CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION TO LIGHT AND MEDIUM

MERCHANT MILLS (LMMM)

The Light and Medium Merchant Mills (LMMM) of VSP has been envisaged to produce:
1. 7,10,000 Tons/year of LMMM products.
2. 2,46,000 Tons/year of Billets for sale.
3. 8,85,000 Tons/year of Billets for WRM.
Entire mill has been laid out at an elevation of +5 meter except the charging grids and their
associated roller tables which are located in the cross bays at +0.01 level.

1.1 BILLETS AND BLOOMS

A billet is a length of metal that has a round or square cross-section, with an area less
than 36 sq in (230 cm2). Billets are created directly

via continuous casting or extrusion or

indirectly via rolling an ingot. Billets are further processed via profile rolling and drawing.
Final products include bar stock and wires.
Blooms are similar to billets except the cross sectional area is greater than 36 sq in
(230 cm2). Blooms are usually further processed

via structural shape rolling and profile

rolling. Common final products include structural shapes, rails, rods, and seamless pipes.

1.2 CHARGING, FURNACE AND DISCHARGING AREAS

The feed material for the mill is continuous cast bloom of 250mmX320mm size
having a normal bloom length of 6.3 meter. Cold blooms are charged on the charging grid by
1

magnet crane according to the rolling sequence list. Each walking beam furnace has defined
track numbers and charging and discharging of blooms from charging grids and furnaces
respectively will be according to the rolling mode i.e., each bloom destined for its defined
track number will be discharged from charging grid in the sequential order. Normally furnace 1
is intended to feed hot blooms for production of billets and deposition on to billet cooling bed
while furnace 2 is intended to feed hot blooms for onward transmission to bar mill.

This implies that the cold blooms are to charge into charging grid in a definite pattern
to suit the particular rolling mode adopted and particular grid can be operated for discharging
of blooms on to roller table upon ON light flashing and the light will go OFF when
preselected number of blooms have been discharged. In order to identify and check the correct
charging pattern the bloom of a changed heat number is given a colour marking. Rectangular
blooms will be placed on the charging grids (3no.) in flat position (320mm flat) by means of
magnet crane. The cranes are capable of loading 3 blooms at a time and will form a gapless
bloom group of maximum 6 blooms each. Each grid is capable of receiving maximum of 6
groups which are appropriately spaced apart for the folding dogs to restore the upright position
and engage.
Two blooms are discharged on to roller tables one by one in the sequential manner as
mentioned earlier. The respective grid will go OFF when the preselected number of blooms
has been discharged on to roller table. When the blooms have passed the roller table section in
front of another grid, the light of that grid will be ON permitting that grid to discharge
blooms. Blooms are discharged on roller table and conveyed to the elevator. Defective blooms,
if any, on its travel to the elevator will be detected manually by the operator and positioned in
front of defective bloom grids and will be pushed out of the roller table.
The roller table transports the blooms normally under sequence control of their
respective destined elevators 1 or 2. The blooms are pushed off the roller table by lever type
off on to a ramp from where they are picked up carrier links of elevators and pulled up. They
carry off device downstream and pick up the bloom and places on furnace approach roller
table. The furnace approach roller table working on sequential control, positions the blooms
while on motion on various sections of this roller by means of light barrier. Since the walking
beam system are to be uniformly loaded different bloom lengths will be classified into two
categories and positioned in front of furnaces automatically. The bloom on its passage is
2

stopped and its actual weight is recorded. The material tracking computer system takes over
the actual weight, checks with reference weight and then sets the bloom free for further
transport. As soon as the blooms are positioned correctly and the walking beam furnaces are
ready to receive the blooms, the blooms are pushed into the furnace by furnace pusher.

1.3 WALKING BEAM FURNACE

Each furnace is loaded in two rows and each row is meant for its defined destination.
Two furnaces have four tracks and materials are discharged by discharging units (4 nos.) as per
the discharging pattern envisaged for the particular rolling mode. At the delivery side of the
furnace, actual position of blooms is detected by means of a sensor and its actual position is
given out as a coded series of pulses referred to the theoretical position. Walking beam furnace
has capacity of 200tons/hr. the fuel used in the furnace is a mixture of Coke oven gas, Blast
furnace gas and LD converter gas. The fuel calorific value is 2000kcal/m3. In general the
calorific value of Coke oven gas is greater than LD converter gas and Blast furnace gas.

Fig 1.1 Walking Beam Furnace

The walking beam furnace is divided into three zones namely: Pre-heating zone,
Heating zone and soaking zone. The flue gases are sent into recuperators and the bloom is pre
3

heated to a certain temperature. This is pre-heating zone. In the Heating zone the bloom is
heated to the required temperature. This temperature has to be maintained and this is done in
the soaking zone.
The blooms have to be moved from the charging side to the discharging side and this is
done by skids. Skids are of two types: Moving skid and fixed skid. These skids are cylindrical
tubes which are insulated on the top surface and through which steam flows in order to cool
the skids. The blooms are rested upon the fixed skids. The moving skids lift the bloom from
the fixed skids, move forward and place the bloom on the next fixed skid. Now the moving
skid is lowered. The motion of the moving skids is controlled by the pneumatic cylinders.
When the furnace walking beam system has completed its horizontal movement, the
sensor gives out the actual position of bloom. This information is utilized by the corresponding
discharging machine (the mobile beam of the machine has already reached to the discharging
line) to complete its remaining stroke and to lift the material off the furnace and place it on
delivery roller table provided the respective roller table section is free. If it is already occupied
the discharging machine is held in waiting position and subsequently deposits the bloom as
soon as the respective roller table sections are free. If the discharged hot blooms are found to
be defective the blooms are conveyed along the roller table in the reversed direction and are
pushed over defective bloom grid by bloom pusher. Rejected blooms are picked up by crane in
layers of three and deposited on to transfer car. The transfer car transfers the rejected blooms
in the cross bay R-Q.

1.4 BREAKDOWN MILL AREA

Hot blooms travel forward over the roller table under sequence control and is freed
from scale on the move by the de-scaler unit and is finally positioned over the roller table
section having tilter unit. The tilting (under manual control) is done to make the bloom
upright. The upright bloom now enters the first stand of Billet mill. As soon as the tail end of
this bloom clears stand no. 1, the upstream tilter is again ready to receive the next bloom under
sequence control. There are seven stands (four horizontal and three vertical) in the breakdown
mill. In five box passes the bloom is reduced from 320mm X 250mm to 125mm square of 33m
length (referred to nominal bloom length of 6.3m) with a finishing temperature of 11000C4

12000C.The draw-in speed of bloom varies from 0.256m/sec to 0.315m/sec depending upon
the discharge bloom temperature.The stand arrangement is as shown below:
Stand 1
Horizontal
3 Pass

Stand 2
Stand 3
Stand 4
Stand 5
Stand 6
Stand 7
Horizontal Vertical
Horizontal Vertical
Horizontal Vertical
3 Pass
3 Pass
3 Pass
3 Pass
3 Pass
4 Pass
Table 1.1 Table showing the arrangement of stands in LMMM

Fig 1.2 A Vertical Stand in Breakdown Mill

A four crank shear installed behind the mill stand is designed to crop both ends and to
cut fixed billet length between 5.0m to 12.2m or to perform optimum yielding dividing. When
cutting fixed lengths, rest ends up to 1.5m are guided into a scrap bucket (recoil roller table
section open). Rest ends above 1.5m are transported (recoil roller table section closed) to a
location where they are diverted into a short length disposal cradle. Detection of a rest end
below or above 1.5m is automatically done before rest end cut is performed.

Whenever a bloom meant for a bar mill enters BDM, checks are made whether the
pendulum shear at the entry of bar mill is in the process of performing an emergency out of the
proceeding bloom in the very strand for which the new bloom is being rolled in BDM. If it is
so, the new bloom being rolled at BDM must be out into pieces of specified length by the 4crank shear. Those pieces are then deposited into the short length disposal cradle as described
earlier.
If optimum yield cutting is performed, for example, for billets, for wire rod mill, the
total finishing length will be cut to get three equal pieces with one minimum crop cut at each
end. Computer calculation of the first billet length is made on the basis of bloom weight,
already stored in the first billet in conjunction with the reduction in the BDM stands, permits
to assess the billets length with substantial accuracy. However the exact billet length measured
by the measuring roll on the four-crank shear is used to calculate the corrective factor. This
factor is also a parameter to calculate the exact discharging cycle for the succeeding BM
blooms.

1.5 EVAPORATIVE COOLING SYSTEM

The evaporating cooling system is the main type of the cooling system that is at
present being used in the Vishakapatnam Steel Plant. In this the compressed air is being passed
through the pipes into the furnace and this cooling fluid is being collected again into the drum.
The de-mineralized de-aerated water is being used for this purpose so as to prevent corrosion
of the pipe lines etc.

1.6 COOLING BEDS

The cooling beds are used to uniformly air-cool the bars and profiles and transporting
the same in a phased manner from the entry to discharge side. The cooling beds are
specifically designed considering the smallest and the maximum size of the bars being rolled.
These cooling system provides adjustability to the size, shape, and alloy of the profiles with
appropriate cooling rate and minimized distortion. Turn over type cooling bed for alloy steel
rotates the bars by one revolution every time the rake moves by a pitch. These cooling beds

impart better straightness in material with improvised metallurgical properties, as the bars are
uniformly cooled.

1.7 SALIENT FEATURES OF LMMM

a. High capacity and high speed.
b. Automatic minimum tension control in stands
c. Double sided cooling beds of walking beam type.
d. High capacity and high productive sawing lines.
e. Automatic bundling machines.
f. Computerization at the sequential process control and material tracking
g. Adoption of closed circuit TV at furnaces.
h. evaporative cooling system and waste heat recovery.
These features help to optimize the production and assure quality products from the mill.

CHAPTER 2
INTRODUCTION TO TURN OVER TYPE COOLING BEDS
A cooling bed device is provided for straight-edged rolled material, such as billets, for
example, for simultaneously conveying and turning the billets over the bed. This is achieved
by a dual rake arrangement for engaging and moving the billets with a stationary rake
cooperating with a movable rake. Adjacent teeth in the stationary rake form angles of about
90 with each other, and adjacent teeth in the movable rake are spaced from each to form
horizontal bearing surfaces wider than the longest straight edge of a billet to be handled. By
utilizing a single movable rake movable in a simple circular path, and with the incline of rising
and falling flanks of the teeth of both rakes being the same, the device is much less expensive
to construct and operate, while still providing a full 90 turn-over of the billets in a single
sequence of movement of the device. The cooling beds are easily tilted by the supporting
mechanism of bearings, gear box, shafts, coupling.
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2.1 DESIGN AND DESCRIPTON

The turnover type cooling bed consists of
1. Supporting rakes with fixed and pendulum support turnover rakes with toggle lever
supports.
2. The fixed supporting rakes are mounted on single and double supports which are not
cross-connected and thus makes the bed unsusceptible to thermal expansion in cross
direction.
3. In longitudinal direction, thermal expansions of the supporting rakes are
accommodated by pendulum supports.
4. Both the main and secondary swivel shafts are jointly moved by a spur gear via
separate cranks which are staggered under a certain angle.

2.2 FUNCTIONAL DESCRIPTION

1. Their purpose is to cross transfer billets being used as starting stock for the wire
rod mill or for sale to the loading station and to cool them down during this transport.
The two cooling beds are subdivided into two mechanically independent sections as
viewed in material flow direction.
2. The cooling beds substantially comprise a system of fixed rakes, so-called
supporting rakes, and a system of moving rakes, so-called turnover rakes.
3. The two drives of each system are mechanically synchronized disposed on each
gear output shaft are two cranks which via push rods impart an oscillating movement
to the main and the secondary swivel shaft.
4. The main swivel shaft and the toggle lever support coupled there to produce the
vertical movement of the turnover type rake system while horizontal motions are
produced by the secondary swivel shaft and its connecting rods to the turnover rake
system.
5. The teeth or notches of the supporting and turnover rakes are shaped in such a way
that during one turnover rake revolutions all billets lying on the supporting rakes are
twice turned through 90.The cranks on the input shaft to the gears cover an angle of
360 in one cooling bed cycle.
8

6. As soon as the first section of a cooling bed is filled and the first billet is
turned over to the second section, said latter operates a flag switch releasing a signal
for the drives of the 2nd section.

Fig 2.1 Cooling Bed

2.3 ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

1 When blooms are tilting it will be cooling uniformly
2. High productivity, at a time we can get maximum 60 billets
3. It will be cooled at atmospheric air temperature by the process of normalizing
without any change of properties.
4. Easy maintenance
5. One of the major drawback is that it can only be used only for square type billets, it
is the main draw-back of the cooling beds.

CHAPTER 3
INTRODUCTION TO BEARINGS

A bearing is a machine element which supports another moving element (known as

journal). It permits a relative motion between the contact surfaces of the members, while
carrying load. Due to the relative motion between the contact surfaces, a certain amount of
power is wasted in overcoming frictional resistance and if the rubbing surfaces are in direct
contact, there will be rapid wear. In order to reduce frictional resistance and wear and in some
cases to carry away the heat generated, a layer of fluid(known as lubricant) may be provided.
The lubricant used to separate the journal and bearing is usually a mineral oil refined from
petroleum, but vegetable oils, silicon oils, greases etc., may be used.
Bearings are made of a variety of materials of which the most common and important
is stainless steel. Since bearings have to bear a lot of stress, the steel with which it is made
needs to be very strong. The quality of steel used determines the durability of the bearing.
Cheap bearings are made of hardened carbon-steel or pressed sheet metal, both of which are
usually not recommended. The standard industry classification for the steel in some bearings is
52100, which contains 1% chromium and 1% carbon. Such steels can be made very hard and
tough by heat treating. 440C stainless steel are used to manufacture bearings which can face
rusting threats.

3.1 BASIC PARTS OF BEARING

A bearings smooth performance is assured by a combination of four basic working
parts
Outer race (also called outer ring or cup)
Inner race (also called inner ring or cone)
Rolling elements (either balls or rollers)
Separator (also called cage or retainer)
The outer race, or cup, is the bearings exterior ring. Since it protects the bearings internal
parts, it must be machined smoothly and accurately. The inner race, or cone, is the part of the
bearing that sits directly on the shaft. The rolling elements, shaped as balls or rollers, provide
the cushion that eases the moving friction of the shaft within its housing. These elements keep
the outer and inner races separated and enable them to move smoothly and freely. The shape of
10

the rolling elements depends on the type of load, operating conditions and particular
applications. It is the rolling elements that distinguish the two basic bearing categories ball
bearings and roller bearings. There is a groove called the ball path on both the inner and outer
races of ball bearings in which the balls roll. For roller bearings, the rollers roll on the flat
surface of each race. This surface is called the roller path. Finally, the separator is a metal
retainer that holds the balls or rollers. Positioned between the inner and outer races, the
separator keeps the rolling elements evenly spaced.

Fig 3.1 Basic elements of bearing

3.2 CLASSIFICATION OF BEARINGS

3.2.1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DIRECTION OF LOAD
Based on the direction of load bearings are classified into two types
1. Radial Bearing: In this type of bearing, the load acts perpendicular to the direction
of the motion of the moving elements.
2. Thrust Bearing: In this type, the load acts along the axis of rotation.

3.2.2 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON NATURE OF CONTACT

Based on the type of contact the bearings are classified into two types

11

1. Sliding contact Bearings: In sliding contact bearings, the sliding takes place along
the surfaces of contact between the moving element and the fixed element. The sliding
contact bearing are also known as plain bearings.
2. Rolling contact bearings: In rolling contact bearings, the steel balls or roller, are
interposed between the moving and fixed elements, the balls offer rolling friction at
two points for each ball or roller.

3.3 SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS

The sliding contact bearings having surface contact and are coming under lower
kinematic pair.
3.3.1 CHARACTERISTICS OF SLIDING CONTACT BEARING
a)Sliding contact bearings are the oldest, simplest, least expensive bearing technology,
and they still have a wide range of applications, from construction machinery to
machines with atomic resolution.
b)Sliding contact bearings utilize a variety of different types of lubricants between
various interface materials. Lubricants range from light oil to grease to a solid lubricant
such as graphite or a PTFE polymer. Because they often distribute loads over a large
area, contact stresses and space requirements are often low while stiffness and damping
are usually high.
c) They are very robust and reliable.
d) They are speed limited and have friction-induced servo limits.
e) They are economical and for many applications will never be replaced.
3.3.2 SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS - ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES
These bearings have certain advantages over the rolling contact bearings. They are:
1. The design of the bearing and housing is simple.
2. They occupy less radial space and are more compact.

12

3. They cost less.

4. The design of shaft is simple.
5. They operate more silently.
6. They have good shock load capacity.
7. They are ideally suited for medium and high speed operation.
The disadvantages are:
1. The frictional power loss is more.
2. They required good attention to lubrication.
3. They are normally designed to carry radial load or axial load only.
3.3.3 SLIDING CONTACT BEARINGS - CLASSIFICATION
Sliding contact bearings are classified in three ways.
1. Based on type of load carried
2. Based on type of lubrication
3. Based on lubrication mechanism
3.3.3.1 Bearing classification based on type of load carried
a. Radial bearings: These bearings carry only radial loads
b. Thrust bearings or axial bearings: These bearings carry only axial loads
c. Radial thrust bearings: These bearings carry both radial and thrust loads.
3.3.3.2 Bearing classification based on type of lubrication
The type of lubrication means the extent to which the contacting surfaces are separated in a
shaft bearing combination. This classification includes

13

(a) Thick film lubrication: The surfaces are separated by thick film of lubricant and
there will not be any metal-to-metal contact. The film thickness is anywhere from 8 to
20m. Typical values of coefficient of friction are 0.002 to 0.010.
(b) Thin film lubrication: Here even though the surfaces are separated by thin film of
lubricant, at some high spots Metal-to-metal contact does exist. Because of this
intermittent contacts, it also known as mixed film lubrication. Surface wear is mild.
The coefficient of friction commonly ranges from 0.004 to 0.10.
(c) Boundary lubrication: Here the surface contact is continuous and extensive. The
lubricant is continuously smeared over the surfaces and provides a continuously
renewed adsorbed surface film which reduces the friction and wear. The typical
coefficient of friction is 0.05 to 0.20.
3.3.3.3 Bearing classification based on lubrication mechanism
a. Hydrodynamic lubricated bearings
b. Hydrostatic lubricated bearings
c. Elasto-hydrodynamic lubricated bearings
d. Boundary lubricated bearings e. Solid film lubricated bearings

3.4 ROLLING CONTACT BEARINGS

Rolling contact bearings are also called anti-friction bearing due to its low friction
characteristics. These bearings are used for radial load, thrust load and combination of thrust
and radial load. These bearings are extensively used due to its relatively lower price, being
almost maintenance free and for its operational ease. However, friction increases at high
speeds for rolling contact bearings and it may be noisy while running. These bearings are of
two types, Ball bearing and Roller bearing.
3.4.1. BALL BEARING

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The bearing shown in the figure is called Single row deep groove ball bearing. It is
used to carry radial load but it can also take up considerable amount of axial load. The retainer
keeps the steel balls in position and the groove below the steel balls is the inner ring and over
it is the outer ring. The outer ring, called outer race, is normally placed inside a bearing
housing which is fixed, while the inner race holds the rotating shaft. Therefore, a seat of
diameter d and width B is provided on the shaft to press fit the bearing. The arrangement for
housing a bearing is shown through a schematic diagram.

Fig 3.2 Single row deep groove ball bearing

3.4.1.1. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF ROLLING-CONTACT BEARING
Advantages
1. Low starting and good operating frictional torque.
2. Ease of lubrication
3. Requiring less axial space
4. Generally, taking both radial and axial loads.
5. Rapid replacement
6. Warning of impending failure by increasing noisiness.
7. Good low-temperature starting.
15

Disadvantages
1. Greater diametrical space.
2. More severe alignment requirements.
3. Higher initial cost.
4. Noisier normal operation.
5. Finite life due to eventual failure by fatigue.
6. Ease of damage by foreign matter.
7.Poor damping ability.
3.4.1.2 TYPES OF BALL BEARINGS
Some types of ball bearings are:
1. Deep groove bearing
2. Filing notch bearing
3. Angular contact bearing
4. Shielded and sealed bearings
5. Self-aligning Bearings
6. Double row bearings
7. Thrust bearings

16

Fig 3.3 Types of ball bearings and roller bearings

3.4.2 ROLLER BEARINGS

In this type of bearings the spherical balls are replaced by different shaped rollers. The types
of roller bearings are:
1. Straight roller bearings: Takes higher radial load than ball bearing (more contact
area), but needs perfect geometry & does not take thrust load.
2. Spherical Roller thrust bearing: Useful for heavy loads & misalignment (contact
area increases with load).
3. Thrust bearings
4. Needle Bearings: Useful when radial space is limited.
5. Tappered-roller Bearings: Take both radial & thrust loads (higher loads than ball
bearings).

CHAPTER 4
MODIFICATION OF BEARING
4.1 PLAIN SPHERICAL BEARING

17

Plain spherical bearings are particularly suitable for the accommodation of the heavy
radial loads. They can also carry a certain amount of thrust in either direction. The designs of
the radial Plain spherical bearings differ by the material of the components in sliding contact.
Angular contact spherical bearings are an excellent choice for applications subject to both
radial and thrust loads; plain spherical thrust bearings are intended for applications where the
loads are primarily thrust
To meet the requirements of heavy machinery construction and the need for spherical
bearings whose load carrying capacity and size are beyond the capabilities of the standard
types of manufacture large heavy-duty spherical bearings For angular contact spherical
bearings, plain spherical bearings and heavy duty spherical bearings are used.

MATERIALS USED: Steel on composite material the inner ring slides on the outer ring
sliding surface which is made of composite material. It consists of porous tin bronze layer
sintered on to a steel surface whose pores are impregnated with a mixture of PTFE and lead. In
addition, another layer consisting of the same material is applied for running in purposes.
Lubrication and maintenance: Plain spherical bearings need no lubrication. It is good
practice, however, to improve corrosion resistance and sealing by greasing the bearing. The
lubricating grease ArcanolL71 is used for this purpose. The permissible operating temperature
depends on the material of which the bearing is made of.

4.2 SPHERICAL ROLLER BEARING

Spherical roller bearings are self-aligning bearings. The self-aligning feature is
achieved by grinding on of the races in the form of sphere. This bearings can normally to
tolerate angular misalignment which is in order of + or one and half degree and when used
with a double row of rollers, this can carries thrust loads in either direction. Spherical roller
bearings have two rows of rollers with a common sphered raceway in the outer ring and two
inner ring raceways inclined at an angle to the bearing axis. This gives them an attractive
combination of design features making them irreplaceable in many demanding applications.

18

They are self-aligning and consequently insensitive to misalignment of the shaft relative to the
housing and to shaft deflection or bending.
Spherical roller bearings can be of a hydrostatic or mechanical construction. A
spherical roller bearing by itself consists of an outer ring and an inner ring and a locking
feature that makes the inner ring captive within the outer ring in the axial direction only. The
outer surface of the inner ring and the inner surface of the outer ring are spherical (or more
correctly, toroidal) and are collectively considered the raceway and they slide against each
other, either with a lubricant, a maintenance-free (typically polytetrafluoroethylene or PTFE)
based liner, or they incorporate a rolling element such as a race of ball-bearings, allowing
lower friction

4.3 IMPORTANT TERMINOLOGIES

Some of the important terminologies which are required for selection of rolling contact
bearing are given below.
4.3.1 Rating Life: Rating life is defined as the life of a group of apparently identical ball or
roller bearings, in number of revolutions or hours, rotating at a given speed, so that 90% of the
bearings will complete or exceed before any indication of failure occur.
Suppose we consider 100 apparently identical bearings. All the 100 bearings are put
onto a shaft rotating at a given speed while it is also acted upon by a load. After some time,
one after another, failure of bearings will be observed. When in this process, the tenth bearing
fails, then the number of revolutions or hours lapsed is recorded. These figures recorded give
the rating life of the bearings or simply L 10 life (10 % failure). Similarly, L50 means, 50 % of
the bearings are operational. It is known as median life.
4.3.2 Bearing Load: If two groups of identical bearings are tested under loads P 1 and P2 for
respective lives of L1 and L2 , then,
L1
P
= 1
L2
P2

( )( )

Equation (1)

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Where,
L :life in millions of revolution or life in hour

a :constant which is 3 for ball bearings and 10/3 for roller bearings

4.3.3 Basic Load Rating: It is that load which a group of apparently identical bearings can
withstand for a rating life of one million revolutions.
Hence, in Equation (1), if say, L1 is taken as one million then the corresponding load is,
C=P(L)1 /a

Equation (2)

Where, C is the basic or dynamic load rating.

Therefore, for a given load and a given life the value of C represents the load carrying capacity
of the bearing for one million revolutions. This value of C, for the purpose of bearing
selection, should be lower than that given in the manufacturers catalogue. Normally the basic
or the dynamic load rating as prescribed in the manufacturers catalogue is a conservative
value, therefore the chances of failure of bearing is very less.
4.3.4 Equivalent Load: The load rating of a bearing is given for radial loads only. Therefore,
if a bearing is subjected to both axial and radial load, then an equivalent radial load is
estimated as,
Pe =V P r

or

Pe =XV Pr +Y Pa

Kilo Newtons

Equation (3)

Where,
Pe : Equivalent radial load KN
Pr : Given radial load KN
Pa : Given axial load KN
V : Rotation factor (1.0, inner race rotating; 1.2, outer race rotating)
X : A radial factor
Y : An axial factor
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The values of X and Y are found from the chart whose typical format and few representative
values are given below.
Pa /C o

Pa / Pr e

e
X

P a / Pr e
Y

0.021

0.21

1.0

0.56

0.110

0.30

0.0
1.0

2.15
0.56

0.44

0.0
1.0

1.45
0.56

0.56

0.0
Table 4.1 Typical X and Y values for calculating Equivalent Load

1.00

Depending on the shaft diameter and magnitude of radial and axial load a suitable type of
bearing is to be chosen from the manufacturers catalogue, either a ball bearing or a roller
bearing. The equivalent radial load is to be determined from equation (3).

4.4 TECHNICAL DATA

1. For Plane Spherical Bearing
Material

Steel-on-steel spherical plain bearing

Lubrication

Self

Inner diameter

180 mm

Outer diameter

260 mm

Basic load rating

2160

Factor of safety

1.33

Equivalent Dynamic Load

360 KN

2. For Spherical Roller Bearings

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Material

Steel-on-steel spherical roller bearing

Lubrication

oils

Inner diameter

180 mm

Outer diameter

260 mm

Basic load rating

88000

Factor of safety

1.6

Equivalent Dynamic Load

4860 KN

Note: The technical Data has been collected from the industry manual

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4.5 CALCULATIONS
The approximate rating (or service) life of roller bearings is based on the fundamental
equation,
L=

C a
106
Pe

( )

revolutions

Where,
L = Rating life,
C = Basic dynamic load rating,
Pe = Equivalent dynamic load, KN

a= 3, for ball bearings,

=10/3, for roller bearings.
Now calculating the life period of each bearing
1. Plain spherical bearings:

L=

2160 3
)
million revolutions
360

L=0.216

million revolutions

2. Spherical Roller Bearings:

88000 103
L=(
)
4858

million revolutions

L=1.56 million revolutions

4.6 CONCLUSION

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In evidence to the above made calculations it is clear that the Spherical Roller
Bearings have more life than Plane Spherical Bearings. Spherical Roller Bearings have
almost twice the life of the Plane Spherical Bearings. More over the cost of Plane Spherical
Bearings is higher than the Spherical Roller Bearings. Most damage prone part in cooling
beds turns out to be the bearings as they play a vital role in the power transmission system
in moving rakes. Therefore the bearing with higher life will also save time for replacement
of bearings.
Therefore all the above points leads us to the conclusion that the Plane Spherical
Bearings are to be replaced with Roller Spherical Bearings and the modification is
justified.

List of figures

Page No.

24

Fig 1.1 Walking Beam Furnace

Fig 1.2 A Vertical Stand in Breakdown Mill

Fig 2.1 Cooling Bed

Fig 3.1 Basic elements of bearing

11

Fig 3.2 Single row deep groove ball bearing

15

Fig 3.3 Types of ball bearings and roller bearings

17

List of Tables
Table 1.1 Table showing the arrangement of stands in LMMM

Table 4.1 Typical X and Y values for calculating Equivalent Load

21

REFERENCES
1. J.E Shigley and C.R Mischke , Mechanical Engineering Design , McGraw Hill
Publication, 5th Edition. 1989.
2.Khurmi, R.S. and Gupta J.K., Text book on Machine Design, Eurasia Publishing
House, New Delhi.
3. SKF bearing design catalogue.

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