Hidden Ecological Potentials in

Concrete Pavements
Florian Gschsser, Michael Bsch, Holger Wallbaum

Conference Paper
for the

CIB World Congress 2010,

May 10th - 13th,
the Lowry, Salford Quays, United Kingdom

Task Group:
TG62 Built Environment Complexity

Hidden Ecological Potentials in Concrete

Pavements
Florian Gschsser
Institute for Construction Engineering and Management, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
gschoesser@ibb.baug.ethz.ch
Michael Bsch
Institute of Environmental Engineering, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
boesch@ifu.baug.ethz.ch
Holger Wallbaum
Institute for Construction Engineering and Management, ETH Zurich, Switzerland
wallbaum@ibb.baug.ethz.ch

Abstract
In recent years, sustainability has become a major concern in the field of infrastructure. Several
studies with the goal of determining the environmental potential of road constructions in
general, as well as of concrete roads specifically, have been or are about to be carried out.
These studies are focused on the comparison of environmental impacts concerning different
types of road constructions using materials produced in their standard way, without looking
deeper into the material production processes and their ecological optimisation potential. This
paper focuses on the environmental potentials concerning greenhouse gas emissions in CO2
equivalence emissions hidden in concrete pavements, i.e. potentials of the cement and concrete
production. These possible ecological advantages are investigated by performing several cradleto-gate life cycle assessments (LCA) including all processes from the raw material extraction to
the moment the material leaves the production plant, for different production configurations.
Thereby, concrete compositions and cement types which can be used as alternatives in road
pavements, as well as the production technology and the use of alternative resources for the
fabrication of the three materials (clinker, cement, concrete), can be used as set screws to
influence the environmental impacts resulting from the concrete pavement.
For Switzerland, realistic improvement potentials are identified and compared to the present
situation. Potential production changes analysed in this study comprise the utilisation of CEM II
instead of CEM I cement and the use of increased amounts of recycled aggregates. Results
show reductions in greenhouse gas emissions (kg CO2-eq) of up to 25%. Furthermore, the
ecological impacts of the production of cement could be reduced by increasing the thermal
substitution rate of waste, the share of biogenic wastes and the energy efficiency of the cement
kiln systems. However, these potentials are more difficult to achieve. Changes in the production
infrastructure are highly cost intensive and will only occur in the long-term. The fuel
substitution rate and the type of co-processed wastes depend on waste availability, market
prices, waste regulations, and may also require costly infrastructure modifications. Therefore,
average data for the cement production was used. Finally, based on the LCA-calculations the
potentials for the Swiss and the Central and Eastern European (concrete) motorway network are

determined. In Switzerland within the next 15 years 180 km of motorways will be built.
Assuming the percentage of concrete pavements remains at 14%, the application of the concrete
with the lowest environmental impact would contribute 0.2% of the aspired CO2 emission
reduction of Switzerland by 2012. For the annexation of the EU-12 countries motorways with a
total length of 14000 km will be built in Central and Eastern Europe until 2015. Assuming a
concrete pavement percentage of 25%, the application of the best practice would here
contribute 0.35% of the aspired carbon emission reduction of the total EU by 2012.
Keywords: road construction, concrete pavements, life cycle assessment, ecological potentials,
carbon emissions

1 Introduction
The reduction of carbon emissions is one of the main aims of a sustainable development.
Therefore, the European Union aspires to reduce the CO2 emissions by 20% until 2020 in
comparison to the emissions of 1990 (European Communities, 2008). In 2006, transport caused
(without taking the infrastructure into account) 24.6% of the carbon emissions of the EU-27
countries (European Communities, 2009), whereby fuel consumption causes the biggest part of
the transport emissions. Thus, research focuses on energy efficient transport vehicles. However,
the infrastructure can also contribute to a sustainable development, by developing resourceconserving road constructions with lower maintenance frequencies, less rolling resistance and
lower noise emissions.
At the moment 14%, i.e. 247 km, of the Swiss road network is paved with a concrete layer
(Werner, 2004). However, the Swiss Federal Roads Office ASTRA pursues the policy not to
construct national roads with concrete pavements in the near future for several, partly out-dated,
reasons: expensive damages, complex construction process, delayed opening for traffic
(Werner, 2004). Therefore, Swiss cement and concrete producers pursue the goal of becoming
part of the game again by determining and improving the performance of their products.
Several life cycle assessments were or are about to be carried out in order to demonstrate the
ecological usability and properties of concrete itself and furthermore of concrete pavements
(Birgisdttir, 2005; Holldorb & Meisenzahl, 2003; Mroueh, et al., 2000; Conway-Schempf,
1999). Most of these LCAs compare ecological impacts of different road construction types
over the whole life cycle of production, use and disposal applying standard processes.
This paper attempts to quantify the ecological improvement potentials in production processes
of concrete pavements concerning greenhouse gas emissions. Previous LCA studies indentified
the production characteristics with large ecological potentials: clinker production, type of
cement used, use of recycled aggregates (Bsch, et al., 2009; Jeske, et al., 2004; Kytzia &
Seyler, 2009). The aim of this paper is to combine the potential of these three set screws to a
realisable best practice and to calculate the total potential for the Swiss national road and
Central and Eastern European motorway network.

2 Concrete Road Pavements

2.1 Design of Concrete Road Pavements
Concrete pavements have many advantages concerning roads with high traffic volume and a
high proportion of slow moving heavy vehicles, i.e. concerning motorways or as they are called
in Switzerland national roads. Thus, this paper analyses the possible contribution to greenhouse
gas emission reduction of concrete pavements of the highest traffic load class T61 (Vereinigung
Schweizerischer Strassenfachleute, 1997).
In standard road construction, a concrete paving layer consists of 5m x 5m unreinforced plates
connected to each other by anchors every 50 cm on all sides. The appearing joints between the
plates should be realised in a waterproof manner (Holcim Schweiz AG, 2008). Since the
beginning of the 1990s concrete pavements with an exposed aggregate layer on top have been
used in Central Europe (Pertl, 2000) and can now be seen as state of the art for concrete road
pavements in Switzerland as well. However, they are not yet mentioned in the VSS2 standard
concerning concrete pavements; this is planned for the upcoming version of the standard. A
concrete road pavement with an exposed aggregate layer for the traffic load class T6 can be seen
in figure 1.

Figure 1: Cross-section of a concrete pavement

The effects of putting an exposed aggregate layer on top of the pavement are noise reduction
and a higher road grip (Holcim Schweiz AG, 2008).
The comparison of concrete types in this study is based on the production of 1m2 concrete
pavement. Based on the cross-section shown in figure 1 the needed concrete for 1m2 can be
quantified with 0,05m3 of exposed aggregate concrete and 0,19m3 of bottom concrete.
1

Daily Equivalent Traffic Load > 3 000 10 000 average daily passages of equivalent single axle load

on one lane during a significant period under observation

2

Swiss Association of Road and Transportation Experts (Schweizerischer Verband der Strassen- und

Verkehrsfachleute)

2.2 Concrete Compositions

Concrete generally consist of cement, mineral aggregates, water and optional additives. The
required properties of concrete used in a concrete pavement (Vereinigung Schweizerischer
Strassenfachleute, 2008) can be seen in table 1.
Table 1: Required properties for concrete pavements (Vereinigung Schweizerischer
Strassenfachleute, 2008)
Compressive
strength class

C30/ 37

Exposure classes

XF4, XC4, XD3

Bending tensile
strength
after 28 days

Content of
cement

[N/mm2]

[kg/m ]

Effective water
cement ratio
[-]

5.5

340

0.45

Air void content depending maximum aggregate size

[Vol.-%]

Percentage of aggregate <0.25 mm depending on

maximum aggregate size
[kg/m3]

32mm

16mm

8mm

32mm

22mm

16mm

3 ... 7

3.5 ... 7.5

4 ... 8

340 ... 450

+7%

+14%

Each concrete composition depends on the intended use of the concrete. Therefore, different
compositions for the bottom concrete and the exposed aggregate concrete are implemented. For
simplicity, in this study aggregates are grouped into sand, gravel and gravel, crushed.
Before the invention of the exposed aggregate layer, concrete pavement was constructed as one
total layer using a composition, which typically only fulfilled the requirements of the VSS
standard (Vereinigung Schweizerischer Strassenfachleute, 2008). Presently, the bottom concrete
layer consists of the same type of concrete as the former total layer. For the production of
bottom concrete primary aggregates and recycled aggregates can be used. The bottom concrete
composition with primary aggregates applied in this study represents a common composition
used in practice (table 2).
Table 2: Composition of bottom concrete with primary aggregates (Holcim Schweiz AG, 2008)
Material

[kg/m 3 ]

Primary sand

650

Primary gravel

1262

Cement

343

Water

144

Plasticiser

3.4

Air entering agent

Total

2.4
2404.8

The effective water cement ratio of this composition is 0.43. The amount of plasticiser and air
entering agent, which is intended to give the concrete a high resistance against freeze-thaw
attacks, will be the same in all concrete compositions analysed. The applicable cement types are
described below in detail.
The mixture composition for exposed aggregate concrete must fulfil further requirements,
compared to the bottom layer because of its additional task to reduce the generation of noise.

Therefore, no recycled aggregates and only crushed gravel of high quality can be used.
Furthermore, a higher portion of cement paste is needed (table 3). As previously stated, concrete
pavements with an exposed aggregate concrete layer are not yet mentioned in the VSS standard
and the level of experience in Switzerland is rather low in comparison with other Central
European countries like Germany. For this reason, the composition of an exposed aggregate
concrete used in practice at a motorway section in Saxony-Anhalt (Hemrich, 2008), which
fulfils the requirements of the German regulations (Forschungsgesellschaft fr Strassen- und
Verkehrswesen, 2008a, b) was analysed (table 3). The effective water cement ratio of this
composition is 0.41.
Table 3: Composition of exposed aggregate concrete with primary aggregates (Hemrich, 2008)
Material

[kg/m 3 ]

Primary sand

420

Primary crushed gravel

1325

Cement

420

Water

170

Plasticiser

3.4

Air entering agent

Total

2.4
2340.8

Hofmann and Jacobs (2007) state that the VSS standard for recycling (Vereinigung
Schweizerischer Strassenfachleute, 1998a), as well as the SIA 3 standard for concrete
(Schweizerischer Ingenieur- und Architektenverein, 2003) allows a percentage of 100%
recycled aggregates in bottom concretes. Furthermore, it is mentioned that only recycled
concrete granulates can be used as aggregates within recycling bottom concrete, as opposed to
aggregates generated from concrete mixed with other components. Four compositions using
different portions of recycled aggregates will be analysed. The use of recycled aggregates
requires a higher portion of cement paste in the concrete (Hofmann & Jacobs, 2007). The
compositions can be seen in table 4. All four compositions have the same effective water
cement ratio of 0.44, which fulfils the requirement of a ratio lower than 0.45 (Vereinigung
Schweizerischer Strassenfachleute, 1998b).
Table 4: Compositions for bottom concrete using recycled mineral aggregates
Percentage of
recycled aggregate [%]

100%

75%

50%

25%

[kg/m 3 ]

[kg/m 3 ]

[kg/m 3 ]

[kg/m 3 ]

Recycling sand

578

433.5

289

144.5

Recycling crushed

1122

841.5

561

280.5

Primary sand

162.5

325

487.5

Primary gravel

205.5

631

901.5

Cement

420

395

360

340

Water

220

210

190

176

Plasticiser

3.4

3.4

3.4

3.4

Air entering agent

2.4

2.4

2.4

2.4

2345.8

2253.8

2361.8

2335.8

Material

Total

Swiss Society of Engineers and Architects (Schweizerischer Ingenieur- und Architektenverein)

2.3 Cement types

The type of cement used within a concrete composition has a big influence on its environmental
impact (Bilgeri, et al., 2007). At the moment CEM I 42,5N, which consists of 95-100% clinker
(European Committee for Standardization, 2000) is used as a standard cement type for concrete
pavements in Switzerland (Vereinigung Schweizerischer Strassenfachleute, 2008). Several LCA
studies have already shown that clinker production causes the greatest amount of environmental
impacts of total cement and concrete production (Holldorb & Meisenzahl, 2003; Mroueh, et al.,
2000; Conway-Schempf, 1999). Hence, the percentage of clinker within the cement and
concrete should be reduced. For this reason, the use of cements with other main constituents
besides clinker (e.g. cement types CEM II or CEM III) for exposed aggregate concrete, as well
as for bottom concrete, is recommended. The usage of concretes with CEM II or CEM III at test
sections on German motorways demonstrated that concretes with cements containing reduced
clinker contents offer the same or even higher quality results, and equal or better properties than
a concrete with the standard CEM I cement (Bilgeri, et al., 2007). Holcim Schweiz AG (2008)
names three cements of the type CEM II, which can be used as an alternative to the standard
cement. According to the standard EN 197-1 (European Committee for Standardization, 2000),
it has been assumed that all cements contain 5% gypsum and 2.5% minor additional
constituents, i.e. the portions of the cement constituents stated in the standard (table 5 without
gypsum) have to be allocated to 92.5% of the total mass (table 5 with gypsum). In this study,
the averages of the stated ranges for main constituents are applied.
Table 5: Cements according to the EN 197-1 (2000) and compositions applied in this study
Cement type

Composition in mass percent

(portions stated in without gypsum)

Cement name

Cement
clinker
CEM I

CEM II

Composition in mass percent

(with gypsum)

Other main
Other main
Minor
constituent
constituents
components
type

Portland cement

CEM I

95-100

Portland blast
furnace cement

CEM II/A-S

80-94

6-20

Portland
limestone
cement

CEM II/A-LL

80-94

Portland shale
cement

CEM II/B-T

65-79

Cement
clinker

Other main
Minor
Other main
constituent
components
constituents
type

0-5

92.5

Slag sand

0-5

80.5

12

6-20

Limestone

0-5

80.5

21-35

Oil shale

0-5

66.5

Gypsum

2.5

Slag sand

2.5

12

Limestone

2.5

26

Oil shale

2.5

In total, for all six concrete compositions using the four different cements, 24 life cycle
assessments have been performed (figure 3).

3 Life Cycle Assessments

A life cycle assessment is a method to analyse environmental impacts of products and services
(International Standard Office, 2006). This study applies a cradle-to-gate approach which
comprises all resource consumptions and emissions from the primary resource extraction to the
finished product. The use phase and final disposal of the concretes are not assessed. It is
assumed that the use and disposal is equal for all assessed concrete types and hence does not
influence the result.

3.1 Scope and Functional Unit

Life cycle assessments (LCA) are generally structured around a functional unit. All inputs and
outputs in the life cycle inventory (LCI) and consequently the life cycle impact assessment
(LCIA) profile are related to the functional unit (International Standard Office, 2006). The
functional unit of this study is 1m2 of concrete pavement. As previously mentioned, the amount
of concrete needed for 1m2 of concrete pavement can be quantified as 0.05m3 of exposed
aggregate concrete and 0.19m3 of bottom concrete. To begin, 24 LCAs for 1m3 of the different
concrete compositions have been performed (four for exposed aggregate concrete, 20 for bottom
concrete, see figure 3). The results of these calculations will later be combined according to the
amount of exposed aggregate and bottom concrete needed for 1m2 of concrete pavement. The
type and amount of anchors and joint bands needed for concrete pavement is not influenced by
the concrete composition applied. Therefore, they will be excluded from the system boundaries
of this LCA study. The system boundaries for this life cycle assessment can be seen in figure 2.

Figure 2: System boundaries of the concrete production adapted from Jeske, et al. (2004)

3.2 Input for assessment

In this study, actual industry data, LCA data from the ecoinvent database v2.0 (ecoinvent center,
2007) and data from relevant literature were combined. In general, the clinker and cement
production would offer a high potential for the optimisation of the ecological performance of
the total concrete production. Although the ecological standard in Switzerland is quite high, the
green house gas emissions of cement and clinker production could be further reduced by
increasing the thermal substitution rate of waste, the share of biogenic waste, and improving
energy efficiency. This set screw is challenging to adjust. Changes in the production
infrastructure are highly cost intensive and will only occur in the long-term. The fuel
substitution rate and the type of co-processed wastes depend on waste availability, market
prices, waste regulations, and may also require costly infrastructure modifications. For these
reasons, averaged data for the complete Swiss cement and clinker production was used
(Cemsuisse, 2008). For the clinker production the heat requirement was quantified with 3450
MJ, the thermal substitution rate of waste with 46.5%. The amounts and the characteristics of

the fuel and waste types were specified as given by Cemsuisse (2008). In general, the grinding
of blended cements, as for example CEM II, requires more electricity than CEM I, because finer
grinding is required. However, total electricity consumption is slightly reduced because of the
lower clinker content. In this study, the electricity requirement for the clinker production and
the cement grinding, i.e. the total electricity that is consumed at a cement plant, is assumed as
99.7 kWh/t for all cement types (Verein deutscher Zementwerke, 2007). Regarding the CO2
intensity of the used electricity, UCTE electricity mix was applied which represents the
European situation. The life cycle of the recycled aggregate production starts after the transport
of the reclaimed material to the production plant. For the LCAs of the recycled concretes the
ecoinvent process gravel, crushed was modified, or more precisely, all processes concerning
mining and the transport to the plant were subtracted. Therefore, the energy needed for the
crushing and classification of the recycled concrete were assumed to be the same as those of the
primary aggregates. The processes given in ecoinvent are based on a survey of the complete
Swiss concrete industry, thus they implement average values for the concrete production, for
example transport distances or mixing energy. Regarding the waste fuels used in clinker
production, only waste preparation is taken into account but not waste production. The
environmental impact of waste production is generally not attributed to the waste treatment
industry, but to the industry responsible for its generation.

3.3 Life Cycle Inventory Analysis and Impact Assessment

Based on the given and collected input data, the 24 life cycle inventory analyses and life cycle
impact assessments for the production of 1m3 of the several concrete compositions were
performed. As previously mentioned, the focus of this study is on greenhouse gas emissions of
concrete pavements. Therefore, the IPCC 2001 climate change indicator is implemented in
the LCIAs, the results of which are the CO2-eq emissions of the different concretes (figure 3).

Figure 3: Greenhouse gas emissions of the different concrete types

As shown by the results, the use of cement with a lower amount of clinker in general causes
lower greenhouse gas emissions from concrete. Figure 3 also demonstrates how using a high
amount of recycled aggregates for the bottom concrete causes higher greenhouse gas emissions
than concretes using primary aggregates. This can be explained by the need for more cement
paste in the recycling concrete. This study determines a concrete composition containing 25%

recycled aggregates as a best practice composition, as it allows substantial concrete recycling

with only marginal additional cement usage. However, as this study does not include concrete
disposal processes, no definitive statement can be made on the optimal concrete recycling rate.
In the next step, combinations of bottom concrete and exposed aggregate concrete were
analysed. Three different combinations were used for this analysis: the standard combination
using primary aggregates and CEM I in both layers, the best practice combination using 25%
recycled aggregates in the bottom concrete and CEM II/ B-T in both layers and the worst case
combination using 100% recycling material and CEM I in both layers. The results can be seen
in figure 4.

Figure 4: Comparison of greenhouse gas emissions of concrete pavements

The comparison of the standard combination and the best practice combination demonstrates
that the application of the best practice would result in a reduction of 19.5 kg CO2-eq or 25%
per square metre concrete pavement. Thus, assuming that the policy of the Swiss Federal Roads
Office would still allow concrete pavements for Swiss national roads and the percentage of
concrete pavements would stay the same, the application of the best practice would bring a
reduction of 7435 tons CO2-eq for the 382123 m2 of concrete pavement, i.e. in total 25 km
(Bundesamt fr Strassen, 2009) that would be built in the next 15 years. This would be 0.2% of
the aspired CO2 emission reduction of Switzerland by 2012 (European Communities, 2009;
Bundesamt fr Umwelt, 2008) or the CO2 emissions caused by 3150 cars, calculated with an
average consumption of 7l/ 100km and an annual distance of 15000 km driven (Green orange,
2009). The European Union Road Federation (2004) states that for the annexation of the EU-12
countries 14000 km of new motorways need to be built in Central and Eastern Europe by 2015.
In this study, the Swiss cement production data as described above is applied to estimate the
potential in the EU-12, since no production data from Central and Eastern Europe was available.
It should be noted that the actual benefits are probably larger than estimated in this study, since
due to the less efficient cement production in EU-12 compared to Switzerland, a reduction of
the clinker content in cement leads to a larger reduction of environmental impacts. Thus, with
an assumed concrete pavement percentage of 25% the total reduction for this 14'000 km of
motorways would be 1242145 tons CO2-eq. This would be 0.35% of the aspired CO2 emission
reduction of the EU by 2012 (European Communities, 2009) or the CO2 emissions caused by
526333 cars (7l/ 100km) over 15000 km (Green orange, 2009).

4 Discussion and Conclusions

This paper examines the ecological potentials in production processes of concrete pavements
concerning greenhouse gas emissions. It has been shown that the use of cement types with a
lower percentage of clinker offers the opportunity to reduce the greenhouse gas emissions of
1m2 of concrete pavement by up to 25%. Furthermore, it is demonstrated that the use of a high
amount of recycled concrete aggregates causes higher CO2-eq emissions. Up to 25% of
recycling concrete can be substituted without increasing the CO2 emissions compared to
primary concrete. This value has been chosen as ideal substitution rate in this study as it allows
recycling a fraction of end-of-life concrete and saves primary resources without increasing the
CO2 emissions compared to primary concrete. For a more comprehensive analysis, the actual
impact of concrete disposal and resource depletion should be taken into account. The data used
for this study can be seen as authentic for the case study Switzerland because the ecoinvent
database, recent data from the Association of the Swiss Cement Industry and current Swiss as
well as European standards were used as a basis. Large uncertainties are present in the
estimation of the potential of Eastern and Central Europe, since Swiss cement production data is
applied. The benefits from reducing the clinker content in cement (i.e. using CEM II instead of
CEM I) will probably be larger in this case study, as clinker production can be assumed to be
less energy efficient than in Switzerland. Further uncertainties exist in the assumption that the
crushing of recycled aggregates consumes the same amount of energy as the crushing of
primary material, but since the greenhouse gas emissions of the crushing processes compared to
the emissions of the clinker production are disproportionally low, there is no need for a
particular process analysis at this stage. As a final conclusion, it may be observed that by using
cements containing a low percentage of clinker, which causes the greatest portion of emissions,
the national (0.2%) and Central-Eastern-European concrete road systems (0.35%) may be small
a means to achieving the common goal of carbon emissions reduction, which can be realised
easily. The effectiveness of this means could be improved with an even more ecologically
efficient cement and clinker production, i.e. the minimisation of the ecological impacts of
cement and clinker. Since the aim of the larger research project behind this study is to compare
complete road pavements using different paving materials, the next steps should be the
calculation of the greenhouse gas emissions for the Eastern and Central European situation and
the analysis of the ecological potentials hidden in the asphalt production to allow for a
comparison of different paving materials. Finally, a tool for the life cycle wide ecological and
economic comparison of different road construction types will be developed.

Acknowledgment
We would like to thank the Holcim Foundation for Sustainable Construction for its financial
support. We also would like to thank cemsuisse for offering us their data. Furthermore, we want
to thank Prof. Dr. Stefanie Hellweg and her team from the Institute of Environmental
Engineering for the good collaboration.

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