Gas Turbines

Gas Turbines

The principal use of the gas turbine engine has been in the field of aviation. However, the large gas
turbine units are also used for electric power generation and for marine propulsion.

The practical gas turbine cycle (open cycle)

Combustion
chamber 3
2
Net work
output

Compressor Turbine

4
1 Air inlet Exhaust

The compression process is irreversible but approximately adiabatic, similarly the expansion
process in the turbine is irreversible but approximately adiabatic.

T
P2
3
Neglecting the pressure loss in the combustion chamber
2’ and assuming that the change in kinetic energy between the
2 P1
various parts in the cycle is negligibly small compared with
the enthalpy changes, the flow equation can be applied to
4 4’ each part of the cycle.
1

s
For the compressor: Work input = c p (T2′ − T1 )
For the combustion chamber: Heat supplied = c p (T3 − T2′ )
For the turbine: Work output = c p (T3 − T4′ )

Net work output = c p (T3 − T4′ ) − c p (T2′ − T1 )

Net work output c p (T 3 − T 4 ′ ) − c p (T 2 ′ − T 1 )

Thermal efficiency = =
Heat supplied c p (T 3 − T 2 ′ )

The specific heat of a real gas varies with temperature. A suitable mean value of cp must be chosen.

The isentropic efficiency of the compressor is defined as the ratio of the work required in isentropic
compression between P1 and P2 to the actual work required. Neglecting the changes in kinetic
energy:

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Gas Turbines

c p (T2 − T1 ) T2 − T1
Compressor isentropic efficiency, ηc = =
c p (T2′ − T1 ) T2′ − T1

Similarly, the isentropic efficiency of the turbine is defined as the ratio of the actual work output to
the isentropic work output between the same pressures. Neglecting kinetic energy changes:
c p (T3 − T4′ ) T3 − T4′
Turbine isentropic efficiency, η t = =
c p (T3 − T4 ) T3 − T4

It is sometimes more convenient to have to separate turbines, one of which drives the compressor
while the other provides the power output.

CC
2’ 3

H.P.
Compressor Turbine

4’
1 Air inlet Net work
output
L.P.
Turbine

T 5’
P2 Exhaust
3

4’
2’ P1
2
4
5’
5
1

The first, or high pressure turbine is then known as the compressor turbine and the second, or low
pressure turbine is called the power turbine. Neglecting kinetic energy changes:

Work from H.P. turbine = Work input to compressor

c pg (T3 − T4′ ) = c pa (T2′ − T1 )

where cpg and cpa are the specific heats at constant pressure of the gases in the turbine and the air in
the compressor respectively. The net work output is then given by the L.P. turbine:

Net work output = c pg (T4′ − T5′ )

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Gas Turbines

In a jet engine the propulsion nozzle takes the place of the low pressure stage turbine.

CC
2’ 3
4’

Compressor Turbine Nozzle

5’

Exhaust

1 Air inlet

The aircraft is powered by the reactive thrust of the jet of gases leaving the nozzle, and this high
velocity jet is obtained at the expense of the enthalpy drop from 4’ to 5’.

In a turbo-prop engine the turbine drives the compressor and also the airscrew, or propeller.

4’
CC
2’ 3 Exhaust

Propell Compressor Turbine

1 Air inlet

The net work available to drive the propeller is given by:

Net work = c p (T3 − T4′ ) − c p (T2′ − T1 )

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 Gas Turbines

In some industrial and marine gas turbine units, the air flow is split into two streams after the
compression process is completed.

Compressor Turbine1

CC1 Exhaust
Air inlet

Net work
CC2
output

Turbine2

Exhaust

This is called a parallel flow unit. In this system each turbine expands the gases received by it
through the full pressure ratio.

Modifications to the basic cycle

The work ratio and the thermal efficiency of the basic gas turbine cycle are low. These can be
improved by increasing the isentropic efficiencies of the compressor and turbine, and this is a
matter of blade design and manufacture.

The thermal efficiency depends on the maximum cycle temperature as well as on the pressure ratio.
The net work output also depends on the pressure ratio and on the maximum cycle temperature. It
can be observed that the thermal efficiency reaches a maximum at a different value of pressure
ratio than the work output. The choice of pressure ratio is therefore a compromise.

(a) Intercooling

Intercooler

3
CC
2’ 5
4’
Net work
output
L.P. H.P.
Compressor Compressor Turbine

Exhaust 6’
1 Air inlet

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 Gas Turbines

T The work input with intercooling:

5
c p (T2′ − T1 ) + c p (T4′ − T3 )

A’
The work input with no intercooling:
A
2’ c p (TA′ − T1 ) = c p (T2′ − T1 ) + c p (TA′ − T2′ )
4 4’ 2
6 6’
(T4′ − T3 ) < (TA′ − T2′ ) , since the pressure lines diverge
3 1 from left to right on the T-s diagram.
s
It can be shown that the best interstage pressure is the one which gives equal pressure ratios in each
stage of compression.

P2 P4
This means, =
P1 P3

The work input required is a minimum when the pressure ratio in each stage is the same, and when
the temperature of the air is cooled in the intercooler back to the value at inlet to the unit.

T3 = T1

net work output work of expansion - work of compression

Work ratio = =
gross work output work of expansion

It follows, therefore, that when the compressor work input is reduced then the work ratio is
increased. However, the heat supplied with intercooling is c p (T5 − T4′ ) and with no intercooling is
c p (T5 − TA′ ) . The heat supplied when intercooling is used is greater than with no intercooling.
Although, the net work output is increased by intercooling, it is found in general that the increase in
the heat to be supplied causes the thermal efficiency to decrease.

(b) Reheat

CC2
4’
CC1 5
2’ 3 Net work
output

H.P. L.P.
Compressor Turbine Turbine

Exhaust 6’
1 Air inlet

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Gas Turbines

The work output of the L.P. turbine can be increased by raising the temperature at inlet to this
stage. This can be done by placing a second combustion chamber between the two turbine stages in
order to heat the gases leaving the H.P. turbine.

The line 4’-A’ represents the expansion in the

T
L.P. turbine, if reheating is not used.

3 5 The work output of the H.P. turbine must be

exactly equal to the work input required for the
compressor.
2’
2 c pa (T2′ − T1 ) = c pg (T3 − T4′ )
4 4’
6 6’
A’ The net work output which is the work output of
A
the L.P. turbine is given by:
1 c pg (T5 − T6′ )
s
If reheating is not used, then the work of the L.P. turbine is given by, c pg (T4′ − TA′ ) .
(T5 − T6′ ) is always greater than (T4′ − TA′ ) , so that reheating increases the net work output.

work of expansion - work of compression

Work ratio =
work of expansion

Therefore, when the work of expansion is increased and the work of compression is unchanged,
then the work ratio is increased.

Although, the net work is increased by reheating, the heat to be supplied is also increased, and the
net effect can be to reduce the thermal efficiency.

Heat supplied = c pg (T3 − T2′ ) + c pg (T5 − T4′ )

(c) Heat exchanger

Heat exchanger

CC 5’
3
2’ 4 Net work
output

Compressor Turbine

1 Air inlet

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 Gas Turbines

T 4 In the ideal heat exchanger, the air would be

Available heated from T2’ to T3=T5’ and the gases
temperature
difference would be cooled from T5’ to T6=T2’. In
practice this is impossible, since a finite
temperature difference is required at all points
3 in the heat exchanger in order to overcome
T3=T5’
T2’=T6 2 2’ 5’ the resistance to the heat transfer.
6

T 4
The required temperature difference between
the gases and the air entering the heat
exchanger is (T6-T2’) and the required
temperature difference between the gases and
3 the air leaving the heat exchanger is (T5’-T3).
T5’
T2’ 2 2’ 5’
6

s
If no heat is lost from the heat exchanger to the atmosphere, then the heat given up by the gases
must be exactly equal to the heat taken up by the air:

m& a c pa (T3 − T2′ ) = m& g c pg (T5′ − T6 )

The assumption that no heat is lost from the heat exchanger is sufficiently accurate in most
practical cases.

A heat effectiveness is defined to allow for the temperature difference necessary for the transfer of
heat.

heat received by the air

Effectiveness =
maximum possible heat which could be transferred from the gases in the heat exchanger

m& a c pa (T3 − T2′ )

Effectiveness =
m& g c pg (T5′ − T2′ )

A more convenient way of assessing the performance of the heat exchanger is to use a thermal
ratio, defined as:

temperature rise of the air

Thermal ratio =
maximum temperature difference available

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Gas Turbines

T3 − T2′
Thermal ratio =
T5′ − T2′

When a heat exchanger is used then the heat to be supplied in the combustion chamber is reduced,
assuming that the maximum cycle temperature is unchanged. The net work output is unchanged
and hence the thermal efficiency is increased.

Heat supplied by the fuel (without heat exchanger) = c pg (T4 − T2′ )

Heat supplied by the fuel (with heat exchanger) = c pg (T4 − T3 )

Worked Example

A 5000 kW gas turbine generating set operates with two compressor stages with intercooling
between stages; the overall pressure ratio is 9/1. A high-pressure turbine is used to drive the
compressors and a low-pressure turbine drives the generator. The temperature of the gases at entry
to the high-pressure turbine is 650 oC and the gases are reheated to 650 oC after expansion in the
first turbine. The exhaust gases leaving the low-pressure turbine are passed through a heat
exchanger to heat the air leaving the high-pressure stage compressor. The compressors have equal
pressure ratios and intercooling is complete between stages. The air inlet temperature to the unit is
15 oC, the isentropic efficiency of each compressor stage is 0.8 and the isentropic efficiency of each
turbine stage is 0.85; the heat exchanger thermal ratio is 0.75. A mechanical efficiency of 98% can
be assumed for both the power shaft and the compressor turbine shaft. Neglecting all pressure
losses and changes in kinetic energy, calculate the thermal efficiency and work ratio of the plant
and the mass flow in kg/s. For air take cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK & γ = 1.4 and for the gases in the
combustion chamber, in the turbines and the heat exchanger take cp = 1.15 kJ/kgK & γ = 1.333 .
Neglect the mass of fuel.

Summary

P = 5000 kW
Two compressor stages with intercooling
rp = 9 (overall; Pmax/Pmin)
H.P. turbine drives the compressors
L.P. turbine drives the generator
T = 650 oC at entry to H.P. turbine
T = 650 oC at entry to L.P. turbine
Heat exchanger (L.P. turbine exit – H.P. turbine CC entry)
rcomp1 = r comp2, Tinlet,LPc = Tinlet,HPc
T1 = 15 oC
ηcomp = 0.8, ηturb = 0.85, T/R = 0.75, ηmech = 0.98
Air: cp = 1.005 kJ/kgK, γ = 1.4
Combustion gases: cp =1.15 kJ/kgK, γ = 1.333

Calculate

ηth = ?, W / R = ?, m& = ?

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 Gas Turbines

Intercooler

3
2’

L.P. H.P. H.P.

Compressor Compressor Turbine

4’ 5 6
CC1 7’
1 Air inlet 10
CC2

Heat exchanger 8

Net work
output
L.P.
Turbine

9’

6 8 Each compressor has the same

pressure ratio and isentropic
efficiency, then the work input
required for each compressor
will be identical, since both
7’
7 compressors have the same inlet
5 9’
9 temperature, i.e.

T1 = T3 , and T2′ = T4′

4’
4 2 2’
10

3 1

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Gas Turbines

Isentropic Relationship:

γ −1
T2  P2  γ P2 P P
=  , and = 9 = 3 , since 2 = 4
T1  P1  P1 Pq P2
0.4
T2 = 288 × 31.4 = 394 K

T2 − T1 394 − 288 106

ηcomp = = 0.8, ∴T2′ − T1 = = = 132.5 K
T2′ − T1 0.8 0.8
T2′ = 288 + 132.5 = 420.5 K

Work input per compressor stage:

= c pa (T2′ − T1 ) = 1.005 × 132.5 = 133.1 kJ/kg

The H.P. turbine is required to drive both compressors and to overcome mechanical friction.
2 × 133.1
Work output of H.P. turbine = = 272 kJ/kg
0.98
∴ c pg (T6 − T7′ ) = 272, 1.15(923 − T7′ ) = 272
272
923 − T7′ = = 236.5 K, T7′ = 923 − 236.5 = 686.5 K
1.15

T6 − T7 ′ 236.5
η HPt = = 0.85, T6 − T7 = = 278 K
T6 − T7 0.85
T7 = 923 − 278 = 645 K

Isentropic relationship,

γ 1.333
P6  T6  γ −1  923  0.333
=  =  = 4.19
P7  T7   645 
P 9
Then, 8 = = 2.147
P9 4.19

Isentropic relationship,

γ −1
0.333
T8  P8  γ 923
=  = 2.147 1.333 = 1.211, ∴ T9 = = 762.6 K
T9  P9  1.211

T8 − T9′
η LPt = = 0.85, T8 − T9′ = 0.85 × (923 − 762.6) = 0.85 × 160.4 = 136.3 K
T8 − T9
T9′ = 923 − 136.3 = 786.7 K

Net work output = c pg (T8 − T9′ ) × 0.98 = 1.15 × 136.3 × 0.98 = 153.7 kJ/kg
T5 − T4′
Thermal ratio of heat exchanger = = 0.75
T9′ − T4′
T5 − 420.5 = 0.75 × (786.7 − 420.5) = 0.75 × 366.2 = 274.7 K
T5 = 420.5 + 274.7 = 695.2 K

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Gas Turbines

Heat supplied = c pg (T6 − T5 ) + c pg (T8 − T7 ′ ) = 1.15 × (923 − 695.2) + 1.15 × (923 − 686.5) = 534 kJ/kg

W 153.7
ηth = = = 0.288, or 28.8%
Q 534

Gross work of the plant = work of H.P. turbine + work of L.P. turbine
153.7
Gross work = 272 + = 429 kJ/kg
0.98
net work output 153.7
∴ Work ratio = = = 0.358
gross work output 429

The electrical output is 5000 kW. Let the mass flow rate be m& kg/s, Then,
5000 = m& × 153.7
5000
m& = = 32.6 kg/s
153.7

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