Ou TATA McGRAW-HILL’S we) SS] anti} rod CONCEPTS Functions & Calculus Vikas RahiTata McGraw-Hill % Published by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited, 7 West Patel Nagar, New Delhi 110 008 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Copyright © 2009 by Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited Third reprint 2009 RQLQCRYFRZACY No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise or stored in a database orretrieval system without the prior written permission of the publishers. The program listings (if any) may be entered, stored and executed in a computer system, but they may not be reproduced for publication This edition can be exported from India only by the publishers, Tata McGraw Hill Education Private Limited ISBN (13 digits): 978-0-07-008080-S ISBN (10 digits): 0-07-008080-1 Managing Director: Ajay Shukla General Manager—Publishing (B&E/HSSL and School): V Biju Kumar Sponsoring Editors: K N Prakash/Abhishek Sharma Senior Copy Editor: Anupma Rai Senior Production Executive: Medha Arora General Manager—Marketing (Higher Education & School): Michael J Cruz Asst. Product Manager: Vijay Sarathi Jagannathan Controller—Production: Rajender P Ghansela Asst. General Manager—Production: B L Dogra Information contained in this work has been obtained by Tata McGraw-Hill, from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither Tata McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein, and neither Tata McGraw- Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or damages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that Tata McGraw- Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought ‘Typeset at The Composers, 260, C.A. Apt., Paschim Vihar, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at Nice Printing Press, Delhi 110 051 Cover Design: K Anoop Cover printed at: A P Offset Pvt. Ltd.CONTENTS Preface Part 1 Differentiation 1.__ Fundamentals Functions 3.__ Limits and Continuity 4. Differentiation and Differentiability 5. Fundamental Rules of Differentiation 6. Differentiation of Function of Functions 7. Differentiation of Implicit Functions 8. Differentiation of Inverse Functions 9, Parametric Functions 10. Logarithmic Differentiation 11. Miscellaneous Exercises on Differentiation 12. L’Hospital’s Rule 13. dyidx as a Rate Measurer 14, Tangents and Normal 15. Maxima and Minima of a Function 16. Rolle’s and Lagrange’s Theorem Part 2 Integration 1. Integration as the Inverse Process of Differentiation 2. Integration by Transformation 1.3-1.21 2.1-2.92 3.1-3.66 4.14.46 5.1-5.7 6.1-6.6 71-74 8.1-8.6 9.1-9.8 10.1-10.5 11.1-11.5 12,1-12.5 13.1-13.8 14.1-14.14 15.1-15.35 16.1-16.8 1.3-1.10 2.1-2.7vili_ Contents 3. Integration by Substitution 3.1-3.16 4. Integration by Parts 4.14.12 5. Integration of Rational Functions 5.1-5.10 6. Integration of Standard Rational and Irrational Functions 6.1-6.15 7. Integration of Trigonometric Functions TA-1.7 8. Integration of Certain Irrational Expressions 8.1-8.5 9. Miscellaneous 9.1-9.23 10. Definite Integration 10.1-10.43 11. Integration as the Limit of a Sum 1.1-11.11 12. Area 12.1-12.20 13. Differential Equation 13.1-13.29 14. Applications of Differential Equations of First Order 14.1-14.10 15. Differential Equations of First Order and Higher Degree 15.1-15.7Part 1 Differentiation . Fundamentals . Functions . Limits and Continuity Differentiation and Differentiability . Fundamental Rules of Differentiation . Differentiation of Function of Functions: . Differentiation of Implicit Functions . Differentiation of Inverse Functions |. Parametric Functions . Logarithmic Differentiation . Miscellaneous Exercises on Differentiation . L’Hospital’s Rule . dyldx as a Rate Measurer . Tangents and Normal . Maxima and Minima of a Function . Rolle’s and Lagrange’s TheoremChapter 1 FUNDAMENTALS 11 SQUARE ROOT Ji=t1 is not correct. V1 =1 is correct. In fact ‘,/”’ is the symbol for “positive square root” and ‘~/ ’ is symbol for negative square root. , x20 + JF atste| oe eg. x, x50 The equality sign is true in both branches however we consider in the first branch normally. eg. Ja?—4a+4=|(a-2)? =la-21 (Note) Ex. {sina sin B)? ~ cos*a cos? B Sol. The given expression = ,/1-2sine sin B + sin?@ sin? B —(1—sin?)(1—sin?B) — 2sinar sin B + sin? @ sin? B —(1 - sin? @ — sin? B + sin? sin” B) = sin?a-2sinasinB +sin?B = (ina —sin B) = Isin a —sin Bl1.4 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 12 MODULUS FUNDAMENTAL x, x20 yelxl= -x, x Ie ate| No solution LHS = |x|2 0 and RHS =—ve LHS > RHS Given relation is not possible iit) 1x1 <2 It means that x is the number which are at -———_>7 distance less than 2 from 0. —+___+—___1— 22 It means that x is the number which are at <—— meee ++ distance greater than 2 from 0. Boe Hence x <-2 orx > 2. (vi) lxl>-2 We know that non negative number is always greater than negative. Hence, the above statement is true for any real x. ie. for all real x(‘V xe R).1.2.2 Illustration through Graph @ Gi) ii) Gv) (v) (vi) Ixl=2 The value of x satisfying above are the points of intersection of y = |xl and y = 2 (see the graph) x=-2,2 Ans. Ixl=-2 From the graph it is clear that there are no intersection points of the curves y = |x| and y= Hence “no solution”. Ix1<2 Here we have to see when the graph of y = Ix! is below the line y = 2. From the graph it is clear that these values are given by —2 < x < 2 (Bold lines). Ixl<-2 From the graph we can say that the graph y = lx is never below the line =-2. Hence there exists no x for which |x| <—2ie.xe ¢. Ixl>2 Here we have to seek those values of x for which y = |x! is above the line y= 2. Itis clear that these are given by x <—2 or x > 2. (left of A, right of B). Ixl>-2 From the above it is known to us that y = |x| is always above the line y =-2. Hence above is true for all real x. 12.3 Generalised Results Ifk >Othen If@l=k = f@=+k If@lk = flx)<-korf)>k Ifk < Othen \f@)l=k = no solution \f@lk = all real values of x in the domain of f(x). Note that writing lf@ik => f(x)>+kis wrong.1.6 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 13 y= x(x? 20) Itis also anon negative term. It also possess solutions in the manner of modulus. See below. @e=4 > x=22 (i) 2=-4 = nosolution (iii) <4 => 24 => x<-2orx>2 (v) 2@<-4 = nosolution. (vi) 2>-4 = true forallxeR ‘Students can also understand above as below For example if 2< 4 then Ve Ixl<2 = -24 Sol. (3x-5)<-4 or (3x-5)>4 => x<13B or x>3 (Read the inequality fundamentals on page No. 7) —!_.1 (i) Fars Sol. 12x +51<3 but Denominator is not equal to zero. = -3<(2x+5)<3 wherel2x+5140 = -4 W34 Sol. 1-2x<-2 or 1-2x>2 = 3<2x or -1>2r = 32xFundamentals 1.7 Find when (i) 12x-3| =2x-3 Sol. We know that lul=u ifu20 (see definition of modulus) Thus the above is true if 2x- 320 x2 3/2 (i) 12x-SI=5-2x Sol. we know that | ul =—w if u $0 ( see definition of modulus) Thus the above is true if 2x-5<0 => xs5/2 1. Solve the system of inequalities Ixl23. and x*-1<0 Sol. From |xl23 we have x $-3 orx2>3 (A) From x2—1—+—__+— “3 = 1 3 o———o 2. Solve the system of inequalities 9x?-420 and I2x-ll< 3 Sol. From Ist inequality weg => x$-23 or x22/3 (A) From 2nd inquality —3 < 2x-1<3 => 2<2xr<4 => -1b then at+k>b+k ka > kb (when k is positive) ka (when a and b both are positive) lla < lb (when a and b are of the same sign)1.8 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 1.5 SOME NON NEGATIVE EXPRESSIONS (@) y=X,x"n€ Tete. (b) y=Iexl, x= Il, x2 3x +2 ete. (©) y=Vx, Px, Wx ne Tete. Here x 2 0 because if x is negative Vx is imaginary. (d) y=1-sinx,y= woud [: sine S1V x “1-sinx20V x (©) y= {x}. 0 < {x} < L. This will be dealt later in detail in the chapter of function. Above mentioned all terms are non negative ie. 20. For example: y=x72 0, Vx € R where equality holds at x = 0. Hence if some one asks “where x2> 0 ? The answer is “for any real x, except zero.” For what values of x the inequality (2x —3)* 20 is valid ? Ans. For all real x. Q. For what values of x the inequality (2x-3)?>0 is valid 2 Ans. Here equalities sign is not given so we should exclude the point when 2x-3=Oie. x= 3/2. The required answer is xe R —{3/2} Sce also the questions below. Q. Where |x- 1120? Ans. Vxe R Q. Wherelx-11>0? Ans. Here equal sign is absent so we have to exclude the point where |x- 11=0 ie. x-1=Oie.atx=1 “ Ans.isxe Rexceptx=1 orxe R-{1}. Note: If sem of several non negative terms is zero then each term is zero. ie. 1. whenw+V+w?+...=O(4y,w, JER then u=0, v=0, w=0,... 2 2. Ju tivitwt=0 then u=0=v=wetc. Example: 1. Solver Ix? — 11+ (x-1)? +. Jx?-3x+2=0 Sol. Using above result, each term should be zero simultaneously ie. 2-1=0,(x-1?=0 and x-3x+2=0 => x=#l and x=1,1 and x=1,2 The common solution is x= 1. Ans.Fundamentals 1.9 2. Solve: Ix+1l+./x 0 Sol. Here x + 1 = 0 and x—- 1=0 should happen simultaneously i.e. x=~-1 and x=1 which is not possible There is no x for which each term is zero simultaneously. -. No solution. 3. Solve: x— 2x -3=0 Sol. Let x =u>0, ( see definition of square root) = u’-2u-3=0 4, Solve: x? -|xI-2=0 Sol. Ix?-IxlI-2=0 - IxP=x? uw? -u-2=0 “ \xl=2 Hencex=+2 5. Solve: 4*-2'-2=0 Sol. Let 2*=u>0 (see the definition of exponential) = w-u-2=0 = u=-l,2 But 2*=u#-1 2 2%=2. Hencex=1 16 FUNDAMENTALS OF EQUATION SOLVING During equation solving there are some fundamental facts without which finding actual solutions of a given equation become tedious task. Let us learn these facts while solving some basic equations. Ex.1 Solve x? =3x Sol. Some students divide both sides by x ie 2 =3X 2, x03 x x This method is wrong, since =1 only when x #01.10 Concepts of Functions and Calculus But we can see that for x =0 i.e. x = 0 is also a solution of the equation which is missed in the above process. Remarks: Cancellation by division generally leads loss of roots. So, cancella- tion by division should not be done. The right method is as below -3x=0 = x=0,3 Ex.2 Solve |x =-x Sol. Squaring we get x=x => x=0,1 But forx=1; L.HS.= 1 =1 while R.H.S. = -1 # L.H.S. «The solution is x = 0 only. Remarks: On squaring, extraneous root may appear which are removed by examining the given equation. Extraneous roots are those roots which appear while solving an equation due to extension of domain and these roots do not satisfy the original equation. Sometimes, increase in degree of equation also results in appearance of extraneous roots. Ex3 P+ /x=4+/x Sol. We can write x7=44/x-Jx => w=4 = x=42 But at x=~-2, |x is imaginary. The actual solution is x = 2. Remember that only that number is called solution at which cach term of the equation is defined(real) and L.H.S. = R.H.S. . x°-3x+2 ga 9 . Sol. When $70 then a=0 but b¥0 Ex.4 Solve Ifa and b simultaneously vanishes then & becomes meaningless Hence, the solution of the problem is given by x? -3x+2=0 but x-2#0 1,2 but x#2 lonly Remember that Denominator is never zero.Fundamentals 1.11 Ex.5 Solve |x[*~?* =1 Sol. We have 2 [xl 28 x1? > -2x=0 = x=0,2 The above method is not perfect method. One can see at a glance that the equation is satisfied by x = +1 and in the above solution we missed x = +1. It must be remembered that the right way of finding the roots of the equation aJ=q8 (where a > 0) are as below: Either f (x)= g(x) or a=1 Thus the actual solution of this problem is as below Either, x7-2x=0 ie. x=0,2 or Ixl=1 i =#l i We also see that if x = 0 then L.HLS. = The true solutions are x = +1, 2. )° (meaningless) 17 CONCEPT OF INEQUALITIES Students generally don’t know whether 3 > 2 or 5 2 5 is correct or not. Is the inequality 3 > 2 true? (dy Is the inequality 5 25 true? (2) Students answer generally ‘no’ to the above questions. Before going to put any answer let us know the meaning of a 2 b. It means either a > b or a= b i.e. a2 b is true if any of ‘a > b’ and ‘a = b’ is correct. In other words we can say that a > b means ‘a is not less than b i.e. a¢b. Hence inequality (1) means that ‘3 is not less than 2’ which is certainly true. Similarly (2) is also true. EXERCISES Simplify 1. (9-6a+a? +/9+6a+a* for a<-3 2. Ja?-2a+1+Ja?+4a+4 a sin? B 3. ./(1— cosa cos B)? 4. x-2)/x-1+ x+2/x-11.12 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 5. Ixl>x 6. Ixl 0,a #1 It should be noted that a*> 0, V x € R where a > 0. Hence mathematical relations like ‘2*=-1", ‘2*<—2", etc. are not valid. In other words solutions of ‘2*=—1", ‘2*<-—2" is ‘no solution’. For the use of above result let us see an example: Solve 4*=3.2%+4 Sol. (2*)?-3.2*-4=0 => (2% -4)(2* +1) =0 =» (2*-4)=0 => x=2 Ans. (Because 2*+140 as 2*>0 V xe R. We can also say that if 2*+1=0 then 2* =-1 which is not possible) 19 SOME IMPORTANT RESULTS REGARDING PROPERTY OF NUMBERS (i) The sum of any real number and its reciprocal does not lie in the interval (2,2). ie. xtle 2 or xtis-2 where x is a real number. Proof: Let y =x + I/x hence x°— xy +1=0 Because x is real, Disc20 = y-420 = ys-2 or y22. Now let us arrange the results carefully as xt te 2 where x is positive and equality holds if x= 1Fundamentals 1.13 xt 4 <-2 where xis negative and equality holds if x = -1 This result is very much helpful in solving equations like 2 aso pilparee, sin(e*)=5x+5x7 ete. (ii) If the sum of two positive numbers is constant then their product is maxi- mum when the numbers are equal i.e. if x + y = k (constant) then xy is maximum when x= y. Proof: Let z= xy Therefore, z=x(k—x) = x°-kx+z= ~ 2 Since xis real, hence D>0 ie. k-4220 ie, zs4 Hence, z,,,= #/4 = x(k — x) ie. x= h/2 and henee y = k/2. 110 SIGN SCHEME FOR RATIONAL/POLYNOMIAL FUNCTION 1. Put Numerator and Denominator equal to zero separately. For polynomial function only Numerator = 0 (because Denomintor # 0). Find the roots. 2. Plot a number line. Mark these points (roots) on the number line in terms of their increasing order. 3. Thus the whole number line is divided into a number of subintervals. 4. Now if a root is repeated even times the sign of the function will remain the same in the two adjacent sub-intervals of the root. 5. Ifa root is repeated odd times, the sign of the of the function will be differ- ent in the two adjacent sub-intervals of the roots. Ex.1 Find the values of x satisfying the inequality ~1(x—-1)2(x-2)2 flys (2x—1)(x-1)’ ie 2) S (x= 2)(x-4)' Sol. First, we have to discuss the sign scheme for f(x). It should be noted that the common factor (x-2) in the Numerator and Denominator should not be cancelled. 0 8 fp tayz2- 1 7 2 t+ 4 + odd even odd even times times times times Now putting Numerator = (2x — 1)(x — 1)*(«- 2)? =0 > x= 1/2, 1,1,2,2 Denominator = (x — 2)(x -4)*=0 > x=2,4,4,4,4 me Sign scheme for f(x) is as given below.1.14 Concepts of Functions and Calculus [Illustration: We test the sign of f(x) at any real number (except roots) say x= 5. We see that f(x) comes out to be positive. So, f(x) > 0 for all x in the sub-interval x> 4. Now use the steps mentioned above. Since ‘4’ is repeated even times. f(x) is positive in the sub-interval just left of 4 also. Root ‘2’ is repeated odd times and hence the sign of f(x) will alternate. Clearly (x) is negative in the sub-interval just left of 2 and so on.) Since we have to find values of x for which f(x) > 0 n -o 12x+31=3 = 2x+3=23 => 2x=-6,0 => x=-3,0 2. Solve 12x -3l=x+1 Sol. 1st method: Case (I) When 2x-32>0 ie. x23/2 (A) then §=|2x-31=2x-3 .. The equation is 2x -3 =x+1 ie. xn x= 4 is satisfying the condition x 2 3/2 so it is solution. Case (Il) When2x-3<0 ie. x<3/2 (B) 12x—31 =— (2x -3)Sol. Fundamentals 1.15, The equation is (2x - 3) =x+1 x= 2/3 (satisfying B) Solutions are x = 2/3, 4. 2nd Method: Squaring on both sides, we find that 12x-3P= (x41)? > (2x-3)'=x?+2x+1 (2 uP =u?) => 4x°-12x4+9=x° 42x41 > 3x7-14x4+8=0 = x=2/3,4 ‘We know that on squaring there is chance of appearance of extraneous root so we should check whether the given equation is satisfied by the obtained number or not. Here we see that x = 2/3 and 4 both satisfy |2x- 31 =x +1 hence 2/3 and 4 are solutions. Solve |x— 1] +1x-31=2 First find the roots of each modulus terms which are here 1 and 3 Now the following cases arise Case (IT) Case (I) "Case (III) «_ 1 Case(I) Ifx<1 (A) Then x-1<0 and x-3<0 * Ix-1l=-@-1) and Ix-31=-(x-3) The equation is = -(=1)-(@-3)=2 => -2x+4=2 => x=1 X= 1 doesn’t satisfy the condition (A) so it is not solution. Case) If 1 2 = 2 identity) when LHS and RHS becomes identical then all numbers in the condition (B) becomes solution. Case(II) Ifx>3 © Then x-1>0 and x-3>0 @-1)+@-3)=2 => 2x=6 => x=3 (not satisfying (C) )1.16 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 4, Sol. Students are suggested to solve the following problems Ix-11+lx-3l=1 Ans, No solution Ix-U+lx-3l=4 Ans.x=0,4 Students should also have the knowledge of the graph. y=lx-I+lx-31 —2x+4; x<1 o yelx-U+lxe-3l = 2; 1s$xs3 2x-4; x>3 The graph of this function is as below Solve Ix?- x-6l=x+2 Ifx+2<0 ie. x<-2 then the equation has no solution; because, then L.H.S. > 0 while R.H.S. <0 Ifx+220 ie. x>-2 then x?—x-6=4(x+2) => x-2x-8=0 or x7-4=0 > x=-2,4, of x=+2 Since x > -2; all the solutions found above are our solutions. Aliter: First we determine the sign scheme for (x?-.x- 6) >t +4 = as Casel. x°-x-620 ifxs-2 or x23 then = lx?-x-61=x?-x-6 V-x-6=x42 = x°-2x-8=0 => x=-2,4, . both roots satisfy the condition and hence are solutionsFundamentals 1.17 Case I. If x?-x-6<0 ie. 2 eP=4 x= +2. In this case the solution is x = 2. 3rd method: The problem can also be solved by squaring on both sides. But solutions obtained must be checked whether they satisfy the given equation or not. EXERCISES Solve 1. Ix-21 + 1x—1=x-3 Ans. No solution 2. 12x-3l= 1x +71 Ans. 3. 12x + + lx- 14 Ans. +43 4, Sketch the graphs (a) y=lx-21 +1x- Il (b) y =12r + H+ lx— 1 1-2x 5. Solve = =I Ans. x=- 1/3 6, |x?-6x+81=x-2 Ans. 2,3, 5 7. Ix? 44x43142x45=0 Ans. -4,-1-/3 8. Ide 4210 24 Ans, 2,5 9 Ix?-4l41x?—91=5 Ans. [-3, -2] U [2, 3] Solving inequality containing modulus 1. Solve the inequality |x?-4x1<5 Sol. Sign scheme for (x? — 4x) is as shown Case(I) Ifx -1< x<5 Ss The answer is C1 S, ie. -l0 = (x2)? +1 > 0 which is true VxeR S, The answer is GAS, = O #-5r<0 > O0 x<-3 or x>2 Ss. The answer is C,7 S, 20 ie x>1 Cy Then both sides are +ve . On squaring we get (x? -2x-3)? < (3x-3)? = (x? =2x-3)? -(3x-3)<0 = (2 —2x-3-3x 43)? -2x-34+3x-3) <0 > (2 -5x)(0? +x-6) <0 Now the sign scheme is -3 2 -1/2. Sol. From the graph (given above) it is clear that the inequality is satisfied in 2n 2n Seas 3 3 The complete solution is 2k — he x<2kae+ ae Ex.3 Solve the inequality tan x < 1. Sol. The graph insists the easiest solution 5 < xsf which on generalisation becomes ka-F cos x. Sol. We have sin x — cos x >0 1 1 A x => == sinx-—=cosx>0 => sin(x-2)>0 v2 v2 4 Let 6=x-%/. Thus, the inequality becomes sin 8>0 and its solution is given by 2km < @< (2ka+ 1)a > hn +M/, kSxSa Since possible values of k are infinite, number of such functions is infinite. 2.2 NAMING OF FUNCTIONS @ Algebraic Functions These are the functions consisting of finite number of terms involving powers and radicals of the independent variable, constants and fundamental mathematical operations, +, —, x, +. These include elementary func- tions of the following kind. (a) Polynomial Functions or Rational Integral Functions A function of the form y or f(x) = dyx" + ax"! +++ dy 4X + dys WHETE dy, ,, yy «0, are real constants is called a polynomial. If a,# 0 n is the degree of the polyno- mial and it is a non-negative integer. eg. f(x) =x"42x (Polynomial of degree 1996) g(x) =x°+3x-5 (Polynomial of degree 2) h@)=7= 72 (Polynomial of degree 0) The domain of every polynomial is R. (b) Fractional Rational Functions It is defined as the ratio of two polynomi- als. Let POR) = ax" tax" +0+a, xt ay, OG) = Byx™ +x +--+ By x +B then f(x) = P(x)/Q(x) is a fractional rational function or simply we call rational function. The domain of rational function is all real numbers ex- cept when denominator is zero i.e. Q(x) #0. eg. f(X)= 3 domain = xe R-{2}. Irrational Function If in y = f(x), operations of addition, subtraction, mul- tiplication, division and raising to a power with non integral rational expo- nents are performed on the right hand side, the function y = f(x) is irra~ tional. es faye fe; HAE ete (G2.4 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Note: The three kinds of algebraic functions mentioned above do not cover all algebraic functions. An algebraic function is am function y = (x) satisfying POY + PQdy" +... + PO) = (A) Where P(x), P(x). P(x) a are certain ee, inx. There are some algebraic functions satisfying (A) but not above three. (1D Transcendental Functions The functions which are not algebraic are called transcendental functions. Exponential, logarithmic, trigonometric and inverse trigonometric functions are transcendental functions. (a) Exponential Function The function f(x) = a‘, a > 0, a # 1 is called an exponential function. Here base a is a constant. (b) Logarithmic Function The function f(x) =log, x, a> 0 and a #1 is a logarithmic function. This function is defined if x > 0. y, (©) Trigonometric Functions This involves circular functions of variable order. (i) f@)=sinx Itis defined for all x @R and -1 is sin x < It increases strictly from -1 tol as xincreases from-4 to = and decreases strictly from 1 to—1 as x increases from 1/2 to 3x/2 and so on. (32/2,-1)Functions 2.5 Gi) f@) = cos x It is also defined for all x € R; —1 < cos x < 1. This function decreases strictly from 1 to —1 as x increases from 0 to 7 and so on. (iii) f(a) = tan x: It is defined for all xe R {co + v4 because tan x is not defined if cos x = 0, ie r= (Qn F and —oo < tan x <0, It increases strictly from —»° toe» in Jeon DF, Qn+yF [ : (iv) f(x) = cot x It is defined if x € R — {nz} i.e. we exclude from R those values of x for which sin x= which are x =n7. —-0 < cot x< . It decreases strictly from co to —oe in |nz, (n + 1)a[. A set of real numbers x satisfying the inequalities a < x < b where a and b are fixed numbers is called an open interval (a, b) or Ja, b[. A set of real numbers x satisfying a S x S b is called a closed interval [a, b]. Similarly, a set of real numbers satisfying a Sx 1 or cosec x S—I. 2.2.1 Some Special Functions (A) Absolute Value Function ciel» *2° Ye |x x<0 Itis the numerical value of x. (B) Signum Function y = sgn (x) It is defined by to #0 y=sgn(x) =) x lal 0 ifx=0 1 if x>0 =j-1 if x<0 0 if x=0Functions 2.7 eg (i) Sgn(2)=1 since2>0 VreR eg (ii) Sgn(2)=0 ifx=0 and 1 ifx#0 1 if Ixl-1>0 ie. x<—I or x>1 e.g (iii) Sgn(Ixl-1)=4 0 if lxl-1=0 ie. x=41 -1 if Ixl-1<0 ie. -I 24> xS-2orx22 eg (ii) -]<3 => ¥<45 2ex<2 _ Jax] if x=J (Integer) @) Fale ie if [1? Ans: No. (e) When {x}>02 Ans : For all x except Integers. (E) Least Integer Function It is also called the ceiling of x and it is represented as [x]. ye[r]s/+liffexsi+1 eg. [1.5]=2,[29]=3.[-23]=-2 The [x] converts x = (+f) into J while [. | coverts it into/ + 1. But when xis an integer [x] = x= [x]. The graph of this function is left as an exercise. WORKED OUT EXAMPLES Ex.1 Given the function f(x) = 1-1. Find f(1), f(a) and f(a + 1). Sol. f(1) = 1}-1=0 f@=a—1 fa+l=(@t1y-1 =@+3a'+ 3a. 31 -1 (HE) = {3} + {5} =0 (Each term on LHS is non-negative) ‘We know that if the sum of serval non-negative terms is zero then each term is zero. (-o-f3 > 3 = integer and 3 = integer i.e, xis multiple of 2 and 3 both x=6k whereke J Ex.6 Let {x}and [x] denote the fractional and integral part of a real number x respectively. Solve 4{x} =x + [4]. Sol. We know that x = [x] + {x} 4(x} =f) + (}+ Bl - 44) -5 “@ = { But 0 < {x} <1 Ax] 3 Os-> <1 = Os bl< 5 Hence [x] = 0 or 1 because [x] is integer. Hence if [x] =0; {x}=0 from (A) x=0+0=0and if[xJ=1; (x) = 2 from (A) =14225 zel+4 >2.10 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Graphical Solution We have from (A); Bix} =L) The solutions of this equation are the points of intersection of the graphs y=3ta) and y=[2]. From the above graph we have two solutions. one is x = 0 and the second is the abscissae of point P. Since A* APQ and AMN are similar we have AQ_ PQ. x-l_ 1 AN MNT > 3/2 Ex.7 Solve the equation x°— [x] = 4 where ‘L I’ is integral part function. Sol. From the equation we have 6-45 [x] (A) To find the solution, we should draw the graphs y = x°- 4 and y = [x] and find the intersection point. From the graph it is clear that root lies in the interval 1 [= 2 (not true) when / P=(l+fyf => ftsif-P=0 = pettlSr 2 When = 34] “ thn O 0 (YS) => 0 tei => 1=Oonly, which fails to give any x solution as we have seen above.2.12 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 2.3 ODD AND EVEN FUNCTION 2.3.1 Odd Function A function f(x) is known as an odd function if it satisfies f(x) = —f(x) such as y=x, 21, (sin x)P™!, (tan x)***! etc. Graph of such functions are symmetrical about the origin. Another method to understand graphically is thatif the curve f(x) is rotated through 180° (either clockwise or anticlockwise) about the origin the resulting graph gives the same appearance as original. eg. Is f(x)= 41-2 — 41+ an odd function ? Sol. f(-x) =f1- Cx - 14-0? --(fi-F fee } =-s@) Hence f(x) is an odd function. Answer is therefore YES. 2.3.2 Even Function The function f(x) which satisfies f(—x) = f(x) is known as an even function. Such as y or f(x) = 22, x7", cosx, (sin x)”, |x| etc. Graphs of such functions are symmetrical about y-axis i.e. If y-axis is assumed as plane mirror the curve in the left part is the image of the right part. z 2 YAy aly] 1389 Zen enennny x Another method to understand is that if the graph is rotated through 180° about y-axis it gives the same appearance as original.Functions 2.13 e.g. Is f(x) = e + e™* an even function ? Sol. f(x) =et+ eM =e*+er or f(x») =fQ). Hence Answer is YES. Pb.1 (i) Prove that the product of two odd functions or two even functions is an even function. (ii) Prove that the product of an odd and an even function is an odd func- tion. Sol. (i) Let,f(x) and g(x) are two functions such that Ax) = f)8@) If f(x) and g(x) are odd then fx) =-f@) and g(-x)=-g() h(x) =f x).8- 2) -FOH-g@)} =f@)gx) = ho) or, = A(- x) = h(x). Hence h(x) is an even function. Now if f(x) and g(x) are even functions then fa =f@ and = g(—x) = g(x) h(x) =f xgx) = f(x)g(x) = h(a) ie. — h(—x) = A(x) or, h(x) is even. Students are advised to solve the second part. The following table gives a clear idea when two functions are attached: | fe) | 8 fix) * gx) Ala) x ex) | flV/alx); g(x) 40 odd odd odd even even odd even neither odd nor even odd odd even | odd | neither odd nor even odd odd even | even even even even (None of the functions is identically zero) Pb.2 (i) Prove that every function y = f(x) can be expressed as the sum of an even and an odd function. (ii) If ‘f* is an even function defined on the (-'5, 5) then find the four real { values of x satisfying the equation (x) =f (35) 52.14 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Sol. i) f(a) =4x2F(2) =4[ 0+ fa) + fa) F-9)] Wf) +IC8 , f= FC) ~ 2 2 = g(x) +h@) Let us check the nature of g(x) and h(x) ant tice) ~ gee feos fren =g(x) = g(x) iseven L(-x) + f(a) 2 Exactly one can verify that 4 (x) is odd function and hence statement is proved. ae xt1 _xtl (i) When soo=1(255) “2 ie. + 2v=x+1 ie. +x-1=0 4/5 xe > Since, f(x) is even, f(-x) = fx) sen=soo=s{243) _xtl ie —x= ie. -x?-2x=x41 x+2 => 43x¢1=0 = aes Pb.3 Prove that the derivative of an odd function is an even function and the derivative of an even function is an odd function. Pb.4 Prove that when a function which is either odd or even, when squared be- comes an even function. Students are advised to solve the above problems.Functions 2.15 2.4 SKETCHING GRAPH 1. Straight Line (a) General equation of straight line is ax + by +c =0 Method : Find y when x =0 aQ+by+c=0 = Find x when y= 0 ax+b0+c=0 = x=-£ a Plot these points on the co-ordinate axes and join these two points to get the required straight line. (b) y=mx +c: It is a straight line having slope mand it intersects y axis at y = c from the origin. If m = 1, the straight line makes 45°angle with x axis. If c=0 the straight line passes through the origin. m=tan0,0>45° for m> I [see y=2x] 8 <45°for m< | [see y=x/2 ] 2. Quadratic Parabola- y = ax? + bx +c Note: The graph of y = ax? + bx + c is symmetric about the vertical line 2a’ 4a 2a’ 4a Ifa > 0, the parabola opens upward while ifa <0, the parabola opens downward. Method: Find y whenx=0, «. y=c Find y when x =-b/2a_ i.e. find vertex -b+ [b? = 4ac 2a x= -b 2a and it's vertex is given by [z ae al ie. (# DB. ). Find x when y= 0, i.e. (a, B) Now, we have three cases of roots. (1) When roots are real and unequal (D > 0) The graph will be as below ¥ (a) P is the point of min”. atx=-b/2a _(b) Pis the point of max”, at x =~b/2a Fig. 12.16 Concepts of Functions and Calculus (11) When roots are real and equal (D = 0) y * Y, a>0 o| @=B x OND (0,0) 7 x a<0 (a) (b) Fig. 2 (I) When roots are imaginary (D < 0) yA (0,c)\e> 0 0|x=—b2a * (a) Fig. 3 Illustration: Case (I) The granh is partially positive and negative. In the Fig. I(a), f(x) > 0 when x < @orx> Bbut f(x) 0 when a< x < B but f(x) <0 when x < wor x> B. Case (II) In this case D = 0 and either fix) <0, V x or (x) > 0, V x depending on ‘a’. If a> 0, fix) = 0 but if a < 0, fix) <0, V x. Case (III) In this case D < 0 and either f(x) <0, W x or f(x) > 0, Vx depending ona. Ifa > 0, f(x) > 0, but ifa < 0, x) <0, V x. So, whenever it is required f(x) 2 0 Vx, we should write a >0 and D< 0. Again f(x)>0,Vx = a>OandD<0 while fi) <0,Vx 3 ab) (-a, 0) O(a, 0) (0,-»)2.18 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 5. Hyperbola v. x = y is imaginary hence the hyperbola (40)/ 9 (a, 0) doesn’t intersect y-axis. When y=0,x=+a => The curve intersects x-axis at (a, 0) and (a, 0) (ii) 2 a perbola When x = 0, y = + d, ie. the curve intersects at (0, b) and (0, -b) When y=0,.x°=-a@ = yis imaginary. Hence the hyperbola doesn’t intersect x-axis. b Now y= tove +a’ . For details see the conic section. 6. Rectangular Hyperbola weak yy vA Lee K<0 ‘N — x a > xyak yh vA k<0 A> {____»x q ~ ‘ All the graphs mentioned previously must be remembered by students which is essential to become an expert in graphs. It also increases the problem solving efficiency and speed.Functions 2.19 2.5 TRANSFORMATION OF GRAPHS (1) Given y= f(x), then draw the following curves. @) y=f@)tc Gi) y=f(e +e) (iii) y = af(x) (iv) y=f(ax) wherea>0 Ww) y (vi) y (vii) y=lf@)I (viii) y = f(b) (ix) y= Lf@)] @) y=f() (MD) lyl=fex) (IMD) If f(x) (x) are given draw h(x) = max { fix), ax} or f(x) = min{ FO), g@x)} @ (i) y= f(s) is given. To draw the graph of y = f(x) +, shift the graph of f(x) upward by c units keeping x, y-axes at their origi- nal position or shift the x-axis below by c units keeping the graph at its original position. Similarly, y = f(x) — ¢ will be drawn by shifting the graph of f(x) by ¢ units downward keeping the axes at their original position or by shifting the x-axis above by c units keeping the graph at its original position. (i) y =f(8) is given. Then to draw y = f(x +c) shift the graph of f(x) by c units leftward keeping the axes at its original position or by shifting the y-axis rightward.2.20 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Similarly, y = f(x —c) can be drawn either by shi:ting the graph of f(x) c units rightward or by shifting the y-axis leftward. Gii) y= af(x), a> 0. To draw y =af(x), graph of f(x) is extended a times above or a times below according to the points. (iv) y =f(ax), a> 0. The graph of y = f(ax) is obtained from y = f(x) by compressing the later a times against y-axis if a > 1, and ifa <1 the same is obtained by stretching y = f(x); a times from y-axis. (v) To draw y = f(-2), take the image of the curve y = f(x) in the y-axis as plane mirror. y(vii) (viii) Functions 2.21 y= IFO), We know that @)I =f (x), iff) 20 —£), iff) $0 Hence y = f(x) is drawn in two steps. In the Ist step, leave the positive part of f(x), {ie. the part of f(x) above x-axis} asit is. In the 2nd step take the image of the negative part of f(x), {i.e. the part of f(x) below x-axis} in the x-axis as plane mirror. To draw y =f{Ixl} =f(x) ifx>0 ‘(-x) ifx <0 Hence, again f{Lx!}is drawn in two steps. In the Ist step leave the graph lying right side of y-axis as it is. While in the 2nd step we — take the image of fx) in the y-axis as plane mirror. The part of f(x) lying leftward of the y-axis (if it exists) is omitted. eg. fx) =x-1, -2 A (273,-1) Now 1s 2cosx<2 if0 xe=lxl > Ixl{IxL-1} =0 > Ixl=0, ie.x+1 Now it is clear from the graph that Il,-2Sx<-1 G(x) = it, -1 Ex.8 Draw the graph of y =x? 4x +3 Sol. y=(x-2)?-12.26 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Ex.9 Draw the graph of y = 12 — Lx Il. Sol. >x 1,0) [0 6.0 4 Ex.10 Draw the graph of y=2— 747 Sol.Functions 2.27 Ex.11 Draw the graph of y = le“ — 21 Sol. Fig. 4 In all the above graphs the values of x at which graph cuts x-axis are obtained by putting y = 0. Similarly the y value of graph when it cuts the y-axis is obtained by putting x = 0. In the above example When e*' — 2 cuts x-axis we have put e-2=0 = et=2 = bl=log 2>x=+log,2 andwhen x=0; See Ex.10 Fig. 4 above. 2.5 DOMAIN AND RANGE 2.5.1 Domain The domain of a function y = f(x) is the set of all real x for which f(x) is defined (real). 2.5.2 Range Range of y= f(x) is the collection of all outputs (f(x)} corresponding to each real number in the domain. REMEMBER THE FOLLOWING (A) Domain and Range of some standard functions (i) Domain of every polynomial is ‘R” (ii) The domain of every rational function is ‘R’-{points where denominator = 0} (ii) The domain and range of y = Ix! is ‘R’and [0, e) respectively. (iv) The domain and range of y = [x] is ‘R’ and ‘J’ respectively.2.28 Concepts of Functions and Calculus (v) Domain of sin x and cos x is ‘R’ and range is [-1, 1]. (vi) Domain of tan x and sec xis R-{c2n +1 Fan € i} and ranges are (—e, 0) | and ‘R’ — (— 1, 1) respectively. (vii) Domain of cot x and cosec x is “R’—{n7, n € J}and ranges are (—°, co) and ‘R'—(-1, 1) respectively. (viii) The domain and range of sin-!x is [-1, 1] and [-5.4]. (ix) The domain and range of cos“ x is [-1, 1] and [0, 7]. (x) The domain and range of tan! x is (2°, e2) and (-5.4) (xi) The domain and range of cot"' x is (-e, e°) and (0, 7). (xii) The domain and range of sec-'x is ‘R* - (-1, 1) and [0, 7) - {3} ‘ (xiii) The domain and range of cosec™'x is ‘R’— (-1, 1) and [- £10). (B) Rules for finding domain: @ Expression under even root (i.e. square root, fourth root etc.) 2 0. (ii) D' #0. (iii) y = log, x is defined if x > 0, a>0 anda #1. (iv) If domain of y = f(x) and y = g(x) are D, and D, respectively then the domain of f(x) + g(x) or f(x) - g(x) is D, ND, fQ) gQx) (v) While domain of is D.AD,-{ g(x) =0} WORKED OUT EXAMPLES Problems based on domain of Algebraic function Ex. f(x) = x?-5x+6 Sol. For f(x) to be defined, from Rule (i) x’ -5x+620 When, x’ -5x+6=0 (~— 3)(x-2) =0 => either (x — 3) = O or, (x-2)=0 . x=3,2 Sign scheme for x? -5x+6 is as below -« +o tye 2 ~ve 3 +veFunctions 2.29 Hence, xS2or, x23 Domain of f(x) =] =, 2] U [3, =f Ex.2 f(xy= f/x? -3x424 1 Sol. Let y,=\[x?-3x+2 and y, = A=, +, For f(x) to be defined y, and y, both should be defined (i) y, is defined if x7 -3x+220 (ii) y, is defined if x* -3x-4>0 2. 2° -3x—4#0 as it is in Denominator. Now, when x?-3x+2=0 (e-1D@-2)=0 either (—1)=0 04, (x-2)=0 x=1,2 Sign scheme of x7 —3x +2 is as below 09 <> to ve 1 ve 2. We Hence x $1 or x22 «. Domain of y,=-00 4 «. Domain of y, = ce al 1 2 4 seo 0 = Ix > x which is true for negative x only. Illustration Case (I) If x>0; lx Case (II) If, x <0; ll =—x x Id >x = -x>x Id > xis false. > O>2x => x<0 Hence, Domain is (—s, 0). Ex. fx) = — GI Sol. f(x) is defined if [x] -x > 0 ie. [x] > x But from the definition of greatest integer function we know that [Ix] sx Wre Rie. [x] ¥ x Hence domain is $. Ex. Find the domain of f= | & £ a xo + 2x Sol. fx) is defined if —27+! __ > 0 ana p40 3x72 +2x x When 2x +1=0=x= -4 When x°— 3x° + 2x =O0=>x=0,1,2 «Sign scheme for 2+] _ is as below 3x? + 2x +e42 ve 9 +e | ve 9 +e Domain is — 00 < x $-1/2or005x<1 and log, (1 - x) #0 => (=x) # 10° > (-x #1. > x#0. z. Domain of y, is x < 1-(0} (ii)_y, is defined when x +220 ie. x2-2 Domain of y, = -2 $ x< 00 <. Domain of yis [-2, 1)-{0} ie. -2 x#42 (A) and then argument x— x > 0 When, => =0 => x=0,21 Sign scheme of (x-.x) is as below 00 tin —ve 4} tve 9 -ve | +ve -10 from sign scheme x2-3x +2 >0 > x2 (A) and x+1>0;41 = x>-1;40 (B) Taking A > Bas below 09 $$ tn te -1 0 1 2 rs we get Domain as -l0 (@) Nowlet log, ,x=t So, fey = 4+ 31(44+1) +36 Hence fix) is defined if f + 3 + 12r +3620 => P(t +3) + 12¢+3)20 > (t+ 3)(2 + 12) 20 > t+320 because? +12>0Vt = log,, x > -3 = x S125 @) AB gives us0 xSlorx24 @) AQB => (0,1)U[4,5) Problems based on Trigonometrical Function Ex.ll f(x) = cos 3 el + logy, x so. -1s 1724! < 3 > -3S1-2ix1<3 => -4s-2ixd<2 => 22Ixl2-1 > -20;Ix-1l>0 But Ix-Il>0 if xeR-{(I} (B) Also Ix-Il#1 => x#0,2 (Co) Taking intersection of all we get O 4<2-3[x1<4 = -6<-3[x]<2 = 22(22 Because [x] is integer hence [x] = 0, 1, 2. But — [x] =0 for OS x<1 =1for10 But-1 sin x <1 forall x. cos820, {here @= sin x lies in Ist and 4th quadrant} i.e. cos (sin x) 20 for all x ie. 00 CXC 00 4 i) sin [=e is defined. 1+x? 2x But 1+r>0Vx. W+x71=1+2? If <1 => W4el<2al So, 14x? <12x1 => bP-2bl+1 (1-1) <0 But (Ix1—1)? is either always positive or zero. ie. (Ini 1)? £0 Inl-1=0 > WW=l => x=41 AB gives Domain = {-1, 1}. 2 Ex.15.y=sin"! toga (22). m2 Sol. For y to be defined (i) 4} > 0 which is true Vx € R-(0) . 2 (ii) -1stog,(4}<1 = ws2# <2 ss => isrs4 Which is equivalent to the combination of (a) 21 and (b) Pr <4 ¥21 = xs-lorx21 Ys4 = -2SxS2 (A) (B) (A) (eyFunctions 2.35 (i) A(AB) gives -2 0 (A) (ii) log,,0)>0 = x< (1/2) (loga>c>a x0 => log,,(x) > 2° = log, (x) > 1 => x<(1/2)! => x<12 © Taking A ABO C we get O0 Gi) -1Slog.xslo = 2'Sxs2' = I2sxs2 (ili) sin" (log,x)20 = log,x20 => x22? >x21 Hence domain is | = log,,(10") = log, (10 -105) > ylog,,10 = log,,(10-10") = y= log,,(10 -10%) Now y is defined if (10 -10*) > 0 => 10'> 10° => 1>x iexel Ex.19 f(x) = log, 2)(4— In) Sol. f(x) is defined if 4-Ix1>0 => -4ex<4 (A) and [e]>0;41 All positive integers excluding 1 are 2, 3, 4, ..... Hence [e]22 = x22, why? > x<-J2 orx> J2 (B) ANB = -4 / => f(x) = I while [f(x)] <1 > f(x) 0 s+x4+1>0VxeR and V+xt1S1 => 4x50 = -1S3x50 «. domain is -1 and > and > and IPs 2 —2<[x]f(x,) 0} hence, f(x) < f(x +h) f(x + hf) >0 f(a) = =+veiefe)>0Functions 2.37 f’@ may also be zero but only at finite number of points and not in an interval. (ii) Non decreasing function A function f(x) is said to be non-decreasing if for x, < x, it follows FO)S FCQ) See the right graphs For AB and CD portions x, fx,) =/tx,) hence, as a whole we can say that for non- decreasing functions x, (x) ie. for smaller value of in- put we have higher output and for higher in- (x1) put we have smaller output. F(x2) Nature of derivative We have f ‘@)= jim, xO} - flx)>fx+h f(xt+h)— f@) h > fix+h)—fix) <0 < f4 (w=Fe =-ve. f£’@) <0 for strictly decreasing function. f'(x) may also be zero but only at finite number of points. (ii) Non increasing functions A function f(x) is called non-increasing if for a, f(x) 2(m) For AB and CD portion x, < x, => f(x) > f(y) while x, 1 {f’(x) > 0 in these intervals). ) f)= f (? + 2n(2 Wat fe) = (2 + 2x)? -1) When f(x) =0 => x=0,-2,-1,1. Sign scheme for f’(x) is as below 0. +o tve _y -ve | +ve g —ve | +veFunctions 2.39 Clearly, f(x) >0 When -o x=0,5," or 2cosx+1=0 > x= as cosx+2#0. Sign scheme for f(x) in [0, 1] is as below.2.40 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Ex.2 At what values of a does the function f(x) = 2 + ax—.° decreases for all xeR? Sol. f(x) =a-3r Since f(x) decreases V xe R a fF’ <0 VxeR a-3750 VxeR as3? VxeR a$(3x*),,, =a $0 (Since minimum value of x? is zero) Uud xe™ 3 xs0 fo ate Ex.3 Let f(x)= where a is positive constant. xtaxr-x; x>0 Find the interval in which f(x) is increasing. , axe“+e* 5 x50 Sol. f’(x)= 142ax-3x?; x>0 i Qataxle™; x<0 > f'Q)= 2a -6x 3 x>0 Now when f”(x) =O then in the interval x < 0 the root is x= while it is al3 for x >0 The sign scheme for f(x) is as below 0 tin —ve Ja 4ve aise Hence f’(x) decreases on (—. =) U (3. -) and increases on Proving functional inequalities: In this section we shall leam to prove the functional inequalities Ex4 Prove that sinxSx ifx20 and sinx >x ifx<0 Sol. Let f(x) = sinx-x 3 f')=cosx-1S0 WxeER => f(x) is decreasing function V x € R. Thus x20 = f@) sinx-x<0 > sinx f0) => sinx-x>0 > sinx > x Similarly we can prove that sin x2>x ifx20 and sintx x20 2and and Functions 2.41 tanx0 tan? x>x ifx<0 e2l+x VreR In +x)0O Students are suggested to prove and memorize the above inequlities. Ex5. Show that] +xin(x-+, Paile 1+? forallx20. Sol. Let f(x) = Le aa(x +)? v)- freer Since, ie. “(x)= 1 f(y, Fore. al be +in(x+ Faia gets x | yetitx (e+ fe) yer +in(x+ 73) =in(x+ foi} a ite +l =in(r+ fF 1) xtx+1>1 forx>0 in(x-+ fe?+1}>Im1 f'(x)>0 for all x>0 f(x) increases forx>0 -. x20 = f(x2 sO) Lexin(c+ f41)- Jee 20 L+xhn(x+ [Fi)>, 1+2° proved.2.42 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 2 Ex6. If O1 -=- 2 Sol. Let fix) = cos.x- 147 sinx+x=x-sinx Let —sinx g(x) =1-cosx r for O cos x> 5 = 1>cosx>0 g’(@) =1-cos x >0 g(x) is an increasing function in b af ” x>0 = — g(x)>g(0)=0~sin0=0 > g(x)>0 But f'(%) =8(a) hence f(x) >0 f(x) is an increasing function in b af. x>0 => f@w>fO 2 => cosx-1+4->0 > cos x >1 25 Note: Students should remember the result sinx < x forx > 0 and sinx > x for x < 0. They can use these results directly while solving problems. Ex7. Show that 2 sin x+tan x>3x when Osx“ for 0 x; tan x, for O0 for O0- for O f(x) > f(x) ie. Ay tan xy > x, tan x. Ex9, Prove that (8) = = is increasing function when @> 0. Also prove that fn an ig O 0 then 20 > sin 20 (Since sin x < x for x > 0) 5 “(g) = #¥e = Hence S'O)= FE =e > f(@) is increasing functon when 6 > 0.2.44 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Now if we take any two positive value of @ say x, and x, then we can write tan xp. tan x x Note: We can consider two variable expressions also for @. So if g(x) and A(x) are two expressions (both +ve) such that B(x) > h(x) then fig(x)) > A(x) tan (g() , tan (h@)) x, f@) g(x) AQ) eg. For x€(0,2/4), sinx cos x Hence f(sin x) > f(cos x) = tan (sin x) s tan (cos x) sin.x cos x Ex.10 For 0 < x< #/2 prove that the inequality sin? x < x sin (sin x) is valid. Sol. We have to prove that sin? x < x sin (sin x) ile. sinx | sin (sin x) x sin x ae Let f(@)= , @ cos @ —sin@ a 70) = 9S “ sin@ _ cos When 0 sin x, f(x) < f(sin x) sin x 3 sin (sin x) x sin x Note: If students couldn’t remember 8 0. f= 28 (in x) ia (in x) Daa om) @ - tan 8) =>Ex.12 Sol. Functions 2.45 Here f(x) increases when f(x) 20 i.e. sin (4 +In x) 0 ie. ann <(-+inx)<(On+ De => er HIS < yc gdm + 3/4 a xe [etm -414, dems se/4]) Find the set of all values of a for which Jat4 f@= —1]|x° —3x+log5 decreases for all x. l-a rood =i} Since f(x) decreases for all x, f(x) SO VxeER . Jat4 ie. 5 “1a x4<3 WxeR I- at+4 > <1 (A) ina It is clear thata >—4 for,/a+4 to be real, now two cases arise. First whena>l,ie.l-a<0 Then from (A); ja+421-a Since LHS > 0 and RHS < 0, above inequality is true for alla > 1.2.46 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Second when-40 then from (A); far Sl-a Squaring we get a+4Sa?-2at1 => @ —3a-320 3 ac 3cval a2 dtl 2 2 But -4Sa0 vx prove that [" g0) dr+ J e@idr incerases as (b - a) dx 0 0 increases. Sol. Let b-a=tand sincea+b=4 s where t>0(-- a<2 and b>2) We have patt4 and a="5 : : Let Jf serart J srar= oe) 144 4-1 gO= i g(xdx+ ir Bde vot) a) [Remember that when f(x) = f°” g(a)dr then FO) = Bla() }ax"(x) Because g(x) is an increasing function (given a >0) and —— > —— dx a) fe) (KE TPG => 9’) >0. Hence $(f) incerases as t increases. Proved.Functions 2.47 2.7: METHOD TO FIND THE RANGE OF A FUNCTION y= fl) First of all find the domain of y = f(x) (i) If domain is a set having only finite number of points, range is the set of corresponding f(x) values. (ii) If domain of y = f(x) is R or R— {some finite points} or an infinite interval, express x in terms of y. From this find y for x to be defined or real. Or, form an equation in terms of x and apply the condition for real roots. (iii) If domain is not an infinite interval find the least and the greatest values of F(x) using monotonicity. WORKED OUT EXAMPLES 2 Ex.1 Find the range of y= 14x?) Sol. y is defined Vx € R hence, domain is R <. From y=—2"— we have “ L+x? Pytyar = P= “Toy In either case, for x to be defined = 00 it’s discreminant = (—4)? — 4.3.5 = -44 <0 and coeff. of xX = 3>0 hence Bx -4x+5)>0Vxe R. +. Domain is R. Now, from y = log,(3x?- 4x + 5) we have (3x? - 4x +5) =e" > 3x -4x + (5-e)=0 Since xis real +. disc 20 ie. #-43.5-e)20 > 12e” > 442.48 Concepts of Functions and Calculus y>u u => e255 ye ie 3 Hence range is [ee(4t} ‘ Aliter: Let u = 3x° - 4x +5 Here u is minimum at x= 2 2V_4(2 uu and Una, = 3(3) -4(3)+5=H2 * tb < u logtt S y 0. Now, log, y= 2x-x? = 2x + log, y=0 Since, x is real, Disc > 0 => 4—4log, y20 => log,yS1 => ys2 o Range is 0< y <2 Aliter: Let «=2x—27 i eed aes u is maximum at x= Tes) 1 u(maximum) = 2.1 - 1? =1 y (maximum) = 2' = 2 u(minimum)—>-° .. y(minimum)=2"—>0 O => => “ xisrealify-140 => y#¥l1 1 Also because y re} forx #0 Hence, we have to exclude the value of y obtained when x > 0 and lim Range is yer-{-4,1] Why we have excluded y=—4,, can also be followed as below. 1+2y l-y Asx#OQand x= L+2y hence, T-y 0 1 2 Ex.6 Find the range of y=,/x-1+,/5-x. Sol. The domain of this function is [1, 5], which is a finite interval. Therefore we should use monotonicity. > 1+2y#0 => y#-2.50 Concepts of Functions and Calculus dy 1 1 Now, == ——-=— de 2fx-1 2/5-x wy = When me 0 we have x = 3. Sign scheme for yy is as below. ig! ax (Ws 1 +e 3 ve 3 min max min y is minimum at x =1 and x =5 Voig At X=1 is 2 Yin At X= 5 is also 2 But y,,,, ats =3 is 2V2 ©. Rangeis y,.. SY SVau. = 2s O¥sin@ 1 i.e. x # 1 rather Fig. (i) Fig. (ii)3.2 Concepts of Functions and Calculus x= 1 - 6 for left hand point and x = 1 + 65 for right hand point. This ‘5’ is infinitesimal, means very small, almost zero. Hence, for x = 1 + 5 we write x — 1 and read it as “x tends to 1” Correspondingly, f(1 — 5) = L,, f(l + 8) =L, (see graphs) and L,, L, are in the vicinity of L on the y—axis. Let IL — L,| or IL — L,| is equal to ‘e” whichever is greater. Now make up your mind and think in obvious way that if 5— 0; L,—> L from left and L, approaches L from right. Therefore, we say that limit x > 1 exists and is Fig. (iii) equal to L which is ‘2’ in this case. 3.1.1 ¢-6 Definition of Limit A number ‘L’ is called the limit of a function f(x) as x > a, L x 1 (1-9) 0+ Os. Right hand point im f(x), if for xa any € > 0 there exists anumber 6 > 0 such that for all x satisfying 0 0. If it is added to some number ‘a’ the result Sorx=1 + 6take ‘6° as for x # 1. For points x= 1 + die. x,Limits and Continuity 3.3 is (a+ h); a number in the right hand of ‘a’. and forh 0, f(a + h); is said to be right hand limit of f(x). If ‘h’ is subtracted from ‘a’ the result is (a—h); a number in the left hand of ‘a’ and for h — 0, f(a — h) is said to be the left hand limit of Fix). LHL (left hand limit) at ‘a’ can also be represented by f(a - 0) or fa -) and (right hand limit) at ‘a’ by f(a + 0) or fla +) Note(1) If f(x) approaches the limit L, as x approaches a certain number ‘a’ from the left (i.e. x takes on values less than ‘a’) we write lim FO = L, and call L, the limit on the left at the point ‘a’ of the function. If x admits only values greater than ‘a’ we write lim if = L, and call L, the limit on the right at the point xoat 2 ‘a’ of the function. It can be proved that if the limit on the right (RHL) and limit on the left (LHL) exist and are equal i.e. L, = L,= L then L will be the limit at the point. And conversely if there exists a limit Z of a function at the point ‘a’, then both LHL and RHL exist and are equal. It must be noted that existence of LHL & RHL separately means, LHL & RHL have finite and definite value. (2) For a function f(x) to have limit as x — a, it is not necessary that f(a) is defined. In finding the limit we consider the values of the function in the neighbourhood of ‘a’ ie. a +h & a—h which are different from ‘a’. We can observe the existence of limit of f(x) at the point x =a directly from the graph also i.e. without calculating actually LHL & RHL. When there is vertical separation at x= alin the graph lim f(x) does not exist. eta (See graph shown right side) 3.2 CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS Let a function y = f(x) be defined at x= a and in its neighbourhood. Also let y, = /(a). If some positive or negative increment (it is immaterial which kind of increment) Ax is given to x and it assumes the value x =a + Ax, then the function y will receive an increment Ay. The new increased value is then given by y) + Ay =f(a+Ax). Therefore the increment of }§<——j—1___|____» the function Ay will be expressed by Ay = fla + Ax) — f(a) A function y = f(x) is called continuous at x= a if it is defined at x =a and in the vicinity of ‘a’ andif lim (Ay)=0 se (1) Ar0 yot Ay vo3.4 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Which is the same thing, slim, f(a + Ax) f(a)=0 seeeeeees (2) ie. lim f(a+Ax)= f(a) ouseen (3) Arse or lim f(x) = f(a) If given increment is positive i.e. Ax =+h > 0 then jim fla +h)= f(a) butif + the increment is negative i.e. Ax=—h then lim f(a —h)= f(a) . Hence the suf- > ficient condition for the continuity of f(x) is lim f(a +h)= f(a) = lim f(a—h). ho 0 When we observe the graph of a continuous function we find the fact that the numerical difference of the ordinates of the function y = f(x) atx=aandx=a+ Ax will be arbitrary small, provided |Axl is small enough. ‘We can also say that while drawing a graph when the pen leaves contact with the paper the function becomes discontinuous at the point where contact is left. 3.2.1 Graphical View Fig(i) LHL — L,; RHL > L, LHL#RHL, ... lim f(x) doesnot exist. It doesnot xa matter whether f(a) is defined or not. f(x) is discon- tinuous also at x= a. Fig(ii) LHL — L; RHL > L + lim f(x) exists but f(a) is not defined and hence xe f(x) is not continuous at x= a. Fig. (ii) Fig. (iii) Fig(iii) LHL = RHL = L; f(a) is also defined but f(a) # L. So, again limit of f(x) exists at x= a but it is discontinuous at x =a.Limits and Continuity 3.5 Fig(iv) LHL = RHL = L; f(a) is also defined and equal to L. Hence, limit of f(x) exists at x =a. Also, f(x) is continuous at x = a. From the above graphs following facts come into pic- ture that (i) Ifa function say y = f(x) is continuous at some point x = a, the limit of the function also exists atx=a. Fig. (iv) Gi) If lim f(x) exists, f(x) may or may not be xa continuous (iii) If) is discontinuous at x =a, lim f(x) may or may not exist. xa (iv) If lim f(x) doesnot exist, the function is also not continuous at x = a. xa 3.2.2 Continuity at end Point Let a function y = f(x) is defined on [a, b]. The function f(x) is said to be continu- ous at the left end x = a if f(a) = im +h) =RHL. > Also, f(x) is said to be continuous at the right end x = b if f(b) = iim (b-h) = = LHL. 3.2.3 Kinds of Discontinuity Let the point x = a be the limit point in the domain of definition of y = f(x). Discontinuity of Ist kind: In this kind of discontinuity the RHL and LHL of the function y = f(x) are existent (i.e. are finite and definite) at x = a and if fim f(a—A) = lim f(a h) # fla) then fla) is said to have first kind = a removable discontinuity. This kind of discontinuity can be removed by putting f(a) = lim f(x). xa (ii) lim f(a—h) # lim f(a+A) then f(x) is said to have find kind non-re- h0 ho movable discontinuity. The value lim f(a +h) — lim f(a—h) is called jump discontinuity of ho no Sf) atx=a. Discontinuity of 2nd kind: If at least one of lim f(a+s) and lim f(a—h) 90 h0 is non-existent or infinite then f(x) is said to have discontinuity of 2nd kind at x=a.3.6 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 3.3 BASIC THEOREMS ON LIMIT Theorem(1): The limit of an algebraic sum of two, three or in general any finite number of functions is equai to the algebraic sum of the limits of these functions. ie. lim( f, +f, +... +f, = lif, + lim, +...... + limf, Theorem(2): The limit of a product of two, three or in general any finite number of functions is equal to the product of limits of these functions. in lim(f, Xf, X ve xf,) =limf,x lim f,x ...... xlim f, Corollary: A constant factor may be taken outside the limit sign. ie. lim{Af()} = kx lim(f(x)} Theorem(3): The limit of the ratio of two functions is equal to the ratio of the limits of these functions, provided the limit of the denominator is zero. lim f lim where lim g # 0. g limg 3.4 BASIC THEOREM ON CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS Theorem(1): If the functions f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a point x = a then the sum @ = f(x) + ¢(x) is also continuous at that point x = a. Proof - Since f(x) and g(x) are continuous at a point x = a we can write jim f(x)= f(a) and lim g(x)= g(a) Now lim $(x) = lim { f(x) + g(x)} ra = lim f(x) + lim g(x) (using theorems on limit) xa ra =f(a) + g(a) = $(a) Thus, the function $(x) = f(x) + g(x) is continuous. Similarly, we can prove the following theorems Theorem(2): The product of two continuous functions is a continuous function. Theorem(3): The ratio of two continuous functions is a continuous function, Provided the denominator does not vanish at the point under consideration. Theorem(4): If u = g(x) is continuous at x = a and f(u) is continuous at the point u, = g(a), then the composite function f{g(x)} is continuous at the point x= a. 3.5 EVALUATION OF LIMITS Now according to our plan first of all we shall learn the evaluation of limits of different forms and then existence of limit and continuity.Limits and Continuity 3.7 There are seven indeterminate or meaningless forms which are @ 8 (ii) = (ili) 2-20 (iv)eo-O (v) 0" (vi)? (vii) I> we shall distribute the problems of evaluation of limits in the following manner. (@) Algebraic limits :— Limits of algebraic forms are further sub-classified as ()_@ form which are based on (a) Factorisation method (b) Rationalisation method (c) Standard formula ._[ x"—a" , : lim ( } =n-a™"', nis a rational number. sual x= (ii) © type (a) = type (b) c —c type (ID Trigonometric Limits (IID) Logarithmic Limits (IV) Exponential Limits (i) Based on Series Expansion (ii) Based on Definition of ‘e’ (V) Miscllaneous Forms Let us follow the above plan. () Algebraic Limits— @ . form (a) Factorisation method—In this method numerators and denominators are factorised. The common factors are cancelled and the rest outputs the result Ext tim—2—! _ 1912? - 7x45 . oe x-1 Sol. The given limit = lim Ga) @x=5) =i - li. = ling, 5 * Tx1-5 wie x2 lim — x? log x + log x-1 rl x=1 3 2 The given limit = lim —)—@ =I log x rl v13.8 Concepts of Functions and Calculus (x- DQ? 4x41) - (4-1) (xt 1) log x = G-DG@t) _ yg (= Dix? +x $1 = (x +1) log x] = G@-D@+D _ P+l+1-(+1 log!) _ 3-0_3 a+) 2° 2 (b) Rationalisation Method — Rationalisation is followed when we have frac- tional powers (te}4 25° ) on expressions in numerator or denominator or in both. After rationalisation the terms are factorised which on cancellation gives the result. Ex.3 fin SEAN E a ho irae im Neth ox vx thts mk * [eth pxtheyx Geth)-x ren) 2x +x- Ex. lim Y27*—v?P7* a0 Ja+x-Ja-x x Note: The N’ and D’ both have to be rationalised. Sol. The given limit =i yptx-Jp-* [ett p-x_ \qtx+Jq-x * [a0 Jy ea oane qtx—-Jfq-x Jp+ p-x Jqtx+Jq-x Sol. lim —————— hoo = lim (pt) (e-9)} + rao ((q+x)—(q-9} * [peat pox ~ Phas [pans [poxLimits and Continuity 3.9 30-2) -2 Ex.5 lim gor yn2 x92 x72 Sol. Because the fractional power of (10 — x) is 1/3, hence we have to multiply and divide the expression by such expression so that cach terms become free from radicals (fractional powers) Hence if we think (a (10-x) -2) = a—b. The suitable term is (a? + ab + b”). As (a—b)(a?+ ab + b’) = a Now see below (yao=3 -2) {@ Go-a) +2-Ydo-» + ‘| The given limit= lim ———— ++ - <=» |(oa=9) «2-qa0=9 +4} co=-» = ko St a-m){ yom) +2. JOH +4} 10-x-8 ta JT #922) {ao-2%+2-d0-2%+4} = lim @-9 *92(y-2) {40-4 +2-0- S44} 2 This problem can also be solved by using the standard formula. agi =na"~' where ‘n’ is a rational (c) Based on standard formula lim xa X-a number. Proof: letx=a+h; Asx — ajh 40 a” ( + ay -| 5 _ (ath)"-a ji = = in ey @rhy=a oO 2 a" dia n( 4) + 2@=D(ay y bag a 2! a st oy hd h>0 h (Using Binomial theorem)3.10 Concepts of Functions and Calculus ant + oe » ( }e terms of higher powers of | = li - ts, A =n-a™ Explanation: Before applying the above formula the care should be taken that in the denominator the factor should definitely be (x — a) as x — a. and in the numerator the power of x & a both should be same. See below. 2 Ex.6 tim © =? x92 x-2 Sol. Above formula can't be applied because in the numerator powers of x & 2 are different. Pr? y* If this limit belongs to the above formula what are the terms in the blank spaces. Also find the limit after filling the blank. Sol. Clearly, the term in the numerator should be 4*7 i.e. 8 and in the denomina- tor it should also be 8 to create the factor (x- 4). Now the limit is 2 43? jn aa=8 3/2 _ 43/2 = tly <8 = in yea =1/3yt"] = 3 13x 73 Bx8 jim Le tv= tvs 3 B= [eee Sol. The gives imit = lim?—___"__+____* 3.___* xol (x-D (x? +41) in| ==) (=) 2 % —i imva=n + G=p + G0 (Peat logy nadsqyned3eqyalyt {hxa +a x17 +5 x) pd Z 9Limits and Continuity 3.11 _ xP —(ptlxtp lin 2 WP FO +P Bx9 lim Sole tim (P+) x4 P st (x1? ia xP*!_ py-xtp xl (x= 1)? = lim x(x? 1) = p(x-1) xl (x-1? Dividing N’ and D* by (x1) we get the limit (P=) x =m GD = lim GD ERE Hees = lim x1 (x-1) (Using summation of p terms of G.P.) 2 3 = lim D+ -1)+@?-1+...... +? =D al (x-l) = pm GoD, HD, =D (x? -1) = lim Go) * Ga) * Gen to (1 SLt243 tec ¢pe pips} Yl+x? — 41-2 Ex.10 jim 7 130 xtx Yitx? — 41-2. Sol. jim ¥—* x0 xtx ian? -141-4 1-2 = tim ————__, -——_ x90 etx (i+ -1) (;{i=2e-1 = ig t=!) (SI) =L,-L,(say) x0 tx atx3.12 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Ye Now L, = lim {te} -1 x90 tx? Let us assume 1+ x?= y; Asx—>0, yy 1 3 Then L, = lim x lim —*— yot y-l x501+x = 1(¢)-23,._2 = 3x75 =o Similarly L, Hence required limit = L, -L,= 0- (- 1) =1, (ii) Algebraic function of o type : (a) = form:—First of all we should know the limiting values of 4 »a@' (a>O)as x —> ©, See the graphs of these function. You will see in the graph of that the ' ' curve appears to touch x-axis on right side as x —> ©. This is because lim 4 z 0 ca) and it's true for any function like f(x) = Abate ne, £ i. tim Afinite no.) _, 4 x00 x Now see the graph of a* when a > 1. This graph appears to touch x-axis in the negative side of x-axis and there after it increases rapidly. That’s why because lim a*—0. Again you'll also find the result lim a‘ — 0. In fact we have the ca x0 following resultsLimits and Continuity 3.13 co ifa>l lim a*=41 ifa=1 “0 if0sa 2)(n+1)I= (n+! (nt 2+D(n+I)! noe(n+2-1(n+)! a1+3) = lim * mo (i+) n3.14 Concepts of Functions and Calculus P+ xP? Ex.14 Find L= jim 2-72" + where a, b, c,d, e & k are constants and xs dxt + ext +k p>0,q>0. Sol. We have to consider three cases because which one is greater between p & q,is not given. b #(0+8+5) L= lim —~———_< a(arg+t] bye at+-Z P slim (x?-4)] 2p saessnsts 7) xe ek dt+S+ " Case (1) If p > q; p—q>0 > 324 ~, asx > ox 44040) hence L approaches *(d40+0) d+0+0)~ Case(ID If p= 4; L= a [putting (p - g) = 0 in A] Case(III) If p x* > 0asx> oo (a+0+0) (d+0+0) °° hence L = 0x 2 Ex.15 Find L= jim 2&7 r+ ne b+by +by*+.. Fton terms irc 1 &lyi v0; = —x Hence the given limit = Ex.17 Find the limit from the two sides of L= lim lim ( naeoksl Sol. When k approaches 1 from left side ie. when k = 1 — h, it is in between 0 & 1 and we know that any number lying between 0 & 1 when raised to power 2, becomes zero L= lim lim (ky"=0 nseokl-h when k—> 1 +h, kis greater than | and any number greater than 1 raised to power #2, becomes c= L= lim lim (k)" =00 nook +h In this problem one must note that ‘n’ and ‘h’ are independent of each other. ei Ex18 tim “— (a>0) astea’ +1 7 Sol. Letus solve tim “=! yngetsa™ +L =L, (say). @ When01; lim a*>. Thus the limit attains the = pattern. Now let lim afat L, (say) zoe at +] For better understanding assume x = As x > —09; ~y > -20 i.e, y > 00 . l-@ Thus L,= lim jim —— yooa +l yoel+a™ @ Now solve the problem yourself exactly in the same manner as above. Deh 3 Ex.19 jim 2¢_73 hoo 1-30" Sol. Since lim, 10, e” + 00 naoh The limit is of (2) form and hence etl 2 L= lim, hao a 1 =) olan (eo — ©) type: Such problems are simplified (generally rationalised) first thereafter they gener- ally acquire (z) pattem.Limits and Continuity 3.17 = lim ——* "nen fitd n = tm ———" a__.-l, ne 2 Here we have to consider two cases (i) When x > ©; Il =x then the given limit= lim — 1+ + x, ( 4) x3.18 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Gi) When x > —00} kl = —x then we have lim xk ae =x f[1+4 x = lin ——*_ Faas = k xf —fl+- +1 ( x Ex.22 sino + [att -x/3) ( xe feted ent] (jeerrieal| Gas x+1-23") = lim EL [ae ]eai oni) (ie) (Wee) in ——_ x ++ ae fPaien) (Fie) (It is rationalised again) 4yy—x4 tim ~—2 +1=¥) _y 1 "(fen feri ent) (fFti+) When x— co we have lim ———_—*» _____=1_,9 Try and solve the rest of the problem yourself.Limits and Continuity 3.19 (i) Trigonometrical Limits ‘We use following formulae under this class in“! x ys Sin @ i . Sif Oo ee = ee ai (i) limcos @=1 (vy) lim =1 ono roo a tan @_ om) Ge Proof: The formula (ii) is very clear. As @— 0; cos @= cos 0 = 1 i.e. cos 0 approaches 1. -) 7. sin 8 Now let us prove () lim “5 =1 Let us consider a circle of radius = 1 (see figure) denoted ZPOB by a(o } XOAXPB< } xOAx AP < 5 xOAxAC = gx ixsin <5 x1x0< 4 x1 xtan 6 2 2 => sind<@ GP 08 8 LN oO Now taking limit @ > 0 we have BoA lim 1> jim 328 5 limcos@ = 1>lim*= oy 630 030 8 ~ 640 e0 @ s. . sin@ Obviously in =1 We have proved the formula when > 0. But it is true also for 9< 0. Let @ =-9 sin (—9) =sin 6 _ hence, dim = lim -¢ (-o) 990-93.20 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Now proof of (iii) lim ten is very easy. 00 6 LHS = jim 229 = jim 829 x1 e0 @ 650c0s 8 _ a sind 141 = Be Seo Now see the evaluation of trigonometric limits Ex.1 Evaluate the following limits (@ tim1 sin x Gi) tim1 sinn 30x noon Gi) im nsin (iv) tim xsin L a m0 x Sol. (i) tim sin x = tim “2% =1 from formula. 230X x90 X (i) But lim sinn #1. = Many times we have seen that students write lim 1 sin n = 1 and give ae logic that he has used the formula lim: ano = 1. But, it must be noted that while applying the formula the angle of ‘sine’ must be approach- ing zero. Hence, the actual solution of the limit sinn _ ,._ A finite no. between -1 & +1 = lim —————_—_—___ 0 ey lim ne on neo sin (2) Gi) Tim nsin 1 = tim soe ee CL n Here angle of ‘sine’ is(2 ) andas n> (2) 30 ~The required limit = 1. (iv) Ans is 0. It is in the accordance of (ji). In fact problems (i) and (iii) are identical and problems (ii) and (iv) are identical. Students may check the truth by putting x = 1 and giving logic that x 0 as n — 0,Limits and Continuity 3.21 Ex.2_ lim 2-* sin (2*) Paro Sol, 27=+ ¥ ‘We know that when x — 0; 2* — oo The given limit = 0 - (A finite no. between -1 and +1) = 0. Ex.3 lim e*sin (2) x0 e Sol. When x — 09; e* 9 00 But the angle of ‘sine’ = e The given limit = lim =U Ext jim #2@=0) xa Xa Sol. Here, the angle of ‘sine’ is (x—a) and x — a whence the term x —a > 0. Is there any doubt that the value of the limit is 1? Ex.5 If f(x)= find lim f(x). xe Sol. Jim f(x)3:22 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Ex.6 Evaluate lim "7 x30 = X Sin OX (sin @x Sol. lim —— = lim] ——|xa@ 90 x x90\ Ox Here, the angle of ‘sine’ is (ay And when x — 0 ; ax — 0. So, if we assume ox = 6 then the value of is unity according to our formula and hence the value of the limit = ig xa=a. sin ax 0 tan Bx Ex.7 Evaluate iim Sin an Sol. tim =" % — jim sin ax x— xootan Bx ~ x30 tan Bx = tin 822 xe x7 — «(ax Lt x30, ax Eh sone Ex.8 Evaluate lim 1-cos x 2sin? (3) Sol. lim lim —\?4 190 x? 90 x : sin(x/2)] _ (1 1 sina | 20/2) |- 2(3) “2F sin (x - 2/6) sin (x—z/6 in (x- Sol. lim sia (s—#/6) ) = tm 2 ozl6) ronis( 3 /2- toe ) x-9116 COS 71/6 — COS X 2si x-7/6 x- 7/6 sin| —— |cos| —— lim = 19816) (ri6+x) , (x-n/6) = 00. Tg: sin] 7 Join] 0 when xy. Hence the correct solution is that the given limit = lim SB @+y) Y lim SG —y) xoy xty xy X-y Sin 29) 1. 1 xsin2y, ~2y 2y it -1 Ex.11 (i) lim S27 (i) tim 82 yo z 230 z Sol. Let sin“'y= 6. Because y — 0 therefore = sin-'y O and y= sin 0 6 = tim—t = imino = iano g sin”! y *. The limit = lim yo Similarly ,we can prove lim Lo = 1. These results can be used fre- 290 quently as formula. Ex.12 jim 2= 1304x4sin"! » ae: oni Sol tim 2=— tan x 2304x +sin3.24 Concepts of Functions and Calculus xsin a—asin x Ex.13 lim xa x-a . xsin a—asin x . xsina—asina+asina—asinx Sol. lim —— 5. te Aa xa x-a xa x-a . (x—a) sin a—a(sin x—sina = lim 222. (s ) xa x-a ase sin x—sina = lim sin a-a x ————_ xa x-a sin 259 . . xt+a = sin a—ax lim 2cos —_—e xa 2 =sin a-acosa. Aliter: Letx=a+h when x > a;h-0 . xsina-asin x then lim —————— ra x-a = lim (a+h)sin a—asin (a +h) AO h = lim 28i.a—asin(a +h) +hsina A-0 h . sina-sin(a+h) | hsina = lim ax —————— + —— h0 h h sin(-4) = limax2cos{ a+ 2 +sina h0 2 h 5 h)\l-l sin = sin a+2a Himeos (a+) <3! h 2 =sin a+ acos ax (-1)=sina-acosa, (a +h) sin(a +h)—a’ sina Ex.14 lim h0 ALimits and Continuity 3.25 (a? + 2ah + h?)sin(a +h)—a?sina Sol. The given limit = jim i A = fim [ {sin(a+h)~sin a) | (2ah+h?)sin(a + | hoo sin (4) J + (2a+ h) sin(a +h) = lim a? 200s (a+ h0 2 A 2 h\y1 sin § i = lim 2a oos(a+ 8) ch zr +(2a+h) sin(a +h) 2 = 2a? cosa x} +2a sina =a’ cosa+2asina. Ex.S Find lim ——!2>_ xon/4] —/2 sin x Sol. jim 1! xonl4]— 2 sin x lim ( _ sin | 1 xKI4 cos x a . 2 lim x9n/4 COS X z_ (sin 4 sin) 1 = lim — (sin © cos x—cos % sin x x-9n/4 COS X 4 4 in(Z- 1 sn(§ :) = lim ——x SxKl4COSX [ind asin(E = lim —_x- xH/4 COS X 200s3.26 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Ex.16 Find lim S24 any a vr Sol. lim -S22_= jim ory a? fl F Student may also solve by putting a = 7+ h ora=1-h. Ex.17 lim sin (4) tan (2) ya Sol. tim sin( 254) Hausa 5 2). even limit < limsin( 2 ath <. The given limit fin) tn (8 Limits and Continuity 3.27 Another Method: Let y — a = h. Hence, h — 0 because, y > a a A H(y4h tim sin(#) tan (+h) A)y a,ith tim sin (#) tan (4+ 2a ah) tl ra Bi — ni> Le x I 8 8 —~ oR a oe = h sin # fie] —4 |x | ee ho h tan (h/2a) (x x 2 (ah/2a) "\a 1-cos x,/cos 2x Ex.18 lim ———_>——_ Sol. 1390 x 2 . trons ry cos 2x goose cos 2x = in ——}——_ x0 Toe L408 xJcos 2x 2x 1-cos* x cos 2x lin —————__S[S; 290 2 (0 +008 x,/cos os) ~ cos? x (1—2sin2 tim! cos’ x (l—2sin* x) x0 # (14008. ‘cos 2x) 2 (1= cos x) +2 cos*x sin? x zy *(1-+¢0s x ‘cos 2) 2 @+2c08? x) x)i (1-405 x eor2x) wn) “Trey " 53.28 Concepts of Functions and Calculus 1—cos (1 —cos x) Ex.19 lim + 1390 x Sol. lim onl cos x) £90 ¥ in? 1 -cos (2si? z) 2 sin? (20/22) = lim 7 = lin ——-_, ——+ x0 x 1390 x’ 2 2 i 2 in sin? X in? X ‘a Tie sin sin’ 2 x sin’ 2 x0 sin? x 5 2 4 sin sin? ¥ sin = = lim2 2} x) 2 x90 | sin? 3 5 x2 4 smoot bo (2)}-m(2}-o( 2] st le) 2 2 Ex.20 tim 3 (1 ~ cone —cos f+ cos -oon) 90 x! rao) 20(¢) = jim32x. Z x ¥ 2? 2 sn(27) sin?| " Le re 8 x 5 xLimits and Continuity 3.29 Ex.21 Evaluate f(x) = lim cos*" x. ne ce if cos* x >I (not possible) Sol. f(x) = lim (cos? x)"=41 if cos? x=1 aoe 0 if Oa The given limit = lim 181+Y) _ 1 a5 discussed above . yo y3.30 Concepts of Functions and Calculus From the above structure there emerge so many problems by substituting a=1,2,3,--- ete. These are lim!98* for a= 1 paix-1 tim 28¢-D a fora=2 EE lim Jog (x-2) x43 x-3 But the answer of all these problems is same and that is 1. for a =3 and soon. Ex.3 lim x log ( +1) oe x log (i + 1) Sol. lim sels) = lim —~—* bee x xoe Ux Here, we can assum = =h . Obviously this h — 0; when x — co Hence, the given limit = lim 108 G+4) =1. 0 A ind li oyaden ds iE by Bet Find im fog( +2 BAT tenes +( rth Sol. Since logl+x)=2- 4X4 We have 2 OF CO, wag 2 - x log(1+ x)-—x+ 2 +...+¢-———— A Tal 2 n nx fd oe aps log (l+x)—x+ os +...4(-D) A = lim a qyt Bacon "Fal + terms containing higher power of x = lim x"! =i" ee oe? 2 en n+l n+1°Limits and Continuity 3.31 Ex.§ lim C800+4) hoo h Sol. See, the base of the ‘log’ is not ‘e’. Hence before expansion first of all we _ log, (+A) have to change base, logy, (1+ h) = Top, 10 —1_y lose +h) © ty s *. The given limit = jim "Top 10 x h = Tog. 10 x1 = log,e. Why? Ex.6 lim 020+) x30 X (1+ kx) Sol. The given limit = lim ES = log If we assume kx = h; h > 0 when x 0 and hence tim 180+) yp = tim 8C*) yp kok x0 hoo Oh Wea Tim 082+ 4) “Hoga a i log (a+h)—log a h (: + log = lim h0 A Sol. The limit = lim h0 li x= iso) B a sixial aa Ex.8 Find lim x {In(x+a@)-1n x} x00 Sol. The limit = tim ofn(=22h ae x3.32 Concepts of Functions and Calculus in(1+4) in(i+2) ‘ x. . = lim ——\— = lim —_.~ xa =a xan (] xm (q x, (2) Is it clear? If not, see solved problem (6). 2 3: a o ER FE tite — Ex.9 lim * x neN. xl log x a3 AER EE tate. Sol. lim *** ** ate xl log x [Here, we have n terms of x so that each term can receive | from n] Z ~ 3_ ne = tim STD +G?-Y+G?-D +... +=) xl log x Dividing N’ and D’ by (x -1) we get (x=) , @?-1) , @-1) et = wt 2 gol s xl log x x-l _ 14243+....+0 _ n(ntl) I 2 (IV) Exponential Limits—(i) Based on Series Expansion Based on series expansion e* =1 teed +E tee, The simplest limit based on above series is to evaluate lim x90 Ex.1 lim x30 Sol. Limit = lim x30 i + a lim x70 x wo) =14+0+04+0+ -too=]Limits and Continuity 3.33 ee You can also show that lim. — =k. The general structure of this type x om of problem is lim (2 ‘). x0 x Ex2 tim =! x90 oga_y Sol. The given limit = lim ———_— Ge ak = etna) x90 Jog a)? (! +xloga+ Slgey = lim 2390 = lim 2/084 ( +2108 4 «terms of higher powers of :) = loga x30 X 2! _ etleea _ (ethea_y or, lim “—— = lim| | xloga 1900 x0\ xloga 1x loga=loga (Remember this result) +: We can assume x log a= h and asx 3 0;h 3 0 sloga _ h lim (2) = lim £—! <1 formex(1) ae paar x log a 0 If we put a= 2, 3, 4- we may get. a se] lim =log2; lim = log’ etc. 2390 x 14)—p* Sol. lim = lime tt x90 0X x90 x x90 x =lim = log a— log b = log ¢. x x jos et3.34 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Ex.4 . [See Ex. (3)] x _ a Ex.5 lim £ xoa Xa Sol. Letx=a+h, so thatasx>a;h—0 earh iven tint = ‘ii The given limit = lim > ay,h_ = tim =) Lex ise noo Ex.6 lim (4b) — abi +1 x30 x Sot. tim ON =a= O41 _ 5, abe a*— bt 41 * x90 x 190 x = tim = D- =) x30 x _ (a*—-1), (6*-1) = lim‘? x2 =) = joga x log. a al Ex.7 lim x(e'* -1) ree Sol. lim x(e"’* -1) = tim =D 2 im =D 24 roe Wx hod . (Where a= and h — 0; because x — e) Once again consider the expansionLimits and Continuity 3.35 «+. to ee Using this expansion we are able to x as frame a number of problems in other category. As for example. im —— ay (Discussed earlier) = lim 0 x ayn T li 2! a yn The solution of generalised example is as below i 7 and so on. Obviously, for n = 1; lim x70 et-1-x- 1 And forn = 2; lim =l mo 6 Let us see another group of exponential series based problems. — 0% at Ex.9 (i) lim << Gi) im “= x 0 tan x-x x 30 tanx-—x ime zy gltane—s)_ ox Sol. (i lim © = lim£*¢ £ 130 tan x—xX 2x30 tan x-x rppttans=2) = timo fe 0 tan x-x (tanx—x)_ = lime*x im NW eixiei x30 x90 tanx—x3.36 Concepts of Functions and Calculus Explanation: One can imagine tanx — x = h. As x 0; tan x — 0 and hence h = tanx-x— Oie.x>0 (tan x.) ae lim £ -) oy. x30 tanx- h is equivalent to lim h0 [eftms—2) 0a _ 1) lim @* x2 ——__._—_ x50" * (tan x - x) log a =1x1xloga=loga. [We can imagine here (tan x- x) = h. Use above explanation.] xloga (a-b) 2 = lim + H+ tim Ox 1X4 toe] =2 190 X X x90 X 2! 3! Since limit is finite, a—b =0 anda=2=b=a=2. (IV) Exponential Limits—(ii) Based on the Definition of ‘e’ x The function (1 +1) approaches the limit ‘e’ as x approaches . i.e. ef lim (1+4) =e sak. students should note the following facts about this type of limit. First the second term within the bracket approaches zero. Here 2nd factor is (1/x) which tends to zero. Second power on the bracket is the reciprocal of the second factor and hence tends to infinity, and lastly the above category of limit is of 1 pattern.Limits and Continuity 3.37 x00 Proof: Let L = lim (+4) log, = Jim x toe,(1 + 4) log, (+ 1) lim ——4 > log,L= tim 282*”) Whereh= 1 +0 nr h x > logL=1orL=e ie. lim (+4) = roel x In the similar fashion one can prove easily that lim (1 ~ 1) soe. The same may also be written as below lim (1 +A)" =e; tim(—Ay!* = 1 0 noo Also, lim(1 +h)!" = jim —1__ = 1 jing +h) dam ~ e a lingo 7 [1 e Now see the following limits— n+ a 5 a tim (1+) = tim (1+) x(1+4) =exl=e. poe mela n +g pn 9 Q) tim (1+) = lim (+4) x(1+1) ek on nln n and lim (1- h)-!* 03.38 Concepts of Functions and Calculus on nlaxab 3) tim (1+ 4 2) = tin(1+2) = lim (i+8 =e, nyo noel in| (4) lim (1 +sin? x)" = lim (1 +sin? x)" =e, x30 x0 Note: Problems of the form lim[ f(x) where lim f(x) = 1 and ra xa lim (x) =o may be solved by the use of following transformation xa lim [f()™ = lim 1+{ f(x) - WOON tim goof )-11 = tim | [1+ p00] =e ie oo lim (21 (2)=1) ie. lim[ f(x) = e** s xa x44 _ ( x+6 Ex.11 tim “s) peel x (Remember this) +6 Sol. As x 00; lim ==> > Land (x +4) 9 0, Hence limit is of the form 1°. +6y"* 6 \f" tim) 27°] = tim|1+/229-1 xpeol X+1 a) xtl he Alternatively: r Let 26 = 1+ toconvert the limit into the form (i “ 1)Limits and Continuity 3.39 => deg 288 7 wd n x+l x+1 Asx; 4 = 5 59 31-00, n xtl Also since 1 = —5— hence,x+1=5n.ie.x=5n-1. n” x41 (Sn-1)+4 The given limit = lim (i + 4) ne W2x Ex.12 Him (1+ tan? x) x0 W2x Sol. tim (1+ tan? x) x30 Vx Sol. — ; =Liet 230 _ | en() un lim) x90], ae 1 tan(#) tan x L+tan x} = im| Fane x0] 1—tan x = tim Et tan x)" z ix +30 (1— tan x)aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Limits and Continuity 3.43 EXERCISES Find the limits of the following: i, im = tt 2. tim {—2—4—P xo-2xX4+546/x xoplq\ P~ 4x gx? — px 3. lim 2 teva -20 4. tim 22D e-D xofe P-a xl x? +4-3 =a a 1+x-,/l-x 5. tim V2 —@ ty 2-4 6 lin Xa xa cae 1390 10. 14. 16. 20. 21. 22. . lim lim fP+d-a x’ “esa xa * x30 P+ p tp G(x) -GQ) x31 x-1 q at2x -J3x ii. iw {x= p? Pn Bare —2Ve Ne [eee -de Where G(x) = -,/25 — x? 237-18 13 tim Vt Ax + 4x -3 © x93 xfx -3f3 as 1 i xx +x -3 15. tim @t2"=1 a x-1 “x90 Xx iin #2 17. lim ((.+1/x)"—1) x Lr) ja BS Pi AMIS 1/6 ee 19. tim 52 a x rey ag _ xPtl4 |p xP nee xl (x-1)? p+ lim 2 —@*+D**P sy ig a positive integer. xl G@-b? tim Vine? i x30 +xaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either 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reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.CONCEPTS Functions & Calculus BE letersi le explanation of concepts followed by solved problems Umer lees Meade lee uty Salient Features = Detailed conceptual explanation of concepts = Plenty of solved examples = Practice problems = Lucid and easy-to-read presentation Related books of interest TMH: Course in Mathematics for IIT-JEE TMH: Complete Mathematics for AIEEE TMH: IIT Master TMH: 32 Yrs Topic wise questions of IIT-JEE The McGraw ‘Hill Companies ISBN a3: qa 07 n0n080-§ || | Visit Tata McGraw-Hill at: 780070108080 www. tatamcgrawhill.com