher and known.
principles of integration- of characteristic phenomena in logical structures, designed to
show the objective aspects (synthesis it need a graphic representation (cartographic
model)).
Between principles there is a close link. The 1st principles serves a base for the 2nd one.
Wide latter for the 3rd.

Conclusion: To sum up, we have to understand these three principles ,the methods and
means of study for a correct perceiving in detailed study of each natural elements, and
generally, of tourist phenomenon.

4.The categories of tourism resources management.

Key words: tourist, visitor, traveler, excursionist.

Objectives:
01- to develop the meaning of tourism;
02- to specify the categories of tourists and its explanations;
03- to enumerate categories of tourism.

01-- to develop the meaning of tourism

Increasingly travelers are a key factor in the creation of jobs and new capital spending.
Nowhere is immune to their impact and no government can ignore them.
Tourism as huge potential for good or evil. It is in everyones interest, particularly the
industrys, that the economic power of 21st century tourism is harnessed for the benefit of
local people and wildlife.

The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who travel to and stay in
places outside their usual environment for not more than one consecutive year for leisure,
business and other purposes not related to the exercise of an activity remunerated from
within the place visited. Tourism was defined as people traveling abroad for period of
over 24 hours. In Hebrew the word tourism means a discovery journey. Tourist
represents any person who travels to a place outside his/her usual environment for a
period not exceeding 12 month and whose main purpose of visit is other than the exercise
of an activity remunerated from within the place visited (WTO). Term tourist is extremely
disputed both in English and in France, having the same meaning as: walking, travel,
circuit and first used as official terms in 1937 by the League of Nations. For the first time
it appears in England (1800) in the working of Samuel Pagge in Anecdote of english
language. Hardly, over the 4 decade (1838), this word is used in France by the Stendhal
in the work: Memories of one tourist. The word originates from the Middle English
word travailen ("to toil"), which comes from the French word travailler
("travail").According to the Encyclopedia Littre tourist is each traveler that make a
travel for personal pleasure , either for satisfaction of curiosity or for filling of the time.
The League of Nations (1936) consider tourist each person traveling for a time of 24
hours or much more in a country that is not the original country. The most important

notions in tourism are: tourist, tourism, tourists content, tourists product, demand and
supply of tourism. Tourist and tourism- there is a close link between these notions. The
tourist is the driving force of the tourism phenomenon as a whole, while tourism is the
result of this activity. Even in English circuit itinerary, excursion, trip and visit. The UN
World Tourism Organization forecasts that by 2020 over 1.56 billion international
travelers will make journeys from their home countries. This unprecedented growth means
there will be a need for tourism professionals to serve the industry now and in the future.
The Tourism School (in time) will provide courses on aspects of tourism planning,
management and sustainable development for those planning to join the industry. The
World Tourism Organization recognizes the following 10 countries of the world as the
most visited in 2006 by number of travelers. It is noticeable that most of them are on the
European continent. The terms tourism and travel are sometimes used interchangeably. In
this context travel has a similar definition to tourism, but implies a more purposeful
journey. The terms tourism and tourist are sometimes used pejoratively, to imply a shallow
interest in the cultures or locations visited by tourists.
Rank Country
Continent
International tourist arrivals
1
France
Europe
79.1 million
2
Spain
Europe
58.5 million
3
United States
North America
51.1 million
4
China
Europe
49.6 million
5
Italy
Europe
41.1 million
6
United Kingdom
Europe
30.1 million
7
Germany
Europe
23.6 million
8
Mexico
North America
21.4 million
9
Austria
Europe
20.3 million
10
Russia
Europe
20.2 million
02- the categories of tourists and its explanations
The tourist is the driving force under the tourism phenomenon, while tourism is the result
of this activity. Even in English the word Tour can refer to route circuit itinerary
excursion, trip and visit. In Hebrew the word tourism means a discovery journey.
TOURISM
WTO has taken the concept of tourism beyond a stereotypical image of
holiday-making. The officially accepted definition is: Tourism comprises the activities
of persons traveling to and staying in places outside their usual environment for not more
than one consecutive year for leisure, business and other purposes. The term usual
environment is intended to exclude trips within the area of usual residence and frequent
and regular trips between the domicile and the workplace and other community trips of a
routine character.
International tourism:
a. Inbound tourism: visits to a country by nonresidents;
b. Outbound tourism: visits by residents of a country to another
country.
Internal tourism: visits by residents of a country to their own country.

Domestic tourism: internal tourism plus inbound tourism (the tourism market of
accommodation facilities and attractions within a country).
National tourism: internal tourism plus outbound tourism (the resident tourism market for
travel agents and airlines).
TRAVELER TERMINOLOGY FOR INTERNATIONAL TOURISM
Underlying the
foregoing conceptualization of tourism is the overall concept of traveler, defined as any
person on a trip between two or more countries or between two or more localities within
his/her country of usual residence. all types of travelers engaged in tourism are described
as visitors, a term that constitutes the basic concept of the entire system of which they
generally reside for a period not exceeding 12 months, whose main purpose is other than
the exercise of an activity remunerated from within the place visited. Visitors are
subdivided into two categories:
Same-day visitors: visitors who do not spend the night in a collective or private
accommodation in the country visited: for example, a cruiseship passenger spending four
hours in a port.
Tourists: visitors who stay in the country visited for a least one night: for example, a
visitor on a two-week vacation.
Classification of tourists:
Travelers
included in the tourism statistics
(visitors)
tourists
(overnight)

same-day tourists
(excursionists- no
overnight 1 night)

not included in tourism statistics

-armed forces
-border workers
-permanent and temporary
immigrants
-councils and official
representations
-passengers in transit
-nomads
-refugees
-officials

There are many purposes for a visit, here are some tourism motivations:
-notably pleasure;
-leisure, recreational and vacation;
-health treatment and transit;
-visiting friends and relatives;
-business and professional;
-religion and pilgrimages;
-others purposes (study sports).
For both tourists and excursionists exist different kind of motivation like:
-agreement (holidays, cultural visits, sport practice, visits, to family or relatives);

-professional motives (reunions, missions, affaires) ;

-other motives (studies, health, transit).
03- to enumerate categories of tourism
The tourism phenomenon is defined by a series of notions. The most used are:
tourist;
tourism;
tourism potential;
tourist supply;
tourist demand.
Tourists resources- include just attractive elements of a territory without taking into
account their both natural and human origins that have the possibility to valorization
through tourism. Its comprise both tourists objectives that are visited and those who
uses as a primary matter for different forms of tourism(mineral water, thermal water, slit
for bilinear ; rural space and its ethnographic and cultural values for this type of tourism).
natural tourism resources:
climate;
relief.
man-made resources:
museums, monuments;
churches, cathedrals.
Tourist infrastructure- it consist of all tourism endowments such as:
accommodation catering capacity;
tourist services network;
spas and resorts;
tourist transportation links;
electricity network and hitting system;
water supply and mains;
postal and baking services, etc.
Tourist potential consists of tourism resources and infrastructure.
Tourist flow- it represents a movement of visitors from their place of residence to the
place visited. It is a dynamic categories which considers human facto but its number and
financial opportunities. Also tourists flow is a dynamic element of tourism structure that
reflects report from the nr. of tourists that moved between area of issuing and area of
receives. The special features (characteristics) of the tourism flow are:
the direction;
the rhythm;
the intensity.
Tourist product- it represents all goods and services that facilitates the tourist activity.

Tourism market- it represents a place of interference or contact of tourism product with

its consumers of supply with demand.
Tourism content- represent the totality of all attractive objectives , natural and human
from a territories.
Tourism balance- a report between the number of arrives and departures.
Tourism market- represent the report between tourists demand and supply , elements
that are influence each other. Market can be favorable, equilibrate and unbalanced. It is
exist in receiver areas and it doesnt miss along the access ways or transmitter areas.
Tourists supply represent the assemble of natural components of the environment and of
those who are created by the people from a natural area. It has some characteristics:
rigidity, its means that it is in the place of destination being impossible to move on the
consumer.
heterogeneous, because include in its structure both natural and human tourists
potential, also technical-material base of tourism and facilities necessary for this activity.
content differentiation of offer for the different categories of tourists in function of
their preferences and financial possibility.
necessity in supply popularization for arriving to the potential tourists.
Tourists demand represents necessary of tourists consume. Demand depends on the level
of economic development of the society , of the tourists structure.

Conclusion: Tourism in our days he different meanings and senses, as tourist that take part
in the own category and have special understandings so Tourism is leaving its mark,
often too literally so.

5. The factors influencing the tourism phenomenon.

Key words: factors, economy, politic, psychology, social.

Objectives:
01- to define the meaning of demographic factors;
02- to analyze the economic and politic factors;
03- to reveal more clearly the psychological and social factors.

01- to define the meaning of demographic factors

The most important factors that influence the tourism:
Demographic factors- human factor is the origin and development condition (population
growth, increase in life expectancies, the growth of young people). Tourism is a process
for whom human being represent a condition for the genesis and development. Persons
needs of relaxation, physical-psychical recovering and of knowing , represent the
principal cause of apparition. Demographic factors action through: the increase in nr. of
globe population, this is saw as a potential of traveller, increase of longevity of life and
the growth of nr. of teenagers and nr. of old people.
02- to analyze the economic and politic factors
Economic factors- they are very important for tourism phenomenon. All the people that
have a certain standard of living and saving can take part in tourism activity. These one
can influence either direct or indirect the promotion of tourism. Directly it is through the
growth of the works production and of the income of population. Tourism is manifested
like a care in individuals life, social group or community just in the moment when the
financial resources exceed those for satisfying human necessities (food, home, cloths,
schooling and health sustenance). We can even establish a close relationship between the
size of incomes of population and the part allocated for receptive activities. If income are
small or medium we have a linear correlation, at higher income curve became
exponential. An advanced economy presumes a large development of infrastructure,
communication route, editorial endowments, increase in social comfort and security. This
have an indirect action but is also favourable on the development of the tourism.
Politic factors- they often contribute to the development or the restriction of the tourism
activity (differences of government, arm conflicts, etc.). They can contribute even for a
short period for the affirmation or stint of tourism activity through the regime that is
imposed for the shifting through the states that are in conflicts. Tourism is products that
contributes thru itself deployment, to the recession and extend of collaboration between
countries. All types of conflicts and extension of terrorism, thru their insecurity
unbalanced touring circulation in this area.

03- to reveal more clearly the psychological and social factors

Psychological factors- they determine the intertravel (motivation of people), it involves
the mental activity of people concerning its interests for nature, health and beauty. Their
role increase in every day. If we consider the pressure exercised on the human psychology
by the daily routine, the distance from nature of people, imperatives of knowing of other
places, because of this appear the wish to remaking and maintaining of health or simple
the wish to evade from daily program. These types of factor manage fromshadow, it
appear from the interior of awareness.
Social factors- the brain of this is free time of population. Free time appear when world
economy pass to the industrialization. Machineries, robotization took to the growth of
work productivity, so, people begin to have more free time for travel or relaxation. The
period of leisure time differ, it can be at every end of the day, week, or in holidays etc.
Conclusion: I dare say that when a tourist choose a place or country in order to visit it, he
thinks about the environment he will be around i.e. about all factors I have mentioned,
that have a great influence on a country. And, after analyzing them he tries to do a
conclusion if have or not have to go to the adequate place or a country.

Theme 2. The history of tourism development

1. The stage of tourism in ancient times (antiquity).
Key words: pilgrimage, culture, country, Asia, Europe, Greece.

Objectives:
O1- to show the development of tourism in Antiquity;
O2- to speak about Greeks and ancient Greece;
O3- to stress the important of Roman Empire.

O1- to show the development of tourism in Antiquity

The emergence of human civilization in East Asia (China), South Asia (India), South-West
Asia (Mesopotamia), in the Mediterranean (Egypt, Greece, Rome) represented a favorable
occasion for tourism movements. Thus the tourism motivation- a resource for many
countries aimed at ancient cities Rome, Athens, Alexandria, Carthage, Tyro, Sedan.
During this stage there where many difficulties in the movements of people related to the
limiting and slow- moving means of transportation to restricted legislation of some states
(In Sparta the movement of foreigners was prohibited; In Ancient Greece people could
move only within a particular city). There were many attractive centers, cultural and
sports events such as the Royal jubilees, Olympic Games. All these encouraged people to
travel. During the period these events, the political obstacles were limited, and all the
participants can freely cross the borders. The invention of money by the Sumerians
(Babylonians) and the development of trade beginning about 4000 B.C.E mark the
beginning of the modern era of tourism. So, Sumerians are considered to be the founders
of the travel business. Anyhow, it should be mentioned that in antiquity, tourism has no
economic meaning, it touch just its social part. People could now pay for accommodation
and transportation with money or by barter. As empires grew, the conditions necessary to
travel began to develop. 5000 years ago, cruises were organized and conducted from
Egypt. Probably the first journey ever made for purposes of peace and tourism was made
by Queen Hatshepsut to the land of Punt, in 1480 B.C.E. Ancient Egyptians traveled for
both business and pleasure. Travel was necessary between the central government and the
territories. To accommodate travelers on official business, hospitality centers were build
along major routes in the city. They also traveled for pleasure. Public festivals were held
several time a year. Travel was also for curiosity- people visited the great temples and
tombs of the pharaohs. besides tombs another recognizable trait was the urge to acquire
souvenirs. On the Mediterranean, the Egyptians were not the most important traders of
these ages. This honor came to Minoans from Crete. They had a trading empire that
spread out at the least from Greece to Egypt and the Lebanon. After 1200, its role as main
trading power on the Mediterranean was taken over by Phoenicia. Another region, known
as Assyria (Iraq) comprised the area. As the empire expanded from the Mediterranean in
the West to the Persian Gulf in the East, mobility was made easier to facilitate moving the
military. Roads were improved, makers were established to indicate distances, and posts
and well were developed for safety and nourishment.

O2- to speak about Greeks and ancient Greece

While previous civilizations had set the stage for development of travel, the Greeks and
later, the Romans brought it all together. In Greeks times water was the most important
means of moving commercial goods. As travel for official business was less important, so
of the core importance was the travel for pleasure. To ensure travel by sea, a lot of cities

grew up along the coast. It existed in 3 areas: for religious festivals, for sporting events
(most notably the Olympic Games), and to visit cities, especially Athens. Travel was
advanced by two important developments. First, a system of currency exchange was
developed. previously, travelers paid their way by carrying various goods and selling them
at their destinations. The money of Greeks city- states was now accepted as international
currency, eliminating the need to travel with a cargo of goods. Second, the Greek language
spread throughout the Mediterranean area, making it easier to communicate as one
traveled. Lodging included such services as yielding a wash in the public bath. Such
places were usually located in a beautiful setting that included pure air and water (often
with mineral springs). It must be mentioned that the Greeks recognized rest and diversion
as important elements in treatment of the sick. In addition to the stated above purposes, it
would be inappropriate to ignore such ones as for healing, entertainment and just for sheer
love.

O3- to stress the important of Roman Empire

The Roman Empire prolonged tourisms growth by building new roads. The Roman
combination of empire, roads, the need for overseeing the empire, wealth, leisure, tourist
attractions, and a desire for travel created a demand for accommodation and other tourist
services that came into being as early form of tourism. To summarize, in Roman times,
tourism was flourished for 5 reasons:
The control of the large empire stimulated trade and led to growth of the large middle
class with the money for travel;
Roman coins were all the traveler had to carry to finance the trip;
The means of transportation- roads and waterways were excellent;
Communications was relatively easy, as Greek and Latin were the principal languages;
The legal system provided protection from foreign courts, there by ensuring the safety of
the traveler.
The sporting games, started by Greeks were copied in the Gladiators fights to the death.
Sightseeing was popular to Greeks, to Egypt, site of the pyramids, and the Asia Minor,
scene of the Trojan War. A final development was that the second homes and vacations
associated with them. Villas spread South to Naples, near the sea, the mountains or
mineral spas.

Conclusion: Middle Age was an important stage in tourism development and for whole
world, because: appear first university, the sporting games, and a lot of link ways.

2. The stage of tourism in the middle ages until the Renaissance.

Key words: Middle Age, Commercial changes, pilgrims, maritime links, ins network.

Objectives:
O1- to show the tourism development in Middle Ages.

O1- to show the tourism development in Middle Ages

This stage is also called pseudo-tourism stage, because the favorable conditions of travels
expenses in antiquity stopped, due to the religion fanaticism, the splitting up of feudal
landed estates, each of them with its own laws between the feudal land owner. People
traveled from one region to another especially because of religion issues. Rome and
Jerusalem were visited by Christians. Medina and Mecca were visited by Muslims; Lhasa
(capital of Tibet) and sanctuaries from India and Indochina for Buddhists; Fuji Mountain
by the Japanese, Another reason for travel was due to the foreign trade (Silk Road). At the
same time were developed the sea links, especially in Mediterranean where appeared the
ports of Venice, Geneva, Marseilles, etc. The movement of merchants and dealers caused
the emergence of inns. During this period with a hold more than 1000 years the cultural
tourism was developed promoted by the emergency of the first universities: Bologna
(1119- the oldest), the Sorbonne (1200), Cambridge (1209), Oxford (1214- the youngest),
Naples (1224), Prague (1348), Krakow (1364), Vienna (1365), Cologne (1380). The stage
of pseudo-tourist stage overlap Middle Ages until Renascence, when favorable premises
of tourism affirmation are stopped , cause being religious fanaticism and of political
circumstances : crumble of feudal domains in a lot of number of states, each had having
proper legislation, or a great number of wars. Displacement from a region to another was
represented through religious pilgrims., become regional gravitational poles to what
foods and profits relegate for the residents of pass over areas.
Another cause of displace in Middle Ages was commercial changes. Now appear first
ways along the Europe ( Venice-Vienna- Krakow; Great Britain- Cernauti- Siret GalatiBlack Sea ; Paris- Munchen- Prague- Budapest ). Especially is well know silk route,
that pass over Asia from east to west, with ramification to Byzantium and centre of
Europe. In the same time , are intensifying maritime links , especially in basin of
Mediterranean Sea, where appear big ports, that became great maritime powers( Venice,
Geneva, Marseille). The same role had water transportation on the water from East Asia
and South-East. Although in both cases the principal scope is commerce or diplomacy ,
turistic impress is presented too. Pilgrims and merchants circulation took to the edification
of a dense inns network located along the continental ways, at the intersection of these
towns. Another characteristic of tourism from this period is his discontinuity in time ,

being determine of the population dislocations, long feudal wars( ex. 100 years war ,30
years war) epidemics and dearth.

Conclusion: In this period is more religious , but with all this commercial exchange and
marine link are intensifying. Nevertheless , it is the human fortune to overcome obstacles
in the name of region and trade.

3. The stage of tourism in the late middle ages during the Renaissance and
the great geographic discoveries till the mid of 20th century.

Key words: religion, industrial revolution.

Objectives:
O1- to analyze the impact of Great Geographical Discoveries on tourism;
O2- to name some events happened in this period;
O3- to define the meaning of holiday in that period.

O1- to analyze the impact of Great Geographical Discoveries on tourism

The next important factor in the history of travel was the Renaissance. As society moved
from a rural to an urban base, wealth grew, and more people had the money to travel.
Pilgrimages were still important, though journeys to Jerusalem declined due to the growth
of Protestantism in Europe. The impetus (push) to travel to learn was aided by the arrival
of Renaissance works from Italy. Stable monarchies helped ensure travelers safety. This

stage has its roots in the late middle ages when the Renaissance and the Great Geographic
Discoveries (GGD) widened peoples horizons and guided them to the new geographical
spaces (in the 15th- 17th centuries). Until the 15th century the main sea root have been
represented by the Mediterranean basis. When America has been discovered and
Colonized the major role stopped to be played by it end moved to the Atlantic and Indian
notions. By the end of this stage passports and free movement of people were introduced.
The Industrial Revolution promoted (1750) the leisure industry too. The mass tourism can
only emergence in an industrialized society and not in an agricultural one. The population
explosion in the West, lead to a strong demographic growth and respectively to the
increased number of tourists. The transportation links have been modernized and the first
hotels, spas and resorts appeared in Germany and France. Thomas Cook arranged in 1841
the first organized trip, which later also established the first travel agency. From the
second half of the 19thcentury the foundation of the tourism infrastructure has been layed
for instance: the tourist areas on the French and Italian Riviera: Monte Carlo, San Remo,
Nise, Saint Tropez. The first tourist guide appeared in France in 1672. As from the second
decade at the 20th century tourism as subject of study is taught at the universities of
Dsseldorf (1940), Rome (1925), Berlin (1929). The institution of payed leaves and the
general spread of passports promoted leisure activities. The beginning of the 16 th century
saw a new age of curiosity and exploration, which culminated in the popularity of the
Grand tour. The Grand Tour was initially a 16 th- century Elizabethan concept, brought
about by the need to develop a class professional statesmen and ambassadors. The practice
continued to develop in the 17 th and 18th centuries until it became fashionable. The Grand
Tour began in France, where the young man studied French, dancing, fencing, riding, and
drawing. Before Paris could corrupt the morals or ruin the finances, the student headed for
Italy to study sculpture, music appreciation, and art. The return was by the way of
Germany, Switzerland, and the Low Countries (Holland, Belgium, and Luxembourg). The
Grand Tour reached its peak of popularity in the 1750s and 1760s but was brought to a
sudden end by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars.

O2- to name some events happened in this period

In the late 18th century and early 19th century, two major factors affected the development
of tourism. Increased industrialization accounted for both of them. First, the industrial
revolution accelerated the movement from rural to urban areas. However, the vast
majority of visitors to seaside were day-trippers. It was well into the second half of the
18th century before the working classes in Britain had regular holidays and sufficient

income to use their leisure time to travel. The development of spas was largely due to the
members of the medical professions. During the 17 th century, they began to recommend
the medical properties of mineral waters. Spas on the continent of Europe were developed
two to three hundred years before their growth in England. Development occurred
because of three factors:
The approval of the medical profession;
Court patronage;
Local entrepreneurship to take advantage of the first two.

Patronage by court helped establish spas as the place to be. Today we talk about mass
follows class- the idea that the masses are influenced in their choices of vacation spots by
people they consider influential. The number of people who could afford to take the
waters was rather small. by the end of the 17 th century the influence of the medical
profession had declined, and spas were more for entertainment instead of health. Near the
19th century in may eastern European towns proclaim the beneficial effects of mudpacks
and hydrotherapy. The original motive for sea bathing was for reasons of health. The
growth of the seaside resort was stipulated by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic
Wars. Toward the end of the 19th century, the seaside resorts in Europe became the place
for the working classes due to the introduction of paid holidays and better wages.

O3- to define the meaning of holiday in that period

The term holiday comes from holy days- days for religious observances. Ancient Rome
featured public holidays for great feasting. As Europe became Christian, certain saints
day and religious festivals became holy days when people fasted and prayed and
refrained from work. After the Industrial revolution, the religious holidays gradually
became secularized, and the weeks holiday emerged. The vacation was negotiated
between employer and workers and was again due to the economic and social changes
brought about by the Industrial Revolution. It made sense to take the holidays during the
warmer summer months. For the employer, it was advantageous to close the entire factory
down for one week rather face the problems of operating with small groups of people
absent over a longer period of time. Still today certain weeks are associated with the
general holidays of specific cities or towns. Prior to World War I, the principal mode of
domestic transportation was the railroad. This meant that development was concentrated
at particular points. The Industrial Revolution produced a class of wealthy people who had
the time to travel. Touring became popular. For the wealthy, travel was by railroad and
ship to luxury hotel resorts and large second homes. Only the wealthy few were able to
travel overseas. Between the World Wars, todays consumer society and an era of mass
recreation emerged. More middle-class people purchased second homes and saw leisure

time as something that was a privilege to enjoy. In Europe, legislation was passed giving
paid vacations.

Conclusion: To sum up, I could say that this stage represent just a level of continuing of
the evolution in tourism domain. Here we can remark a social stability, but also there are
some painful exceptions like World Wars, which were reflecting with negative aspects on
tourism activity. But, although the stability generated the progress in many social spheres,
the driving force was the human need to accelerate the progress.

4. The period of contemporary tourism. Mass tourism.

Key words: mass tourism.

Objectives:
O1- to show the causes of apparition of contemporary tourism

O1- to show the causes of apparition of contemporary tourism

The stage of contemporary tourism represents the perfection of the previous stages
adjusted to the contemporary life features, is the clear way of the tourism development
and unfolding (i.e. looking to the tourism demand and supply, etc.). We can remark the
strong link between stages i.e. even in contemporary epoch, are unfolded some features
and things from previous stages. For instance, hunting from the early beginnings was a
source of maintaining the existence, after that it took a form of a type of leisure, but still
keeping its initial form(for an inferior middle classes).In the contemporary stages hunting
took exclusively a tourism form an entertainment, leisure activity, the modern term for it

is safari. The arrangement in case of safari was expressed by some new particular features,
and emergence of new forms, such as: photo, mainstream, couture, air, horse-back riding
safaris. All these types of safaris didnt exist in the past, they represent some adjustments
to present time. We can also mention that the pilgrimage wasnt changed at all during the
evolution tourism processes. I suppose this fact takes place due to the core , hub of this
form of tourism, which represents the spiritual aspect of this case. The period of mass
tourism begins in the middle of 20th century. Amplitude of world touring circulation and
the reasons why tourism movement intensified all over the world are:
the shorting of the working days and weeks;
the rise in the standard of living;
the intense development of links and means of transportation;
the development and diversification of tourism supply on original scale;
the increase need for relaxation with regard to city life.
This period can be characterized through the special intensification of intern tourism in
most of the countries, but in the same time and international one. Being stimulated of
consular and customs facilities, also of the appearance of international organs such as:
WTO, in 1970, International Academy of Tourism, International Federation of Watering
and Climatology. Were multiplied tourism agencies: Thomas Travel, Travel Trust, Club
Mediterranean, Club Europeen, Inturist, Cedoc, Ibus, Nouvelles Frontieres.
Also appear different kind of cooperation like: European Union, North America, Latin
America etc. The features of contemporary tourism are:
the growth of mass nature;
the growth of travel distance;
the growth of tourism consumption;
the diversification of forms of tourism in according with tourists needs. In concordance
with supply especially with the demand. Watering-curative tourism, those of amusement is
succeeded by cultural and sportive tourism. Transit tourism is associated with that of long
sojourn. It appears new forms of tourism such as: rural and ecological tourism, hunting
tourism etc.
the mobility due to the perfection of modes and links of transportation; the involvement in
tourism of a low tourism;
the computerization, automatization and robotization.

Mass tourism as we know it today is a post- World War II phenomenon. Women who had
to work during the war felt more independent; men and women who traveled overseas to
fight wanted to return as visitors. The sixties marked the democratization of travel. In the
U.S., the growth of the population- the baby boomers- together with the 40-hour
workweek that increased numbers of three-day weekends and higher levels of disposable.
Travel was a right. A hedonistic attitude (pleasure for the sake of pleasure) increasingly
overtook the self-denial of the work ethic. Temporarily stunned by the energy crises of the
seventies and the Gulf War in the early 1990s tourism continued to grow. The late
seventies and eighties saw the development of single-parent families and low-income
families, together with an increase accent on individual awareness and self-improvement.

Conclusion: Performant evolution of production processes from contemporary society ,

that is associated to the growth of machines pressure on the spirits are the main causes,
that leave their doors opened for tourism affirmation in future. The growth of leisure time
and level of culture represent for the practicability of tourism, the sin qua non conditions,
both for development and for affirmation.

Theme 3. Natural tourist resources

1. The forms of the relief as natural tourist resources.

Key words: relief, escarpments (scarps), crest, peaks, defiles, canyons, gorges, banks,
caves(caverns).

Objectives:
O1- to understand what represent escarpments;
O2- to appoint the great varieties of the reliefs forms and to describe them;

O3- to speak about what means a cave and its composition.

O1- to understand what represent escarpments

One of natural tourist resources with a tourist attraction is the relief. Relief is the most rich
and diverse attractive resource of the world. It is the core of any landscape. The
importance of the relief for tourism is conditioned to the great varieties. Further more, the
relief is the most important for tourism due to its different shapes the are presented like
landscapes, which have a great role for unfolding tourist attraction. From among a
particular interest for tourism represent escarpments, canyons, gorges, caves, etc. Relief is
the most rich and diverse attractive resource of the world, it is the core any landscape. In
geomorphology, an escarpment is a transition zone between physiogeographic provinces
that involves an elevation differential, characterized by a cliff or steep slope. The
escarpments (steep cliffs or slopes formed by a fault or by erosion) become tourist
objectives through their scale, splendor, and the vertical change of nature. Their force of
attraction evolves with the relative altitude. They draw the mountaineers (alpinists,
climbers). The escarpments in question are classified in two different ways: structurally
(arch-type vs. shoulder-type) and tectonically continental rift vs. passive margin).
Escarpments sinuosity as measured from maps is used to roughly define the age and
nature of escarpment evolution. The conclusions sum to be that sea-floor spreading and
crystal structure have most influence on escarpment evolution. Escarpments are
generally used interchangeably with scarp. Escarpments then refer to the margin between
two landforms, while scarp refers to or is synonymous with a cliff or steep slope. The
surface of the steep slope is called a scarp face. Scarps are generally formed by two
processes: differential erosion of sedimentary rocks and faulting. Most commonly, an
escarpment is a transition from one series of sedimentary rocks to another series of
different age and composition. When sedimentary beds are titled and exposed to the
surface, erosion and weathering may occur differentially based on the composition. When
sedimentary beds are titled and exposed to the surface, erosion and weathering may occur
differentially based on the composition. Less resistant rocks will erode faster, retreating
until the point they are overlain by more resistant rock. When the dip of the bedding is
gentle, a cuesta is formed. Steeper dips (greater than 30-40 grades) from hogbacks.
Escarpments are also frequently formed by faults. When a fault displaces the ground
surface so that one side is higher than the other, a fault scarp is created. This can occur in
dip-slip faults, or when a strike-slip fault brings a piece of high ground adjacent to an area

of lower ground. More loosely, the term scarp describes the zone between coastal
lowlands and continental plateaus which have a marked, abrupt change in elevation due to
coastal erosion at the base of the plateau. Earth is not the only planet where escarpments
occur. They are believed to occur on other planets when the crust contracts; as a result of
cooling. Their force of attractions involves with the relative altitude.
a) fault- is formed by a fault witch is a fracture in the earth crust or brake in the land along
which one side is raised and the other is forced downward.
b) erosion- is forced by the unequal erosion of jamply sloping or horizontal layer of rock.
Such escarpments results with and underline rock softer are eroded than the upper more
resistant rocks. Examples: the well-known soft scarp is the eastern edge of Sierra Nevada
Mountain in the western U.S.; Gods Window in South Africa; Cotswold escarpment in
England. Erosion scarp- is formed by the unequal erosion of gently sloping or horizontal
layer of rock, such escarpments result when underline softer rocks are eroded more
rapidly then the upper more resistant rocks. Example: a well-known erosion scarp Niagara
escarp in the great lakes regions of North America, Niagara Falls is located where the
Niagara River crosses the escarpments.

O2- to appoint the great varieties of the reliefs forms and to describe them

The crests and the peaks represent lines and points of certain sides of the mountains. The
more unusual and higher the peaks are, the more their individuality grows, and the more
the draw travelers attention.
The passes and the banks play a major part in the gathering of tourists along certain
destinations. They link different regions between them. The passes intervene between the
crests and the massifs. The banks are long the river systems.
The gorges, the defiles, and the canyons constitute an imposing group of natural
resources. The gorges represent the first stage, the most savage, of the valleys. Sometimes
their cross profile is so narrow that mens access is very difficult, or even impossible. The
defiles are more evolved gorges. The canyons represent the height of evolution of gorges.
As role model is the Grand Canyon of Colorado in Arizona.
Canyon- deep, cliff-sided chasm or gorge created by the erosive action of a river. Canyons
most often occur in semiarid or arid regions where river erosion depends the canyon faster
than weathering (the break down of rocks) of the sides can widen it. The deepest and
steepest canyons develop in regions with flat-lying, alternating beds of hard and soft rock.
In such circumstances, the sides of the canyon resemble a staircase, with the layers of
harder rocks forming cliffs and the layers of softer rock forming gentler slopes.
Canyons are particularly abundant across large areas of Arizona and Utah in the
southwestern United States where there is an optimal combination of climate and rock
structure. The largest example in this region is the Grand Canyon of the Colorado River,
which is 446 km (277mi) long, more than 1500m (5000ft) deep, but only 29km (18mi)
across from rim to rim and its widest. The canyon was formed in a remarkable short

period of about 1 million years, around 4 million to 5 million years ago. Canyons are also
found in other dry regions around the world. One of the largest examples in the Fish River
Canyon in Namibia, which extends for 160km (100mi). This canyon is 25km (16mi) wide
and almost 500m (1600ft) deep in places.
O3- to speak about what means a cave and its composition
The caves (caverns) have an attractive potential thanks to their important recreational
resources: their shape, varied morphology, archeological and paleontological remains, and
fossil glaciers. They represent a system of evolution. Cave is a chamber beneath the
surface of the earth or in the side of a hill, cliff, or mountain. Caves vary in size and shape
and many have large openings to the surface. Caves range in size from small hillside
openings to vast interconnected subterranean system of many chambers and galleries.
Some cave system extend for miles underground and may have many outlets. Natural air
conditioning occurs in large caverns in the temperature varies only a few degrees yearly,
and the caves are more or less constantly ventilated with fresh air. These condition are, in
part, the result of complex meteorological phenomena, mainly variations in barometric
pressure. Caves formed by abrasion commonly consist of myriads of winding tunnels and
former underground waterways that show many features analogous to those of surface
streams, such as deposits of sand and gravel. Abrasion-formed caves normally lack the
weird formations found un caves of solution. In caves of solution, the dissolved lime
carbonate is often precipitated in such a fashion as to form grotesque deposits. The bestknown structures are the stalactites, which hang like icicles from the roofs of caves, and
the stalagmites, which extend upward from the cavern floors (sea Stalactite and
Stalagmite). If the two growths meet and join, a pillar forms, helping to support the roof.
Less well-known forms of carbonate deposition include flowstone and dripstone.
Depending on dissolved mineral impurities brought into the cave by the ground waters,
the formations vary in color from alabaster white to hues of dusky red and brown. The
dripstone formations may be exceedingly thin and translucent.
Among rare formations is the helictite, a twisted, flowerlike variety of stalactite. Many
cave formations are rather delicate and easily broken, and some of the best examples have
been damaged or removed by unscrupulous cave explorers and visitors to public caves.
Many formations in commercial caves have been given fanciful names, such as Rock of
Ages and Temple of the Sun in Carlsbad Caverns and Martha Washingtons Statue
and Fatmans Misery in Mammoth Cave. Frequently recurring names include Japanese
Temple, Frozen Waterfall, Kings Bed Chamber, and Great Hall. A practice in many
large caves, particularly those administered by the U.S. National Park Service, is to
illuminate the more spectacular formations for the benefit of sightseers. Many public
caverns have miles of lighted trails, with stairways and adequate safety guards near areas
considered dangerous. In some caves visitors can take all-day hiking tours.
In past ages people often took shelter in caves, notably in western Europe, the
Mediterranean regions, China, Southern Africa, and Chile. These early cave inhabitants
popularly have been called cavemen, but the term is misleading, for it implies that a race
of people at one time dwelt exclusively in caves. Actually, during the Ice Age, people, like
other animals, sought refuge in caves from time to time. Many artifacts of Paleo, but the

term is misleading, for it implies that a race of people at one time dwelt exclusively in
caves. Actually, many artifacts of Paleolithic and Neolithic people have been found in
refuse heaps near the entrances of caves. Primitive paintings have been found on the walls
of some caves, notably in France and Spain. Modern critics acclaim the artistic beauty of
these paintings, attributed to the Cro-Magnon, a race of the late Paleolithic period. The
science of cave study is termed speleology. A subdivision of geology, speleology has
furthered knowledge in mineralogy, hydrodynamics, archaeology, biology, and many
other formal disciplines. Speleologists use many special contrivances and methods in
exploring caves. One technique is the use of dye stains to reveal the outlets of complicated
underground-stream systems. Use of special shoes, safety helmets, flexible ladders and
cables, and dependable lamps enables present-day speleologists to explore the recesses of
large caves much more thoroughly than was formerly possible. Cave explorers
occasionally stay underground for days, mapping and studying an extensive area.

Conclusion: In conclusion, I will admit the fact, that the relief represents the base or
fundamental of each tourist attraction. We know that in interconnection with it there are
some attractive elements of nature like hydrography, climate, fauna and vegetation. And,
as a result - the relief has a great importance for tourism activity.

2. Climate as natural tourist resources.

Key words: climate, weather, temperature, humidity, cloudiness, precipitations, wind,
pressure.

Objectives:
O1- to understand the meaning of climate and climate determinants;
O2- to define weather, monsoon, tornado, temperature and humidity;
O3- to describe clouds, precipitation and types of it, pressure, wind and rain.

O1- to understand the meaning of climate and climate determinants

Climate- the long-term effect of the suns radiation on the rotation earths varied surface to
atmosphere. It can be understood most easily in terms of annual or seasonal averages of
temperature and precipitation. Climate encourages or discourages the act of tourism,
catalyzing or inhibiting the tourist stay. Most tourists and specialists reduce the important

of climate to fine weather. Climate (from ancient Greek: k,Climate) is commonly

defined as the weather averaged over a long period of time. For practical uses the standard
averaging period is 30 years, but other periods may be used depending on the purpose.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) glossary definition is: Climate in
a narrow sense is usually defined as the average weather, or more rigorously, as the
statistical description in terms of the mean and variability of relevant quantities over
period of time ranging from months to thousands or millions of years. The classical period
is 30 years, as defined by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). These
quantities are most often surface variables such as temperature, precipitation, and wind. In
the original Greek sense, Clime, was a concept used to divide the world into climatic
zones sharing similar climatic attributes such as temperature, length of the solar day
(sunlight),and in particular latitudinal distance from the equator. Instead, the latitudinal
trend is altered by such features as hills or mountain ranges, large lakes, and seas or
oceans.
Consequently, todays climate regions are classified on the basis of temperature and
precipitation alone. Climate zones range in latitude from tropical (hot, no real seasons
based on temperature) to mid-latitude (moderate; conventional winter-spring-summerautumn seasons) to polar (cold; strong seasonality; long winters).They also divide into
Continental (high contrast between summer and winter) and Maritime (ocean influence
moderates temperature extremes, but generally contribute extra measure to local weather
patterns).The mid-latitude convential four seasons only work well in the mid-latitudes in
other regions the more useful divide is into wet and dry seasons based on the
monsoon.
Climate determinants:
Over historic time spans there are a number of static variables that determine climate,
including: latitude, altitude, proportion of land to water, and proximity to oceans and
mountains. Other climate determinants are more dynamic: the thermohaline circulation of
the ocean distributes heat energy between the equatorial and Polar Regions; other ocean
currents do the same between land and water on a more regional scale. Degree of
vegetation coverage affects solar heat absorption, water retention, and rainfall on a
regional level. An alternation in the quantity of atmospheric greenhouse gases determines
the amount of solar energy retained by the planet, leading to global warming or global
cooling. The variables which determine climate are numerous and the interactions
complex, but there is general agreement that the broad outlines are understood, at least in
so far as the determinants of historical climate change are concerned. The tourist pay a
great attention to the climate, it means:
to his security(in order not to be liable to gales, perils, pours, of extreme temperatures;
of pleasure (agreement) i.e. not to be troubled his sejour;
and of his comfort(i.e. the temperature and humidity not to affect his health).
The fine weather notion includes climatic elements such as nebulosity, frequency of
precipitations, temperature of the air, winds.
Cloudiness (or nebulosity) is a factor influencing the sun brightness time, which is
important to mountainous and coastal regions.

Frequency of precipitations (or rainfall) is a follow-up to nebulosity. Rainy weather leads

to the temporary sedentariness of the environment. Precipitations in liquid form are
unfavorable factors, while those in snow form have an opposite effect.
Temperature of air is taken into account when it is very high or low and it is unfavorable
to the leisure activities.
Winds according to their length and intensity they blow differently. For example, sea
breezes reduce the temperature of coastal regions.
O2- to define weather, monsoon, tornado, temperature and humidity

Weather- state of the atmosphere at a particular time and place. The elements of weather
include temperature, humidity, cloudiness, precipitation, wind, and pressure. These
elements are organized into various weather systems, such as monsoons, areas of high and
low pressure, thunderstorms, and tornadoes. Weather is the slate of the atmosphere at a
particular time and place, these elements are organized into various weather systems such
as monsoon (wind the change of directions with the change of seasons), areas of high and
low pressure also thunderstorms, tornados. All weather system has well defined and
structured features and one governed by the laws of heat motion. These conditions are
studied in meteorology- the science of weather and weather forecasting. Weather differs
from climate which is the weather that a particular region experience over a long period of
time, the climate also includes the averages and variations of all weather elements.
Climate includes the average and variations of all weather elements.
A monsoon is a wind pattern that reverses direction on a seasonal basis. The term was
originally applied to monsoonal winds in the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean. It is
characterized by very heavy rainfall, and specifically the rainfall that is associated with
this wind. Monsoon- wind that changes direction with the change of seasons; the monsoon
prevails mainly in the Indian Ocean.
A tornado is a violently spinning column of air in contact with both a cumuliform cloud
base and the surface. Tornadoes are known for being extremely destructive and are usually
visible due to water vapor from low pressure condensation and debris from the ground.
Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness of the air. Scientists used Kelvin or
absolute scale, Celsius. West nations used Celsius scale, Fahrenheit in America. The
temperature on Earth 15 degrees but varies according to latitude, elevation, season, time
of day ranging from a record high a 58 or to a record low -88 C-130 (Antarctica).
Temperature is generally: highest-tropics, lowest-near the poles, even each day is
wormiest during mid afternoon and coldest around at the peep-of-day. Temperature
decreases with increasing elevation (6.5). An average range (6.5 C/km) as a result temper
in the mountain are generally lower that at sea level. Temperature continues to decrease
for through the atmosphere from the troposphere extends to a high of 60 km about sea
level over equator above 8 km over the poles. Stratosphere - where temperature level falls

and then begins to increase with night. Also temperature is the physical property of a
system which underlines the common notions of "hot" and "cold"; the material with the
higher temperature is said to be hotter.
Humidity is a measure of the amount of water vapor in the air. There are several different
measures of humidity. The specific humidity is the fraction of the mass of air that consists
of water vapor, usually given as parts per thousand. The most common measure of
humidity is the relative humidity, or the amount of vapor in the air divided by the airs
vapor-holding capacity at that temperature. If the amount of water vapor in the air is
cooled. As a result, relative humidity is usually highest around dawn, when the
temperature is lowest, and lowest in midafternoon, when the temperature is highest.
O3- to describe clouds, precipitation and types of it, pressure, wind and rain
Most clouds and almost all precipitation are produced by the cooling of air as it rises.
When air temperature is reduced, excess water vapor in the air condenses into liquid
droplets or ice crystals to form clouds or fog.A cloud is a visible mass of condensed
droplets or ice crystals suspended in the atmosphere above the surface of the Earth or
another planetary body. The branch of meteorology that studies clouds is nephrology. On
Earth, the condensing substance is water vapor, which forms small droplets of water
(typically 0.01 mm of ice crystals) that, when surrounded with billions of other droplets or
crystals, are visible as clouds. Clouds reflect all visible wavelengths of light equally and
are usually white, but they can appear grey or even black if they are so thick or dense that
sunlight cannot pass through.
Clouds form when the invisible water vapor in the air condenses into visible water
droplets or ice crystals. This can happen in three ways:
1. The air is cooled below its saturation point. This happens when the air comes in contact
with
a
cold
surface
or
a
surface that is cooling by radiation, or the air is cooled by adiabatic expansion (rising).
This can happen:
along warm and cold fronts (frontal lift),
where air flows up the side of a mountain and cools as it rises higher into the atmosphere
(orographic lift),
by the convection caused by the warming of a surface by insolation (diurnal heating),
when warm air blows over a colder surface such as a cool body of water.
2. Clouds can be formed when two air masses below saturation point mix. Examples are
breath on a cold day, aircraft contrails, and Arctic sea smoke.

3. The air stays the same temperature but absorbs more water vapor into it until it reaches
saturation.
A cloud can take any of several different forms-including cumulus, cirrus, and stratusreflecting the pattern of air motions that formed it. Fluffy cumulus clouds form from
rising masses of air, called thermals. A cumulus cloud often has a flat base, corresponding
to the level at which the water vapor first condenses. If a cumulus cloud grows large, it
transforms into a cumulonimbus cloud or a thunderstorm. Fibrous cirrus clouds consists of
trails of falling ice crystals twisted by the winds. Stratus clouds form when an entire layer
of air cools or ascends obliquely. Fog is a cloud that touches the ground. Fog occurs most
frequently when the earths surface is much colder than the air directly above it, such as
around dawn and over cold ocean currents. Optical phenomena, such as rainbows and
halos, occur when light shines through cloud particles. Rainbows are seen when sunlight
from behind the observer strikes the raindrops falling from cumulonimbus clouds.
Precipitations like rain, drizzle, snow are very complex phenomena. Their characteristics
are very related with structure, origin and with the level of development of different types
of clouds .The results of vapor condensation at the surface such as: dew, hoarfrost are also
considered precipitations. The classification of precipitations is usually done using some
criteria, like: state of aggregation, duration and intensity, condition of formation.
Types of precipitation
Precipitation that forms aloft is divided into three categories: Liquid Precipitation;
Freezing Precipitation and Frozen Precipitation.
Types of Liquid Precipitation:
Drizzle;
Rain.
Types of Freezing Precipitation:
Freezing Drizzle;
Freezing Rain.
Types of Frozen Precipitation:
Snow;
Snow pellets;
Snow Grains;
Ice Pellets;

Hail;
Graupel;
Ice Crystals.
Rain- is composed of water drops of different sizes , with the diameter 0,5-5 mm. rain
usually is formed at the temperature more than 0 Celsius degrees, as a result of the growth
of the big drops due to the small ones.
Wind is the horizontal movement of air. It is named for the direction from which it comes.
Except for these storms life hurricanes and typhoons, wind speed usually increases with
height to the top of the troposphere.
Pressure plays a vital role in all weather systems. Pressure is the force of the air on given
surface divided by the area of that surface. In most weather systems the air pressure is
equal to the weight of the air column divided by the area of the column. Rapidly falling
pressure usually means a storm is approaching, whereas rapidly rising pressure usually
indicates that skies will clear.
Conclusion: In conclusion I can say that climate and its components: weather,
temperature, humidity, pressure, etc., has important role in tourist change because this
factors can determine the main goal of people.

3. Hydrography as natural tourist resources.

Key words: river systems, lakes, sea, ocean, waterfall, geyser, mineral and thermal
springs, glacier.

Objectives:
O1- to understand what mean hydrography, river system and lake;
O2- to describe sea, ocean and waterfall;
O3- to develop more detail the geyser and glacier.

O1- to understand what mean hydrography, river system and lake

The terms hydrography and hydrographer are based on an analogy with geography and
geographer and date from the mid-16th century. Hydrography ordinarily denotes only the
study of ocean depths and of the directions and intensities of ocean currents; other facets
such as temperature profiles or mineral contentare covered by the sciences of
hydrology and oceanography.
The main forms of hydrographys presence in tourism are :
River system;
Lakes;
Sea and ocean water;
Waterfalls;
Geysers;
Mineral, thermal, and thermo-mineral springs;
Glaciers.
River System main channel of a river together with all tributary rivers and streams that
flow into it. River - any natural stream of water that flows in a channel with defined
banks. Modern usage includes rivers that are multi-channeled, intermittent, or ephemeral
in flow and channels that are practically bankless. The concept of channeled surface flow,
however, remains central to the definition. The word stream (derived ultimately from the
Indo-European root srou-) emphasizes the fact of flow; as a noun it is synonymous with
river and is often preferred in technical writing. Small natural watercourses are sometimes
called rivulets, but a variety of namesincluding branch, brook, burn, and creekare
more common, occurring regionally to nationally in place-names. Rivers are nourished by
precipitation, by direct overland runoff, through springs and seepages, or from meltwater
at the edges of snowfields and glaciers. The contribution of direct precipitation on the
water surface is usually minute, except where much of a catchments area is occupied by
lakes. River water losses result from seepage and percolation into shallow or deep
aquifers (permeable rock layers that readily transmit water) and particularly from
evaporation. The difference between the water input and loss sustains surface discharge or
streamflow. The amount of water in river systems at any time is but a tiny fraction of the
Earth's total water; 97 percent of all water is contained in the oceans and about threequarters of fresh water is stored as land ice; nearly all the remainder occurs as
groundwater. Lakes hold less than 0.5 percent of all fresh water, soil moisture accounts for
about 0.05 percent, and water in river channels for roughly half as much, 0.025 percent,
which represents only about one four-thousandth of the Earth's total fresh water. Water is
constantly cycled through the systems of land ice, soil, lakes, groundwater (in part), and
river channels, however. The discharge of rivers to the oceans delivers to these systems
the equivalent of the water vapour that is blown overland and then consequently

precipitated as rain or snowi.e., some 7 percent of mean annual precipitation on the

globe and 30 percent of precipitation on land areas. Obvious bases by which to compare
the world's great rivers include the size of the drainage area, the length of the main stem,
and the mean discharge; however, reliable comparative data, even for the world's greatest
rivers, do not exist. The Nile, the world's longest river, is about 250 kilometres longer than
the Amazon. It is possible that well over 100 of the greatest rivers may exceed a 1,600kilometre length on their main stems. Arealengthdischarge combinations vary
considerably, although length tends to increase with area and area and discharge to
increase through their individual ranking series. On all counts except length, the Amazon
is the world's principal river; the Congo and the Paran are among the first five by area
and discharge, but the Mississippi, fourth in length and fifth in area, is only seventh in
discharge. The GangesBrahmaputra, third in discharge, is 13th (or lower) in area and
well down the list of length for its two main stems taken separately.
Lake - any relatively large body of slowly moving or standing water that occupies an
inland basin of appreciable size. Definitions that precisely distinguish lakes, ponds,
swamps, and even rivers and other bodies of nonoceanic water are not well established. It
may be said, however, that rivers and streams are relatively fast moving; marshes and
swamps contain relatively large quantities of grasses, trees, or shrubs; and ponds are
relatively small in comparison to lakes. Geologically defined, lakes are temporary bodies
of water. Within the global hydrologic cycle, freshwater lakes play a very small
quantitative role, constituting only about 0.009 percent of all free water, which amounts to
less than 0.4 percent of all continental fresh water. Saline lakes and inland seas contain
another 0.0075 percent of all free water. Freshwater lakes, however, contain well over 98
percent of the important surface waters available for use. Apart from that contained in
saline bodies, most other continental waters are tied up in glaciers and ice sheets and the
remainder is in groundwater. Among the largest lakes are Lake Baikal, in Central Asia,
containing about 23,000 cubic kilometres (5,500 cubic miles) of water; Lake Tanganyika
(19,000 cubic kilometres [4,600 cubic miles]), in eastern Africa; and Lake Superior
(12,000 cubic kilometres [2,900 cubic miles]), one of the Great Lakes of North America.
The Great Lakes contain a total of about 25,000 cubic kilometres (6,000 cubic miles) of
water and, together with other North American lakes larger than 10 cubic kilometres (2
cubic miles), constitute about one-fourth of the world's lake waters. The Caspian Sea,
though not considered a lake by some hydrologists, is the world's largest inland sea.
Located in Central Asia, the Caspian Sea has an area of about 386,000 square kilometres
(149,000 square miles). Although lakes are to be found throughout the world, the
continents of North America, Africa, and Asia contain about 70 percent of the total lake
water, the other continents being less generously endowed. A fourth of the total volume of
lake water is spread throughout the world in uncounted numbers of small lakes. Anyone
who has flown over much of the Canadian plains area cannot help but be struck by the
seemingly endless skein of lakes and ponds covering the landscape below. Though the
total volume of water involved is comparatively small, the surface area of lake water is
substantial. The total surface area of all Canadian lakes has been estimated to exceed the
total surface area of the province of Alberta. The U.S. state of Alaska has more than
3,000,000 lakes with surface areas greater than 8 hectares (20 acres).

O2- to describe sea, ocean and waterfall

Sea general designation for all the salt water in all the specific oceans and seas that
cover a large area of the surface of the earth. The name is particularly given to bodies of
salt water such as the Mediterranean Sea that are partially landlocked and are smaller than
the ocean to which they are generally connected. The name is also used to designate
inland bodies of salt water, such as the Caspian Sea, and has occasionally been given to
inland bodies of fresh water, such as the Sea of Galilee (Lake Tiberias).
Ocean - continuous body of salt water that is contained in enormous basins on the Earth's
surface. When viewed from space, the predominance of the oceans on the Earth is readily
apparent. The oceans and their marginal seas cover nearly 71 percent of the Earth's
surface, with an average depth of 3,795 metres (12,450 feet). The exposed land occupies
the remaining 29 percent of the planetary surface and has a mean elevation of only 840
metres (2,756 feet). Actually, all the elevated land could be hidden under the oceans and
the Earth reduced to a smooth sphere that would be completely covered by a continuous
layer of seawater 2,686 metres deep. This is known as the sphere depth of the oceans and
serves to underscore the abundance of water on the Earth's surface. Those conducting
oceanic research generally recognize the existence of three major oceans, the Pacific,
Atlantic, and Indian. (The Arctic Ocean is considered an extension of the Atlantic.)
Arbitrary boundaries separate these three bodies of water in the Southern Hemisphere.
One boundary extends southward to Antarctica from the Cape of Good Hope, while
another stretches southward from Cape Horn. The last one passes through Malaysia and
Indonesia to Australia, and then on to Antarctica. Many subdivisions can be made to
distinguish the limits of seas and gulfs that have historical, political, and sometimes
ecological significance. The oceanic area surrounding the Antarctic is considered by some
to be the Southern Ocean.

Waterfall - area where flowing river water drops abruptly and nearly vertically. Waterfalls
represent major interruptions in river flow. Under most circumstances rivers tend to
smooth out irregularities in their flow by processes of erosion and deposition. In time, the
long profile of a river (the graph of its gradient) takes the form of a smooth curve, steepest
toward the source, gentlest toward the mouth. Waterfalls interrupt this curve, and their
presence is a measure of the progress of erosion. A waterfall may also be termed a falls or
sometimes a cataract, the latter designation being most common when large volumes of
water are involved. Waterfalls of small height and lesser steepness are called cascades;
this term is often applied to a series of small falls along a river. Still gentler reaches of
rivers that nonetheless exhibit turbulent flow and white water in response to a local
increase in channel gradient are called rapids. The highest waterfall in the world is the
Angel Fall in Venezuela (807 m [2,650 feet]). Arguably the largest waterfall is the Chutes

de Khone (Khone Falls) on the Mekong River in Laos: the volume of water passing over
it has been estimated at 11,600 cubic m (410,000 cubic feet) per second, although its
height is only 70 m (230 feet). A related cause of waterfalls is the presence of bars of hard
rock in the riverbed. A series of cataracts has been created on the Nile where the river has
worn its bed sufficiently to uncover the hard crystalline basement rock. Erosion and
geology are not the only factors that create waterfalls. Tectonic movement along a fault
may bring hard and soft rocks together and encourage the establishment of a waterfall. A
drop in sea level promotes increased down-cutting and the retreat upstream of a knickpoint (or sharp change of gradient indicating the change of a river's base level).
Depending on the change of sea level, river flow, and geology (among other factors), falls
or rapids may develop at the knick-point. Many waterfalls have been created by glaciation
where valleys have been over-deepened by ice and tributary valleys have been left high up
on steep valley sides. In the glacially gouged Yosemite Valley in California, the Yosemite
Upper Falls tumble 436 m (1,430 feet) from such a hanging valley. At Niagara the falls
have retreated 11 km (7 miles) from the face of the escarpment where they began. Today
much of Niagara's water is diverted for hydroelectric power generation, but it has been
estimated that with normal flow the rate of retreat would be about 1 m (3 feet) per year.

O3- to develop more detail the geyser and glacier

Geyser - any of a class of hot springs that discharges jets of steam and water
intermittently. The term is derived from the Icelandic word geysir, meaning to rush
forth. Geysers are generally associated with recent volcanic activity and are produced by
the heating of underground waters that have come into contact with, or very close to,
magma (molten rock). The water is ultimately of surface origin, having percolated into the
ground through cracks and fissures. Geysers often make a most spectacular display as
they discharge a roaring column of steam and boiling water high above the surface.
Discharges as high as 500 m (1,640 feet) have been recorded, but 50 m (164 feet) is much
more common (e.g., Old Faithful in Yellowstone Park, United States). Water at a high
temperature is able to dissolve many of the chemical constituents of the rocks with which
it comes into contact. In many cases the geyser waters are saturated with silica, which is
precipitated in the immediate vicinity of the geyser discharge, commonly building a small
mound around the geyser neck. The physical explanation of geyser activity depends on
knowledge of the boiling behaviour of water. At the Earth's surface close to sea level,
fresh water boils at about 100 C (212 F). If the pressure is increased, however, the
temperature of boiling rises. It seems that the neck of a geyser can be considered a vertical
pipe at least tens and probably several hundreds of metres long. When it is full of water
the pressure at the bottom of the column of water is sufficiently high to prevent the water
at that depth from boiling, even though its temperature may be higher than about 150 C
(302 F). If the upper part of the water column is removed in some way, the effect is
immediately felt as a pressure reduction at the base of the column. Boiling occurs the

instant pressure is reduced; this process, known as flashing, is violent and explosive. It
is believed that violent geyser-steam discharges are generated by the flashing of
groundwater at some depth below the surface (100 m [328 feet] or more). The flashing
process, however, demands that a release of pressure take place by removal of the upper
part of the water column. The plumbing system associated with each geyser is different.
In some cases the water in the upper part of the hole is simply warmed by the conduction
of heat from below and begins to boil (at about 100 C). As it boils, the water spills out
and thus slightly reduces the pressure beneath it, which in turn allows slightly deeper
water to boil. In this way the boiling level propagates rapidly down the throat, changing in
character from a passive boiling at the surface to a violent flashing in the lower parts.
Cascade is considered to be a waterfall of any height that has a small volume of water or
is one of a series of falls. The term cascade is also applied to a waterfall if, while
plunging, it maintains contact with the streambed. The highest waterfalls frequently are
cascades.

Glacier - any large mass of perennial ice that originates on land by the recrystallization of
snow or other forms of solid precipitation and that shows evidence of past or present flow.
A glacier occupying an extensive tract of relatively level land and exhibiting flow from
the centre outward is commonly called an ice sheet. Glaciers are classifiable in three main
groups: (1) glaciers that extend in continuous sheets, moving outward in all directions, are
called ice sheets if they are the size of Antarctica or Greenland and ice caps if they are
smaller; glaciers confined within a path that directs the ice movement are called mountain
glaciers; and glaciers that spread out on level ground or on the ocean at the foot of
glaciated regions are called piedmont glaciers or ice shelves, respectively. Glaciers in the
third group are not independent and are treated here in terms of their sources: ice shelves
with ice sheets, piedmont glaciers with mountain glaciers. A complex of mountain glaciers
burying much of a mountain range is called an ice field.

Conclusion: Thus, this forms of hydrography, being also natural resources, attract visitors
through their height, beauty, and uniqueness, as the other resources do so.

4. Vegetation (flora) as natural tourist resources.

Key words: Vegetation, functions, structure, forests.

Objectives:
O1- to describe vegetation like a general term and the forest;
O2- to show the classification of forest;
O3- to name some the type of unusual trees like sequoia or baobab.

O1- to describe vegetation like a general term and the forest

Vegetation is closely linked to relief and climate. The tourist role of vegetation resides in:
The make-up of plant associations ( it can be seen through type of vegetation; for
instance, equatorial forest, rain forest.);
The presence of certain endemic and relic plants (baobab, sequoia, eucalyptus, cedar of
Lebanon and Atlas cedar);
Dimension and age of some plants;
The annual evolution rhythm;
The periphery effect and the island effect (the edge of a forest, tourists concentrating in
clearing and glades);
Elements of a spiritual nature in contact with vegetation.
Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region; it refers to the ground cover life
forms, structure, spatial extent or any other specific botanical or geographic
characteristics. It is broader than the term flora which refers exclusively to species
composition. Perhaps the closest synonym is plant community, but vegetation can, and
often does, refer to a wider range of spatial scales. Primeval redwood forests, coastal
mangrove stands, sphagnum bogs, desert soil crusts, roadside weed patches, wheat fields,
cultivated gardens and lawns; are all encompassed by the term vegetation. Vegetation
supports critical functions in the biosphere, at all possible spatial scales. First, vegetation
regulates the flow of numerous biogeochemical cycles (see biogeochemistry), most
critically those of water, carbon, and nitrogen; it is also of great importance in local and
global energy balances. Such cycles are important not only for global patterns of
vegetation but also for those of climate. Second, vegetation strongly affects soil
characteristics, including soil volume, chemistry and texture, which feed back to affect
various vegetational characteristics, including productivity and structure. Third,
vegetation serves as wildlife habitat and the energy source for the vast array of animal
species on the planet (and, ultimately, to those that feed on these). Vegetation is also
critically important to the world economy, particularly in the use of fossil fuels as an

energy source, but also in the global production of food, wood, fuel and other materials.
Perhaps most importantly, and often overlooked, global vegetation (including algal
communities) has been the primary source of oxygen in the atmosphere, enabling the
aerobic metabolism systems to evolve and persist. Lastly, vegetation is psychologically
important to humans, who evolved in direct contact with, and dependence on, vegetation,
for food, shelter, and medicine. A primary characteristic of vegetation is its threedimensional structure, sometimes referred to as its physiognomy, or architecture. Most
people have an understanding of this idea through their familiarity with terms like
"jungle", "woods", "prairie" or "meadow"; these terms conjure up a mental image of what
such vegetation looks like. So, meadows are grassy and open, tropical rainforests are
dense, tall and dark, savannas have trees dotting a grass-covered landscape, etc.
Forest plant community, predominantly of trees or other woody vegetation, occupying
an extensive area of land. In its natural state, a forest remains in a relatively fixed, selfregulated condition over a long period of time. Climate, soil, and the topography of the
region determine the characteristic trees of a forest. In local environments, dominant
species of trees are characteristically associated with certain shrubs and herbs. The type of
vegetation on the forest floor is influenced by the larger and taller plants, but because low
vegetation affects the organic composition of the soil, the influence is reciprocal.
Disturbances such as a forest fire or timber harvesting may result in a shift to another
forest type. Left undisturbed, ecological succession to maintain some desirable forest
types. Obviously, a forest has a very different structure than a desert or a backyard lawn.
Vegetation ecologists discriminate structure at much more detailed levels than this, but the
principle is the same. Thus, different types of forests can have very different structures;
tropical rainforests are very different from boreal conifer forests, both of which differ
from temperate deciduous forests. Native grasslands in South Dakota, Arizona, and
Indiana are visibly different from each other, low elevation chaparral differs from that at
high elevations, etc. Structure is determined by an interacting combination of
environmental and historical factors, and species composition. It is characterized
primarily by the horizontal and vertical distributions of plant biomass, particularly foliage
biomass. Horizontal distributions refer to the pattern of spacing of plant stems on the
ground. Plants can be very uniformly spaced, as in a tree plantation, or very nonuniformly spaced, as in many forests in rocky, mountainous terrain, where areas of high
and low tree density alternate depending on the spatial pattern of soil and climatic
variables. Three broad categories of spacing are recognized: uniform, random and
clumped. These correspond directly to the expected variation in the distance between
randomly chosen locations and the closest plant to such locations. Vertical distributions of
biomass are determined by the inherent productivity of an area, the height potential of the
dominant species, and the presence/absence of shade tolerant species in the flora.
Communities with high productivities and in which at least one shade tolerant tree species
is present, have high levels of biomass because of their high foliage densities throughout a
large vertical distance.

O2- to show the classification of forest

Classification
Forest may be divided into the following eight general types on the basis of leaf
characteristics and climate:
Deciduous forests of the temperate regions are the typical formation of the eastern United
states. Two subtypes exist; forest of the same latitude in the northern and southern
hemispheres are radically different, probably due to the continental climate of the northern
hemispheres and the oceanic climate of the southern.
Deciduous monsoon forest are characteristic of Bengal and Myanmar (Burma) and
common throughout Southeast Asia and India; they are also found along the Pacific
coastal regions of Mexico and central America. The climate is characterized by heavy
daily rainfall, seasonally relieved by dry periods during which the trees shed their leaves.
Tropical savanna forests are found in regions such as the campos of Brazil, where forest
and grassland meet. Savannas, which occur widely in Africa and South America, are
dominated by grasses and sedges, with open stands of widely spaced trees that are
frequently thorny. Some savannas are created by fire or by grazing and browsing
mammals.
Northern coniferous forests form a worldwide belt in subarctic and alpine regions of the
northern hemisphere. Gnarled scrub trees dominate at the northern tree line and on
mountaintops. These forests usually occupy formerly glaciated regions and occur in
association with lakes, bogs, and rivers.
Tropical rain forest are characteristic of central Africa and the Amazon watershed. Plant
growth is profuse, and because the fall and regrowth of leaves occur gradually throughout
each year, the forest is always active. Tree species are highly diverse but usually have
smooth, straight trunks and large, simple leaves. Large vines are common, but the tangled
growth of a jungle occurs only where the normal forest area has been abused or at a
rivers edge.
Temperate evergreen forests are found in the subtropical regions of North America and the
Caribbean islands that have a warm maritime climate. The type is best developed along
the Gulf Coast and in the Florida Everglades.
Temperate rain forests, with broad-leaved evergreen trees, are common on Mediterranean
coasts. Rainfall may be low, but the ocean-cooled air is moisture laden, and fogs are
frequent.
Tropical scrub forest occur in regions of slight rainfall, bordering wetter forests.
O3- to name some the type of unusual trees like sequoia or baobab.

There are many types of unusual trees around the world that exhibit a variety of
interesting characteristics. Among these are prehistoric relics, trees that exhibit bizarre
growth patterns or formations, and trees with interesting strategies for obtaining the air,
water, and nutrients necessary for growth. Like the ginkgo, the dawn redwood is old
enough to be considered a living fossil. its fossilized remains were studied and identified
in the 1800s, and scientists believed that the tree had become extinct about 20 million
years ago. in 1941, a Chinese botanist discovered living trees in an isolated valley in
central China. Like other sequoias, the dawn redwood grows well from seeds, and
seedlings have been successfully grown in many of the milder parts of the East Coast of
the United States. Unlike other sequoias, the dawn redwood is deciduous and loses its
leaves in the fall. Although the banyan tree begins life with a single trunk, aerial roots
grow down from its spreading limbs and take root. These root enlarge, eventually
becoming trunklike, and in old age a single tree may have the appearance of a small
forest. The baobab tree, the closely related bottle tree, and certain cactus trees have trunks
with fleshy centers. These trunks store large amounts of water, enabling the trees to
survive the arid conditions under which they grow. The bottle tree has a bulging bottleshaped trunk. Cacti, although frequently covered with spines, can yield water to a lost
hiker even in the driest desert. Although it is native to Africa, the sausage tree is cultivated
as an ornamental in warm areas such as southern Florida and Hawaii The sausage tree has
large deep red flowers, which are replaced eventually by giant sausage-shaped fruits. Both
the flowers and fruits are borne on long stems hanging from the limbs of the trees. The
pencil tree, is grown as an ornamental in Hawaii and elsewhere because of its odd twigs,
which are swollen, pencil-like, and bright green. The twigs serve the tree in place of
leaves, which are almost totally lacking. The pencil tree has strongly caustic sap. Bald
cypress trees, deciduous needle-leaf trees that grow in swampy areas, are unusual because
of special breathing organs known as cypress knees. Strangler fig trees are an example of
a parasitic method of development that occurs in several plant families. A seed is
deposited by a bird, monkey, or other animal in a depression or a crotch of a limb.
Baobab- common name for a tropical African tree (Mallow). The baobab tree grows only
to the height of a large maple tree, but extensive lateral growth makes it one of the largest
trees. The fruit, called monkey bread, is about the size of a citron; the pulp, which has a
pleasing acid taste, is used in the preparation of cooling drinks. The bark of tree yield a
strong cordage fiber. Eucalyptus- genus of trees and some shrubs of the myrtle family.
Eucalyptus trees are characterized by leathery, whitish leaves that hang vertically, their
edges facing the sun, and their ragged bark and peculiar aroma. Many species are known
as gum trees because of their resinous exudations. Sequoia-common name for a group of
huge, majestic evergreen trees characterized by a columnar, reddish-brown trunk 30 m
(100 ft) or more above a buttressed base. Sequoia are conical in shape, with needlelike
leaves and small, oval cones. The trees are named for the Cherokee leader Sequoia.
Conclusion: Vegetation is a factor of great importance for tourists while choosing a
destination. In such way, this natural resource through its variety make from a place to
seem more challenge and attractive.
5. Fauna (wildlife) as natural tourist resources.

Key words: Fauna, wildlife, flora, animals, significance, television shows

Objectives:
O1- to describe fauna as a general term;
O2- to speak about hunting and types of fauna.

O1- to describe fauna as a general term

Fauna - is all of the animal life of any particular region or time. The corresponding term
for plants is flora. Zoologists and paleontologists use fauna to refer to a typical collection
of animals found in a specific time or place, e.g. the "Sonoran Desert fauna" or the
"Burgess shale fauna". The name comes from Fauna, a Roman fertility and earth goddess,
the Roman god Faunus, and the related forest spirits called Fauns. All three words are
cognates of the name of the Greek god Pan, and pains is the Greek equivalent of fauna.
Fauna is also the word for a book that catalogues the animals in such a manner. The term
was first used by Linnaeus in the title of his 1747 work Fauna Suecica. Fauna is also
called wildlife. Wildlife includes all non-domesticated plants, animals, and other
organisms. Domesticating wild plant and animal species for human benefit has occurred
many times all over the planet, and has a major impact on the environment, both positive
and negative. Wildlife can be found in all ecosystems, Deserts, rainforests, plains, and
other areasincluding the most developed urban sitesall have distinct forms of
wildlife. While the term in popular culture usually refers to animals that are untouched by
human factors, most scientists agree that wildlife around the world is impacted by human
activities. Many wildlife species have spiritual significance in different cultures around
the world, and they and their products may be used as sacred objects in religious rituals.
For example, eagles, hawks and their feathers have great cultural and spiritual value to
Native Americans as religious objects. Wildlife has long been a common subject for
educational television shows. National Geographic specials appeared on CBS beginning
in 1965, later moving to ABC and then PBS. In 1963, NBC debuted Wild Kingdom, a
popular program featuring zoologist Marlin Perkins as host. The BBC natural history unit
in the UK was a similar pioneer, the first wildlife series LOOK presented by Sir Peter
Scott, was a studio-based show, with filmed inserts. It was in this series that David
Attenborough first made his appearance which led to the series Zoo Quest during which
he and cameraman Charles Lagus went to many exotic places looking for elusive wildlife
-- notably the Komodo dragon in Indonesia and lemurs in Madagascar. Since 1984, the
Discovery Channel and its spin-off Animal Planet in the USA have dominated the market

for shows about wildlife on cable television, while on PBS the NATURE strand made by
WNET-13 in New York and NOVA by WGBH in Boston are notable. See also Nature
documentary. Wildlife television is now a multi-million dollar industry with specialist
documentary film-makers in many countries including UK, USA, New Zealand NHNZ,
Australia, Austria, Germany, Japan, and Canada.

O2- to speak about hunting and types of fauna

Hunting- sport of pursuing and killing wild game animals in order to provide food, or
simply for the thrill of the chase, or for the enjoyment of outdoor life. People have been
hunting since prehistoric times to provide themselves and their families with food, fur and
leather clothing, and hides for shelter. hunting gradually diminished in importance as a
means of survival. Because of its challenge and pleasure as a sport, however, hunting has
remained a popular activity even in modern times. Game animals are hunted throughout
the worlds. Today, most hunters use rifles and shotguns to pursue their sport. Claiming
that primitive weapons make the hunt more challenging, many hunters now have gone
back to the use of bows and arrows, especially for deer (Archery), and some use muzzleloading rifles.
Epifauna are animals that live upon the surface of sediments or soils.
Infauna are aquatic animals that live within the bottom substratum rather than on its
surface. Bacteria and microalgae may also live in the interstices of bottom sediments. On
average, in faunal animals become progressively rarer with increasing water depth and
distance from shore, whereas bacteria show more constancy in abundance, tending toward
one billion cells per milliliter of interstitial seawater. (Infauna are benthos that live buried
in underwater mud.).
Macrofauna are benthic or soil organisms which are at least one millimeter in length.
Meiofauna are small benthic invertebrates that live in both marine and fresh water
environments. The term Meiofauna loosely defines a group of organisms by their size,
larger than microfauna but smaller than macrofauna, rather than a taxonomic grouping. In
practice these are organisms that can pass through a 1 mm mesh but will be retained by a
45 m mesh, but the exact dimensions will vary from researcher to researcher. Whether an
organism will pass through a 1 mm mesh will also depend upon whether it is alive or dead
at the time of sorting.
Mesofauna are macroscopic soil invertebrates such as arthropods, earthworms, and
nematodes.
Microfauna are microscopic or very small animals (usually including protozoans and
very small animals such as rotifers).

Other terms include avifauna, which means "bird fauna" and piscifauna (or
ichthyofauna), which means "fish fauna".

Conclusion: Fauna by media coverage and inclusion of conservation education in early

school curriculum, wildlife tourism and ecotourism has fast become a popular industry
generating substantial income for poor nations with rich wildlife specially in Africa and
India. This ever growing and ever becoming more popular form of tourism is providing
the much needed incentive for poor nations to conserve their rich wildlife heritage and its
habitat.

6. The tourist landscapes.

Key words: Tourist landscape; limestone, volcanic, mountain and coastal landscapes;
beach; cultural landscapes.

Objectives:
O1- to reveal the understanding of tourist landscape;
O2- to speak about coastal landscapes and cultural landscape;
O3- to name the type of landscape and to describe the first to types

O1- to reveal the understanding of tourist landscape

A tourist landscape can be described as constructed through a variety of symbolic and

material transformations of an original physical and/or socioeconomic landscape in order
to serve the interests of tourists and the tourist industry.
Since the early days of tourism, landscape has played an important role in the decision
making for holiday destinations. In trying to escape from an ordinary taken-for-grantedworld, people of all periods have looked to far-away landscapes in order to re-create. It is

sustained and developed by media images and popular imagination. It portrays a world of
unchanging values, traditional and community living which some people feel with regret
has been lost forever from their own lives. The heritage industry has developed to meet
such expectations. It packages and presents aspect of the heritage in ways which broadly
sustain the illusion of unchanging values. However by this aesthetic appropriation the
landscape has become an assemblage of beautiful forms that ignores the basically vital
aspects.
A related problem is that tourism landscapes are frequently subject to the characteristic
problems of common pool resources - a tendency toward overuse and a lack of incentive
for individuals to invest in maintaining or improving the resource (Healy, 1994). Scenic
landscapes are often the result of active (traditional) land management. The fading away
of the pastoral economy in Alpine regions or the traditional orchard economy in parts of
the Mediterranean threatens the characteristic scenery of old cultural landscapes.
The word "landscape" itself combines 'land' with a verb of Germanic origin, "scapjan/
schaffen" to mean, literally, 'shaped lands'. Lands were then regarded to have been shaped
by natural forces, and the unique details of such landshaffen (shaped lands) became
themselves the subject of 'landscape' paintings.
O2- to name the type of landscape and to describe the first to types

There are 4 types of tourist landscapes:

Karstic ( limestone) landscapes;
Volcanic landscape;
Mountainous landscape;
Coastal landscape.
Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosional
landforms. These include limestone pavements, pot holes, cenotes, caves and gorges. Such
erosion landscapes are known as karsts. Limestone is less resistant than most igneous
rocks, but more resistant than most other sedimentary rocks. Limestone is therefore
usually associated with hills and downland and occurs in regions with other sedimentary
rocks, typically clays.
Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops
and islands. Examples include the Burren in Co. Clare, Ireland; the Verdon Gorge in
France; Malham Cove in North Yorkshire and the Isle of Wight, England; on Fr near the
Swedish island of Gotland, the Niagara Escarpment in Canada/USA, Notch Peak in Utah,
and the Ha Long Bay National Park in Vietnam. Unique habitats are found on alvars,

extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles. The largest such expanse in
Europe is the Stora Alvaret on the island of Oland, Sweden. Another area with large
quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden. Huge quarries in northwestern
Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/ Netherlands), extend for more than
a hundred kilometers.

Volcanic landscapes
A volcano is an opening, or rupture, in a planet's surface or crust, which allows hot,
molten rock, ash, and gases to escape from below the surface. Volcanic activity involving
the extrusion of rock tends to form mountains or features like mountains over a period of
time. Volcanoes are generally found where tectonic plates are pulled apart or come
together. A mid-oceanic ridge, for example the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, has examples of
volcanoes caused by "divergent tectonic plates" pulling apart; the Pacific Ring of Fire has
examples of volcanoes caused by "convergent tectonic plates" coming together. By
contrast, volcanoes are usually not created where two tectonic plates slide past one
another. Volcanoes can also form where there is stretching and thinning of the Earth's
crust (called "non-hotspot intraplate volcanism"), such as in the African Rift Valley, the
Wells Gray-Clearwater Volcanic Field and the Rio Grande Rift in North America and the
European Rhine Graben with its Eiffel volcanoes.

Mountain landscapes
A mountain is a landform that extends above the surrounding terrain in a limited area,
with having a peak. A mountain is generally steeper than a hill, but there is no universally
accepted standard definition for the height of a mountain or a hill although a mountain
usually has an identifiable summit. Mountains cover 64% of Asia, 36% of North America,
25% of Europe, 22% of South America, 17% of Australia, and 3% of Africa. As a whole,
24% of the Earth's land mass is mountainous. 10% of people live in mountainous regions.
Most of the world's rivers are fed from mountain sources, and more than half of humanity
depends on mountains for water.

O3- to speak about coastal landscapes and cultural landscape

Coastal landscapes
A beach is a geological landform along the shoreline of a body of water. It usually consists
of loose particles which are often composed of rock, such as sand, gravel, shingle,
pebbles, or cobble. The particles of which the beach is composed can sometimes instead
have biological origins, such as shell fragments or coralline algae fragments. The shape of
a beach depends on whether or not the waves are constructive or destructive, and whether
the material is sand or shingle. Constructive waves move material up the beach while
destructive waves move the material down the beach. On sandy beaches, the backwash of
the waves removes material forming a gently sloping beach. On shingle beaches the
swash is dissipated because the large particle size allows percolation, so the backwash is
not very powerful, and the beach remains steep. Cusps and horns form where incoming
waves divide, depositing sand as horns and scouring out sand to form cusps. This forms
the uneven face on some sand shorelines. There are several beaches which are claimed to
be the "World's longest", including Cox's Bazar, Bangladesh (120 km), Fraser Island
beach, 90 Mile Beach in Australia and 90 Mile Beach in New Zealand and Long Beach,
Washington (which is about 30km). Wasaga Beach, Ontario on Georgian Bay claims to
have the world's longest freshwater beach. But the longest beach in the world is in fact
Praia do Cassino, a 240km long beach located in southern Brazil, near the border with
Uruguay.
Cultural Landscapes: Examples
The World Heritage Committee has identified and listed a number of areas or properties as
cultural landscapes of universal value to human-kind, including the following:
"In 1993 Tongariro became the first property to be inscribed on the World Heritage List
under the revised criteria describing cultural landscapes. The mountains at the heart of the
park have cultural and religious significance for the Maori people and symbolize the
spiritual links between this community and its environment. The park has active and
extinct volcanoes, a diverse range of ecosystems and some spectacular landscapes."
"This park, formerly called Uluru (Ayers Rock Mount Olga) National Park, features
spectacular geological formations that dominate the vast red sandy plain of central
Australia. Uluru, an immense monolith, and Kata Tjuta, the rock domes located west of
Uluru, form part of the traditional belief system of one of the oldest human societies in the
world. The traditional owners of Uluru-Kata Tjuta are the Anangu Aboriginal people."
"For 2,000 years, the high rice fields of the Ifugao have followed the contours of the
mountains. The fruit of knowledge handed down from one generation to the next, and the
expression of sacred traditions and a delicate social balance, they have helped to create a
landscape of great beauty that expresses the harmony between humankind and the
environment."
"In the 19th century Sintra became the first centre of European Romantic architecture.
Ferdinand II turned a ruined monastery into a castle where this new sensitivity was

displayed in the use of Gothic, Egyptian, Moorish and Renaissance elements and in the
creation of a park blending local and exotic species of trees. Other fine dwellings, built
along the same lines in the surrounding serra, created a unique combination of parks and
gardens which influenced the development of landscape architecture throughout Europe".
"The 18th- and 19th-century cultural landscape of Dresden Elbe Valley features low
meadows, and is crowned by the Pillnitz Palace and the centre of Dresden with its
numerous monuments and parks from the 16th to 20th centuries. The landscape also
features 19th- and 20th-century suburban villas and gardens and valuable natural features.
Some terraced slopes along the river are still used for viticulture and some old villages
have retained their historic structure and elements from the industrial revolution, notably
the 147-m Blue Wonder steel bridge (189193), the single-rail suspension cable railway
(18981901), and the funicular (189495). The passenger steamships (the oldest from
1879) and shipyard (c. 1900) are still in use."
Conclusion: So, through their variety, beauty and uniqueness, landscapes are the
attributes that attract a great number of visitors. Composed of vegetation, fauna, relief,
hydrography and a favorable climate, the landscapes represent a piece from the heaven
grandeur.

Theme 4. Man-made tourist resources

1.The tourist attributes of the man-made tourist resources.

Key words: Attributes, antiquity, uniqueness, novelty, dimension, past and present
function, Louvre, Metropolitan Museum, Hermitage museum.
Objectives:
O1- to describe and analyze the tourist attributes of the man- made resources;
O2- to give some examples more detailed of the man-made tourist resources.

O1- to describe and analyze the tourist attributes of the man- made resources

Unlike the attractive natural resources that belong to the natural environment and
represent a natures gift, the attractive man-made resources represent some entertaining
elements which are created by the man. These werent builded in order to become
sightseeing spots ,but have carried out other attributes (economic, cultural, strategical,
etc).
Due to the natural environment change in to a strongly humanize geographical
environment many of entertaining element are affected or destroyed. But the man
continuously creates new values that contribute to the civilization standard raising. The
main entertaining attributes of the man-made resources have the following features:
antiquity(tourist objects age);
uniqueness;
novelty;
dimension;
present and past functions.
The antiquity of man-made sightseeing spot, becomes and onlooker interest. There are
some motivations, that urge the actual epoch man to penetrate in his own past, in order to
discover his descents that are full of possible revelations and spiritual satisfaction. For
instance, that attraction of silex or bone tools which, although are so simple, according to
their structure, they had assured the ancient man survival and progress.
About tools, another motivation is the pictures, which adorn the caves walls from the foot
of Periney, Alps, Carpathian mountains. In our days, the attractive effect of antiquity isnt
thrive ,because not all of man-made sightseeing spot impress the visitor. Unless the
antique objects Jewels from the Middle Age, even though they have the same spell,
however due to their artistic refinement, they represent a specific interest for visitors and
are more preferable. he man-made antiquity elements attract a mass of tourists due to their
ornaments, i.e. they are urged to visit these specific places being influenced by a
psychological stimulation, which effects are greater when tourists are well-informed,
another attractive source of some man-made objects, buildings-is the uniqueness. The
uniqueness can result due to an conferred creator action-the author of one product without
copies or variants, either of the same kind of objects destruction or disappearance. The
unique objects represents the statues and memorial houses dedicated to some distinct
personalities.

O2- to give some examples more detailed of the man-made tourist resources

A world unique man-made creation represent the Tower from Pisa due to its maximum
inclination given to vertical place plan. The Realm\Kingdom Storica- is unique for its
pomp ,the Parade of English guard-for the Ceremonial is accompanied, etc. Another
tourist feature of man-made objects proceed from their physiognomical, positional or
structural-compositional. The cathedral from Charters is famous for the combination of
those two towers that have different height, Chenonceaux Castle-for its situation over
Cher river, etc. Window-pane and ferro-concrete architecture of Pompidou Center from
Paris, Eiffel Tower made of steel, the Trade Center build from Santa F, represent the
examples of some exceptional achievements in the respective materials. If the antiquity,
uniqueness and novelty of some man-made objects remain the privilege of well-informed
tourists, the dimension of these is for all an easy of access attribute with an attractive
aspect. Versailles remains the most stately French castke, television towers from Moscow
and Toronto, that exceed 500m height, Sears Tower from Chicago is the most height build
from the world, the Romanian Parliament build is the second one from the world as a
dimension(95m both on the surface and underground).As well, we can include the exhibits
wealth of Louvre, the monuments of Liberty statue from New York or of pyramids from
Mexic and Egypt, exceptional height of the dams: Rogun and Grande Dixence
(Switzerland, from ferro-concrete).At last, the functions of some buildings have specific
attractive elements. For instance, Bastilia or London Tower had become the important
points of tourist demand, not only for their architecture or dimensions, but also for a rich
history is written between their walls. Moreover, we can include in the tourist flows the
following political headquarters(ONU Palace from New York, White House, Buckingham
Palace), cultural, scientific, etc. A particular and favorable situation have those sightseeing
spots like: Disneyland, Prater, etc., builded to diversify the attractive supply of some
regions and centers with a major tourist demand (present functions).The man-made tourist
dowry is very complex and can be sutured in two objective groups like:
Buildings and elements with tourist function;
Human activities with attractive function.

Conclusion: To summarize, I dare say that all these tourist attributes offer to visitors to
learn about all man-made resources secrets, i.e. to discover the base or fundamental of
them.

2.Historical edifices (erections).

Key words: Erection, castrum, castle, fortress, fort, fortification, citadel, features.

Objectives:
O1- to distinguish which are the historical erections;
O2- to define the forts and the fortifications;
O3- to point out a conclusion and to speak about citadels.

O1- to distinguish which are the historical erections

Historical erections are the constructions made a long period ago having different function
and now they are like indication, representing the moments and atmosphere of the period
they belong to.

The historical erections are the following:

castrums;
castles;
palaces;
fortifications;
forts;
fortress;
citadels.
The Latin word castra, with its singular castrum, was used by the ancient Romans to
mean any building or plot of land reserved to or constructed for use as a military
defensive position. As the word appears in both Oscan and Umbrian (dialects of Italic) as

well as in Latin, it probably descended from Indo-European to Italic. The term Roman
Camp is commonly used for a castrum or castra.
A castle is a defensive structure seen as one of the main symbols of the Middle Ages. The
term has a history of scholarly debate surrounding its exact meaning, but it is usually
regarded as being distinct from the general terms fort or fortress in that it describes a
building which serves as a residence of a monarch or noble and commands a specific
territory. Roman forts and hill forts were the main antecedents of castles in Europe, which
emerged in the 9th century in Carolingian France. The advent of cannon and gunpowder
changed the needs of warfare in Europe, limiting the effectiveness of the castle and
leading to the rise of the fort. Castles can be defined like having the following features:
Castles were places of protection from an invading enemy, a place of retreat.
Castles were also offensive weapons, built in otherwise hostile territories from which to
control surrounding lands, as forward camps. In particular, during the High Middle Ages,
castles were often built for territorial expansion and regional control. A castle was a
stronghold from which a lord could control surrounding territory.
Castles were either built as, or evolved into, residences for the monarch or lord who built
them.
These three purposes distinguish the castle from other fortresses which are usually
purely defensive (like citadels and city walls) or purely offensive (a military camp) or
edifices that are entirely residential in nature, like palaces. Castles such as the Tower of
London served as prisons.
In spite of the generally accepted definition, the word "castle" is sometimes used to mean
a citadel (such as the castles of Badajoz and Burgos) or small detached forts d'arrt in
modern times and, traditionally, in Britain it has also been used to refer to prehistoric
earthworks (e.g. Maiden Castle). The use of the Spanish equivalent Castillo can be equally
misleading, as it can refer to true castles and forts (e.g. Castillo de San Marcos); terms
such as Fortaleza ("fortress") are in similar situations. As time went by the medieval
castles are replaced with palaces surrounded by parks and gardens.

O2- to define the forts and the fortifications

Many military installations are known as forts, although they are not always fortified.
Larger forts may class as fortresses, smaller ones formerly often bore the name of
fortalices. The word fortification can also refer to the practice of improving an area's
defense with defensive works. City walls are fortifications but not necessarily called
fortresses. Fortifications are military constructions and buildings designed for defense in

warfare. Humans have constructed defensive works for many thousands of years, in a
variety of increasingly complex designs. The term is derived from the Latin fortis
("strong") and facere ("to make").
Fortification is usually divided into two branches, namely permanent fortification and
field fortification. Permanent fortifications are erected at leisure, with all the resources
that a state can supply of constructive and mechanical skill, and are built of enduring
materials. Field fortifications are extemporized by troops in the field, perhaps assisted by
such local labor and tools as may be procurable and with materials that do not require
much preparation, such as earth, brushwood and light timber, or sandbags (see sangar).
There is also an intermediate branch known as semi permanent fortification. This is
employed when in the course of a campaign it becomes desirable to protect some locality
with the best imitation of permanent defenses that can be made in a short time, ample
resources and skilled civilian labor being available.

O3- to point out a conclusion and to speak about citadels

A citadel is a fortress for protecting a town, sometimes incorporating a castle. The term
derives from the same Latin root as the word "city", civis, meaning citizen. Citadels are
most often used to protect a garrison or political power from the inhabitants of the town it
is defending. They were designed to ensure loyalty from the town which they defended.
For example Barcelona had a great citadel built in 1714 to intimidate the Catalans against
repeating their mid 17th and early 18th century rebellions against the Spanish central
government. In the 19th century, as soon as the political climate had liberalized enough to
permit it, the people of Barcelona had the citadel torn down, and replaced it with the city's
main central park, the Parc de la Ciutadella. A similar example is the Citadella in
Budapest, Hungary. The Citadelle of Quebec still survives, as the largest citadel still in
official military operation in North America, after more than two hundred years of
existence. In ancient Greece, the citadel, placed on a commanding eminence, was
important in the life of the people, serving as a refuge and stronghold in peril and
containing military and food supplies, the shrine of the god and a royal palace. In the
Middle Ages the citadel was the last defense of a besieged army, often held after the town
had been conquered, and affording retreat to the people living in the areas around the
town.
In a fortification with bastions, the citadel is the strongest part of the system, sometimes
well inside the outer walls and bastions, but often forming part of the outer wall for the
sake of economy. It is positioned to be the last line of defense should the enemy breach
the other components of the fortification system.

Conclusion: Historical erections represent constructions from remote past, the vestige left
from antiquity, showing us the period in which they were built with the purpose to show
us their uniqness.

3.Religious edifices.

Key words: Religious edifices, house church, temple, synagogues, cathedrals, mosques,
sanctuaries, monasteries, stupas, pyramids.

Objectives:
O1- to define what does mean religious edifices;
O2- to speak about mosque and cathedral;
O3- to describe synagogue, monastery and stupa;
O4- to develop the meaning of mausoleum and pyramid

O1- to define what does mean religious edifices

Religious edifices are buildings that vary in size and appearance but their real differences
are often defined by denominational preferences- religion. They are often considered
beacons of the community in which they stand.
House church (or "home church") is an informal term for an independent assembly of
Christians intentionally gathering in a home or on other grounds not normally used for
worship services, as opposed to a church building, due to specific beliefs. They may meet
in homes because they prefer to meet informally, because they believe it is an effective
way of creating "community" and engaging in outreach, or because they believe small
family-sized churches were a deliberate apostolic pattern in the first century and intended
by Christ. Some churches meet in houses because they lack a conventional church
building; these are not normally regarded as house churches as their intent is to move into
a larger more conventional facility. Many house church gatherings are free, informal, and

sometimes include a shared meal. Participants hope that everyone present will feel free to
contribute to the gathering as and when they sense the leading of the Holy Spirit to do so.
Leadership structures range from no official leaders, to a plurality of appointed elders.
There is a deliberate attempt within most house churches to minimize the leadership of
any one person, and so having one lone pastor is generally considered unscriptural and an
openly plural responsibility of leadership is preferred and sought. The first house church is
recorded in Acts 1:13, where the disciples of Jesus met together in the upper room of a
house. For the first three centuries of the church, Christians commonly met in homes.
Clement of Alexandria, an early church father, wrote of worshipping in a house. A private
house in Dura-Europos (near Baghdad) was excavated in the 1930s and was found to be
used as a Christian meeting place in AD 232, with one small room serving as a baptistry.
A temple (from the Latin word templum) is a structure reserved for religious or spiritual
activities, such as prayer and sacrifice, or analogous rites. A templum constituted a
sacred precinct as defined by a priest, or augur. It has the same root as the word
template, a plan in preparation of the building that was marked out on the ground by the
augur. Though a templum, technically speaking, is not a house of the gods but a
diagram that for the Romans linked the geometries of heaven and earth, it was also
indicative of a dwelling place of a god or gods. This tradition, of course, dates back to
prehistoric times. Though today we call most Greek religious buildings "temples," the
ancient pagans would have referred to a temenos, or sacred precinct. Its sacredness, often
connected with a holy grove, was more important than the building itself, as it contained
the open air altar on which the sacrifices were made. The building which housed the cult
statue in its naos was originally a rather simple structure, but by the middle of the 6th
century BCE had become increasingly elaborate. Greek temple architecture had a
profound influence on ancient architectural traditions. The rituals that located and sited
the temple were performed by an augur through the observation of the flight of birds or
other natural phenomenon. Roman temples usually faced east or toward the rising sun, but
the specifics of the orientation are often not known today; there are also notable
exceptions, such as the Pantheon which faces north. In ancient Rome, only the native
deities of Roman mythology had a templum; any equivalent structure for a foreign deity
was called a fanum. They include the structures called stupa, wat and pagoda in different
regions and languages. Temples in Buddhism represent the pure land or pure environment
of a Buddha. Traditional Buddhist Temples are designed to inspire inner and outer peace.
The word is rarely used in the mainstream of the Christian tradition where God is defined
as omnipresent. The principal words for Christian architecture are: basilica, cathedral and
church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church the use of the word temple is not at all unusual,
but in English the term church is often substituted, and in Slavic languages 'church' and
'temple' are used quite interchangeably. For example Temple of Saint Sava in Belgrade,
Serbia. Beginning in the late eighteenth century, after the Enlightenment, some Protestant
denominations in France and elsewhere began to use the word "temple" to distinguish
these spaces from a Catholic church.

O2- to speak about mosque and cathedral

Mosque - the primary purpose of the mosque is to serve as a place where Muslims can
come together for prayer. Nevertheless, mosques are known around the world nowadays
for their general importance to the Muslim community as well as their demonstration of
Islamic architecture. They have developed significantly from the open-air spaces that were
the Quba Mosque and Masjid al-Nabawi in the seventh century. Today, most mosques
have elaborate domes, minarets, and prayer halls. Mosques originated on the Arabian
Peninsula, but now exist on all the world's inhabited continents. They are not only places
for worship and prayer, but also places to learn about Islam and meet fellow believers.
The Arabic word masjid means place of worship and is a noun of place from the verb
sajada (root "s-j-d," meaning "to bow" or "to kneel") in reference to the prostrations
performed during Islamic prayers. Either the word masjid itself or at least the verb from
which it is derived was borrowed from Aramaic. The word "m-s-g-d" is attested in
Aramaic as early as the 5th century BCE, and the same word is later found in Nabataean
inscriptions with the meaning "place of worship"; apparently, this Aramaic word
originally meant "stele" or "sacred pillar".[1]. The same root exists also in Hebrew,(--),
meaning "to worship". The modern-day English word "mosque", just like its equivalents
in many other European languages, derives from the word masjid via Spanish mezquita.
The pre-cursors of the word "mosque" appeared during the 15th, 16th, and 17th centuries
and "Moseak", "muskey", "moschy", and "mos'keh" were just some of the variations that
came into use until it was decided that "mosquee", imitating Middle French, Italian, and
Old Spanish, would become the standard. In the early 18th century, the modern spelling
became the most popular and standard spelling of the word. Grand entryways and tall
towers, or minarets, have long been and continue to be closely associated with mosques.
However, the first three mosques were very simple open spaces on the Arabian Peninsula.
Mosques evolved significantly over the next 1,000 years, acquiring their now-distinctive
features and adapting to cultures around the world.
The First Mosques
According to Islamic beliefs, the first mosque in the world was the Kaaba, whose existing
foundation was raised up by Prophet Ibrahim, assisted by his son Prophet Ismail, upon an
order from God. The site of the Kaaba is also believed to be the place where a tent was
erected by angels for Adam and Eve to use for worship. The oldest mosque built by
Muslims is the Quba Mosque in Medina. When Muhammad lived in Makkah, he viewed
Kaaba as his first and principal mosque and performed prayers there together with his
followers. Even during times when the pagan Arabs performed their rituals inside the
Kaaba, Muhammad always held the Kaaba in very high esteem. Today, the Masjid alHaram in Mecca, the Masjid al-Nabawi in Medina and Al Aqsa in Jerusalem are
considered the three holiest sites in Islam.

The first Chinese mosque was established in the eighth century in Xi'an. The Great
Mosque of Xi'an, whose current building dates from the eighteenth century, does not
replicate many of the features often associated with traditional mosques. Instead, it
follows traditional Chinese architecture. It is distinguished from other building by its
green roof (Buddhist temples are often built with a yellow roof). Mosques in western
China incorporate more of the elements seen in mosques in other parts of the world.
Western Chinese mosques were more likely to incorporate minarets and domes while
eastern Chinese mosques were more likely to look like pagodas.
Mosques gradually diffused to different parts of Europe, but the most rapid growth in the
number of mosques has occurred within the past century as more Muslims have migrated
to the continent. Major European cities, such as Rome, London, and Munich, are home to
mosques that feature traditional domes and minarets. These large mosques in urban
centers are supposed to serve as community and social centers for a large group of
Muslims that occupy the region. However, one can still find smaller mosques in more
suburban and rural regions throughout Europe where Muslims populate. There are 40,000
to 50,000 mosques in the United States and Islam is the fastest growing religion there. [13]
Mosques first appeared in the United States in the early twentieth century, the first of
which was built in the late 1920s in Cedar Rapids, Iowa. However, as more immigrants
continue to arrive in the country, especially from South Asia, the number of American
mosques is increasing faster than ever before. Whereas only two percent of the country's
mosques appeared in the United States before 1950, eighty-seven percent of American
mosques were founded after 1970 and fifty percent of American mosques founded after
1980.
A common feature in mosques is the minaret, the tall, slender tower that usually is
situated at one of the corners of the mosque structure. The top of the minaret is always the
highest point in mosques that have one, and often the highest point in the immediate area.
The tallest minaret in the world is located at the Hassan II Mosque in Casablanca,
Morocco. The first mosques had no minarets, and even nowadays the most conservative
Islamic movements, like Wahhabis, avoid building minarets, seeing them as ostentatious
and unnecessary. The first minaret was constructed in 665 in Basra during the reign of the
Umayyad caliph Muawiyah I. Muawiyah encouraged the construction of minarets, as they
were supposed to bring mosques on par with Christian churches with their bell towers.
Consequently, mosque architects borrowed the shape of the bell tower for their minarets,
which were used for essentially the same purpose calling the faithful to prayer.
A cathedral (Lat. cathedra, "seat") also spelled cathedrale, is a Christian church that
contains the seat of a bishop. It is a religious building for worship, specifically of a
denomination with an episcopal hierarchy, such as the Roman Catholic, Anglican,
Orthodox and some Lutheran churches, which serves as a bishop's seat, and thus as the
central church of a diocese. In the Greek Orthodox Church, the terms "kathedrikos naos"
(literally: "cathedral shrine") and "metropolis" (literally "mother city") are used
interchangeably to describe the same thing. "Metropolis" is more common, but both terms
are officially used. There are certain variations on the use of the term "cathedral"; for

example, some pre-Reformation cathedrals in Scotland now within the Church of

Scotland still retain the term cathedral, despite the Church's Presbyterian polity which
does not have bishops. As cathedrals are often particularly impressive edifices, the term is
often used incorrectly as a designation for any large important church. Several cathedrals
in Europe, such as Strasbourg, and in England at York, Lincoln and Southwell, are
referred to as Minster (German: Mnster) churches, from Latin monasterium, because the
establishments were served by canons living in community or may have been an abbey,
prior to the Reformation. The other kind of great church in Western Europe is the abbey.
The word cathedral is derived from the Latin noun "cathedra" (seat or chair), and refers to
the presence of the bishop's or archbishop's chair or throne. In the ancient world, the chair
was the symbol of a teacher and thus of the bishop's role as teacher, and also of an official
presiding as a magistrate and thus of the bishop's role in governing a diocese.
The word cathedral, though now grammatically used as a noun, is originally the adjective
in the phrase "cathedral church", from the Latin "ecclesia cathedralis". The seat marks the
place set aside in the prominent church of the diocese for the head of that diocese and is
therefore a major symbol of authority. Cathedral churches may have different degrees of
dignity:
A parish church that was formerly' a cathedral is known as a "proto-cathedral".
A parish church that is temporarily serving as the cathedral or co-cathedral of a diocese is
known as a "pro-cathedral".
A church that serves as an additional cathedral of a diocesan bishop is known as a "cocathedral".
The church of a diocesan bishop is known as a "cathedral".
A church to which other diocesan cathedral churches of a province are suffragan is a
"metropolitan cathedral".
A church under which are ranged metropolitical churches and their provinces is a
"primatial cathedral".
A church to which primatial, metropolitical, and cathedral churches alike owe allegiance
is a "patriarchal cathedral".
The role of the cathedral is chiefly to serve God in the community, through its hierarchical
and organizational position in the church structure. A cathedral, its bishop and dignitaries
have traditional functions which are mostly religious in nature, but may also be closely
associated with the civil and communal life of the city and region. The formal cathedral
services are linked to the cycle of the year and respond to the seasons of the Northern
Hemisphere. The cathedral marks times of national and local civic celebration and sadness
with special services. The funerals of those famous within the community are invariably
held at cathedrals. Some cathedrals, such as Aachen and Rheims are the traditional

coronation places of monarchs. The bells of a cathedral are traditionally used signal the
outbreak and the ending of war. A cathedral, in common with other Christian churches has
an altar or table upon which the Eucharist is laid, a lectern for reading the Bible and a
pulpit from which the sermon is traditionally preached. Cathedrals also have a baptismal
font for the traditional rite of washing that marks the acceptance of a new Christian, (most
usually an infant) into the Church. Particularly in Italy, baptism may take place in a
separate building for that purpose. Within the church, an area, usually to the eastern end,
is set aside for the ceremonial seats of the dignitaries of the church, as well as the choir.
Tourists have traveled to cathedrals for hundred of years. Many cathedrals cater for
tourists by charging a fee to any visitors outside service times or requesting a donation or
making a charge to take photos. Cathedrals that are particularly popular tourist venues
sometimes provide guides, leaflets, souvenirs and cafes.
Sanctuary has multiple meanings. A sanctuary is the consecrated area of a church or
temple around its tabernacle or altar. An animal sanctuary is a place where animals live
and are protected. In modern parlance the term is used to mean a place of safety. Europe,
Christian churches were sometimes built on land considered as a particularly 'holy spot',
perhaps where a miracle or martyrdom had taken place or where a holy person was buried.
Examples are St. Peter's Basilica in Rome and St. Albans Cathedral in England, which
commemorate the martyrdom of Saint Peter (the first Pope, according to Catholics) and
Saint Alban (the first Christian martyr in Britain), respectively. The place, and therefore
the church built there, was considered to have been sanctified (made holy) by what
happened there. In modern times, the Roman Catholic Church has continued this practice
by placing in the altar of each church, when it is consecrated for use, a box (the
sepulcrum) containing relics of a saint. The relics box is removed when the church is
taken out of use as a church. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the antimension on the altar
serves a similar function. It is a cloth icon of Christ's body taken down from the cross, and
typically has the relics of a saint sewn into it. In addition, it is signed by the parish's
bishop, and represents his authorization and blessing for the Eucharist to be celebrated on
that altar. Sanctuary was also a right to be safe from arrest in the sanctuary of a church or
temple, recognized by English law from the fourth to the seventeenth century.
O3- to describe synagogue, monastery and stupa
A synagogue is a Jewish house of prayer. Synagogues usually have a large hall for prayer
(the main sanctuary), smaller rooms for study and sometimes a social hall and offices.
Many Jews in English-speaking countries use the Yiddish term "shul" in everyday speech.
Spanish and Portuguese Jews call the synagogue an esnoga. Persian Jews and Karaite
Jews use the term Kenesa, which is derived from Aramaic. Reform and some
Conservative congregations in the United States sometimes use the word "temple". In
Eastern Europe, synagogues were established by like-minded groups of people. Such a
synagogue was known as a kloiz, and was often delineated by the professions of its
worshippers: e.g. "the tailor's kloiz," the "water-carrier's kloiz," etc. One kloiz which still
bears that name today is the Breslov kloiz built by Nathan of Breslov in the city of Uman,
Ukraine in 1834. Today, this kloiz accommodates worshippers in the annual Breslover

Rosh Hashana kibbutz (prayer gathering). The first Reform synagogue, which opened in
Hamburg in 1811, featured changes that made the synagogue look more like a church.
These included: the installation of an organ to accompany the prayers (even on Shabbat
when musical instruments are proscribed by Orthodox halakha), a choir to accompany the
Hassan, and vestments for the synagogue rabbi to wear. The largest synagogue in the
world is the New Beit Midrash of Ger in Jerusalem, Israel. The main Sanctuary seats over
8,500. The second largest synagogue in the world is the Belz World Center, also in
Jerusalem, Israel, whose main Sanctuary seats 6,000. Construction took 16 years. The
largest synagogue outside of Israel is Congregation Emanu-El of the City of New York, a
Reform house of worship located on Fifth Avenue, New York City, with an area of 3,523
m, seating 2,500. The Dura-Europos synagogue (in today's Syria) is considered the
world's oldest preserved Jewish synagogue. The synagogue of Santa Mara la Blanca of
Toledo in Spain, was built in 1180 by Islamic constructors, for Jewish use and owers, in
mudejar style. It became a church in the 15th century, but no major reforms were done for
the change. Other large synagogues include the Great Synagogue of Rome and the Great
Synagogue in Plze, Czech Republic; the Orthodox synagogue in Koice, Slovakia;
Synagogue in Novi Sad, Serbia, the Sofia Synagogue in Sofia, Bulgaria.
Monastery (plural: Monasteries), a term derived from the Greek word
(monastrion, from - monos "alone"), denotes the building, or complex of
buildings, that houses a room reserved for prayer (e.g. an oratory) as well as the domestic
quarters and workplace(s) of monastics, whether monks or nuns, and whether living in
community or alone (hermits). The earliest extant use of the term monastrion is by the
first century CE Jewish philosopher Philo (On The Contemplative Life, ch. III).
Monasteries may vary greatly in size a small dwelling accommodating only a hermit, or
in the case of communities anything from a single building housing only a one senior and
two or three junior monks or nuns, to vast complexes and estates housing tens or
hundreds. In English usage, the term monastery is generally used to denote the buildings
of a community of male monastics (monks), while convent tends to be used for the
buildings accommodating female monastics (nuns). The term ,,nunnery,, for the latter is
outmoded. Various religions, however, use these terms, and a number of other terms as
well, in rather technical and specific ways. Usage can vary extensively by language, as
English speakers try to choose the most appropriate translation for foreign institutions and
organizations. Forest monasteries most commonly found in the Theravada traditions of
Southeast Asia and Sri Lanka are monasteries dedicated primarily to the study of
Buddhist meditation, rather than scholarship or ceremonial duties. Forest monasteries
often function like early Christian monasteries, with small groups of monks living an
essentially hermit-like life gathered loosely around a respected elder teacher. While the
wandering lifestyle practiced by the Buddha and his disciples continues to be the ideal
model for forest tradition monks in Thailand and elsewhere, practical concerns- including
shrinking wilderness areas, lack of access to lay supporters, dangerous wildlife, and
dangerous border conflicts- dictate that more and more 'meditation' monks live in
monasteries, rather than wandering. Tibetan Buddhist monasteries are sometimes known
as lamaseries and the monks are sometimes (mistakenly) known as lamas. Some famous
Buddhist monasteries include:

Jetavana, Sravasti
Nalanda, India
Shaolin, China
Donglin Temple, China
Tengboche, Nepal
Christian monasteries
Traditionally, it is often said Christian monasticism started in Egypt. However, St. John
the Baptist may be said to have been the first Christian monk, albeit he was Jewish in a
time when Christianity and Hebrewism were one and the same. After St. Anthony founded
his group the practice later continued on into Abyssinia (Ethiopia). According to tradition,
in the 3rd century St. Anthony was the first Christian to adopt this lifestyle. After a short
while others followed. Originally, all Christian monks were hermits seldom encountering
other people. But because of the extreme difficulty of the solitary life, many monks failed,
either returning to their previous lives, or becoming spiritually deluded. Monasteries were
important contributors to the surrounding community. They were centers of intellectual
progression and education. They welcomed aspiring priests to come study and learn,
allowing them even to challenge doctrine in dialogue with superiors. The earliest forms of
musical notation are attributed to a monk named Notker of St Gall, and was spread to
musicians throughout Europe by way of the interconnected monasteries. Since
monasteries offered respite for weary pilgrim travelers, monks were obligated also to care
for their injuries or emotional needs. Over time, lay people started to make pilgrimages to
monasteries instead of just using them as a stop over. By this time, they had sizable
libraries which were sort of a tourist attraction. Families would also donate a son in return
for blessings. During the plagues, monks helped to till the fields and provide food for the
sick. Monasteries can be very large or very small. There are three types of monastic
houses in the Orthodox Church: When monks live together, work together, and pray
together, following the directions of an abbot and the elder monks, this is called a
cenobium. The concept of the cenobitic life is that when many men (or women) live
together in a monastic context, like rocks with sharp edges, their sharpness becomes
worn away and they become smooth and polished. The largest monasteries can hold many
thousands of monks and are called lavras. In the cenobium the daily office, work and
meals are all done in common. Sketes are small monastic establishments which usually
consist of one elder and 2 or 3 disciples. In the skete most prayer and work are done in
private, coming together on Sundays and feast days. Thus, skete life has elements of both
solitude and community, and for this reason is called the "middle way". The highest level
of asceticism is practiced by monks who do not live in monastic communities, but in
solitude, as hermits. One of the great centers of Orthodox monasticism is the Holy
Mountain (also called Mt. Athos) in Greece, an isolated, self-governing peninsula
approximately 20 miles (32 km) long and 5 miles (8.0 km) wide (similar to the Vatican,
being a separate government), administered by the heads of the 20 major monasteries, and

dotted with hundreds of smaller monasteries, sketes, and hesicaterons. Even today the
population of the Holy Mountain numbers in the tens of thousands of monastics (men
only) and cannot be visited except by men with special permission granted by both the
Greek government and the government of the Holy Mountain itself.
A stupa (from Sanskrit and Pli, literally meaning "heap") is a mound-like structure
containing Buddhist relics--typically, the remains of a Buddha or saint. In other Asian
languages such monuments are called:
chos rtan (Tibetan, "dharma place/seat")
chedi (Thai, from the Pli chaitya)
dagobah (Sinhalese, from the Sanskrit dhatu)
tope (Hindi, from the Sanskrit)
garbha (Sanskrit, meaning a storehouse or repository)
After "stupa," chorten (from the Tibetan chos rtan) is the most commonly-encountered
English term. The term "reliquary" is sometimes used, after a Roman Catholic functional
equivalent. The stupa is the latest Buddhist religious monument and was originally only a
simple mound of mud or clay to cover supposed relics of the Buddha. After the "passing
away" of the Buddha, his remains were cremated and the ashes divided and buried under
eight stupas with two further stupas encasing the urn and the embers. The stupa evolved
into the pagoda as Buddhism spread to other Asian countries. The pagoda has varied
forms that also include bellshaped and pyramidal ones. Today, in the Western context,
there is no clear distinction between the stupa and the pagoda. But in general stupa is used
for a Buddhist structure of India or south-east Asia, while pagoda refers to a building in
east Asia which can be entered and which may be secular in purpose. Fundamentally, a
stupa is essentially made up of the following five constituent parts:
a square base
a hemispherical dome
a conical spire
a crescent moon
a circular disc
Each component is rich in metaphoric content. For example, "the shape of the stupa
represents the Buddha, crowned and sitting in meditation posture on a lion throne. His
crown is the top of the spire; his head is the square at the spire's base; his body is the vase
shape; his legs are the four steps of the lower terrace; and the base is his throne". The

components of the stupa are also identified with the five elements earth, water, fire, air,
and space held to constitute the fabric of manifest existence.

O4- to develop the meaning of mausoleum and pyramid

A mausoleum (plural: mausoleums) is an external free-standing building constructed as a

monument enclosing the interment space or burial chamber of a deceased person or
persons. A mausoleum may be considered a type of tomb or the tomb may be considered
to be within the mausoleum. A Christian mausoleum sometimes includes a chapel. The
word derives from the Mausoleum of Maussollos (near modern-day Bodrum in Turkey),
the grave of King Mausollos, the Persian satrap of Caria, whose large tomb was one of the
Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. In the United States, the term may be used for a
burial vault below a larger facility, such as a church. The Cathedral of Our Lady of the
Angels in Los Angeles, California, for example, has 6,000 sepulchral and cinerary urn
spaces for interments in the lower level of the building. It is known as the crypt
mausoleum:
The Mausoleum of Khomeini in Tehran, Iran
The pyramids of ancient Egypt, Nubia and China are also types of mausoleums.
Taj Mahal at Agra, India
Anitkabir mausoleum of Ataturk the founder of the Republic of Turkey at Ankara, Turkey
Tomb of Jahangir
Royal Mausoleum and the Duchess of Kent's Mausoleum at Frogmore, England
Grant's Tomb, New York City - a reduced-scale version of Mausolos' original mausoleum.
Hamilton Mausoleum at Hamilton in Scotland
Abraham Lincoln's tomb in Springfield, Illinois
Lenin's Mausoleum in Moscow, Russia.
A pyramid (from Greek o - pyramidos, genitive of - pyramids) is any
three-dimensional polyhedron where the faces other than the base are triangular and

converge on one point, called the apex. The base of a pyramid can be any polygon but is
typically a square, leading to four non-base faces. The most famous pyramids are the
Egyptian pyramids huge structures built of brick or stone, some of which are among
the largest man-made constructions. Most of them took about 27 years to build. In Ancient
Egyptian, a pyramid was referred to as mer, which was also their word for the country of
Egypt itself, showing how intrinsic the structures were to the culture. [1] The Great Pyramid
of Giza is the largest in Egypt and one of the largest in the world. Until Lincoln Cathedral
was built in 1300 A.D., it was the tallest building in the world. The base is over 52,600
square meters in area. It is one of the Seven Wonders of the World, and the only one of the
seven to survive into modern times. The Ancient Egyptians capped the peaks of their
pyramids with gold and covered their faces with polished white limestone, though many
of the stones used for the purpose have fallen or been removed for other structures.
Examples of modern pyramids are:
The Louvre Pyramid in Paris, France, in the court of the Louvre Museum, is a 20.6 meter
(about 70 foot) glass structure which acts as an entrance to the museum. It was designed
by the American architect I. M. Pei and completed in 1989.
The Slovak radio building in Bratislava, Slovakia. This building is shaped like an inverted
pyramid.
The Walter Pyramid, home of the basketball and volleyball teams of the California State
University, Long Beach, campus in California, United States, is an 18-story-tall blue
pyramid.
The Luxor Hotel in Las Vegas, United States, is a 30-story pyramid with light beaming
from the top.
The Palace of Peace and Reconciliation in Astana, Kazakhstan.
The three pyramids of Moody Gardens in Galveston, Texas.
The Goya Music Hall in Prague.
The Pyramids of the City Stars Complex in Cairo, Egypt.

Conclusion: Religious edifices are a treasure of pride for countries where they are
situated. So, their way of being represents uniqueness, and what else can challenge
visitors to travel and see them with their own eyes.

4. Cultural and sports edifices.

Key words: Cultural and sport edifices, agora, forum, theatre, amphitheatre, stadiums,
opera, museums.

Objectives:
O1- to speak about cultural and sport edifices;
O2- to describe the cultural edifice: theatre and some sport edifices;
O3- to determine the meaning of opera;
O4- to understand the permanent institution: museum

O1- to speak about cultural and sport edifices

The tourist attributes of cultural and sport edifices come from their architecture and the
accomplishment of their initial function. Among this groups are the following tourist
attributes: agora or forum, theatres, amphiteatres, operas, stadiums, museums etc.
The Agora was an open "place of assembly" in ancient Greek city-states. Early in Greek
history (900s700s BCE), free-born male land-owners who were citizens would gather in
the agora for military duty or to hear statements of the ruling king or council. Later in
Greek history, the agora served as a marketplace where merchants kept stalls or shops to
sell their goods under colonnades. Roman Forum history dates back to 6th century BC,
and the oldest surviving foundation from these times is the Temple of Saturn. Said to have
a giant statue of the god of Agriculture inside, the temple had two distinct uses: as the first
treasury of the Roman empire and as the gathering place for the annual winter solstice
festival named Saturnalia, a week long ceremony that began on December 17. This
holiday is now more widely recognizable as the celebration of Christmas. The Arch of
Titus and Arch of Septimius Severus are both dedicated to commemorate important
Roman victories in the Jewish War and the Parthian War, respectively. The House of the
Vestal Virgins is one of the better preserved sections of the ancient Roman Forum, where
the virgin holy priestesses of Vesta resided. Their chief task was to keep the sacred fire of
Vesta aflame. Roman Forum history dictates that any citizen in need of fire could then
visit the Temple of Vesta and receive fire for their homes. Unfortunately, the majority of

this structure did not survive the onslaught of nature in the form of earthquakes in the
Roman Forum. The ancient Roman Forum extends up the invulnerable slopes of Palatine
Hill, where the ruins of imperial palaces and other affluent residences lie. Tiberius,
Augustus, Nero and Caligula all called this hill their home, and one is able to see many of
the great ruins of Rome from this vantage point - the timeworn temples, the ghost of
Circus Maximus and the rounded pillars of the Colosseum are all visible from this spot.
O2- to describe the cultural edifice: theatre and some sport edifices
Theatre
was
very
popular
amongst
the
Ancient
Romans.
The first Roman stage plays were mounted as part of religious celebrations and followed
on from earlier Greek culture. Plays were performed in huge open air theatres. The theatre
performance was often paid for by wealthy citizens hoping to become popular with the
people. To make sure their plays were applauded, and not booed, the wealthy citizens
would also pay for some of the playgoers to clap and applaud! Showing appreciation at
the Roman Theatre had definite rules: Mild applause at the Roman Theatre was shown by
snapping finger and thumb together; more vigorous applause by clapping; and finally if
the crowd really enjoyed the play, they would wave the edge of their togas or a piece of
cloth wildly in the air to show the most appreciation for the acting and the play. As these
theatrical events were free even the poorest Roman Citizens could attend them. Roman
actors wore masks and only men were allowed to take part in the plays. Roman Women
were allowed to take part in mime, a type of comedy play, which was held on wooden
platforms in the streets. Masks were not worn in mime and women were allowed to play
the female roles. Of course, everyone is familiar with the greatest Roman amphitheatre,
the Colosseum, which has remained a tourist attraction from the first century AD to the
present day (see exterior above and interior left). The exterior of the Colosseum consists
three tiers of arches and an attic story (most of the third tier and attic story have not
survived). Note the underground area (hypogeum) that the destruction of the arena floor
has revealed. This area was used for storage of equipment and to house wild animals.
Elevators raised animals in cages from this underground level so that they could enter the
arena through trap doors. The name "Colosseum" came from a colossal statue (120 ft.
high) of Nero that was located in the area near this amphitheater, 1 which, however, was
not called the "Colosseum" until the Middle Ages. It was built by the members of the
Flavian dynasty (Vespasian, Titus, and Domitian) and its name in ancient times was the
amphitheatrum Caesareum, "Caesar's (i.e., the emperor's) amphitheater." In modern times,
it is often referred to as the "Flavian Amphitheater. It was dedicated in 80 AD by the
emperor Titus and estimates of its capacity range from 40,000 to about 60,000 (see an
ancient depiction of a crowded Colosseum on a coin). There were amphitheatres
throughout the rest of Italy and all over the Roman world in Spain, Gaul, northern Africa,
and the Greek east. Many amphitheatres in southern France are very well preserved and
still in use as venues for bullfights, such as the one in Arles. In the minds of the Romans,
the amphitheater was a place of significant symbolic meaning. It was a place of civilized
order where, from the Roman point of view, the victory of civilization over lawlessness,
chaos, barbarism, and savagery was regularly enacted. It was also a place of justice:
certain criminals were executed there by being given to the wild beasts or were forced to

fight to the death as gladiators. It also represented the domination of Rome over its
enemies: prisoners of war were either executed or forced to fight each other as gladiators.
For the professional gladiator, however, the amphitheater was also a place of redemption,
in which one could overcome death by victory or by stoically accepting it. Athletic events
provided the opportunity for all the city-states of Greece to gather and to strengthen their
common bonds through competition. Athletic events were a great spectacle in antiquity
and for many a peasant the only form of grand entertainment. The Olympic games were
born in these stadiums, while wars and disputes among countries were put aside while the
games
were
on.
High up the hill, beyond the sacred way and the Theatre the ancient stadium is nested. It
was built in the 5th c. B.C. and it was remodelled several times during the centuries. Its
present form was acquired in the 2nd c. A.D. when Herodus Atticus financed the stone
seating and the arched entrance. Its stone seats could sit around 6500 spectators, and it
was used extensively during the Pythian and Panhellenic games for athletic events and for
music festivals. Its track is 177.55 m long (about 550 ft.), and 25.50 m wide.

O3- to determine the meaning of opera

The word "Opera" means "work" in Italian (from the plural of Latin opus meaning
"work" or "labour") suggesting that it combines the arts of solo and choral singing,
declamation, acting and dancing in a staged spectacle. The form arose in Italy from a
background of various forms of courtly entertainment, and though the first operas were
modestly staged compared to other contemporary forms of sung drama, opera outlasted
these, and was to make the transition from the court to the public theatre, having taken on
the spectacular stagings typical of the intermediate. "Daphne" by Jacopo Peri was the
earliest composition considered opera, as understood today. It was written around 1597,
largely under the inspiration of an elite circle of literate Florentine humanists who
gathered as the "Camerata". Significantly, Daphne was an attempt to revive the classical
Greek drama, part of the wider revival of antiquity characteristic of the Renaissance. The
members of the Camerata considered that the "chorus" parts of Greek dramas were
originally sung, and possibly even the entire text of all roles; opera was thus conceived as
a way of "restoring" this situation. "Daphne" is unfortunately lost. A later work by Peri,
Eurydice, dating from 1600, is the first opera score to have survived to the present day.
Traditions of staged sung music and drama go back to both secular and religious forms
from the Middle Ages, and at the time opera first appears the Italian intermediate had
courtly equivalents in various countries.
Italian origins of opera Peri's works, however, did not arise out of a creative vacuum in the
area of sung drama. An underlying prerequisite for the creation of opera proper was the
practice of monody. Monody is the solo singing/setting of a dramatically conceived
melody, designed to express the emotional content of the text it carries, which is

accompanied by a relatively simple sequence of chords rather than other polyphonic parts.
Italian composers began composing in this style late in the 16th century, and it grew in
part from the long-standing practice of performing polyphonic madrigals with one singer
accompanied by an instrumental rendition of the other parts, as well as the rising
popularity of more popular, more homophonic vocal genres such as the frottola and the
villanella. In these latter two genres, the increasing tendency was toward a more
homophonic texture, with the top part featuring an elaborate, active melody, and the lower
ones (usually these were three-part compositions, as opposed to the four-or-more-part
madrigal) a less active supporting structure. From this, it was only a small step to fullyfledged monody. All such works tended to set humanist poetry of a type that attempted to
imitate Petrarch and his Trecento followers, another element of the period's tendency
toward a desire for restoration of principles it associated with a mixed-up notion of
antiquity. The solo madrigal, frottola, villanella and their kin featured prominently in the
intermediate or intermezzo, theatrical spectacles with music that were funded in the last
seventy years of the 16th century by the opulent and increasingly secular courts of Italy's
city-states. Such spectacles, were usually staged to commemorate significant state events:
weddings, military victories, and the like, and alternated in performance with the acts of
plays. Like the later opera, an intermediate featured the aforementioned solo singing, but
also madrigals performed in their typical multi-voice texture, and dancing accompanied
by the present instrumentalists. They were lavishly staged, and led the scenography of the
second half of the 16th century. The intermediate tended not to tell a story as such,
although they occasionally did, but nearly always focused on some particular element of
human emotion or experience, expressed through mythological allegory. The staging in
1600 of Peri's opera Euridice as part of the celebrations for a Medici wedding, the
occasions for the most spectacular and internationally famous intermedi of the previous
century, was probably a crucial development for the new form, putting it in the
mainstream of lavish courtly entertainment. Another popular court entertainment at this
time was the "madrigal comedy," later also called "madrigal opera" by musicologists
familiar with the later genre. This, as can probably be guessed, consisted of a series of
madrigals strung together to suggest a dramatic narrative.
O4- to understand the permanent institution: museum
A museum is a "permanent institution in the service of society and of its development,
open to the public, which acquires, conserves, researches, communicates and exhibits the
tangible and intangible heritage of humanity and its environment, for the purposes of
education, study, and enjoyment", as defined by the International Council of Museums.
Museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration, learning and enjoyment.
They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make accessible artifacts and specimens,
which they hold in trust for society. Early museums began as the private collections of
wealthy individuals, families or institutions of art and rare or curious natural objects and
artifacts. These were often displayed in so-called wonder rooms or cabinets of curiosities.
Public access was often possible for the "respectable", especially to private art collections,
but at the whim of the owner and his staff. The first public museums in the world opened
in Europe during the 18th century and the Age of Enlightenment:

the Museo Sacro, the first museum in the Vatican Museums complex, was opened in
Rome in 1756;
the British Museum in London, was founded in 1753 and opened to the public in 1759. Sir
Hans Sloan's personal collection of curios provided the initial foundation for the British
Museum's collection;
the Uffizi Gallery in Florence, which had been open to visitors on request since the 16th
century, was officially opened to the public 1765;
the Belvedere Palace of the Habsburg monarchs in Vienna opened with a collection of art
in 1781.
These "public" museums, however, were often accessible only by the middle and upper
classes. It could be difficult to gain entrance. In London for example, prospective visitors
to the British Museum had to apply in writing for admission. Even by 1800 it was
possible to have to wait two weeks for an admission ticket. Visitors in small groups were
limited to stays of two hours. In Victorian times in England it became popular for
museums to be open on a Sunday afternoon (the only such facility allowed to do so) to
enable the opportunity for "self improvement" of the other - working classes. The first
truly public museum was the Louvre Museum in Paris, opened in 1793 during the French
Revolution, which enabled for the first time in history free access to the former French
royal collections for people of all stations and status. The fabulous art treasures collected
by the French monarchy over centuries were accessible to the public three days each
"dcade" (the 10-day unit which had replaced the week in the French Republican
Calendar). The Conservatoire du musum national des Arts (National Museum of Arts's
Conservatory) was charged with organizing the Louvre as a national public museum and
the centerpiece of a planned national museum system. As Napolon I conquered the great
cities of Europe, confiscating art objects as he went, the collections grew and the
organizational task became more and more complicated. After Napoleon was defeated in
1815, many of the treasures he had amassed were gradually returned to their owners (and
many were not). His plan was never fully realized, but his concept of a museum as an
agent of nationalistic fervor had a profound influence throughout Europe.
Conclusion: So, cultural and sport edifices, represents buildings from different periods,
beginning with ancient times, and that amaze everybody through their architecture,
antiquity, uniqueness, and throughout other elements.

5.Economic edifices intended for tourist activities.

Key words: Bridges, types of bridges, tunnel, subway, canal, dam.

Objectives:
O1- to understand the meaning bridge and describe some types of bridge;
O2- to give some examples of tunnels;
O3- to specify something about canal, types of artificial waterways.

O1- to understand the meaning bridge and describe some types of bridge

A bridge is a structure built to span a gorge, valley, road, railroad track, river, body of
water, or any other physical obstacle, for the purpose of providing passage over the
obstacle. Designs of bridges will vary depending on the function of the bridge and the
nature of the terrain where the bridge is to be constructed.
The first bridges were made by nature as simple as a log fallen across a stream. The
first bridges made by humans were probably spans of wooden logs or planks and
eventually stones, using a simple support and crossbeam arrangement. Most of these early
bridges could not support heavy weights or withstand strong currents. It was these
inadequacies which led to the development of better bridges. The ancient Romans built
arch bridges and aqueducts that could stand in conditions that would damage or destroy
earlier designs. Some of them still stand today. An example is the Alcntara Bridge, built
over the river Tagus, in Spain. Most earlier bridges would have been swept away by the
strong current. The Romans also used cement, which reduced the variation of strength
found in natural stone. One type of cement, called pozzolana, consisted of water, lime,
sand, and volcanic rock. Brick and mortar bridges were built after the Roman era, as the
technology for cement was lost then later rediscovered. Although large Chinese bridges of
wooden construction existed at the time of the Warring States, the oldest surviving stone
bridge in China is the Zhao Zhou Bridge, built from 595 to 605 AD during the Sui
Dynasty. This bridge is also historically significant as it is the world's oldest openspandrel stone segmental arch bridge. European segmental arch bridges date back to at
least the Alcontar Bridge (approximately 2nd century AD), while the enormous Roman

era Trojans Bridge (105 AD) featured open-spandrel segmental arches in wooden
construction.

Types of bridges
There are six main types of bridges: beam bridges, cantilever bridges, arch bridges,
suspension bridges, cable-stayed bridges and truss bridges.
A bridge is designed for trains, pedestrian or road traffic, a pipeline or waterway for water
transport or barge traffic. An aqueduct is a bridge that carries water, resembling a viaduct,
which is a bridge that connects points of equal height. A road-rail bridge carries both road
and rail traffic.
Tunnel - A tunnel may be for pedestrians or cyclists, for general road traffic, for motor
vehicles only, for rail traffic, or for a canal. Some are aqueducts, constructed purely for
carrying water for consumption, for hydroelectric purposes or as sewers while
others carry other services such as telecommunications cables. There are even tunnels
designed as wildlife crossings for European badgers and other endangered species. Some
secret tunnels have also been made as a method of entrance or escape from an area, such
as the Cu Chi Tunnels or the tunnels connecting the Gaza Strip to Egypt.
In the United Kingdom a pedestrian tunnel or other underpass beneath a road is called a
subway. This term was used in the past in the United States, but now refers to
underground rapid transit systems. The longest canal tunnel is the Standedge Tunnel in the
United Kingdom, over three miles (5 km) long.

O2- to give some examples of tunnels

Examples of tunnels:
World's oldest underwater tunnel is rumored to be the Terelek kaya tneli under Kzl
River, a little south of the towns of Boyabat and Duragan in Turkey. Estimated to have
been built more than 2000 years ago (possibly 5000) it is assumed to have had a defense
purpose.
The Thames Tunnel, built by Marc Isambard Brunel and his son Isambard Kingdom
Brunel and opened in 1843, was the first underwater tunnel and the first to use a
tunnelling shield. Originally used as a foot-tunnel, it is now part of the East London Line
of the London Underground.

The Cobble Hill Tunnel and Murray Hill Tunnel in New York City are the world's oldest
railway tunnels lying below streets, roofed over in 1850 and the 1850s, respectively.
St. Clair Tunnel, opened in 1890, was the first full-size subaqueous tunnel in North
America.
The Seikan Tunnel in Japan is the longest rail tunnel in the world at 53.9 km (33.4 miles),
of which 23.3 km (14.5 miles) is under the sea.
The Channel Tunnel between France and the United Kingdom under the English Channel
is the second-longest, with a total length of 50 km (31 miles), of which 39 km (24 miles)
is under the sea.
Dam- structure that blocks the flow of a river, stream, or other waterway. Some dams
divert the flow of a river water into a pipeline, canal, or channel. Others raise the level of
inland waterways to make them navigable by ships and barges. many dams harness the
energy of falling water to generate electric power. Dams also hold water for drinking and
crop irrigation, and provide flood control.
The oldest known human-made dams were built more than 5,000 years ago in arid parts of
the Middle East to divert river water to irrigate crops. Today there are more than 500,000
dams worldwide. The vast majority of these are small structures less than 3 m (10 ft) tall.
Engineers regard dams that measure more than 15 m (50 ft)high as large dams. About
40,000 large dams exist in the world today.

O3- to specify something about canal, types of artificial waterways

Canals are artificial channels for water. There are two types of canals: irrigation canals,
which are used for the delivery of water, and waterways, which are navigable
transportation canals used for passage of goods and people, often connected to existing
lakes, rivers, or oceans. For canals used for water supply, see Aqueduct.

Types of artificial waterways

Some canals are part of an existing waterway. This is usually where a river has been
canalized: making it navigable by widening and deepening some parts (by dredging
and/or weirs), and providing locks with "cuts" around the weirs or other difficult sections.
In France, these are called lateral canals and in the UK they are generally called
navigations and the length of the artificial waterway often exceeds the natural. Smaller
transportation canals can carry barges or narrow boats, while ship canals allow sea-going

ships to travel to an inland port (e.g. Manchester Ship Canal, or from one sea or ocean to
another (Caledonian Canal, Kiel Canal). The oldest-known canals were built in
Mesopotamia circa 4000 BC, in what is now modern-day Iraq and Syria. The Indus Valley
Civilization in Pakistan and North India (from circa 2600 BC) had a sophisticated canal
irrigation system. Large scale ship canals such as the Panama Canal and Suez Canal, and
the smaller Manchester Ship Canal, continue to operate for cargo transportation; as do
European barge canals. Due to globalization, they are becoming increasingly important,
resulting in expansion projects such as the Panama Canal expansion project.
Canals have found another use in the 21st century, as way leaves along the towing paths
for fibre optic telecommunications networks.
A dam is a barrier that divides waters. Dams generally serve the primary purpose of
retaining water, while other structures such as floodgates, levees, and dikes are used to
prevent water flow into specific land regions. The tallest dam in the world is the 300
meter high Nurek Dam in Tajikistan. The word dam can be traced back to Middle English,
and before that, from Middle Dutch, as seen in the names of many old cities. Some of the
grandest and largest dams were constructed in Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Dams in Yodha Wewa
and Parakrama Samudra of Sri Lanka were the largest until the 20th Century. As per
Needham, Abhaya Wewa is the oldest reservoir that was made by the use of a dam, which
has been dated to 300 BC. (Most of the first Dams were built in Mesopotamia up to 7,000
years ago. These were used to control the water level, for Mesopotamia's weather affected
the Tigris and Euphrates rivers, and could be quite unpredictable. The earliest recorded
dam is believed to have been on the Sadd Al-Kafara at Wadi Al-Garawi, which is located
about 25 kilometers south of Cairo, and built around 2600 B.C. It was destroyed by heavy
rain shortly afterwards. The Romans were also great dam builders, with many examples
such as the three dams at Subiaco on the river Anio in Italy. Many large dams also survive
at Merida in Spain. The oldest surviving and standing dam in the world is believed to be
the Grand Anicut, also known as the Kallanai, an ancient dam built on the Kaveri River in
the state of Tamil Nadu located in southern India. It was built by the Chola king
Karikalan, and dates back to the 2nd Century AD.

Conclusion: Economic edifices are not only buildings as a tourist attributes, but they also
carry some important and useful functions for the development of a country.

6.Monuments, statues, commemorative plaques.

Key words: Monument, statue, statuette, obelisk, megalithic monument.

Objectives:
O1- to give definitions of monument and to develop it;
O2- to define statue and give examples of modern obelisk;
O3- to describe megalith and give examples of European megalith.

O1- to give definitions of monument and to develop it

Monument- place that is designed and built as a lasting tribute to a person, a group of
people, or an event. Also monument is a statue, building, or other edifice created to
commemorate a person or important event. They are frequently used to improve the
appearance of a city or location. Cities that are planned such as Washington D.C., New
Delhi and Braslia are often built around monuments. The Washington Monument's
location (and vertical geometry, though not physical detail) was conceived to help
organize public space in the city before it was ever connected with George Washington.
Older cities have monuments placed at locations that are already important or are
sometimes redesigned to focus on one. As Shelley suggested in his famous poem
"Ozymandias" ("Look on my works, ye Mighty, and despair!"), the purpose of monuments
is very often to impress or awe. In English the word "monumental" is often used in
reference to something of extraordinary size and power. The word comes from the Latin
"monere," which means 'to remind' or to warn. Functional structures made notable by
their age, size or historic significance can also be regarded as monuments. This can
happen because of great age and size, as in the case of the Great Wall of China, or because
an event of great import occurred there such as the village of Oradour-sur-Glane in
France.
Monuments are also often designed to convey historical or political information. They can
be used to reinforce the primacy of contemporary political power, such as the column of
Trojan or the numerous statues of Lenin in the Soviet Union. They can be used to educate
the populace about important events or figures from the past, such as in the renaming of

the old General Post Office Building in New York City to the James A. Farley Building
(James Farley Post Office), after former Postmaster General James Farley.
Monuments have been created for thousands of years, and they are often the most durable
and famous symbols of ancient civilizations. The Egyptian Pyramids, the Greek
Parthenon, and the Moai of Easter Island have become symbols of their civilizations. In
more recent times, monumental structures such as the Statue of Liberty and Eiffel Tower
have become iconic emblems of modern nation-states. The term monumentality relates to
the symbolic status and physical presence of a monument.

O2- to define statue and give examples of modern obelisk

A statue is a sculpture in the round representing a person or persons, an animal, or an

event, normally full-length, as opposed to a bust, and at least close to life-size, or larger.
Its primary concern is representational. The definition of a statue is not always clear-cut;
sculptures of a person on a horse, called Equestrian statues, are certainly included, and in
many cases, such as a Madonna and Child or a Piet, a sculpture of two people will also
be. A small statue, usually small enough to be picked up, is called a statuette.
Many statues are built on commission to commemorate a historical event, or the life of an
influential person. Many statues are intended as public art, exhibited outdoors or in public
buildings for the edification of passers-by, with a larger magnitude than normal words
could ever have for the common man.
An obelisk is a tall, narrow, four-sided, tapering monument which ends in a pyramidal top.
Ancient obelisks were made of a single piece of stone (a monolith). The term stele (plural:
stelae) is generally used for other monumental standing inscribed sculpted stones not of
classic obelisk form.

Notable modern obelisks. 20th century

McKinley Monument, on Niagara Square, in Buffalo, New York, USA, 1907 (96ft).
The Chalmette Monument, in Chalmette, Louisiana, commemorating the Battle of New
Orleans, dedicated in 1908.
Jefferson Davis Monument at Jefferson Davis State Historic Site in Fairview, Kentucky,
351 feet (107 m) tall, mostly of concrete, completed in 1924.
Obelisk of Montevideo, Uruguay - built in 1930.

High Point Monument, 1930, in Montague, New Jersey. A 220 foot (67 m) obelisk sitting
on top of New Jersey's highest point, 1,803 ft above sea level.
Foro Italico, Rome (on Lungotevere Maresciallo Diaz), erected in 1932 to honour
Mussolini.
Obelisk of Buenos Aires, Argentina built in 1936.
Obelisk of So Paulo, Brazil - built in 1954.
Trujillo Obelisk 1960, Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic (137 feet).
Obelisk of La Paz, Bolivia.
Victory Obelisk in Moscow.
Capas National Shrine in Tarlac province, Philippines a 70-meter obelisk (erected in
2003) that towers above the grounds of the former concentration camp at the final stop of
the Bataan Death March. This site is in memory of the 31,000 Filipino and American
soldiers who died there during World War II.
Pond and white obelisk monument in the main square of Vegan City in the Philippines.
"Obelisco Novecento", Rome, 2004. Sculpture by Arnaldo Pomodoro.

O3- to describe megalith and give examples of European Megalith

A megalith is a large stone which has been used to construct a structure or monument,
either alone or together with other stones. Megalithic means structures made of such large
stones, utilizing an interlocking system without the use of mortar or cement. The word
megalith comes from the Ancient Greek megas meaning great, and lithos
meaning stone. Many megaliths are thought to have a purpose in determining important
astronomical events such as the dates of the solstices and equinoxes. "Megalith" also
denotes an item consisting of rock(s) hewn in definite shapes for special purposes. It has
been used to describe buildings built by people from many parts of the world living in
many different periods. A variety of large stones are seen as megaliths, with the most
widely known megaliths not being sepulchral. The construction of these structures took

place mainly in the Neolithic (though earlier Mesolithic examples are known) and
continued into the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age.

European megaliths
The most common type of megalithic construction in Europe is the dolmen a chamber
consisting of upright stones (orthostats) with one or more large flat capstones forming a
roof. Many of these, though by no means all, contain human remains, but it is debatable
whether use as burial sites was their primary function. Though generally known as
dolmens, many local names exist, such as anta in Portugal, stazzone in Sardinia, hunebed
in Holland, Hnengrab in Germany, dys in Denmark, and cromlech in Wales. It is
assumed that most dolmens were originally covered by earthen mounds. The second most
common tomb type is the passage grave. It normally consist of a square, circular or
cruciform chamber with a slabbed or corbelled roof, accessed by a long, straight
passageway, with the whole structure covered by a circular mound of earth. Sometimes it
is also surrounded by an external stone kerb. Prominent examples include the sites of
Bruno Boinne and Careworn in Ireland, Maes Howe in Orkney, and Gavrinis in France.
The third tomb type is a diverse group known as gallery graves. These are axially
arranged chambers placed under elongated mounds. The Irish court tombs, British long
barrows and German Steinkisten belong to this group.
Another type of megalithic monument is the single standing stone, or menhir. Some of
these are thought to have an astronomical function as a marker or foresight, and in some
areas long and complex alignments of such stones exist for example at Carnac in
Brittany. In parts of Britain and Ireland the best-known type of megalithic construction is
the stone circle, of which there are hundreds of examples, including Stonehenge, Avebury,
Ring of Brodgar and Beltany. These too display evidence of astronomical alignments,
both solar and lunar. Stonehenge, for example, is famous for its solstice alignment.
Examples of stone circles are also found in the rest of Europe. They are normally assumed
to be of later date than the tombs, straddling the Neolithic and the Bronze Age.
A commemorative plaque, or simply plaque, is a plate of metal, ceramic, stone, wood, or
other material, typically attached to a wall, stone, or other vertical surface, and bearing
text in memory of an important figure or event. After the First World War, the families of
British and British Empire (now Commonwealth) service men and women killed during
the conflict were presented with bronze Memorial plaques. The plaques, of about 125mm
in diameter, were designed by the eminent sculptor and medallist, Edward Carter Preston.
In the United Kingdom, blue plaques are attached to buildings to commemorate their
association with important occupants or events. Plaques are also given as awards instead
of trophies or ribbons. Such plaques usually bear text describing the reason for the award
and, often, the date of the award.

Conclusion: All monuments, statues and other commemorative plaques built for the
honour as a memory of famous or just simple person, represent not only a symbol but at
the same time they are fastens attributes of great interest manifested by people.

7. Purely tourist edifices.

Key words: Casinos, first known casinos, fountains, amusement park, Disneys California
adventure

Objectives:
O1- to name some purely edifices and to speak about theme park;
O2- to show the meaning of casino;
O3- to specify something about fountain and to describe some famous traditional
fountains.

O1- to name some purely edifices and to speak about theme park

This group contains:

recreation parks;
amusement parks (theme park);
casinos;

fountains.
Amusement park is the generic term for a collection of rides and other entertainment
attractions assembled for the purpose of entertaining a large group of people. An
amusement park is more elaborate than a simple city park or playground, usually
providing attractions meant to cater to adults, teenagers, and small children. A theme park
is a type of amusement park which has been built around one or more themes, such as an
American West theme, or Atlantis. Today, the terms amusement parks and theme parks are
often used interchangeably.
Amusement parks evolved in Europe from fairs and pleasure gardens which were created
for peoples recreation. The oldest amusement park of the world (opened 1583) is Bakken,
at Klampenborg, north of Copenhagen, Denmark. In the United States, world's fairs and
expositions were another influence on development of the amusement park industry. Most
amusement parks have a fixed location, as compared to traveling funfairs and carnivals.
These temporary types of amusement parks, are usually present for a few days or weeks
per year, such as funfairs in the United Kingdom, and carnivals (temporarily set up in a
vacant lot or parking lots) and fairs (temporarily operated in a fair ground) in the United
States. The temporary nature of these fairs helps to convey the feeling that people are in a
different place or time.
Often a theme park will have various 'lands' (sections) of the park devoted to telling a
particular story. Non-theme amusement parks rides will usually have little in terms of
theming or additional design elements while in a theme park all the rides go all with the
theme of the park, for example Magic Kingdom in Walt Disney World. Since the 1980s,
the amusement park industry has become larger than ever before, with everything from
large, worldwide type theme parks such as Disneyland and Universal Studios Hollywood
to smaller and medium-sized theme parks such as the Six Flags parks and countless
smaller ventures in many of the states of the U.S. and in countries around the world. Even
simpler theme parks directly aimed at smaller children have emerged, including Legoland
in Carlsbad, California (the first Legoland opened in Billund, Denmark). The only limit to
future theme park ventures is one's imagination.
In 2001, Disney opened the Disney's California Adventure which includes Paradise Pier, a
recreation of the traditional seaside amusement park of yesteryear. Family fun parks
starting as miniature golf courses have begun to grow to include batting cages, go-karts,
bumper cars, bumper boats and water slides. Some of these parks have grown to include
even roller coasters, and traditional amusement parks now also have these competition
areas in addition to their thrill rides.

O2- to show the meaning of casino

A casino is, in the modern sense of today's world, a facility that houses and accommodates
certain types of gambling activities. Casinos are most commonly built near or combined
with hotels, restaurants, retail shopping, cruise ships and other tourist attractions. Some
casinos are known for hosting live entertainment events, such as stand-up comedy,
concerts, and sporting events. Today, there are more than 4000 casinos worldwide.
The term "Casino" originally meant a small villa, summerhouse or pavilion built for
pleasure, usually on the grounds of a larger Italian villa or palazzo. There are examples of
such casinos at Villa Giulia and Villa Farnese. In modern day Italian, this term designates
a bordello (also called "casa chiusa", literally "closed house"), while the gambling house
is spelled casin with an accent. One of the first known casinos was established in Venice
around 1638. During the 19th century, the term "casino" came to include other public
buildings where pleasurable activities, including gambling, and sports took place. An
example of this type of building is the Newport Casino in Newport, Rhode Island.
Not all casinos were used for gaming. The Copenhagen Casino was a theatre, known for
the use made of its hall for mass public meetings during the 1848 Revolution which made
Denmark a constitutional monarchy. Until 1937 it was a well-known Danish theatre. The
Hanko Casino located in Hanko, Finland - one of that town's most conspicuous landmarks
- was never used for gambling. Rather, it was a banquet hall for the Russian nobility
which frequented this spa resort in the late 1800s, and is presently used as a restaurant.

O3- to specify something about fountain and to describe some famous traditional
fountains

A traditional fountain is an arrangement where water issues from a source (Latin fons),
fills a basin of some kind, and is drained away.
Fountains may be wall fountains or free-standing. In fountains sheets of water may flow
over varied surfaces of stone, concrete or metal. Basins may overflow from one into
another, or the overflow may imitate a natural cascade. Many fountains are located in
small, artificial, ornamental ponds, basins and formal garden pools, and often they include
sculpture.
Famous traditional fountains
The Trafalgar Square fountains in London
The Gardens of Versailles fountains on the grounds of the Palace of Versailles near Paris
The Fountain "Four Lions" in Sremski Karlovci, in Serbia.

Buckingham Fountain in Chicago

Fontana di Trevi in Rome
Fountain of the Four Rivers in Rome
The Wallace fountains of Paris
Swann Memorial Fountain in Philadelphia
Triton Fountain in Italy
Some modern fountains
King Fahd's Fountain in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia, the world's tallest fountain with height of
312 meters (1,023.62 ft).
The Gateway Geyser, the world's second tallest fountain, located in the town of East St.
Louis, Illinois.
Port Fountain, World's third tallest fountain located in Karachi, Pakistan.
Captain Cook Memorial fountain in Lake Burley Griffin Canberra can reach to 147m

Conclusion: These kind of edifices are very popular thats why many tourists are
becoming willing then they visit them, and just like to spend a great time there with a lot
of fun.

Theme 5. The Human Tourist Activities

1.Carnivals as human tourist activities.
Key words: Carnival, Brazilian Carnival, Maslenitsa, Shrove Tuesday, Quebec City
Winter Carnival

Objectives:
O1- to speak about carnivals and name some cities where they are spend;

O2- to give some examples of carnivals.

O1- to speak about carnivals and name some cities where they are spend

The tourism as an activity cannot develop without some interesting tourist attractions
made by people in order to discover the culture of other nations. The carnivals are
celebrated yearly and attract thousands of tourists. Now I will spell more detail about the
carnivals and their importance for the tourism development as an activity. Carnival or
Carnivals that is an annual Christian festival season. It occurs immediately before Lent;
the main events are usually during February or March. It typically involves a public
celebration or parade combining some elements of a circus and public street party. People
often dress up or masquerade during the celebrations. Carnival is mostly a Roman
Catholic and, to a lesser extent, Eastern Orthodox celebration; Protestant areas usually do
not have carnival celebrations or have modified traditions, like the Danish Carnival. The
world's largest carnival celebration is held in Salvador/Bahia, Brazil, but many cities
worldwide have large, popular celebrations. The traditional English name for the carnival
is Shrovetide; many other names may be used for local versions of the festival.
Depending on the area, the carnival may last from a few days to several months. While its
starting day varies, it usually ends on the day before Ash Wednesday, which is the
beginning of Lent. In Ambrosian rite, the carnival ends on the Saturday after Ash
Wednesday. Most commonly the season begins on Septuagesima, the third Sunday before
Ash Wednesday, but in some places it starts as early as Twelfth Night or even in
November. The most important celebrations are generally concentrated during the last
days of the season. The following holidays, which are all part of the seven days before
Ash Wednesday, often have special customs:
Fat Thursday, when according to many traditions preparations for the parties are made,
such as baking goods; Quinquagesima, the Sunday, when often a break from the festivities
occurs;
Shrove Monday or Lundi Gras or Rosenmontag, in many areas the high point of the
festivities;
Shrove Tuesday or Mardi Gras or Fastnacht, the high point of the festivities in other areas.
Cities noted for elaborate Carnival celebrations:
Venice in Italy;

Gualeguaych in Argentina;
Sydney (Mardi Gras) in Australia;
Recife, Rio de Janeiro, Salvador, Olinda and So Paulo in Brazil;
Santiago in Cuba;
Nice in France;
Cologne (Klner Karneval), Dsseldorf, and Mainz in Germany;
Patras in Greece;
Darjeeling (Carnival) and Goa in India;
Port of Spain in Trinidad and Tobago;
New Orleans, Brooklyn, Mobile, and San Francisco in the United States;
Montevideo in Uruguay;
Nadur in Gozo, Malta.

O2- to give some examples of carnivals

In order to prove that carnivals are an important tourist activity I will speak about the
Brazilian Carnival. The Brazilian Carnival (Portuguese: Carnaval) is an annual celebration
in Brazil held 40 days before Easter and marks the beginning of Lent. During Lent,
Roman Catholics, which constitute the majority in Brazil, are to abstain from bodily
pleasures. The carnival, which is celebrated as a profane event, can thus be considered an
act of farewell to the pleasures of the flesh. Brazilian Carnival as a whole exhibits some
differences with its counterparts in Europe and other parts of the world, and within Brazil
it has distinct regional manifestations. The Brazilian citizens used to riot the Carnival until
it was accepted by the government as an expression of culture. The modern Brazilian
Carnival finds its roots in Rio de Janeiro in the 1830s, when the citys bourgeoisie
imported the practice of holding balls and masquerade parties from Paris. It originally
mimicked the European form of the festival, over time acquiring elements derived from
African and Amerindian cultures. In the late 19th century, the cordes (literally laces in
Portuguese) were introduced in Rio de Janeiro. These were groups of people who would
parade through the streets playing music and dancing. Today they are known as blocos
(blocks), consisting of a group of people who dress in costumes according to certain
themes or to celebrate the Carnival in specific ways. Blocos are generally associated with
particular neighborhoods or suburbs and include both a percussion or music group and an
entourage of revelers. During the Carnival, a fat man is elected to represent the role of Rei

Momo, the "king" of Carnival. Carnival in Rio de Janeiro is known worldwide for the
elaborate parades staged by the citys major samba schools in the Sambadrome and is one
of the worlds major tourist attractions. Samba schools are very large, well-financed
organizations that labor year round in preparation for Carnival. Parading in the
Sambadrome runs over four entire nights and is part of an official competition, divided
into seven divisions, in which a single samba school will be declared that years winner.
Blocos deriving from the samba schools also hold street parties in their respective
suburbs, through which they parade along with their followers. In order to give some
example of carnivals from the neighboring countries and especially about Russia.
Conclusion: Carnivals are very important for each country they are like a symbol and
mostly carnivals involves dance and music, and good mood of all the tourists coming to
see this interesting event. Carnivals are an indispensable for the tourism activity. In order
to know better the culture of a certain area one should take part in events like carnivals
because carnivals are something that represents every nation.

2. Fairs, exhibitions, religious pilgrimages and shrines as human tourist

activities.
Key words: Fair, Exhibitions, Expositions, pilgrimage, shrine, Mecca

Objectives:
O1- to explain the terms fair and to specify some of its type
O2- to describe exhibitions and expositions;
O3- to speak about all that is related with religion

O1- to explain the terms fair and to specify some of its type
The tourism as an activity cannot develop without some interesting tourist attractions
made by people. People around the world are traveling for different purposes, for cultural,
for business reasons, for educational etc One of the most important reasons of traveling is
on business and in order to sustain the development of such kind of traveling are made
fairs and exhibitions.
Fair that represents in commerce, periodic or occasional meeting of buyers and sellers,
with their merchandise, for purposes of trade. Also there is another definition that define a

fair as a gathering of people to display or trade produce or other goods, to parade or

display animals and often to enjoy associated carnival or funfair entertainment. Activities
at fairs vary widely. Some are important showcases for businessmen in agricultural,
pastoral or horticultural districts because they present opportunities to display and
demonstrate the latest machinery on the market. Fairs are also known by many different
names around the world, such as agricultural show, carnival, fete or fte, county or state
fair, festival, market and show, etc. Flea markets are sometimes incorporated into a fair.

Fairgrounds
The fair is an ancient tradition, and many communities have long had dedicated
fairgrounds; others hold them in a variety of public places, including streets and town
squares, or even in large private gardens. Fairs are often held in conjunction with a
significant event, such as the anniversary of a local historical event, a seasonal event such
as harvest time, or with a holiday such as Christmas. That part of a fair (commonly an
American fair such as a county or state fair) where amusement park rides, entertainment
and fast food booths are concentrated is called the midway, after the avenue of
amusements at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago.
Another type of fairs is:
Free fairs.
Some fairs were free; others charged tolls and impositions. At free fairs, traders, whether
natives of the kingdom or foreigners, were allowed to enter the kingdom, and were under
royal protection while traveling to and returning from the fair. The traders, their agents,
and their goods were exempt from all duties and impositions, tolls and servitudes;
merchants going to or coming from the fair could not be arrested, or have their goods
stopped. Such fairs (especially those of the Mediterranean region and some inland
regions, particularly Germany), were extremely important in the commerce of Europe.
The most famous free fairs are:
Frankfurt, (Germany);
Leipzig (Leipzig Trade Fair), (Germany);
Pozna (Pozna International Fair), (Poland);
Milan, Fiera di Senigaglia;
Rome, Porta Portese;
Novi, in the Milanese region of northern Italy;

Riga, (Latvia);
Archangel;
St. Germain, at Paris, (France);
Lyon, (France);
Guibray, Normandy, (France);
Beau Claire, Languedoc, (France);
Porto Bello, (Panama);
Veracruz, (Mexico);
Havana (Cuba);
Sweden and Uppsala, the Disting;
Zagreb (Zagrebaki velesajam).
O2- to describe exhibitions and expositions
Exhibitions and Expositions are public displays of industrial or commercial products or of
fine arts. Although the terms are used interchangeably, in strict usage an exhibition is a
display of such products or arts for a short period; an exposition is for a longer period and
usually on a larger scale. Both exhibitions and expositions may be regional, national, or
international, and may show only the products of a single industry, such as furniture or
leather, or all products of human endeavor. Such displays have their origin in the large
commercial fairs (see Fair) once common in Europe, to which every kind of merchandise
was brought to be sold. It was discovered that exhibitions stimulated sales, and
arrangements were ultimately made to exhibit merchandise not for immediate sale but for
purposes of advertising and promotion. The first such exhibition was held in 1756-1757 in
England by the Society of Arts, which exhibited all the entries and awarded prizes for the
best English manufactured products. In 1798 an exhibition of every variety of French
manufacture was held in Paris and was so successful that another was held later in the
same year. After a third exhibition inaugurated by Napoleon in 1802, similar affairs began
to be held triennially. In the U.S. the Franklin Institute of Philadelphia, founded in 1824,
held exhibitions of scientific developments from time to time. The American Institute of
New York, founded in 1828, held annual exhibitions at which inventors and manufacturers
were invited to display new products. In Britain exhibitions began to be periodic events in
the cities of Birmingham, Liverpool, and Manchester. In Ireland the Royal Dublin Society
instituted triennial exhibitions in Dublin in 1829; at first only native products were shown,
but foreign products were eventually included in the exhibits. The importance of such
local exhibitions declined, however, as museums and libraries began to organize special

showings of both manufactured products and fine arts. Generally when speaking about
exhibitions there are several types of exhibitions. Beginning with the latter half of the 19th
century, three types of exhibitions and expositions became prominent:
1. The industrial exhibition, devoted to the stimulation and progress of a specific industry
or to all the industries of a specified country or area. Representative of this type were the
exhibition of leather products, held in Berlin (1877); of printing, in New York City (1900);
of products of the British Empire, in Wimble, England (1924); of modern decorative and
industrial arts, in Paris (1925); and of housing, also in Paris (1947).
2. Regional exhibition, particularly popular in the U.S., and first exhibition of this type
was dedicated to the commemoration of a historical event. Notable among this type were
the Tennessee Centennial Exposition, Nashville, Tennessee (1897); the Trans-Mississippi
Exposition, Omaha, Nebraska (1898); the Lewis and Clark Centennial American Pacific
Exposition and Oriental Fair, Portland, Oreg. (1905); the Jamestown Tercentennial
Exposition, Norfolk, Virginia (1907); and the Great Lakes Exposition, Cleveland, Ohio
(1936).
3.The universal exposition, was international in scope; it was sponsored by a national
government and displayed a wide variety of products. The first great international
exposition was held in London in 1851 under the direction of the Society of Arts; Prince
Albert, consort of Queen Victoria, was at the time president of the society and took a
personal interest in the preparation of the event. The Crystal Palace was built for the
occasion, and the total cost amounted to about $1.5 million.
The great success of the Great Exhibition of 1851 led to other international expositions.
Dublin and New York City both held expositions in 1853, and in 1855 Paris held its first
Exposition Universally, on the Champs-lyses. During the 20th century international
exhibitions, popularly called world's fairs, have become elaborate showcases for
technological and cultural developments as well as manufactured products. Usually well
subscribed by exhibitors and showing visitor attendance into the millions, such
exhibitions often have had an important social and economic impact on the country or
vicinity in which they are held. In 1923 the International Bureau of Expositions was
established in Paris to control the frequency and supervise the operations of international
exhibitions. About 70 member nations, not including the U.S., have voluntarily agreed to
abide by the decisions of the bureau. Attendance at international exhibitions still continues
to spiral because the fairs offer unique coverage of the present day and fascinating
glimpses into the future. Following are some of the most important fairs of the 20th
century:
Louisiana Purchase Exposition, Panama-Pacific International Exposition Paris
International Exposition ,New York World's Fair (1939-1940, Brussels World's Fair , New
York World's Fair (1964-1965).
O3- to speak about all that is related with religion

Religion represents the spiritual treasure of any nation. Any country is marked by
religion, because religion influences our everyday life. One of the most important feature
of religious that characterize the development of tourism activity are: pilgrimages, shrines
and sacred places as Mecca.
Pilgrim is one who visits some holy place with religious intent. Pilgrimages are
characteristic of many religions, such as those of ancient Egypt, Persia in the Mithraic
period, India, China, and Japan. The Greek and Roman custom of consulting the gods at
local oracles, such as that at Dodona or Delphi, both in Greece, is widely known. In the
early period of Hebrew history, pilgrimages were made to Shiloh and Dan (both in what is
now Israel) and to Bethel (now Beitin, Jordan). The great Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca
(now in Saudi Arabia), a survival of pagan times, is obligatory for every Muslim, and
other Islamic devotional pilgrimages, particularly to the tombs of saints, are numerous.
Al Qayrawn in Tunisia, Ouezzane in Morocco, Karbal in Iraq, and Mashhad (Meshed)
in Iran are sacred Muslim cities. Benares (now Vrnasi), India, is a renowned place of
pilgrimage for Hindus. The early Christians made pilgrimages to the scenes of the Passion
of Christ in Jerusalem. Even after Jerusalem had been occupied by the Saracens, the
liberty of pilgrimage, on payment of a tax, was secured by treaty; the necessity of
protecting pilgrims, however, gave rise to the medieval military orders, such as the
Knights Templar. The chief places of pilgrimage in the West included, in Italy, Rome,
Loreto (near Ancona), and Assisi; in Spain, Santiago de Compostela, Guadalupe, and the
monastery on Montserrat near Barcelona; in France, the churches of Notre Dame de
Fourvire, at Lyon, and Saint-Denis; in Germany, Cologne and Trves (now Trier); in
Switzerland, Einsiedeln; in England, Walsingham Abbey, in eastern England, and
Canterbury; in Scotland, Whithorn, Scone, Dundee, Paisley, and Melrose; and in Ireland,
many places connected with the life or death of the early Irish saints. Gustavo A. Madero
is the site of a celebrated shrine to the Virgin Mary, in central Mexico. In later times,
pilgrims traveled in large numbers to Lyon, Le Puy, Paray-le-Monial, and Lourdes, all in
France.
Pilgrimage is a journey to a shrine or other sacred place undertaken to gain divine aid, as
an act of thanksgiving or penance, or to demonstrate devotion. Medieval Christian
pilgrims stayed at hospices set up specifically for pilgrims, and on their return trip they
wore on their hats the badge of the shrine visited. The chief attractions for pilgrims in the
Middle Ages were the Holy Land, Santiago de Compostela in Spain, and Rome, but there
were hundreds of local pilgrimage sites, including the tomb of St. Francis of Assisi and
that of St. Thomas Becket in Canterbury. More recent pilgrimage sites include the shrine
of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico (1531), Lourdes in France (1858), and Ftima in
Portugal (1917). The tradition of pilgrimage is also important in Buddhism, with sites
including Bodh Gaya, where the Buddha received enlightenment, and Varanasi, where he
delivered his first sermon. In Islam all members of the faith are enjoined to perform the
hajj, the pilgrimage to Mecca, at least once in their lifetime.

Mecca, also Makkah (ancient Macoraba) is a city in western Saudi Arabia, located in the
Al ijz (Hejaz) region, near Jiddah. Mecca is the birthplace of the Prophet Muhammad
(the founder of Islam), the center of pilgrimage for Muslims, and the focal point of their
daily prayers. In Arabic, the city is known as Makkah al-mukkaramah (Mecca the
blessed). Pilgrimage to the city is one of the Five Pillars of Islam and is required of all
able adult Muslims at least once in their lifetimes. The pilgrimage (hajj in Arabic) is the
defining factor in the growth and life of the city. The influx of close to 2 million pilgrims
each year during the last month of the Islamic calendar is a grand human spectacle as well
as one of the largest logistical and administrative undertakings in the world.
Religious shrines
As distinguished from a temple, a shrine usually houses a particular relic or cult image,
which is the object of worship or veneration, or is constructed on a site which is thought
to be particularly holy, as opposed to being placed for the convenience of worshippers. As
such, shrines are associated with the practice of pilgrimage. A shrine is also known as a
holy place of worship, as is the case of Saint Catherine Labour who created the
Miraculous Medal, or Saint Erkembode. Religious traditions which have founded public
places of worship frequently called shrines include: Christian denominations, such as
Anglicanism, Roman Catholicism and Orthodox Christianity (most Protestant
denominations have historically opposed veneration of saints); Hinduism; Buddhism;
Shinto; and Islam (mainly Shiah). Muslims have differing opinions on shrines and the
Intercession of saints: "And the mosques are for Allah (Alone): so invoke not anyone
along with Allah" Sura Al-Jinn:18 (72:18)). The only major mosques according to Sunni
Muslims are in the following order; 1- Masjid al Haram 2- Masjid al-Nabawi 3- Al-Aqsa
Mosque (A mosque on the holy Temple Mount, which is a place visited by both Jewish
and Christian pilgrims). Shi'ism maintains a tradition of venerating late religious leaders
(as there is no hierarchical church, the bond is very personal; but often a 'successor',
sometimes even a son, maintains a following) and/or martyrs (usually at their grave); thus
the Persian word imamzadeh. There are also sunnite equivalents, as among the ascetic
marabouts of West Africa and the Maghreb. A Buddhist shrine is sometimes called a
stupa, requiring a symbolic architecture. In Shinto, small portable shrines are often carried
in religious processions. In the Roman Catholic Code of Canon law, canons 1230, 1231:
"The term shrine means a church or other sacred place which, with the approval of the
local Ordinary, is by reason of special devotion frequented by the faithful as pilgrims. For
a shrine to be described as national, the approval of the Episcopal Conference is
necessary. For it to be described as international, the approval of the Holy See is
required." Shrines are therefore normally churches which for historical or other reasons
have become the destination of pilgrimages. Another use of the term "shrine" in colloquial
Catholic terminology is a niche or alcove in most - especially larger - churches used by
Parishioners when praying privately in the church. They were also called Devotional
Altars, since they could look like small Side Altars. Shrines were always centered on
some image of Christ or a saint - for instance, a statue, painting, mural or mosaic, and may
have had a reredos behind them (without a Tabernacle built in). However, Mass would not
be celebrated at them; they were simply used to aid or give a visual focus for prayers. Side

altars where Mass could actually be celebrated were used in a similar way to shrines by
parishioners. Side Altars were specifically dedicated to The Virgin Mary, Saint Joseph or
other saints. The word is also used to designate a small altar in a home or place of
business, or a room or item of furniture which is furnished with religious symbols and
used for private worship, as was common in the polytheist periods of Classical Antiquity.
Devotions are generally to ancestral or tutelary spirits.

Conclusion: Tourism is an activity that cannot develop without some modern activities
like exhibition, fairs and expositions. These ones nowadays are one of the most important
reasons for businessman to travel to another countries.

3. Artistic festivals and sporting events as human tourist activities.

Key words: Festival, sporting events

Objectives:
O1- to describe festivals and feats;
O2- to describe some games that are related with sports.

O1- describe festivals and feats

The tourism is an modern activity and in order to prove the importance of tourism as an
up-to-date activity I will try to explain the festivals and sporting events that are important
for the development of tourism.
Festivals and Feasts, in secular society, communal celebrations involving carefully
planned programs, outpourings of respect, rejoicing, or high revelry, established by
custom or sponsored by various cultural groups or organizations. Such secular
celebrations differ from religious festivals and feasts in that the focus is not on the
significance of the rituals of holy days of a particular faith but on the public honoring of
outstanding persons, the commemoration of important historical or cultural events, or the
re-creation of cherished folkways. In some parts of the world, however, particularly in
Latin America and southern Europe, traditional secular festivities follow attendance at

religious services. The origin of communal celebration is a matter of conjecture.

Folklorists believe that the first festivals arose because of the anxieties of early peoples
who did not understand the forces of nature and wished to placate them. General
agreement exists that the most ancient festivals and feasts were associated with planting
and harvest times or with honoring the dead. These have continued as secular festivals,
with some religious overtones, into modern times. The beginnings of many secular
celebrations are linked to historic happenings. Noteworthy examples include the
discoveries of Christopher Columbus and other early navigators and the creation of new,
independent nations from former colonies. A particular event may spontaneously generate
a national festival, celebrated only that one time, as in the case of the coast-to-coast
jubilation over the January 20, 1981, release of the American hostages after 444 days of
captivity in Iran. The nationwide manifestation of relief and joy was a festival of freedom.
There are several types of festivals and feasts:
An infinite variety of harvest festivals exists in every hemisphere. Harvest and
thanksgiving festivals are an inheritance from the ages when agriculture was the primary
livelihood. Among the most attractive are the harvest-home festivals of England where
parish churches are decorated with flowers, fruits, and vegetables in the fall, and harvest
suppers climax a happy event. A popular type of harvest festival in the United States is
that featuring a special crop, such as the National Cherry Festival in July in Michigan.
Exhibitions of flowers are among the most beautiful of harvest festivals. Outstanding is
the international Floralies held throughout the summer every five years since about 1837
in Ghent (Gent), Belgium. The festival traces its origins to the Roman Floralia, a spring
rite honoring the goddess Flora. In 1980 the Floralies was held in North America for the
first time, in Montral, Canada, under the auspices of the International Association of
Horticultural Producers.
Days of thanksgiving are celebrated in many lands and at various times of the year.
Thanksgiving Day, as celebrated in the United States, now a traditional family feast, is the
nations oldest celebration of gratitude, dating from the early 17th century. Canadas
Thanksgiving holiday is held on the second Monday in October. The Virgin Islands
observe a Thanksgiving Day (October 25) to rejoice in the end of the hurricane season.
The most important festivals of respect honor the dead. Such festivals have been observed
for centuries, and many modern peoples continue age-old customs to honor national
heroes and the deceased members of their own immediate family groups. In the Far East
the festivals of the dead include family reunions and ceremonial meals at ancestral tombs.
Mexicans observe November 2 as El da de Los Muertos (Day of the Dead) with
celebrations in cemeteries made colorful by offerings of flowers, earthen pots of food,
toys, and gifts, along with the burning of candles and incense. In the United States the
custom of honoring dead heroes on special days began in 1868 with the decorating of the
graves of both Union and Confederate soldiers of the American Civil War. A quiet tone is
characteristic of the approach to the general Memorial Day and the Confederate Memorial

Day celebrated at different times in different southern states (see Memorial Day). Both
community and family observances reflect a spirit of reverence and remembrance.
National festivals are official observances of such events as the confederation of the
provinces of Canada (see Canada Day), the signing of the Declaration of Independence in
the United States (see Independence Day), the adoption of a constitution, as in Japan
(May 3), or the origin of the worlds oldest national flag, as in Denmark (June 15).
Closely allied to this type of festival are victory celebrations. An example of an
outstanding victory festival is the Cinco de Mayo, the Mexican commemoration of their
defeat of the French at the Battle of Pueblo on May 5, 1862. This festival is observed not
only in Mexico but also in Los Angeles and other U.S. cities with large MexicanAmerican populations.
Another important type of festival is the commemorative day, celebrated since ancient
Greek and Roman times, when rulers as well as gods were honored. Planned programs in
the United States annually offer respect to presidents such as George Washington and
Abraham Lincoln, and leaders such as Martin Luther King, Jr., on or about their birthdays.
Ecuador and Venezuela honor the birth of the revolutionary statesman Simn Bolvar, the
George Washington of South America, on July 24. Festivals honoring the Icelandic
explorer Leif Eriksson, who discovered Vinland, are held on October 9 in Iceland and
Norway and in the United States in Wisconsin and Minnesota. Gandhi Jayanti is a festival
held in India on the birthday (October 2) of Mohandas K. (Mahatma) Gandhi. An honor
roll assembled from worldwide commemorative days would be impressive.
Cultural festivals are popular throughout the world. Kalevala Day (February 28) in
Finland is the occasion for parades and ceremonials dedicated to the Finnish national epic
the Kalevala and to its 19th-century editor-compiler, the scholar Elias Lnnrot. The most
famous annual festival in Wales is the Royal National Eisteddfod (see Eisteddfod) held in
August to honor the finest talent in Welsh literature and music. Austria holds the annual
summer Salzburg Festival of music, and Hawaii has its spectacular Aloha Festival
pageantry in October and November. In addition to these examples, film, art, dance,
childrens, and theatrical festivals crowd the calendars of many nations. Communal feasts,
as occasions for eating, drinking, and merrymaking, have a long recorded history, going
back to early Greece. The most famous contemporary eating and drinking festivity is the
Oktoberfest, which has been held in Germany annually since October 17, 1810, the
wedding day of the future King Louis I of Bavaria. It is a fall festival celebrating the best
in beer, food, and entertainment.
O2- to describe some games that are related with sports
The Olympic Games that is an international sports competition, held every four years at a
different site, in which athletes from different nations compete against each other in a
variety of sports. There are two types of Olympics, the Summer Olympics and the Winter
Olympics. Through 1992 they were held in the same year, but beginning in 1994 they
were rescheduled so that they are held in alternate even-numbered years. For example, the

Winter Olympics were held in 1994 and the Summer Olympics in 1996. The Winter
Olympics were next held in 1998, and the Summer Olympics next occurred in 2000. The
modern Olympic Games began in Athens, Greece, in 1896, two years after French
educator Pierre de Coubertin proposed that the Olympic Games of ancient Greece be
revived to promote a more peaceful world. The program for the 1896 Games, including
only summer events (the Winter Olympics were not established until 1924), included
about 300 athletes from fewer than 15 countries competing in 43 events in nine different
sports. By contrast, when the Summer Olympics returned to Athens in 2004, more than
10,000 athletes from 202 countries competed in 28 different sports.
Another sporting events is the Marathon (sport), a running event, traditionally the longest
race (42 km, 195 m/26 mi, 385 yd) included in track-and-field competitions. It is
traditionally the final track-and-field event held at the Summer Olympic Games.
Marathons have become increasingly popular around the world, and the larger events
such as races held in Boston, Massachusetts; London, England; Berlin, Germany; and
New York Cityattract thousands of runners and spectators annually. The marathon's
name and distance date back to the ancient story of a Greek soldier named Pheidippides
who, according to legend, ran from the village of Marathon to Athens in 490 bc to deliver
the news of a military victory. The Marathon-to-Athens distance is actually slightly less
than 40 km (25 mi). This was the distance used at the first modern Olympic Games, held
in Athens in 1896. The marathon there was won by Greek runner Spiridon Louis with a
time of 2 hours 58 minutes 50 seconds. The following year the first Boston Marathon was
held, as it has every year since. The standard marathon distance used today was first
introduced at the 1908 Olympic Games in London, England, and was the distance from
Windsor Castle to the citys Olympic stadium. It became the official race length at the
1924 Olympics in Paris, France. Only men participated in the Olympic marathon until
1984, when the womens race was created.
Bullfighting, is a sports spectacle involving conflict between a bull and one or more
contestants, fought in an outdoor arena according to certain rules and procedures.
Traditionally, the bullfight is a combination of ritual and mortal combat, with an attempt,
at the risk of the principal contestant's life, to maneuver a bull gracefully and kill it in a
manner both courageous and aesthetically unrepugnant. Although bullfighting is confined
largely to Spain and to the Spanish-speaking countries of the western hemisphere
(especially Mexico), such contests take place also in southern France and in Portugal. In
Spanish-speaking countries the bullfight is known as la fiesta brava (the brave festival)
or la corrida de toros (the running of the bulls). The corrida, as it is popularly known,
takes place before crowds of enthusiasts, often numbering many thousands.
Another significant important sporting event is The World Games, first held in 1981, are
an international multi-sport event, meant for sports that are not contested in the Olympic
Games. The World Games are organized and governed by the International World Games
Association (IWGA), under the patronage of the International Olympic Committee (IOC).
Some of the sports that were on the program of the World Games eventually made it as
Olympic sports (such as triathlon) or have been Olympic sports in the past (like tug of

war). Participation in past World Games is included in the evaluation criteria used to
select new Olympic sports adopted by the IOC on August 12, 2004. However, with the
current position of the IOC to limit the
Olympic Games to 10,500 participants, it is
unlikely than many of the World Games sports will be elevated to the Olympic sports.
Some of the sports that are currently held at the World Games are orienteering, body
building, power lifting, fin swimming, squash, netball, water skiing, casting, etc. The
sports that are included in the World Games are based on the facilities available in the host
city, no new facilities may be constructed for the games. Typically, between 25 and 35
sports are contested at any particular World Games. Sports that have been classified as
"invitational" are still competed, but no medals are awarded. Even if some sports are
official sports of the IWGA, they still can be classified as invitational by the hosting city.
The Tour de France is the world's best known cycling race, a three week long road race
that covers a circuit of most areas around France, and sometimes neighbouring countries.
The race is broken into stages from one town to another, each of which is an individual
race. The time taken by cyclists to complete each stage becomes a cumulative total in
order to decide the outright winner at the end of the Tour.
The FIFA World Cup, sometimes called the Football World Cup or the Soccer World Cup,
but usually referred to simply as the World Cup, is an international football competition
contested by the men's national football teams of the member nations of Fdration
Internationale de Football Association (FIFA), the sport's global governing body. The
championship has been awarded every four years since the first tournament in 1930,
except in 1942 and 1946, due to World War II.
The UEFA Cup is a football competition for European club teams, organized by the Union
of European Football Associations (UEFA). It is the second most important international
competition for European football clubs, after the UEFA Champions League. Clubs
qualify for the UEFA Cup based on their performance in national leagues and national cup
competitions.
The Australian Open is the first of the world's four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, held
each January at Melbourne Park. The tournament was held for the first time in 1905. Like
the other three Grand Slam events, it was contested by top-ranked amateur players and
known as the Australian championships until the advent of open tennis in 1968. Originally
based at the grass courts at Kooyong in the city of Melbourne's inner south-east, the
tournament was in danger of fading into irrelevance before being revived in 1988 with a
shift to Melbourne Park (then called Flinders Park), a new (Rebound Ace) hardcourt
venue next to the Melbourne Cricket Ground on the southern fringe of the central business
district. Mats Wilander was the only player to win the tournament both on grass and on
Rebound Ace.
Triathlon is an athletic endurance competition involving three sports, usually swimming,
cycling, and long-distance running. Decathlon is a track and field event consisting of ten
separate contests held on two consecutive days.

Conclusion: The tourism is a very complex activity and some external factors influence
positively on the tourism as: sporting events and cultural events.

Tourist resources of an ethnographic nature.

Key words: Tradition, Custom

Objectives:
O1- to explain the terms tradition and custom;
O2- to describe the importance of some traditions and folklore.

O1- to explain the terms tradition and custom

Every nation and country has its own countries and customs that influence directly on the
development of tourism activity. The word tradition comes from the Latin word tradition
which means "to hand down" or "to hand over." It is used in a number of ways in the
English language: A meme; beliefs or customs taught by one generation to the next, often
orally. For example, we can speak of the tradition of sending birth announcements. A set
of customs or practices. For example, we can speak of Christmas traditions. A broad
religious movement made up of religious denominations or church bodies that have a
common history, customs, culture, and, to some extent, body of teachings. For example,
one can speak of Islam's Sufi tradition or Christianity's Lutheran tradition. However, on a
more basic theoretical level, tradition(s) can be seen as information or composed of
information. For that which is brought into the present from the past, in a particular
societal context, is information? This is even more fundamental than particular acts or
practices even if repeated over a long sequence of time. For such acts or practices, once
performed, disappear unless they have been transformed into some manner of
communicable information. A tradition is a practice, custom, or story that is memorized
and passed down from generation to generation, originally without the need for a writing
system. Tools to aid this process include poetic devices such as rhyme and alliteration.
The stories thus preserved are also referred to as tradition, or as part of an oral tradition.
For example, it is now a tradition to have a broom shoved down the husband's esapagus to

celebrate his birthday:). Tradition is a knowledge system (a means of transferring

knowledge). Economists Friedrich Hayek and Thomas Sowell explain that tradition is an
economically efficient way to transfer and obtain knowledge of all kinds. Sowell, for
example, notes that decision-making consumes time (a valuable resource), and cultural
traditions offer a rich, low-cost, consensually authenticated way to economize on the
resources required to make decisions independently. Chemist and philosopher Michael
Polanyi argues that the importance of tradition stems precisely from the fact that we know
more than we can articulate, and that we amass and communicate valuable knowledge
through tradition, often without conscious awareness of all the factors that influenced the
development of traditions. Traditions are often presumed to be ancient, unalterable, and
deeply important, though they may sometimes be much less "natural" than is presumed.
O2- to describe the importance of some traditions and folklore
Some traditions were deliberately invented for one reason or another, often to highlight or
enhance the importance of a certain institution. Traditions may also be changed to suit the
needs of the day, and the changes can become accepted as a part of the ancient tradition. A
famous book on the subject is The Invention of Tradition, edited by Eric Hobsbawm and
Terence Ranger. Some examples include "the invention of tradition" in Africa and other
colonial holdings by the occupying forces. Requiring legitimacy, the colonial power
would often invent a "tradition" which they could use to legitimize their own position. For
example, a certain succession to chiefdom might be recognized by a colonial power as
traditional in order to favor their own candidates for the job. Often these inventions were
based in some form of tradition, but were grossly exaggerated, distorted, or biased toward
a particular interpretation. Other traditions that have been altered through the years
include various religious festivals such as Christmas. The actual date of Jesus' birth does
not coincide with December 25 as in the Western Church. This day was chosen to
capitalize on the popularity of traditional solstice celebrations.
Folklore is the body of expressive culture, including tales, music, dance, legends, oral
history, proverbs, jokes, popular beliefs, customs, and so forth within a particular
population comprising the traditions (including oral traditions) of that culture, subculture,
or group. It is also the set of practices through which those expressive genres are shared.
The academic and usually ethnographic study of folklore is sometimes called folkloristic.
Conclusion: Tourism is an activity that cannot develop without some modern activities
like traditions and customs that are very important for the development of cultural tourism

Theme 6. Natural tourist resources of the Republic of Moldova

1.Relief, flora and fauna of the Republic of Moldova as a tourist resources.

Key words: natural resources, relief, karsts and limit relief, hill, cave, cliffs, gorges, reefs,
fauna and flora

Objectives:
O1- to point out the importance of the relief;
O2- to explain the forms of relief of the Republic of Moldova;
O3- to describe Moldovas fauna and flora;
O4- to give some examples of flora.

O1- to point out the importance of the relief

Natural resources are very important for the development of tourist activity. For the
Republic of Moldova tourist resources are also important and mostly from the entire
tourist natural resource relief has a big importance.
The relief is the most rich and diverse attractive resources in the world, it is the core of
any scenery. The importance of relief is determined by all the forms that the relief can
have: escarpments, caves, crests, peaks, passes, banks, gorges, defiles, canyons etc.
Natural resources in Moldova include deposits of lignite, phosphorite, and gypsum. Threequarters of the country is covered in chernozem, an exceptionally fertile type of soil that is
ideal for agriculture.
Moldova lies to the east from the great range of the Carpathian Mountains, mostly on
deep sedimentary rocks covering the southwest part of the ancient structural block of the
Eastern-European Platform. Harder crystalline rocks made up of granite outcrop only in
the north. In general, the surface represents a hilly plain with an average elevation of 147
m, cut by a deep network of river valleys, ravines, and gullies.
The hills in the central portion of Moldova are densely forested, mostly with oak and
hornbeam trees. Linden, maple, beech, and wild fruit trees also grow in Moldova.
Cultivated crops have largely replaced the natural grass cover of the plains, or steppes, in
northern and southern Moldova. Grassy salt marshes are common in some river valleys.
O2- to explain the forms of reliefof the Republic of Moldova
The terrain of Moldova is primarily a hilly plain interspersed with deep river valleys. The
average elevation is 147 m (482 ft) above sea level. The Codri Hills occupy the central

portion of Moldova, rising to a maximum elevation of about 430 m (about 1,410 ft) at
Mount Blneti. Generally when we are speaking about the Republic of Moldova then
we can mention the following forms of relief:
Scenic points in the karsts and limy relief of the Prut River Toltry, Nistru and Raut Hills
with karsts cliffs, karsts and limy passes, waterfalls and rapids, caves and grottoes;
Nistru River valley and Prut River tributaries with their attractive landscapes, waterfalls,
rapids and caves;
Diversified hill scenery and the forests of Central Moldova Hills and the Tigheci Hills;
Hilly steppe scenery in the North and South of the republic of Moldova;
Very varied and picturesque landscapes on the banks of the Prut River.
Also among the natural monuments of real ecological, scientific, cultural and historic
value and which represent important sites of tourist interest, could be mentioned:
"Emil Racovita" cave,
Butesti cliffs,
Duruitoarea gorge,
"Stinca Mare" reef, Brinzeni reefs, Buzdugeni, Burlanesti, Trinca and Fetesti
reefs;
When we are speaking about the relief we need to mention also the importance of the
tolters as forms of relief. And especially about Prut toltres. The name "Toltres" refer to
the rocks formed as coral adjournment of the ancient seas which covered territory of
modern Moldova hundred millions years ago. They calls also as the "islands of the missed
seas" and they, towering in open steppe, form somewhere the real coral atolls, for example
at villages Brinzeni, Fetesti or Trinca in the Edinet district. In the various periods of time
in toltres were formed karstic emptiness: grottoes and caves. They are met everywhere
where toltres are kept. In a lot of them lived primitive people (300 - 10 thousand years
ago) as, for example, in Duruitoarea, Butesti, Brinzeni, Fetesti and other villages.
O3- to describe Moldovas fauna and flora
Flora on the territory of Moldova is represented by circa 5,513 species, out of which 1,989
are species of superior plants and 3,524 are species of inferior plants. The plants
prevalence is under the influence of the relief and soil and climate components . The
forest ecosystems are the richest in floristic composition (over 850 species), being
followed by the Steppe ecosystems (over 600 species), meadow ecosystems (circa 650
species), petrofite (over 250 species), aquatic and swamps (circa 160 species). The

deciduous forests have predominantly species of oaks, beeches, elms and hornbeams. The
Steppe vegetation is rarely preserved as separate spots, mostly as fragments of associated
steppe vegetation.
Fauna of Moldova is diverse and rich, making up five biotopes. Thus, the following
species are registered: mammals - 70 species, birds 281, crawlers and amphibians 28,
fish 82 and invertebrates over 15,000 species. The species are spread out variously
within biotopes. For instance, wild boars, badgers, deer, different types of birds and
crawlers have their habitat in forests, while the rodents in the Steppe. The aquatic fauna
is represented mostly by species of cat-fish, carps, flat-fish etc.
O4- to give some examples of flora
Northern and central Moldova lies in the forest zone, while a steppe belt crosses the south.
There are more than 1,500 species of plants in the country. Woodland covers about onetenth of the territory. In the central Codru Hills region, the forests cover up to 40% of the
area. The commonest trees are hornbeam and oak, followed by linden, maple, wild pear,
and wild cherry. There are beech forests at the sources of the Icel and Bc rivers in the
central parts of the Codru region. In the Nistru and Prut valleys there are marshy forests of
poplar, willow, elm, oak, and other species. Moldovas steppes were originally grass
covered, but most of them are now cultivated. Steppe vegetation (feather grass, fescue,
and beard grass) has been preserved only in small areas. Lush meadows and reed growths
occur in the floodlands of the Nistru and the Prut rivers, while salt-marsh grasslands
prosper in the saline valleys of the Cogelnic, Ialpug, Botna, and lower Prut. Moldovan
animal life is not rich due to the unregulated hunting in previous years, woodland
decrease, and steppe cultivation. Some big mammals still can be found in the country.
They are European wild boar, roe deer, hares, foxes, Eurasian badger, European wildcat,
and ermine. Siberian stag, fallow deer, spotted deer or chital, and muskrat have been
successively introduced and are firmly established. Roe deer, hares, foxes, and muskrats
are of commercial importance. Numerous rodents live in the steppe, including susliks,
hamster, European mole, polecats, field mouse, and harvest mice. There are more than 70
species of birds, both resident and migratory. The marshy lower reaches of Moldovas
rivers provide sanctuary for wild geese, migratory ducks, and herons, while white-tailed
sea eagles are to be found in the floodlands forests. The wood lark, jay, song thrush,
blackbird, hawk, and long-eared owl frequent the Moldovan forests. Griffon and black
vultures are also encountered. Among steppe birds are the steppe eagle, quail, and
Hungarian partridge. Greylag, snipe, coot, mallard, pintail, pochard, gadwall, and
spoonbill are found in the bottomlands of the Prut and the Nistru.

Conclusion: Tourism is indispensable with the nature and especially with the relief, flora
and fauna an important part of the nature that allows tourists to explore the most
interesting natural places. The relief, flora and fauna with all their forms and types are a

miracle beauty that fascinates us. Is an unknown beauty, is something strange, is

something marvelous, is something very special.

2.Climate of the Republic of Moldova as a tourist resources.

Key words: climate, weather, temperature, humidity, precipitation, pressure.

Objectives:
O1- to point out the impotrance of climate;
O2- to describe the weather and the seasons in the Republic of Moldova.
O1- to point out the impotrance of climate

Climate is one of the most important factors that determine the development of tourism
development. In dependence of this factor tourism can develop good or not. The fine
weather influence directly on the development of tourism activity. Now I will speak about
the clime of the Republic of Moldova.
The Republic of Moldova is located in a zone with a temperate continental climate
approximately half way between the Equator and North Pole. The four seasons of the year
are clearly defined, winters being warm, and summer long, with a lot of sunny days.
Moldova's climate is moderately continental: the summers are warm and long, with
temperatures averaging about 20C, and the winters are relatively mild and dry, with
January temperatures averaging -4C. Annual rainfall, which ranges from around 600
millimeters in the north to 400 millimeters in the south, can vary greatly; long dry spells
are not unusual. The heaviest rainfall occurs in early summer and again in October; heavy
showers and thunderstorms are common. Because of the irregular terrain, heavy summer
rains often cause erosion and river silting.
On the territory of the Republic the atmospheric circulation is characterized by the
preponderance of masses of warm air, in certain periods is wet, this one comes from West,
from the Atlantic Ocean. Periodically, on the territory of Moldova there are other masses
of air: the warm and wet air that comes from Mediterranean Sea, that brings abundant
rains: the soft air, moderately continental from the east and south-east of the Plain of the
East Europe conditioned the scorching heat and drought, the invasion of the arctic air
causes an unexpectedly change of the weather and an ebbing of the temperature. The
average annual temperature of the air on the whole territory of the republic has positive

values. It oscillates from +7,5C in the north (Briceni) to +10C in the south (Cahul). The
territory of Moldova takes part of the zone with insufficient humidity. The average annual
quantity of precipitations is about 400 550 mm, that are from 550mm in the north-west
to 400mm in the south and south-east.

O2- to describe the weather and the seasons in the Republic of Moldova

Generally the Republic of Moldova has a mild climate and quite favorable for the
development of tourism activity but without a good infrastructure in our Republic the
tourism activity is less developed than in other countries from the Eastern Europe.
Winter
Beginning with the invasion of masses of cold air from east and north-east, that leads to
the ebbing of the temperature. The average air temperature in January is -5C in the north
of the republic (Briceni) and -3C in the south (Cahul). In certain years, when arctic
masses of air are present for a long time on the territory, in the republic there are the
lowest temperatures: -30 -36C.
Spring
In spring the eastern circulation of masses of air characterized for winter months, step-bystep is replaced by the western circulation, but in this time on the territory of the republic
the cyclones penetrate. There is an increase of the solar radiation. Every-day positive
temperatures are established and grow day by day. The weather is unstable determined by
the invasion of the cold arctic air that brings the spring frosts.
Summer
In summer is sunny, warm and droughty. The solar radiation attains maxim heights.
Average values of temperature in July are +19,5C (Briceni) and +22C (Cahul).
Sometimes from the south come masses of tropical air, which bring droughty and warm
weather with temperatures to 30 35C.
Autumn
The first part of the autumn is characterized by a calm, sunny and warm weather. Step by
step, in the second part of the season, there is an intensification of the penetration of
masses of cold air from east and north-east, which determines the ebbing of the
temperature of the air.

Conclusion: As to sum the mentioned above we can say that tourism is a quite old
phenomenon and its development as an activity depends on the natural resources that
natural beauty and also on the weather conditions. Tourism activity is indispensable with

weather because in dependence of weather conditions a certain tourism business can gain
of loose great amounts of money. But not only weather is a good condition for the
development of tourism but also good infrastructure.

3.Hydrography of the Republic of Moldova as a tourist resources.

Key words: river system, lakes, sea water, mineral water, glaciars, geysers, waterfalls.
Objectives:
O1- to point out the importance of hydrography in the tourism development
O2- to explain and analyze the main forms of hydrography.

O1- to point out the importance of hydrography in the tourism development

Hidrography is one of the most beloved by tourists. The hidrographic elements has
picturesque elements, physical and chemical attributes as for example curative waters.
Moldova is not rich in surface waters, although it has a well-developed network of 3,621
rivers, both permanent and intermittent, with the total length of 16,000 km, all draining
south to the Black Sea. However, only 246 of these exceed 10 km in length, and only 8
exceed 100 km: Nistru, Prut, Raut, Ichel, Bc, Botna, Ialpug, and Cogelnic.
The main artery of the country is the Nistru River, flowing for 630 km within Moldovan
territory. The Nistru rises in Ukraine and forms the border between Ukraine and Moldova
in parts of the north, northeast and southeast before flowing back into Ukraine, where it
continues for some 20 km before reaching the Black Sea near Bilgorod-Dnistrovskii
(Odessa Oblast). It is navigable almost throughout the country and has an average annual
discharge of about 10 km3, swollen by spring snowmelt from the Carpathians and by
heavy summer rains. Its principal tributaries are the Raut, Bc, and Botna. More than half
(56%) of Moldova (19,070 km2) lies in the Nistru watershed.
The Prut, the second main artery, a tributary of the Danube, rises in Ukraine and forms the
border between Moldova and Romania before flowing into the Danube just after crossing
the border into Ukraine. The Danube River then continues for about 125 km before
flowing into the Black Sea. Where the Prut River becomes the border between Romania
and Moldova, its average annual flow is estimated at 2.9 km 3. Its average discharge into
the Danube is also estimated at 2.9 km3/year, which would mean that all the water
generated between the northern and southern parts within Moldova and Romania is used.
The Prut flows for 695 km within Moldova. The Pruts main tributaries are the Ciugur,
Camenca, Larga, Lapusna, and Sarata.

O2- to explain and analyze the main forms of hydrography

The Ialpug, Cogelnic, and other small southern rivers drain largely into the Danubian
estuary in the nearby Ukraine. All of them are very shallow in summer and most dry up
periodically. The most intense floods take place in summer during the torrential rain
season. The Danube watershed covers about 35% of Moldovas territory. In the south of
the country, between the Nistru and the Danube basins, several other rivers rise and flow
across the border into Ukraine and then into the Black Sea. Their basins cover about 8%
of the countrys territory. There are about 2,200 natural springs in Moldova, which are
extensively used for the countrys water supply.
Groundwater resources are not uniformly distributed over the territory. The main water
reserves are located in the Nistru River underlying aquifer. Moving further away from the
river, the water supply of the water table decreases. Groundwater is extracted from the
Cretaceous and Silurian formations, Baden Sarmatian, middle Sarmatian, upper Sarmatian
(Neocene formations), and Meotian and Pontian geological layers. Of the more than 200
water deposits discovered in Moldova, only half are being exploited. The degree of
confirmed groundwater use is low compared with other countries and does not exceed
40%. The supplies of underground fresh and saline waters are estimated to be
approximately 3-3.2 million m3/24 hours, of which drinking water makes up 1.7 million
m3/24 hours. The extract table reserves of artesian waters are 2.1 million m 3/24 hours and
the total estimated reserves are 3.4 million m3/24 hours. The country has 57 lakes with a
total surface of 62.2 km2. Small lakes of under 0.2 km2 prevail. Most of lakes are located
on floodplains of the Nistru and Prut rivers and along the lower courses of their
tributaries.
The largest Moldovan lakes are Beleu, Dracele, Rotunda, and Fontan located along the
lower course of the Prut River and Bc and Rosu located in the Nistru valley. There are
about 2,519 (3,500 according to some sources) ponds and reservoirs, with a total volume
of 2,022 million m3 and a surface of 333 km2, constructed for irrigation purposes, flow
regulation and fishing pools. Most are small tanks for local use with a surface area of up
to 3 ha. Only 10% of all basins have a volume above 1 million m 3. Out of the 82 artificial
water reservoirs, 75 have a capacity of 1 to 5 million m3. The largest reservoirs are Lacul
Costesti-Stinca on the Prut and Lacul Dubsari on the Nistru. The Republic of Moldova
also has rich resources of thermal water. The thermal waters are spreader in the river Prut
valley and in South of the Republic of Moldova. The age of the voters is different, with
subterranean position between 100-1000 m and more. The temperature of water
constitutes 20 -80 C; the debit is of 10 100 m 3 /day. The thermal water is ununiformly
spreader on territory of Republic of Moldova. The most important resources of these
waters are concentrated in valleys of the rivers Nistru and Prut.
Water resources are about 6-7 mlrd m3 per year. There are about 85% of them, which are
for water surface and 15% for underground water. Water surface is represented in the
biggest part by the rivers Nistru and Prut, a less weight will be for rivers and lakes. The
anual volume of water consumed is in average about 1,2 mlrd m3.

Conclusion: As a conclusion we can mention that tourism is a quite old phenomenon and
its development as an activity depends on the natural resources that natural beauty and
also on the weather conditions. Tourism activity is indispensable with hydrography
because hydrography is a quite wide science that includes the following components:
river system, lakes, spring waters, thermal waters. That represent a rich unexplored tourist
potential for the Republic of Moldova.

4.Tourist landscape of the Republic of Moldova.

Key words: landscape, forest reservations.

Objectives:
O1- to point out the importance of landscape for the tourism development;
O2- to speak about Padurea Domneasca and Codrii.

O1- to point out the importance of landscape for the tourism development
The tourist objects which belong to relief, climate, hydrography, fauna and flora do not
exist isolated. They combine to make up tourist landscapes:
Karstic (limestone) landscapes
Volcanic landscapes
Mountainous landscapes
Coastal landscapes.
And the most important landscapes for the tourism are the beaches generally. But as we
are speaking about the Republic of Moldova we should mention that fact that Moldova
doesnt have beaches but have other tourist landscapes. And About this tourist landscapes
I will speak further. Picturesque landscapes consist of 41 landscape reserves, among
which are allocated: Taul Park", "Hincesti Park".

Landscape reserves are subdivided into: wood, herbs and mixed. To the most popular
natural monuments concern:
"Prut Toltres";
gorges in Gordineshti, Fetesti, Trinca, Tipova, Saharna, Kalarasheuka etc.;
Wonderful landscapes can be seen everywhere in Moldova - the country named in Middle
Ages for its beauty as "heavenly spot".

Taul park
Approximately 200 to the north of Chisinau, in the center of Taul is located the biggest
park in Moldova. It has been based in the beginning of the XX century around of family
Pommer's manor. This park is one of the most successful works of the landscape-architect
I.Vladislavskii-Padalko. The dendrology collection consist approximately of 150 kinds of
trees, bushes and lianes where more than 100 forms are exotic.
The park is conditionally divided into the top part, where is a rural residence of boyar
Pommer and a dense network of avenues with various flower compositions, and the
bottom part, that more reminds a wood made of separate groups of trees, characteristic for
various geographical zones. Being the biggest in Moldova, the Taul the park is supplied
with an impressing network of avenues, footpaths and pathes which length makes more
than 12.5 km.

O2- to speak about Padurea Domneasca and Codrii.

Padurea Domneasca
The biggest scientific reserve in Moldova is situated approximately 185 km/s from
Chisinau near to the Middle Prut, in a zone known under the name "Padurea Domneasca".
At the big territory along the river stretches the representative wood where grows plants,
characteristic for this zone: a poplar, oaks, beeches, etc. Only few people knows, that in
Padurea Domneasca the herons live not in canes, but on the trees, occupying significant
territory. Local residents name this place "The Country of Herons ", real paradise for these
birds brought into the Red Book. At the other end of reserve is located its other feature
named " Hundred barrows ". Till now is not opened the secret of several thousand barrows
extended by parallel lines along the left coast of Prut. Probably, it is the burial place of the
soldiers who were lost in numerous fights, having places here during the ancient times. Or
barrows are the coral adjournment covered with the ground. Probably, it is that case when
there was a selective subsidence of ground in Prut. The reserve's administration invite

tourists to visit neighboring toltres with their ancient caves, the biggest lake in Moldova
Costesti-Stinca, some old rural settlements and some wooden churches kept during 2-3
centuries.
Codrii
The oldest scientific reserve of Moldova "Codrii" is situated in 50 km/s from Chisinau,
and has been based in 1971. The reserve's nature amazes with an abundance of forms and
kinds, some of which are ranked as a category rare or disappearing. In reserve "Codrii"
under the protection are about 1000 kinds of plants, a part of flora, characteristic for
Moldova, 43 kinds of mammal, 145 kinds of birds, 7 kinds of kowtowing, 10 kinds
amphibious and more than 10 thousand kinds of insects. The oak and a beech concern to
the basic kinds of trees in a reserved wood. In territory of reserve there is a picturesque
zone more smoothly and works "the Museum of the Nature".

Conclusion: As a conclusion I can mention that tourism is a quite old phenomenon and is
developed nowadays mostly as an activity and we cannot deny the importance of
landscapes and especially of natural green landscapes as are in the Republic of Moldova
that attract the tourist because of their marvelous beauty as: Codrii, Taul park, Padurea
Domneasca.

Theme 7. Man-made tourist resources of the Republic of

Moldova.

1.Historic erections of the Republic of Moldova as tourist resources.

Key words: castrum, fort, castle, citadel, fortress.

Objectives:
O1- to point out the importance of the historical monuments for the tourism development;
O2- to speak about the fortress in Bender and the Trojan Walls

O1- to point out the importance of the historical monuments for the tourism development

The history of every nation represent an untouched treasure, that nobody can change it
that remains throughout many centuries. The history is a part of everybody, evryday we
history is developing because the history is made by the society, is enriched with new
events and edifices. The edifices around us all of them are history, but only some
historical edificies are important for the tourism development as: castrums, castles, forts,
citadels etc. The Republic of Moldova as a very small country situated in the Eastern
Europe has quite few historical erections only two fortresses can be included in this
category that are: Soroca fortress, the Bender fortress and The Trojan Walls.
Soroca fortress
Soroca is located 100 miles north of Chisinau, close to the Ukrainian border. Soroca's
Fortress, and eventually the village of rich Gypsies. The well-kept fortress, which has
been serving during many centuries as a shelter for Moldavians during Turkish and Tartar
invasions. The well-preserved medieval Soroca fortress is situated in the historical city
center. The wooden fortress was erected during the rule of Stefan the Great. Then Petru
Rares rebuilt it in 1543. The 5-tower fortress represents a circumference with a diameter
of 100 feet and walls that are 11 feet wide and 55-65 feet high. Soroca always has been a
fortress town at the Nistru River crossing. The Genovian traders called this place Olihonia
(Alchiona), later it appears in documents as Soroca (1499). Because of its unique
architecture there is no similar fortress in Eastern Europe. It is perfectly round, with five
bastions situated at equal distances from each other. The fortress is the only medieval
monument in Moldova, which has been preserved entirely as it was designed by its
builders. In the medieval period the fortress of Soroca was part of a huge Moldovan
defensive system, which comprised four fortresses on the Nistru river, two on the Danube
and another three in the northern part of the country. With this "stone belt of fortresses",
the country borders were well protected. Soroca fortress was built at the Nistru river
crossing, on older fortifications. In 1499, on the order of Stefan cel Mare, a square
wooden fortress was built, on the site of a former Genovan fortress. Between 1543-1546,
while Petru Rares ruled the country, the fortress was completely re-built in stone, and in
the shape one can see it today - a perfect circle, the diameter of which is 37,5 m and with
5 bastions situated at equal distances. When designing the fortress the builders
incorporated the supreme law of harmony "the golden section", which makes the fortress
unique among examples of European defensive architecture. Only soldiers lived in the
citadel, but during sieges the natives could find protection there too. There is an old
legend about the white stork and Soroca fortress. It says that during a long siege the
starving defenders survived due to their courage and a white stork, which brought them
bunches of grapes. Today a stork with bunches in its beak is one of the symbols of
Moldova. Soroca's fortress witnessed many tragically moments in the history of Moldova.

From here, in 1711 the famous european philosopher and Ruler of Moldova - Dimitrie
Cantemir will lead Moldavian Army accompanied by the russian army (led by the Tsar
Peter I) against the Ottoman Empire. But he didn't new then, that from that time, Moldova
will fall under influence of a much tiranic empire, who are now his allies - russian empire.
Another interesting place to visit in Soroca is the Gypsy quarter with their rich excentric
house-palaces called "Hill of the gypsies". Visitors to Soroca can also visit the stone
hermitage located in the Bechir canyons, which dates from the IX century; the county
hospital (XIX century); girls' gymnasium (XIX century); the museum of the Soroca
region; "T. Stratilat" church (XIX century, eclectic architecture); and "Adormirea Maicii
Domnului" church (1842). In the southern part of the town, on the Nistru riverside there is
a resort zone "Trifauti". 7 km to the north of the fortress is situated Cosauti - a famous
village of masons, convent, the landscape's reserve and natural monument.

O2- to speak about the fortress in Bender and the Trojan Walls

The Fortress in Bender

The fortress in Bender, also known as Bender or Tighina, has a 600 year old history. Its
existence testifies to the role of the Dniester River as an international border throughout
history. Originally built by Turkish forces at a time when the Dniester river marked the
border to Russia, the Bender fortress first fell to Russia in 1770. On 15 September 1770,
after a two-month siege, Russian general Panin took the fortress after heavy losses in
bloody hand-to-hand fighting. The taking of fortress took a high price: During the siege
and the subsequent assault, Russia lost more than 6,000 people and the Turks lost more
than 5,000, prompting Catherine II of Russia to say: "Losing so many and gaining so
little, it would have been better to not take Bender." In 1774, the fortress reverted to
Turkish rule and five years later, in 1789, it came into Russian hands again with the
actions of General A.V. "never-lost-a-battle" Suvorov. Signing a peace treaty two years
later, in 1791, the fortress and all of Bender again reverted to the Turks. This time, they
kept it for fifteen years, until November 1806 when General Meyendorf made it Russian
once more. Since then, Bender has marked the border of the extent of Slavic interests;
having a pro-Slavic population, orientation and culture. Despite its location on the
"wrong" side of the Dniester, its population voted in a referendum in 1990 to join
Pridnestrovie in its declaration of independence and to retain the traditional Russian
orientation of the city.

The Trojan Walls

Evidence of he Romans presence in Moldova is found in the remains of a strong

defensive system of linear fortifications comprised of a wave shaped earthworks
strengthened with sharpened logs. People call them the Trojan Walls and they seem to
be an extension of a huge fortified system on the borders of the Roman Empire, also
found in other countries (like France, Spain, England, etc.) for example Hadrians Wall.
On Moldovas territory there are fragments of two such walls, called the lower and the
upper.
The Lower Wall of Trojan was made by the Romans in the III c. and is almost 126 km
long, extending from the river Prut (Vadul lui Isac village Moldova) to Sasac Lake
(Tatarbunar-Ukraine).
The Upper Wall of Trojan, according to some assumptions, was made in the IV c. by the
local inhabitants, by two rival tribes, who fortified their borders over 138 km from the
Nistru (Chitcani village) to the Prut (2 km north of Leova). To visit the remaining
fragments of Trajans Walls go to Leova, a small town situated almost 100 km south of
Chisinau.
Conclusion: As a conclusion we can mention that the Republic of Moldova is a country
with a pour tourist potential. And when we are speaking about the historical monuments
than we should mention that in our country there are only 2 fortress: Soroca fortress and
Bender fortress

2.Religious erections of the Republic of Moldova as tourist resources.

Key words: churches, cathedrals, monasteries, cemeteries.

Objectives:
O1- to point out the importance of religious edifices;
O2- to describe the religious edifices of the Republic of Moldova;
O3- to speak about monastery Harjeuca, Hancu and Rudi.

O1- to point out the importance of religious edifices

Faith is a belief in a relation with a deity, faith is an important part of the identity of every
individual. Instead that thing that some of us deny their belief in something is a false idea
because every rational person believes in something. This interior belief in something
drive the entire umanity to build edificies where they can tranquile praire. The religious
edifices represent the spiritual treasure of every country, represent an untouched power
that influence us every day. Religious edifices appeared from time immemorial, when man
tried to build some intimate refuges. From the very beginning this function was
accomplished by caves and caverns where there have been erected the first altars and
sanctuaries. The religious edifices group contains: sanctuaries, temples, churches,
cathedrals, monasteries, mausoleums, cemeteries, pyramids, stupas etc. In the Republic of
Moldova we have only few of them: churches, cathedrals, monasteries, cemeteries. Holy
sanctuaries were the places where, in ancient times, the first chronicles of our life were
written. Since medieval times Moldova's Orthodox churches have been carved out of
cliffs rising above rivers or constructed of wood or stone in the Codri forests, serving local
people as a refuge in which they could pray or as fortresses against invading enemies. In
medieval times monasteries served as fortresses against successive invaders. Many
splendid legends speak about these holy places and they also preserve many relics from
the Middle Ages. "Sfinta treime" (Holy Trinity) church in Rudi has many such
monuments. The splendours of monasteries such as those in Orheiul Vechi , Tipova ,
Saharna , Hancu (Bursuc) , Cosauti , Harjeuca and elsewhere have long been attractive for
both pilgrims and tourists. Except them we propose you also visit monastery "Capriana" ,
and "The Assumption of the Virgin Mary" church.
O2- to describe the religious edifices of the Republic of Moldova

Saharna
Situated approximatively 110km to the north of Chisinau, at the right Dnestr's beach,
monastery "Saint Trinity" in village Saharna is counted as one of the biggest Moldavian
center for pilgrims. Here are stored unique in Moldova parts of St. Martyr Makarii body ,
and at one of rocks - the trace, that according to a legend, was left by Divine Mother. Is
spoken, that once to one of monks (according to one sources existing in X-XII centuries,
documentary certificates from XVII-XVIII centuries) on one of rocks was the luminous
face of Divine Mother. Going up to this rock, monks have found out in a stone a trace
from a foot, a sign which they have apprehended as a divine message as the certificate of "
Divine cleanliness " this place. Later, the new wooden church was founded closer to gorge
and was based the monastery " the Sacred Trinity " (1777). Later at the place of wooden
church was built the stone church in the old-Moldavian style, richly decorated with wall

frescos. During the time increases the monastic community. From rocky tops the traveler
can see fine landscapes - the rocky gorge of small river Saharna covered with a wood,
with length more then 16km, where are situated towers of more than 30 thresholds and
cascades. Here are kept an important archaeological parking with the rests of the Iron Age
(X-VIII centuries BC) and geto-dacian fortress on high cape. It was kept most better other
fortresses of this type in Moldova.

Tipova
In the village Tipova (about 100kms to the north from Chisinau) at the rocky coast of
Dnestr is located a rocky orthodox monastery, the biggest not only in Moldova, but also in
this part of Europe. The monastic community of this monastery was formed here much
earlier, than the Moldavian feudal state has been created. It is considered, that some
people have been hollowed in abrupt rocky coast of Dnestr in X-XII centuries
(according to other data in XVI-XVIII centuries). From 1776 the monastery has begun to
extend. The rocky church has been divided into the big premises separated from each
other by massive columns. During the Soviet period the monastery has been closed and
destroyed. In 1974 ruins of rocky monastery Tipova have been taken under protection of
the state, and in 1994 have renewed here church divine services. It is considered, that in
this monastery got married Moldavian Tsar Stefan the Great with Maria Vojkitsej, but
according to another legend in these rocks mythological poet Orfej which remains
ostensibly are based in a niche of one of cascades of gorge has lived last years. The
tourists who have arrived here can visit also an impressing gorge of landscape reserve
"Tipova". At one of the rough coast during antiquity (IV-III centuries BC) existed an earth
geto-dacian fortress. Its towers on high cape are kept and to this day.
Monastery Capriana
In one of the picturesque places in Codri , approximatively 40 km to the north-west of
Chisinau, is situated one of the oldest Moldavian monasteries - Kapriana (founded in
1429). For a long time here was situated a residence of Mitropolit of Moldova, he was
patronized tsars, including Stefan cel Mare, here lived
Eftimii and one of the first Moldova's poets Ciprian. From the beginning the whole
monastery was built from wood and only then, in 1545, was founded wooden summer
church "St. George", and in 1903 - "St. Nicolai". In this monastery was stored and the
biggest monastery's library in Moldova with valuable tsars' gifts. Beeing closed and
destroyed during the Soviet time, this monastery was opened again one of the first in
1989, and very soon it became one of the symbols of the National Renaissance. Among
others touristic objects, which can be seen here are: landscape reserve "Caprina Scoreni", Oak of Stefan the Great" and one of the oldest moldavian reserves - "Codrii".

O3- to speak about monastery Harjeuca, Hancu and Rudi

Monastery Harjeuca
Monastery Harjeuca is situated approximately 70 km to the north-West from .
For the first time in this Codrii zone arises in 1740 the monastic community, a little bit
later here have been constructed the wooden churches and monastic house. At the middle
of XIX century was the blossoming of Monastery Harjeuca, at that time it was surrounded
by well-groomed park with lakes, fountains and avenues. In 1836 was founded summer
church "God Rise" which is similar on the structure and classical style to the Cathedral in
Chisinau. Later was built and the winter church "St. Spiridon". In a monastery was a rich
library, by it worked the church school. During the Soviet period the monastery was
closed, and on its territory was organized sanatorium. In 1993 the monastery was opened
again and has been still working. On the territory of a monastery is situated very famous
"Source of youth", possessing unusual salutary properties. Visitors of this zone can go to
an excursion in a local wood which is fairly named the present botanical monument.
Monastery Hancu
In 1678 at the river Cogelnic, in Codrii zone (approximately 55 km to the West from
Chisinau) Michael Hancu based a female monastery at the request of his daughter, where
she enter as monk under a name Parasceva. But in the XVII century wooden church and
monk house frequently were exposed by the Tatar invasions, that is why during heavy
times the monastery "St. Parasceva" remained deserted. In 1835 was built the stone
summer church in the russian-Byzantian style, and a little bit later, in 1841 was
constructed the winter church. In the period from 1956 till 1990 the monastery was
closed, and on its territory was organized sanatorium. In 1990 at the request of the
inhabitants from the neighbour villages this monastery becomes working again, and
becomes one of leaders among all monasteries from Moldova. Around of the Monastery
are located a lot of the springs, one of which differs the increased mineralization
Rudi
Located approximately in 200 km to the north from Chisinau, the village Rudi is one of
the most interesting districts for tourists. Here you open for yourself a cave (about 100)
with traces of the prehistoric past, beautiful landscape reserve, antique defensive
strengthening (IV-III centuries BC), two round earthen fortresses (IX-XII centuries) "The Turkish plate" and "Germanarium", rural community with rich traditions, etc.
However the basic object for visiting in this zone is one of the oldest monasteries of
Moldova. The legend says, that in the XVIII century Grigore Ghica, was hardly ill. And
no one could cure him. But once, at a gate of his palace, stopped cart and the old peasant
asked his Majesty to accept him. He promised to put him on foots but provided that his
Majesty should leave all affairs and go with him. The old man brought the governor in
Rudi where within a month treated him with grapes and wine. In a month Governor
returned to a palace healthy, and later on the right coast of Dnestr was founded the wellknown
monastery
in
Rudi,
as
a
token
of
gratitude.
Man's monastery in village Rudi has kept during many centuries traditional monastic style

of its life, and church "St. Trinity", founded in 1777, is considered the bright sample of
cult architecture executed in the old-Moldavian style. The church is located in a beautiful
valley of the river Bulboana, at the right inflow of the river Dnestr.

Conclusion: As a conclusion we can mention that tourism is an activity that can develop
only in some conditions and only in some regions that have a diverse tourism potential
both natural resources and man-made ones. And for the tourism development the
importance of the man-made resources is very big. And when we are speaking about the
religious edifices than we should mention that in this category are included the following
edifices: cemeteries, churches, cathedrals, monasteries etc.

3.Cultural, sports and economic erections of the Republic of Moldova as

tourist resources.
Key words: theaters, operas, stadiums, universities, museums, bridge.
Objectives:
O1- to point out the importance and the uniqueness of cultural and sport edificies;
O2- to characterize the most important cultural, economic and sport edifices of the
Republic of Moldova.

O1- to point out the importance and the uniqueness of cultural and sport edificies
The culture is a tresure of every society are a representaive simbol that characterize
everybody. For the tourism development the cultural, economic and sport edifices are as
important as religious, or historical ones, they represent population living in a specific
area. Among this group are the following tourist objectives: agora or forum; theaters;
amphitheaters; operas; stadiums; universities; museums, etc. In our country there are only
some of the elements of the economic, cultural and sport edifices.
Chisinau the capital of the Republic of Moldova has modern stadiums and sport
complexes, a racecourse, as well as the famous trace of motor races that is considered to
be one of the best in Europe as: Zimbru Stadium, Republican Stadium, Dinamo Stadium,
Dacia Stadium etc.

Theatres
Chisinau has a rich theatrical history. Right after the Second World War the building of
today's National theatre Mihai Eminescu has been constructed. Nowadays it plays to its
capacity. Chisinau can be proud of such auditoriums, as Organ Hall and the Philharmonic
Society, which besides other, represent also the architectural value.
The Organ Hall has also an interesting history: its destiny was defined by the amazing
acoustics. This building in the pre-war past was a bank, later it has turned to a music hall
that possesses the unique Organ in Moldova.
The National Theatre of Opera and Ballet is known for its huge number of productions of
great success and for the various prizes won at prestigious festivals. The theatrical season
begins at the end of the summer and lasts till the spring. The annual festivals Va invita
Maria Biesu are very popular with the amateurs of opera art. Over ten years these
festivals are held under the patronage of the famous Moldavian opera singer. Every year
in the beginning of autumn celebrities of opera and ballet arts gather in Chisinau. And
during a week they please the spectators with beautiful performances of classical musical
compositions. In the concert hall of the National Palace the domestic pop-stars and the
visiting artists give their concerts. To the amateurs of the drama art Chisinau offers a wide
spectrum of theatres with productions in Russian and Romanian languages, and during the
spring theatrical festivals - in languages of all the participants. The Republic of Moldova
is a country with a big intellectual potential. Because first of all is a country with a big
number of universities and colleges as: The State University of Moldova, the Technical
University of Moldova, the Economic Academy of Moldova, the Informatics College, the
Financial and banking college, the Microelectronics College etc.

O2- to characterize the most important cultural, economic and sport edifices of the
Republic of Moldova
The Republic of Moldova has many museums in the care of the Ministry of Culture, local
public authorities and other organizations. All of these have their specialist audiences, but
at least 20 are of interest to the general tourist. The Republic of Moldovas museums are
mostly housed in buildings of architectural importance and feature rich collections of art.
There is a network of 66 museums in Moldova. They feature principally archaeological,
ethnographic, art, historical and natural science collections or are commemorative.
National museums alone house over 700,000 artifacts related to the national heritage.
While all museums have their specific audiences, about 20 in Moldova are of major
interest to tourists.

The Museum of Ethnography and Archaeology

The first archaeological exhibition was set up in 1958 in the Academy of Science in
Moldova. In 1977 over 800,000 objects, including 10,000 items from the major stock,
were stored in a XIX th century building (A. Bernardazzi architect) in the centre of the
capital. Today it is situated on BanulescuBodoni, 35 str. Walking through the museum
galleries you pass through different ages, such as: Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic,
copper and stone, bronze and iron ages in the territory between the Nistru and Prut. The
decorated panoramic views designed for the visitors are most impressive.

Museum of Ethnography and National History

In October 1889 Baron A. Stuard founded the oldest museum in Moldova, which during
the XX th century was a research laboratory for many famous scientists like: F. Osterman,
S. Milec, F. Porucik, I. Suhov, B. Tarabuchin, M. Pocora and others. The museum was
built in 1905 in the oriental style, thus being a unique building of this kind in Moldova.
The Museum is known for its rich geology, ethnography, paleontology, zoological,
entomology, archaeology and numismatic collections. The museum, through history, has
kept its two specific directions: Nature and Cultural Studies of Moldova - thats why it
was named as the National Museum of Natural History, Regional Museum of Basarabia
and The National Museum of Studies of the Republic. Now, next to those 10,000 objects
in this collection, visitors can see the whole skeleton of a Dinosaur Gigantisms, famous
archaeological treasures, Basarabian national carpets of the XIX th century and much
more.

The Museum of Popular Art from Ivancea

The house of an Armenian noble called Karp Balioz, which is situated in Ivancea Village,
became a "Museum of Popular Art" in Moldova in 1984. It is situated only 35 km from
Chisinau. The construction of the house is very impressive by its classical style, and is
characteristic of Russian aristocratic homes in the XIX c. The house was built in 18521873, in the middle of a beautiful park on land bought from the Donici Family in 1840.
The museum presents a permanent exhibition of national Moldavian art. One gallery
represents samples of red and black pottery of different shapes from dishes to toys.
Wooden objects had a wide and varied use in Moldova in the past, and craftsmen were
very well known abroad too. Another gallery shows us in detail craftsmens skill in
stonework: columns, stone-flowers, chimneys, and others to be found in Orhei and
Soroca. Moldavian craftswomen were very good at embroidery and at carpet making. The
next gallery is dedicated to the national clothes from different ethnic groups present in
Moldova. In the past people were very skilled in leather and horn work. The last gallery
presents a collection of musical instruments well known to our national musicians.
When we are speaking about the economic edifices than we should mention that the
Republic of Moldova has only some bridges not very important.

Conclusion: As a conclusion we can mention that tourism is an activity that can develop
only in some conditions and only in some regions that have a diverse tourism potential
both natural resources and man-made ones. For the Republic of Moldova as for any
country of big importance are the man-made tourist resources and especially cultural,
sport and economic ones and in this category are included the following edifices: theaters,
operas, stadiums, universities, museums etc

4.Monuments, statues, commemorative plaques of the Republic of

Moldova as tourist resources.
Key words: monument, obelisk, megalithic monument, commemorative plaque, statue.

Objectives:
O1- to point out the importance of monuments, statues and comerative plaques;
O2- to descibe the monuments, statues, and commemorative plaques.

O1- to point out the importance of monuments, statues and comerative plaques

Monument is a place that is designed and built as a lasting public tribute to a person, a
group of people, or an event. In the Republic of Moldova due to the World War II there
are a big number of monuments.
The Candle of Gratitude
This monument built in the rocks, above the river Nistru, on the borders of Soroca is one
of the most important creations in the Moldavian modern history. Poored at the basis,
stone by stone, here lie the sufferings, the hopes and the hard work of many generations.
This extraordinary work of art is dedicated to all Moldavian cultural monuments that were
destroyed. The Candle of Gratitude raises from the depth of our past and represents a
homage to all the anonymous heroes that have kept safe the culture, the language and the
history of Moldova out of a wide colorful human civilization, this way making eternal the
memory of the great anonymous poet, author of Miorita (The Lamb). The idea to
build this monument belongs to the famous classical writer of the Moldavian literature,
Ion Druta, and was launched 15 years ago. But the project was realized and inaugurated

only on March 27, 2004. Thanks to those who have contributed with work, with faith and
with finances at building this monument named The Candle of Gratitude by the writer,
one can walk up on 600 steps that go from the waters of Nistru to the top of a hill in
Soroca. On this top there appears a candle-shaped chapel 29,5 meters long, which during
the night time has a light which goes as far as Otaci and Camenca. One can admire a
magnificent view from the top of this hill. This national monument, a symbol of the
Moldavian people, which catches the eye of people passing by, can surely complete the
visiting card of Moldova.

O2- to descibe the monuments, statues, and commemorative plaques

The 'Serpeni Headbridge" Memorial

This monument is situated 40 km east of Chisinau, on the right bank of River Nistru one
can find this very Memorial of historical and national importance, which was erected in
the memory of the heroes who died during the Iasi-Chisinau operation of 1944 meant to
free Chisinau of the fascist occupation. The Serpeni battle was one of the cruelest in the
World War II history even if it represented just a small episode of the war. On August 22,
2004, just before the 60th anniversary of Moldovas liberation from the German-fascist
occupants, the reconstructed memorial has been solemnly inaugurated. It should be
mentioned that for finalizing the reconstruction of this remarkable building situated on the
bank of Nistru, a great number of people from Russia and the Ukraine have offered
considerable support. Taken into account that many of the bridgehead defenders were
soldiers from the CIS countries, many veterans from Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Belarus
together with the veterans from Moldova and the Ukraine were present at the official
ceremony. This event has proven again that the friendship between nations is eternal. This
memorial, the construction of which was started during the Soviet period, is situated on a
piece of land which in 1944 was the battle place of only 8 km and 3 km downward. The
building is made of such elements as: a stylized altar, on one side, which has a marble safe
in the middle, erected in the church, with granite plaques engraved with 11 thousand
names of heroes that had sacrificed their lives on this small piece of land near Nistru. In
the middle one can see the eternal fire which guards two high pillars connected by a cross
at the top, the cross guarding the memory of the heroes that never lost their courage when
protecting this land. There is also a high tower bell on a picturesque background of Nistru,
which reminds of the Moldavian history and respect for older generations.
Commemorative plaque is a plate of metal, ceramic, stone, wood, or other material,
typically attached to a wall, stone, or other vertical surface and bearing text in memory of
an important figure or event. Commemorative plaques are everywhere, and when tourist
are traveling to another countries they can discover, and explore also the culture of the
country visited. An in order to familiarize tourist with the most famous personalities of a

certain region commemorative plaques are put on the edifices or horizontal surface that
are linked with these personalities.

Conclusion: As a conclusion we can mention that tourism is an activity that can develop
only in some conditions and only in some regions that have a diverse tourism potential
both natural resources and man-made ones. And for the tourism development the
importance of the man-made resources is very big. And when we are speaking about the
Republic of Moldova than for our country in this category can be included monuments,
and commemorative plaques very important for the development of cultural tourism.