Low Frequency Oscillations

in Power System and Their

Relation to Power System
Blackout
Authors: Pertha Pratim Dutta, Manik
Dutta, Abul Hasan Fahad (Graduated
from Dept. of EE, BUET)

Abstract:
This document presents a complete
overview of low frequency oscillation
phenomena in power systems. Definition
of low frequency oscillation and its
classification is clearly explained. Some
power system blackout incidents due to
low frequency oscillation and the lesson
learned from those incidents are given in
the study. Widely used methodology for
studying low frequency oscillation among
power utilities is also presented. Damping
low frequency oscillation methods are
additionally discussed.

I.

Introduction

Oscillations
in
power
systems
are
classified by the system components that
they affect. Some of the major system
collapses attributed to oscillations are
described.

II.

Nature
of
Electromechanical Oscillations

Electric power utilities have experienced

problems with the following types of sub
synchronous frequency oscillations [1]:

Intraplant mode Oscillations

Local plant mode oscillations
Interarea mode oscillations
Torsional mode oscillations

Control mode oscillations

A. Intraplant mode Oscillations

Machines on the same power generation
site oscillate against each other at 2.0 to
3.0 Hz depending on the unit ratings and
the reactance connecting them. This
oscillation is termed as intraplant
because
the
oscillations
manifest
themselves within the generation plant
complex. The rest of the system is
unaffected.
B. Local Plant Mode Oscillations
Local plant mode oscillation problems are
the most commonly encountered among
the above and are associated with units at
a generating station oscillating with
respect to the rest of the power system.
Such problems are usually caused by the
action of the AVRs of generating units
operating at high-output and feeding into
weak-transmission networks; the problem
is more pronounced with high-response
excitation systems. The local plant
oscillations
typically
have
natural
frequencies in the range of 12 Hz. Their
characteristics are well understood and
adequate
damping can
be readily
achieved by using supplementary control
of excitation systems in the form of power
system stabilizers (PSS).
In local mode, one generator swings
against the rest of the system at 1.0 to
2.0 Hz. The variation in speed of a
generator is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: a typical example of local mode oscillation

The impact of the oscillation is localized to

the generator and the line connecting it to
the grid .
The rest of the system is
normally modeled as a constant voltage
source whose frequency is assumed to
remain constant. This is known as the
single-machine-infinite-bus (SMIB) model.
The damping and frequency vary with
machine output and the impedance
between the machine terminal and the
infinite bus voltage. The oscillation may be
removed with a single or dual input PSS
that provides modulation of the voltage
reference of the automatic voltage
regulator (AVR) with proper phase and
gain compensation circuit [8].
C. Interarea Mode Oscillations
Interarea modes are associated with
machines in one part of the system
oscillating against machines in other parts
of the system. They are caused by two or
more groups of closely coupled machines
that are interconnected by weak ties. The
natural frequency of these oscillations is
typically in the range of 0.11 Hz. The
characteristics of interarea modes of
oscillation are complex and in some
respects significantly differ from the
characteristics of local plant modes [1][2]
[3].
This phenomenon is observed over a large
part of the network.
It involves two
coherent group groups of generators
swinging against each other at 1 Hz or
less. The variation in tie-line power can be

large as shown in Fig. 2. The oscillation

frequency is approximately 0.3 Hz. This
complex phenomenon involves many
parts of the system with highly non-linear
dynamic
behavior.
The
damping
characteristic of the interarea mode is
dictated by the tie-line strength, the
nature of the loads and the power flow
through the interconnection and the
interaction of loads with the dynamics of
generators and their associated controls.
The operation of the system in the
presence of a lightly damped interarea
mode is very difficult.

Figure 2: a typical example of interarea mode

oscillation

D. Torsional Mode Oscillations

Torsional mode oscillations are associated
with the turbine-generator rotational
(mechanical) components. There have
been several instances of torsional mode
instability due to interactions with
controls,
including
generating
unit
excitation and prime mover controls [1].
Torsional
mode
destabilization
by
excitation control was first observed in
1969 during the application of power
system stabilizers on a 555 MVA fossilfired unit at the Lambton generating
station in Ontario. The PSS, which used a
stabilizing
signal
based
on
speed
measured at the generator end of the
shaft, was found to excite the lowest

torsional (16 Hz) mode. The problem was

solved by sensing speed between the two
LP turbine sections and by using a
torsional filter [4][5].
Instability of torsional modes due to
interaction with speed-governing systems
was observed in 1983 during the
commissioning of a 635 MVA unit at
Pickering B nuclear generating station
in Ontario. The problem was solved by
providing an accurate linearization of
steam valve characteristics and by using
torsional filters [6].
These modes are associated with a turbine
generator shaft system in the frequency
range of 10-46 Hz. A typical oscillation is
shown in Fig. 3. Usually these modes are
excited when a multi-stage turbine
generator is connected to the grid system
through a series compensated line [9]. A
mechanical torsional mode of the shaft
system interacts with the series capacitor
at the natural frequency of the electrical
network. The shaft resonance appears
when network natural frequency equals
synchronous frequency minus torsional
frequency.

excitation systems, prime movers, static

var compensators, and HVDC converters
are the usual causes of instability of
control modes. Sometimes it is difficult to
tune the controls so as to assure adequate
damping of all modes. Kundur et al. (1981)
describe the difficulty experienced in 1979
in tuning the power system stabilizers at
the Ontario Hydros Nanticoke generating
station [4]. The stabilizers used shaftspeed signals with torsional filters. With
the stabilizer gain high-enough to stabilize
the local plant mode oscillation, a control
mode local to the excitation system and
the generator field referred to as the
exciter mode became unstable. The
problem was solved by developing an
alternative form of stabilizer that did not
require a torsional filter [7].
These are associated with generators and
poorly tuned exciters, governors, HVDC
converters and SVC controls. Loads and
excitation systems can interact through
control modes [10].
Transformer tapchanging controls can also interact in a
complex manner with non-linear loads
giving rise to voltage oscillations [11].

III.

Oscillatory Instability
Incidents and Lesson
Learned

Though there have been many incidents

related to LFO, not an in-depth study has
been performed to see the real reasons
behind many of these incidents. Some of
the incidents and the lesson learned are
summarized below to give an
understanding of the underlying problem.
Noteworthy incidents related to LFO
include [11]:
Figure 3: a typical example of torsional mode
oscillation

Control mode oscillations are associated

with the controls of generating units and
other equipment. Poorly tuned controls of

United Kingdom (1980), frequency

of oscillation about 0.5 Hz.
Taiwan (1984, 1989, 1990, 1991,
1992), frequency of oscillation
around 0.78 1.05 Hz.

West USA/Canada, System

Separation (1996), frequency of
oscillation around 0.224 Hz.
Scandinavia (1997), frequency of
oscillation about 0.5 Hz.
China Blackout on 6 March (2003),
frequency of oscillation around 0.4
Hz.
US Blackout on 14 August (2003),
frequency of oscillation about 0.17
Hz.
Italian Blackout on 28 September
(2003), frequency of oscillation
about 0.55 Hz.

Most of these incidents involved in a low

frequency of oscillation in the range of 0.1
to 0.7 Hz that is considered as the most
serious and could lead to wide spread
blackouts [11]. Apart from this, oscillatory
incidents in power systems in OntarioCanada,
Sri Lankan,
Malaysia and
Bangladesh are also reported in the
literatures [11].
Most of the incidents had happened due to
faults triggered by some disturbances
such as a tree contacting with a
transmission
line,
some
component
failure, faults in transmission lines etc.
Because of the faults, these lines have
been disconnected from the grid. Then
some other lines in the network has been
overloaded and sagged on trees causing
more earth faults. Those incidents have
been generated sequential line tripping
and generator tripping causing oscillation
in power. The tripping of transmission lines
significantly modifies the characteristics of
the remaining grid with longer distance
(greater equivalent impedance) for the
power flow and consequent higher
stability risk. And also the modified grid
may have less damping compared with
the original grid. The weak tie lines and
the nature of the longitudinal structure are
one of the causes for low frequency
oscillations. Concentration of outputs to

major power plants with insufficient

reserve margins, heavy flow across
transmission interfaces due to seriously
imbalanced regional power and pumped
storage units were in pumping mode
operation are common causes for low
frequency oscillation observed in some of
the cases above mentioned [11]. With the
heavy tie line power, low frequency
electromechanical oscillation modes have
been captured the cases mentioned above
and decreasing the tie line power flow
made those modes disappeared.
Most of the events happened either during
very cold day during winter season or in a
very hot day in summer season [11]. The
use of thermostatically controlled loads,
such as space heaters, coolers, water
heaters are increasing in these days. One
of the properties of these loads is to
operate longer period even during low
voltage conditions. As a result, the total
number of these devices connected to the
system will increase in a few minutes after
a drop in voltage. Therefore there might
be some influence on low frequency
oscillations
from
thermostatically
controlled loads [11].
In some cases, during postmortem
analysis, it has been identified that the
past data of system modeling has
differences with actual values. The
analysis with past data has been showed
positive damping for power oscillations
but in the actual case it was negatively
damped. There are various reasons for this
type of discrepancy. In order to avoid this
and to have a complete knowledge of the
system,
components
contribute
to
oscillatory problem need to be modeled
accurately and good understanding of the
phenomena under different operating
conditions are required. With this type of
knowledge and understanding a counter
measure can be implemented easily to
avoid disastrous consequences.

IV.

Power system modeling

Dynamic modeling of power system

includes a set of differential and algebraic
equations (DAE). Low frequency oscillation
studies can be done in two ways
depending on the interest. If the interest is
to capture the local behavior related to an
area or particular power plant, then that
area of power plant can be modeled in
details and the rest of the system with
simple models. If the interest is to capture
both local and global modes such as interareas mode each and every machine in
the
system
and
their
associated
controllers should be modeled in details. It
is important to include loads, controllers
and other power system components that
would influence the LFO. A general
mathematical model of power system is
given by (1).

dominant state variable in a particular

mode.
The following steps are followed
studying LFO of power systems.

in

Step
I:
Finding
operating point

or

equilibrium

Equilibrium point or operating point of the

system can be found by simultaneously
solving
differential
and
algebraic
equations given in (1). Assume the
equilibrium point is given by (x0, y0, p0)
for a fixed value of uncontrollable
parameter l0.
Step II: Linearization DAE
around the equilibrium point

model

Once the equilibrium point is known DAE

model can be linearized around the
equilibrium point as given in (2).
Here, the linearized model is considered
valid as the disturbances considered is
small where nonlinearities can be ignored.

Where x is a vector of state variable; y is a

vector of algebraic variables; l and p are
uncontrollable
and
controllable
parameters, respectively. Machine and
control dynamics will be included in the
differential equations while basic load flow
and other network equations will be
included in algebraic equations.

V.

Eigenvalue analysis

The small signal stability or LFO study of

the system can be determined by system
eigenvalues at an operating point. The
relative participation of state variables
and their contribution in certain oscillation
mode are given by the corresponding
elements
in
the
right
and
left
eigenvectors. Hence, combination of left
and right eigenvectors yield participation
factor matrix. The participation factor
matrix can be used to identify the

Step III: Forming the reduced system

state matrix
Assuming J4 is nonsingular, (2) can be
rewritten by eliminating algebraic variable
as shown in (3).

That is, the linearized DAE system can be

reduced to a set of ODE equations as

shown in (3). Matrix A in (3) Is referred to

as reduced system state matrix.
Step
IV:
Finding
eigenvalues,
eigenvectors and Participation matrix
Small signal stability or steady state
stability of the equilibrium point of the
system can be analyzed by looking at the
eigenvalues of A or reduced system state
matrix. Eigenvalues of A are given by (4)
and the number of eigenvalues depends
on the dimension of matrix A or the
number of state variables considered in
the system.

Participation factor matrix

Once both right and left eigenvectors are
known for different eigenvalues, the
participation
factor
matrix
can
be
calculated by combining the left and right
eigenvectors as shown in (7).

where
Where represents eigenvalue and
represents right eigenvector. For nontrivial solution determinant of [A-I]
equals to zeros and the eigenvalues can
be calculated. Similarly, another equation
can be written to find out the left
eigenvector as given in (5)

In order for the system to be stable or

oscillation free, all the eigenvalues should
be located in the open left half plane. This
means that real part of the eigenvalues
should be negative and damping ratio
should be positive with more than a pre
specified value according to utilities
practice (typically damping ratio should be
higher than 0.05). If at least one of the
eigenvalues has positive real part the
system is said to be unstable. More
specifically, in oscillatory unstable cases, a
pair of complex eigenvaues will appear
with positive real part [12].
Given an eigenvalue in complex format,
-j, the initial frequency of oscillation (f)
and damping ratio can be calculated
using expressions given in (6).

Where Pki=kiki; where ki is the kth entry

of the right eigenvector with ith mode. ki
the kth entry of the left eigenvector
associated with ith mode.

VI.

Damping Low Frequency

Oscillation

The traditional approach to address low

frequency oscillation problem is to equip
PSS in the machines which has tendency
to damp out power oscillations [1]-[8].
However, the present power systems are
too complex as many utilities around the
world are interconnected each other to
deliver reliable and cheap power from
environmentally
clean
resources.
Moreover, introduction of competition had
invited many generating plants to be
connected to power system and started to
dispatch power. PSS in some cases founds

not sufficient and even detrimental, this

has open the door for a number of FACTS
controllers applied to add damping on
weak modes. The remedial measures for
oscillation damping can be classified in
two broad categories, one at operational
level and the other one is at planning
stage. Operational level approaches for
power system oscillation damping include
re-tuning excitation control system and
PSS. Re-dispatching of generators and
adjusting of load changers can also be
considered. At the operational level, load
shedding can also be used as the last line
of defense to damp low frequency of
oscillation [19],[20]. Planning level: At
planning stage a number of damping
controllers
can
be
considered
for
implementation.
New
PSS,
FACTS
controllers
[21]-[26],
Superconducting
Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES) and fly
wheel are some of them [27]-[30].

VII.

Conclusion

In this document we have discussed about

various power system oscillations and how
to analyze the power system to detect the
oscillations. We briefly showed the
possible
solutions
to
address
the
oscillation problem. As far as we see,
deregulation in Power Industry will be
generally accepted worldwide. The loading
of existing power systems will further
increase, leading to bottlenecks and
reliability problems. As a consequence of
lessons
learned
from
the
large
Blackouts, FACTS and HVDC will play an
important
role
for
the
system
developments, leading to hybrid AC/DC
systems with better controllability of the
power flows and to assist in prevention of
cascading disturbances.
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