Introduction

1.1 Purpose:
Its utility is in UNDERGROUND MINE VENTILATION to regulate the wind
speed inside the mines. If the wind speed exceeds a certain limit then the
actuator gets activated. In this way we can avoid the high speed wind entering
the mines.
Moreover, it can be used in garbage dumpers to dump industrial wastes.

1.2 Objective:
The main objective of our project work is to activate/deactivate the actuator
after certain threshold speed.
In our project we consider the speed limit to be 20kmph. So, once the speed
limit cross 20kmph , the actuator gets automatically activated and once the
speed is decreased to below /or 20kmph the actuator gets deactivated
spontaneously.

1.3 ACTUATOR
An actuator is a type of motor that is responsible for moving or controlling a
mechanism or a system. It is operated by a source of energy, typically electric
current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure, and converts that
energy into motion.
In our project we are using an electric source of energy. An electric actuator is
powered by a motor that converts electrical energy to mechanical torque. The
electrical energy is used to actuate equipment such as multi-turn valves. It is one
of the cleanest and most readily available forms of actuator because it does not
involve oil. It also eliminates the complications like
1. The cost and bulk associated with hydraulic systems
2. Environmentally hazardous oil and risk of leakage
3. The high energy consumption of hydraulic systems
4. Costly hydraulic reliability issues (contamination)
5. The cost and hassle associated with fluid maintenance
1

1.4 Why Go Electric?

Simpler, smaller installation
Easier control
Lower energy costs
Higher Accuracy
Less maintenance
Less noise

1.5 Need of automation:

In industrial field we need automation because of its various advantages. The
highlighted aspects are as follow:
1. High performance together with power efficiency
2. Rugged environmental design to resist water, dust, moisture and extreme
temperature
3. Advanced, yet cost effective human machine interface features
4. Support for high speed, wired and wireless communication
5. It saves manpower and hence time with more effective use
6. Repeatability, tighter quality control, waste reduction and increased
productivity
7. Increased emphasis on flexibility and convertibility in manufacturing process

APPROACH 1
USING TACHOMETER & RELAY:
2.1 TACHOMETER:
A tachometer (revolution-counter, tach, rev-counter, RPM
gauge)
is
an
instrument measuring the rotation speed of a shaft or disk, as in a motor or other
machine. The device usually displays the revolutions per minute (RPM) on a
calibrated analogue dial, but digital displays are increasingly common.
2.1.1 Working of Tachometer:
Electronic tachometers work by counting pulses generated by the ignition
system, alternator, tach signal generator, or magnetic pickup sender. The tach is
hooked up to + 12VDC, Ground, and one of the signal sources. By selecting the
right tach and setting the switch on the back to the correct position, the
tachometer knows how many pulses are sent per each engine revolution. From
this information, the tach displays the correct engine speed.
2.2 RELAY:
The term Relay generally refers to a device that provides an electrical
connection between two or more points in response to the application of a
control signal. It is an electronic component - a form of switch.Basically it is a
binary actuator as it has two stable states
1. Energized and latched.
2. De-energized and unlatched.

Relays are used where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal

(with complete electrical isolation between control and controlled circuits), or
where several circuits must be controlled by one signal.
A type of relay that can handle the high power required to directly control an
electric motor or other loads is called a contactor.
Electrical Relays can also be distinguished as:
1. Electromechanical Relays- use an electromagnet to mechanically operate a
switch
2. Solid State Relays [or SSRs] - use semiconductor transistors, thyristors,
triacs etc. as their switching device.
2.2.1THE ELECTROMECHANICAL RELAY:
Electromechanical relays are electro-magnetic devices that convert a magnetic
flux generated by the application of a low voltage electrical control signal either
AC or DC across the relay terminals, into a pulling mechanical force which
operates the electrical contacts within the relay. The most common form of
electromechanical relay consists of an energizing coil called the primary
circuit wound around a permeable iron core.
WORKING:
An input voltage is applied to the coil mechanism. The input voltage
magnetizes the core which pulls the arm towards it. This action causes the
output contacts to touch, closing the load circuit. When the input voltage is
removed, the spring lever will push the contacts away from each other, breaking
the load circuit connection.
Inherent in its design, the EMR must make mechanical contacts in order to
switch a load. At the point of these contacts, oxidation breakdown occurs over
extended life cycling (typically 106 operations), and the relay will need to be
replaced. When an EMR is activated, bounce occurs at the contact site. Bounce
creates a window of time where the load circuit is flickering between open and
closed, a condition which may need to be considered in load design. Because
there are internal mechanical components with physical dimension restraints,
the package size of an EMR can limit the size of a PCB design. Isolation

voltage is another area where EMRs are limited. Most EMRs are typically rated
for minimum input to output isolation voltages of 1500 to 2000 VAC.

2.2.2 The Solid State Relay:

The solid state relay being a purely electronic device has no moving parts
within its design as the mechanical contacts have been replaced by power
transistors, thyristors or triacs. The electrical separation between the input
control signal and the output load voltage is accomplished with the aid of an
opto-coupler type Light Sensor.
WORKING:
An input current is applied to the LED, which in most cases is a Gallium
Arsenide (GaAs) infrared LED. The emitted light is reflected within an optical
dome, generally constructed of a gel- like lensing material, onto a series of
photo diodes. The photodiodes generate a resulting voltage which, through
driver circuitry, is used to control the gates of two MOSFETs. Because there are
no moving parts, solid state relays have established switching lives of more than
1010 cycles, and exhibit bounce-free operation. The input LEDs require low
signal levels (<5mA) to guarantee operation.

2.2.3APPLICATION OF RELAY:
A relay allows circuits to be switched by electrical equipment. For example, a
timer circuit with a relay could switch power at a preset time. For many years
relays were the standard method of controlling industrial electronic systems. A
number of relays could be used together to carry out complex functions (relay
logic). The principle of relay logic is based on relays which energize and deenergize associated contacts. Relay logic is the predecessor of ladder logic,
which is commonly used in programmable logic controllers.
Relays are used for:

Amplifying a digital signal, switching a large amount of power with a

small operating power.

Detecting and isolating faults on transmission and distribution lines by

opening and closing circuit breakers (protection relays).

Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay

closing a set of contacts.

Switching to a standby power supply.

2.3 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERD:

1. DIFFICULT TO GET THE OUTPUT CURRENT FROM TACHOMETER.
2. DIFFICULT TO INTERFACE THE ACTUATOR WITH TACHOMETER.

APPROACH 2:
USING INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SWITCH, COUNTER, 555 TIMER
AND RELAY:
In this Approach we replaced the Tachometer with the Proximity Switch which
produces a pulse each time when any metallic substance comes near it. The
counter is used to count the no of pulses.
3.1 Proximity Sensors:
Proximity Sensors are available in models using high-frequency oscillation to
detect ferrous and non-ferrous metal objects and in capacitive models to detect
non-metal objects. Models are available with environment resistance, heat
resistance, resistance to chemicals, and resistance to water. "Proximity Sensor"
includes all sensors that perform non-contact detection in comparison to
sensors, such as limit switches, that detect objects by physically contacting
them. Proximity Sensors convert information on the movement or presence of
an object into an electrical signal. There are three types of detection systems
that do this conversion: systems that use the eddy currents that are generated in
metallic sensing objects by electromagnetic induction, systems that detect
changes in electrical capacity when approaching the sensing object, and systems
that use magnets and reed switches.
3.2 Counter:
In digital logic and computing, a counter is a device which stores (and
sometimes displays) the number of times a particular event or process has
occurred, often in relationship to a clock signal.
In electronics, counters can be implemented quite easily using register-type
circuits such as the flip-flop, and a wide variety of classifications exist:

Asynchronous (ripple) counter changing state bits are used as clocks to

subsequent state flip-flops
Synchronous counter all state bits change under control of a single
clock
Decade counter counts through ten states per stage
Up/down counter counts both up and down, under command of a
control input
7

Ring counter formed by a shift register with feedback connection in a

ring
Johnson counter a twisted ring counter
Cascaded counter
Modulus counter.

Each is useful for different applications. Usually, counter circuits are digital in
nature, and count in natural binary. Many types of counter circuits are available
as digital building blocks, for example a number of chips in the 4000
series implement different counters.
Occasionally there are advantages to using a counting sequence other than the
natural binary sequencesuch as the binary coded decimal counter, a linear
feedback shift register counter, or a Gray-code counter.
Counters are useful for digital clocks and timers, and in oven timers, VCR
clocks, etc.
3.2.1Counter Used: - 4017 Decade Counter (5 Stage Johnson Counter)
The 4017 decade counter has ten outputs which go HIGH in sequence when a
source of pulses is connected to the CLOCK input and when suitable logic
levels are applied to the RESET and ENABLE inputs. Just one of the individual
outputs is HIGH at a time. Internally, the 4017 contains five bi-stable subunits.
These are interconnected in a pattern known as a Johnson counter. The outputs
of the bi-stables are decoded to give the ten individual outputs. The 4017 is
designed to drive higher current loads.
It is a CMOS decade counter cum decoder circuit which can work out of the
box for most of our low range counting applications. It can count from zero to
ten and its outputs are decoded.
This saves a lot of board space and time required to build our circuits when our
application demands using a counter followed by a decoder IC. This IC also
simplifies the design and makes debugging easy.

It has 16 pins and the functionality of each pin is explained as follows:

Pin-1: It is the output 5. It goes high when the counter reads 5 counts.
Pin-2: It is the output 1. It goes high when the counter reads 0 counts.
Pin-3: It is the output 0. It goes high when the counter reads 0 counts.
Pin-4: It is the output 2. It goes high when the counter reads 2 counts.
Pin-5: It is the output 6. It goes high when the counter reads 6 counts.
Pin-6: It is the output 7. It goes high when the counter reads 7 counts.
Pin-7: It is the output 3. It goes high when the counter reads 3 counts.
Pin-8: It is the Ground pin which should be connected to a LOW voltage (0V).
Pin-9: It is the output 8. It goes high when the counter reads 8 counts.
Pin-10: It is the output 4. It goes high when the counter reads 4 counts.
Pin-11: It is the output 9. It goes high when the counter reads 9 counts.
Pin-12: This is divided by 10 output which is used to cascade the IC with
another counter so as to enable counting greater than the range supported by a
single IC 4017. By cascading with another 4017 IC, we can count up to 20
numbers. We can increase and increase the range of counting by cascading it
with more and more IC 4017s. Each additional cascaded IC will increase the
counting range by 10. However, it is not advisable to cascade more than 3 ICs
as it may reduce the reliability of the count due to the occurrence glitches. If
9

you need a counting range more than twenty or thirty, I advise you to go with
conventional procedure of using a binary counter followed by a corresponding
decoder.
Pin-13: This pin is the disable pin. In normal mode of operation, this is
connected to ground or logic LOW voltage. If this pin is connected to logic
HIGH voltage, then the circuit will stop receiving pulses and so it will not
advance the count irrespective of number of pulses received from the clock.
Pin-14: This pin is the clock input. This is the pin from where we need to give
the input clock pulses to the IC in order to advance the count. The count
advances on the rising edge of the clock.
Pin-15: This is the reset pin which should be kept LOW for normal operation. If
you need to reset the IC, then you can connect this pin to HIGH voltage.
Pin-16: This is the power supply (Vcc) pin. This should be given a HIGH
voltage of 3V to 15V for the IC to function. This IC is very useful and also user
friendly. To use the IC, just connect it according the specifications described
above in the pin configuration and give the pulses you need to count to the pin14 of the IC. Then you can collect the outputs at the output pins. When the
count is zero, Pin-3 is HIGH. When the count is 1, Pin-2 is HIGH and so on as
described above.
3.2.2 Inside the 4017 (Johnson/Twisted-Ring Counters):

The Johnson counter works in the following way: Take the initial state of the
counter to be 000. On the first clock pulse, the inverse of the last flip-flop will
be fed into the first flip-flop, producing the state 100. On the second clock
pulse, since the last flip-flop is still at level 0, another 1 will be fed into the first
10

flip-flop, giving the state 110. On the third clock pulse, the state 111 is
produced. On the fourth clock pulse, the inverse of the last flip-flop, now a 0,
will be shifted to the first flip-flop, giving the state 011. On the fifth and sixth
clock pulse, using the same reasoning, we will get the states 001 and 000, which
is the initial state again. Hence, this Johnson counter has six distinct states: 000,
100, 110, 111, 011 and 001, and the sequence is repeated so long as there is
input pulse. Thus this is a MOD-6 Johnson counter.
The MOD number of a Johnson counter is twice the number of flip-flops. In the
example above, three flip-flops were used to create the MOD-6 Johnson
counter. So for a given MOD number, a Johnson counter requires only half the
number of flip-flops needed for a ring counter. However, a Johnson counter
requires decoding gates whereas a ring counter doesn't. As with the binary
counter, one logic gate (AND gate) is required to decode each state, but with the
Johnson counter, each gate requires only two inputs, regardless of the number of
flip-flops in the counter. Note that we are comparing with the binary counter
using the speed up technique discussed above. The reason for this is that for
each state, two of the N flip-flops used will be in a unique combination of
states. In the example above, the combination Q2 = Q1 = 0 occurs only once in
the counting sequence, at the count of 0. The state 010 does not occur. Thus, an
AND gate with inputs (not Q2) and (not Q2) can be used to decode for this state.
The same characteristic is shared by all the other states in the sequence.
A Johnson counters represent a middle ground between ring counters and binary
counters. A Johnson counter requires fewer flip-flops than a ring counter but
generally more than a binary counter; it has more decoding circuitry than a ring
counter but less than a binary counter. Thus, it sometimes represents a logical
choice for certain applications.

3.3 555 Timer:

The 555 timer IC is an integrated circuit (chip) used in a variety of timer, pulse
generation, and oscillator applications. The 555 can be used to provide time
delays, as an oscillator, and as a flip-flop element. Derivatives provide up to
four timing circuits in one package.

11

Introduced in 1971 by Signetics, the 555 is still in widespread use due to its ease
of use, low price, and stability. It is now made by many companies in the
original bipolar and also in low-power CMOS types. As of 2003, it was
estimated that 1 billion units are manufactured every year.

Depending on the manufacturer, the standard 555 package includes

25 transistors, 2 diodes and 15 resistors on a silicon chip installed in an 8-pin
mini dual-in-line package (DIP-8).

3.3.1 Pins:

12

The connection of the pins for a DIP package is as follows:

Pin Name Purpose
1

GND

Ground reference voltage, low level (0 V)

TRIG

The OUT pin goes high and a timing interval starts when this input
falls below 1/2 of CTRL voltage (which is typically 1/3 of VCC,
when CTRL is open).

OUT

This output is driven to approximately 1.7 V below +VCC or GND.

A timing interval may be reset by driving this input to GND, but

RESET the timing does not begin again until RESET rises above
approximately 0.7 volts. Overrides TRIG which overrides THR.

CTRL

Provides "control" access to the internal voltage divider (by

default, 2/3 VCC).

THR

The timing (OUT high) interval ends when the voltage at THR is
greater than that at CTRL (2/3 VCC if CTRL is open).

DIS

Open collector output which may discharge a capacitor between

intervals. In phase with output.

VCC

Positive supply voltage, which is usually between 3 and 15 V

depending on the variation.

Pin 5 is also sometimes called the CONTROL VOLTAGE pin. By applying a

voltage to the CONTROL VOLTAGE input one can alter the timing
characteristics of the device. In most applications, the CONTROL VOLTAGE
input is not used. It is usual to connect a 10 nF capacitor between pin 5 and 0 V
to prevent interference. The CONTROL VOLTAGE input can be used to build
an astable with a frequency modulated output.

13

3.3.2 Modes:
The 555 has three operating modes:
Monostable Mode: In this mode, the 555 functions as a "one-shot" pulse
generator. Applications include timers, missing pulse detection, bounce
free switches, touch switches, frequency divider, capacitance
measurement, pulse-width modulation (PWM) and so on.

The output pulse width of time t, which is the time it takes to charge C to
2/3 of the supply voltage, is given by
Where t is in seconds, R is in ohms (resistance) and C is in farads
(capacitance).
While using the timer IC in monostable mode, the main disadvantage is
that the time span between any two triggering pulses must be greater than
the RC time constant.
Astable (free-running) mode: The 555 can operate as an oscillator. Uses
include LED and lamp flashers, pulse generation, logic clocks, tone
generation, security alarms, pulse position modulation and so on. The 555
can be used as a simple ADC, converting an analog value to a pulse
length. E.g. selecting a thermistor as timing resistor allows the use of the
555 in a temperature sensor: the period of the output pulse is determined
by the temperature. The use of a microprocessor based circuit can then
convert the pulse period to temperature, linearize it and even provide
calibration means.

14

In astable mode, the 555 timer puts out a continuous stream of

rectangular pulses having a specified frequency. Resistor R1 is connected
between VCC and the discharge pin (pin 7) and another resistor (R2) is
connected between the discharge pin (pin 7), and the trigger (pin 2) and
threshold (pin 6) pins that share a common node. Hence the capacitor is
charged through R1 and R2, and discharged only through R2, since pin 7
has low impedance to ground during output low intervals of the cycle,
therefore discharging the capacitor.
In the astable mode, the frequency of the pulse stream depends on the
values of R1, R2 and C:

The high time from each pulse is given by:

and the low time from each pulse is given by:

Where R1 and R2 are the values of the resistors in ohms and C is the value
of the capacitor in farads.
The power capability of R1 must be greater than

15

Particularly with bipolar 555s, low values of

must be avoided so that
the output stays saturated near zero volts during discharge, as assumed by
the above equation. Otherwise the output low time will be greater than
calculated above. The first cycle will take appreciably longer than the
calculated time, as the capacitor must charge from 0V to 2/3 of V CC from
power-up, but only from 1/3 of VCC to 2/3 of VCC on subsequent cycles.
To achieve a duty cycle of less than 50% a small diode (that is fast
enough for the application) can be placed in parallel with R2, with the
cathode on the capacitor side. This bypasses R2 during the high part of the
cycle so that the high interval depends approximately only on R1 and C.
The presence of the diode is a voltage drop that slows charging on the
capacitor so that the high time is longer than the expected and often-cited
ln(2)*R1C = 0.693 R1C. The low time will be the same as without the
diode as shown above. With a diode, the high time is

Where Vdiode is when the diode has a current of 1/2 of Vcc/R1 which can
be determined from its datasheet or by testing. As an extreme example,
when Vcc= 5 and Vdiode= 0.7, high time = 1.00 R1C which is 45% longer
than the "expected" 0.693 R1C. At the other extreme, when Vcc= 15 and
Vdiode= 0.3, the high time = 0.725 R1C which is closer to the expected
0.693 R1C. The equation reduces to the expected 0.693 R1C if Vdiode= 0.
The operation of RESET in this mode is not well defined, some
manufacturers' parts will hold the output state to what it was when
RESET is taken low, others will send the output either high or low.
Bistable mode or Schmitt trigger: The 555 can operate as a flip-flop, if
the DIS pin is not connected and no capacitor is used. Uses include
bounce-free latched switches.

16

In bistable (also called Schmitt trigger) mode, the 555 timer acts as a
basic flip-flop. The trigger and reset inputs (pins 2 and 4 respectively on a
555) are held high via Pull-up resistors while the threshold input (pin 6) is
simply floating. Thus configured, pulling the trigger momentarily to
ground acts as a 'set' and transitions the output pin (pin 3) to Vcc (high
state). Pulling the reset input to ground acts as a 'reset' and transitions the
output pin to ground (low state). No timing capacitors are required in a
bistable configuration. Pin 5 (control voltage) is connected to ground via
a small-value capacitor (usually 0.01 to 0.1 uF); pin 7 (discharge) is left
floating.
3.3.3 Specifications:
These specifications apply to the NE555. Other 555 timers can have different
specifications depending on the grade (military, medical, etc.).
Supply voltage (VCC)

4.5 to 15 V

Supply current (VCC = +5 V)

3 to 6 mA

Supply current (VCC = +15 V)

10 to 15 mA

Output current (maximum)

200 mA

Maximum Power dissipation

600 mW

Power consumption (minimum operating)

30 mW@5V, 225 mW@15V

Operating temperature

0 to 70 C

17

3.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

3.5 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION:

In the above used circuit the output from the proximity switch is fed to the
CLOCK IN pin of the counter (IC 4017). Proximity switch generates one pulse
for each rotation. Counter counts number of pulse input at CLK IN pin. To
activate the actuator the threshold speed is 20 km/h. For speed of 20 km/h there
are 5 rotations thus the proximity switch will generate 5 pulses. The Relay is
connected to the pin1 which is the output for 5 counts. As the counter output is
5 relay is immediately activated which activates the actuator. One 555 timer (IC
NE555) is used to provide a pulse of 1 Hz frequency which resets the counter
after each second. For every second counter circuit monitors the proximity
switch output and activates the actuator for 5 counts.
18

3.6 PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED:

1. IT IS DIFFICULT TO GET RESET SIGNAL FOR VERY SMALL TIME

INTERVAL.
2. FOR VERY FIRST TIME INTERVAL THE 555 TIMER CIRCUIT
PROVIDES PULSE OF TIME INTERVAL MORE THAN 1S.

3. THIS CIRCUIT IS ABLE TO ACTIVATE OR DEACTIVATE THE

MOTOR (ACTUATOR) BUT CANNOT ROTATE IT IN OPPOSITE
DIRECTION.
4. THIS CIRCUIT WORKS ONLY FOR THE LIMITED RANGE I.E. 20
KM/H. IF THE THRESHOLD SPEED IS CHANGED THE WHOLE
CIRCUIT HAS TO BE REPLACED.

19

APPROACH 3
USING PROXIMITY SWITCH, DARLINGTON PAIR (ULN2003A) AND
MICROCONTROLLER (PIC16F877A).
In this approach we kept on using proximity switch to generate pulse for each
rotation. But replaced the Counter IC with a Microcontroller to monitor speed
and provide more accurate as well as fast output. In this Circuit motor which is
working as actuator is interfaced with Microcontroller using Darlington pair
(IC ULN2003A)

4.1 MICROCONTROLLER
Microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains all the components
comprising a controller. Typically this includes a CPU, RAM, some form of
ROM, I/O ports, and timers. Unlike a general-purpose computer, which also
includes all of these components, a microcontroller is designed for a very
specific task - to control a particular system. A microcontroller differs from a
microprocessor, which is a general-purpose chip that is used to create a
multifunction computer or device and requires multiple chips to handle various
tasks. A microcontroller is meant to be more self-contained and independent,
and functions as a tiny, dedicated computer. The great advantage of
microcontrollers, as opposed to using larger microprocessors, is that the partscount and design costs of the item being controlled can be kept to a minimum.
They are typically designed using CMOS (complementary metal oxide
semiconductor) technology, an efficient fabrication technique that uses less
power and is more immune to power spikes than other techniques.

4.1.1 PIC16F877A MICROCONTROLLER:

28/40-Pin 8-Bit CMOS FLASH Microcontrollers

20

Microcontroller Core Features:

High performance RISC CPU
Only 35 single word instructions to learn
All single cycle instructions except for program branches which are two cycle
Operating speed: DC - 20 MHz clock input DC - 200 ns instruction cycle
Up to 8K x 14 words of FLASH Program Memory, Up to 368 x 8 bytes of
Data Memory RAM) Up to 256 x 8 bytes of EEPROM Data Memory
Pin out compatible to the PIC16C73B/74B/76/77
Interrupt capability (up to 14 sources)
Eight level deep hardware stack
Direct, indirect and relative addressing modes
Power-on Reset (POR)
Power-up Timer (PWRT) and Oscillator Start-up Timer (OST)
Watchdog Timer (WDT) with its own on-chip RC oscillator for reliable
operation
Programmable code protection
Power saving SLEEP mode
Selectable oscillator options
Low power, high speed CMOS FLASH/EEPROM technology
Fully static design
In Single 5V In-Circuit Serial Programming capability
In-Circuit Debugging via two pins
Processor read/write access to program memory
Wide operating voltage range: 2.0V to 5.5V
21

 High Sink/Source Current: 25 mA

Commercial, Industrial and Extended temperature ranges
Low-power consumption:
- < 0.6 mA typical @ 3V, 4 MHz
- 20 A typical @ 3V, 32 kHz
- < 1 A typical standby current

4.1.2 Peripheral Features:

Timer0: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit prescaler
Timer1: 16-bit timer/counter with prescaler, can be incremented during
SLEEP via external Crystal/clock
Timer2: 8-bit timer/counter with 8-bit period register, prescaler and postscaler
Two Capture, Compare, PWM modules
- Capture is 16-bit, max resolution is 12.5 ns
- Compare is 16-bit, max resolution is 200 ns
- PWM max resolution is 10-bit
10-bit multi-channel Analog-to-Digital converter
Synchronous Serial Port (SSP)
(Master/Slave)
Universal Synchronous Asynchronous Receiver Transmitter (USART/SCI)
with 9-bit address detection
Parallel Slave Port (PSP) 8-bits wide, with external RD, WR and CS controls
(40/44-pin only)
Brown-out detection circuitry for Brown-out Reset (BOR)

22

4.1.3 PIN DIAGRAM:

23

24

25

26

4.1.4 Block representation:

4.2 PROXIMITY SWITCH :

A proximity sensor is a sensor able to detect the presence of nearby objects
without any physical contact.
A proximity sensor often emits an electromagnetic field or a beam of
electromagnetic radiation (infrared, for instance), and looks for changes in the
field or return signal. The object being sensed is often referred to as the
proximity sensor's target.
The maximum distance that this sensor can detect is defined "nominal range".

27

4.2.1 Features:
1) Proximity Sensors detect an object without touching it, and they therefore
do not cause abrasion or damage to the object. Devices such as limit
switches detect an object by contacting it, but Proximity Sensors are able
to detect the presence of the object electrically, without having to touch it.
2) No contacts are used for output, so the Sensor has a longer service life
(excluding sensors that use magnets). Proximity Sensors use
semiconductor outputs, so there are no contacts to affect the service life.
3) Unlike optical detection methods, Proximity Sensors are suitable for use
in locations where water or oil is used. Detection takes place with almost
no effect from dirt, oil, or water on the object being detected. Models
with fluororesin cases are also available for excellent chemical resistance.
4) Proximity Sensors provide high-speed response, compared with switches
that require physical contact. For information on high-speed response,
refer to Explanation of Terms.
5) Proximity Sensors can be used in a wide temperature range. Proximity
Sensors can be used in temperatures ranging from -40 to 200C.
6) Proximity Sensors are not affected by colors. Proximity Sensors detect
the physical changes of an object, so they are almost completely
unaffected by the object's surface color.
7) Unlike switches, which rely on physical contact, Proximity Sensors are
affected by ambient temperatures, surrounding objects, and other Sensors.
Both Inductive and Capacitive Proximity Sensors are affected by
interaction with other Sensors. Because of this, care must be taken when
installing them to prevent mutual interference. Care must also be taken to
prevent the effects of surrounding metallic objects on Inductive Proximity
Sensors, and to prevent the effects of all surrounding objects on
Capacitive Proximity Sensors.
8) There are Two-wire Sensors. The power line and signal line are
combined. This reduces wiring work to 2/3 of that require for Three-wire
Sensors. If only the power line is wired, internal elements may be
damaged. Always insert a load.

28

4.2.2Operating Principles:
Inductive Proximity Sensors detect the presence of metal objects which come
within range of their oscillating field and provide target detection to zero
speed. Internally, an oscillator creates a high frequency electromagnetic field
(RF) which is radiated from the coil and out from the sensor face. When a metal
object enters this field, eddy currents are induced into the object. As the metal
moves closer to the sensor, these eddy currents increase and result in an
absorption of energy from the coil which dampens the oscillator amplitude until
it finally stops.

29

4.2.3 Selection by Detection Method:

Items
Inductive Proximity
Requiring
Sensors
Confirmation

Capacitive Proximity
Sensors

Magnetic Proximity
Sensors

Sensing
object

Metallic objects (iron,

Metallic objects, resins,
aluminum, brass, copper,
Magnets
liquids, powders, etc.
etc.)

Electrical
noise

Affected by positional relationship of power lines and

signal lines, grounding of cabinet, etc. CE Marking (EC
Almost no effect.
Directive compliance) Sensor covering material (metal,
resin). Easily affected by noise when the cable is long.

Power
supply

DC, AC, AC/DC, DC with no polarity, etc. Connection method, power supply
voltage.

Depends on the power supply, i.e., DC 2-wire models, DC 3-wire models, AC,
Current
etc.
consumption
DC 2-wire models are effective for suppressing current consumption.

Sensing
distance

The Sensing distance must be selected by considering the effects of factors such
as the temperature, the sensing object, surrounding objects, and the mounting
distance between Sensors. Refer to the set distance in the catalog specifications
to determine the proper distance. When high precision sensing is required, use a
Separate Amplifier model.

Ambient
Temperature or humidity, or existence of water, oils, chemicals etc.
environment Confirm that the degree of protection matches the ambient environment.
Physical
vibration,
shock

An extra margin must be provided in the Sensing distance when selecting

Sensors for use in environments subject to vibration and shock.
To prevent Sensors from vibrating loose, refer to the catalog values for
tightening torque during assembly.

Assembly

Effects of tightening torque, Sensor size, number of wiring steps, cable length,
distance between Sensors, surrounding objects. Check the effects of
surrounding metallic and other objects, and the specifications for the mutual
interference between Sensors.

30

4.2.4 Interpreting Engineering Data:

Sensing Area

Sensing Distance vs. Display Effects of Sensing Object

Characteristics
Size and Material

E2E-X[]E[]/-X[]Y[]/
X[]F1

E2C-EDR6-F

E2E-X3D[]/-X3T1

This graph shows

engineering data from
moving the sensing object
parallel to the sensing
surface of the Proximity
Sensor.

This type of graph is used

with Separate
Amplifier Proximity
Sensors. It shows the values
when executing FP (Fine
Positioning) at specified
distances. FP settings are
possible at any desired
distance, with a digital value
of 1,500 as a reference for
the E2C-EDA.

Here, the horizontal axis

indicates the size of the
sensing object, and the
vertical axis indicates the
Sensing. It shows changes in
the Sensing Distance due to
the size and material of the
sensing object. Refer to this
data when using the same
Sensor to detect various
different sensing objects, or
when confirming the
allowable leeway for
detection.

Refer to this graph for

Proximity Sensor
applications, such as
positioning. When a high
degree of precision is
required, use a Separate
Amplifier Proximity
Sensor.

The above graph shows

numerical examples when
Fine Positioning is executed
at the three points of 0.3, 0.6,
and 0.9 mm.

31

Leakage Current Characteristics

Residual Voltage Characteristics

In contrast with contact-type limit

switches, which have physical contacts,
leakage current in a 2-wire Proximity
Sensor is related to an electrical switch that
consists of transistors and other
components.
This graph indicates the leakage current
characteristics caused by transistors in the
output
section
of
the
Sensor.

Similar
to
leakage
current
characteristics, residual
voltage
is
something that occurs due to electrical
switches
that
are
comprised
of
transistors and other components. For
example, whereas the voltage in a
normally open switch should be 0 V in the
ON state, and the same as the power
supply voltage in the OFF state, residual
voltage refers to a certain level of voltage
remaining in the switch. Be careful of this
factor when replacing a limit switch,
micro-switch, or other switch with a
Proximity Sensor.

Generally speaking, the higher the

voltage, the larger the leakage current.
Because leakage current flows to the load
connected to the Proximity Sensor,
care must be taken to select a load that will
not cause the Sensor to operate from the
leakage
current.
Be careful of this factor when replacing
a limit switch, micro-switch, or other
switch with a Proximity Sensor.

32

4.2.5 Explanation of Terms:

1. Standard Sensing Object
A sensing object that serves as a reference for measuring basic performance,
and that is made of specified materials and has a specified shape and
dimensions.

2. Sensing Distance
The distance from the reference position (reference surface) to the measured
operation (reset) when the standard sensing object is moved by the specified
method.

3. Set Distance
The distance from the reference surface that allows stable use, including the
effects of temperature and voltage, to the (standard) sensing object transit
position. This is approximately 70% to 80% of the normal (rated) sensing
distance.

33

4. Hysteresis (Differential Travel)

With respect to the distance between the standard sensing object and the Sensor,
the difference between the distance at which the Sensor operates and the
distance at which the Sensor resets.

5. Response Time
t1: The interval from the point when the standard sensing object moves into the
sensing area and the Sensor activates, to the point when the output turns ON.
t2: The interval from the point when the standard sensing object moves out of
the Sensor sensing area to the point when the Sensor output turns OFF.

34

6. Response Frequency
The number of detection repetitions that can be output per second when
the standard sensing object is repeatedly brought into proximity.
See the accompanying diagram for the measuring method.

7. Shielded
With a Shielded Sensor, magnetic flux is concentrated in front of the Sensor and
the sides of the Sensor coil are covered with metal.
The Sensor can be mounted by embedding it into metal.

8. Unshielded
With an Unshielded Sensor, magnetic flux is spread widely in front of the
Sensor and the sides of the Sensor coil are not covered with metal.
This model is easily affected by surrounding metal objects (magnetic objects),
so care must be taken in selecting the mounting location.

35

Expressing the Sensing Distance

When measuring the Sensing Distance of a Proximity Sensor, the reference position
and the direction of approach of
the sensing object are determined as follows:
Cylindrical/Rectangular Sensors

Perpendicular sensing distance

Horizontal Sensing
Distance and sensing
diagram

area

Expressed as the measured

distance from the reference
axis when the standard sensing
object is moved parallel to the
Expressed as the measured distance from the
reference surface (sensing
reference surface when the standard sensing
surface). This distance depends
object approaches from the radial direction
on the transit position (distance
(perpendicular to the sensing surface).
from the reference surface), so
it can be expressed as an
operating point track. (Sensing
Area Diagram)

36

Output Configuration
NPN transistor
output
PNP transistor output

Non-polarity/non-contact
output

A general-use Primarily built into machines

transistor can exported to Europe and other
be
directly overseas destinations.
connected to a
Programmable
Controller or
Counter.

A 2-wire AC output that can

be used for both AC and DC
Sensors. Eliminates the need to
be concerned about reversing
the polarity.

Output Configuration
NO (normally open)

NC (normally closed)

NO/NC switchable

When there is an object

in the sensing area, the
output switching element
is turned ON.

When there is no object

in the sensing area, the
output switching element
is turned ON.

NO or NC operation can be
selected for the output
switching element by a switch
or other means.

37

4.3 STEPPER MOTOR :

A stepper motor (or step motor) is a brushless DC electric motor that divides a
full rotation into a number of equal steps. The motor's position can then be
commanded to move and hold at one of these steps without any feedback sensor
(an open-loop controller), as long as the motor is carefully sized to the
application.
It is an incremental drive (digital) actuator and is driven in fixed angular steps.
They are driven by pulses of electricity. Each pulse drives the shaft of the motor
a little bit. The more pulses that are fed to the motor, the more the shaft turns.
This mean that a digital signal is used to drive the motor and every time it
receives a digital pulse it rotates a specific number of degrees in rotation.

4.3.1 CALCULATION OF STEP ANGLE :

The step angle, the number of degrees a rotor will turn per step, is calculated as
follows:

4.3.2 Theory:
A step motor can be viewed as a synchronous AC motor with the number of
poles (on both rotor and stator) increased, taking care that they have no common
denominator. Additionally, soft magnetic material with many teeth on the rotor
and stator cheaply multiplies the number of poles (reluctance motor). Modern
steppers are of hybrid design, having both permanent magnets and soft iron
cores.
To achieve full rated torque, the coils in a stepper motor must reach their full
rated current during each step. Winding inductance and reverse EMF generated
by a moving rotor tend to resist changes in drive current, so that as the motor
speeds up, less and less time is spent at full current thus reducing motor
38

torque. As speeds further increase, the current will not reach the rated value, and
eventually the motor will cease to produce torque.
Stepper motor ratings and specifications :
A stepper's low speed torque will vary directly with current. How quickly the
torque falls off at faster speeds depends on the winding inductance and the drive
circuitry it is attached to, especially the driving voltage.
Steppers should be sized according to published torque curve, which is specified
by the manufacturer at particular drive voltages or using their own drive
circuitry.
Step motors adapted to harsh environments are often referred to as IP65 rated.
Motor used in project - Bipolar motor
Bipolar motors have a single winding per phase. The current in a winding needs
to be reversed in order to reverse a magnetic pole, so the driving circuit must be
more complicated, typically with an H-bridge arrangement (however there are
several off-the-shelf driver chips available to make this a simple affair). There
are two leads per phase, none are common.
Static friction effects using an H-bridge have been observed with certain drive
topologies.
Dithering the stepper signal at a higher frequency than the motor can respond to
will reduce this "static friction" effect.
Because windings are better utilized, they are more powerful than a unipolar
motor of the same weight. This is due to the physical space occupied by the
windings. A unipolar motor has twice the amount of wire in the same space, but
only half used at any point in time, hence is 50% efficient (or approximately
70% of the torque output available). Though a bipolar stepper motor is more
complicated to drive, the abundance of driver chips means this is much less
difficult to achieve.
An 8-lead stepper is wound like a unipolar stepper, but the leads are not joined
to common internally to the motor. This kind of motor can be wired in several
configurations:

Unipolar.
39

Bipolar with series windings. This gives higher inductance but lower
current per winding.

Bipolar with parallel windings. This requires higher current but can
perform better as the winding inductance is reduced.

Bipolar with a single winding per phase. This method will run the motor
on only half the available windings, which will reduce the available low
speed torque but require less current

Stepper motor driver circuits

Stepper motor performance is strongly dependent on the driver circuit. Torque curves
may be extended to greater speeds if the stator poles can be reversed more quickly, the
limiting factor being the winding inductance. To overcome the inductance and switch the
windings quickly, one must increase the drive voltage. This leads further to the necessity
of limiting the current that these high voltages may otherwise induce.

Wave drive or Full step drive (one phase on)

In this drive method only a single phase is activated at a time. It has the same number of
steps as the full step drive, but the motor will have significantly less than rated torque. It
is rarely used. The animated figure shown above is a wave drive motor. In the animation,
rotor has 25 teeth and it takes 4 steps to rotate by one teeth position. So there will be
25*4 = 100 steps per full rotation and each step will be 360/100 = 3.6 degrees.

Full step drive (two phases on)

This is the usual method for full step driving the motor. Two phases are always on so the
motor will provide its maximum rated torque. As soon as one phase is turned off, another
one is turned on. Wave drive and single phase full step are both one and the same, with
same number of steps but difference in torque.

40

Half stepping
When half stepping, the drive alternates between two phases on and a single phase on.
This increases the angular resolution. The motor also has less torque (approx 70%) at
the full step position (where only a single phase is on). This may be mitigated by
increasing the current in the active winding to compensate. The advantage of half
stepping is that the drive electronics need not change to support it. In animated figure
shown above, if we change it to half stepping, then it will take 8 steps to rotate by 1 teeth
position. So there will be 25*8 = 200 steps per full rotation and each step will be 360/200
= 1.8 degrees. Its angle per step is half of the full step.

Microstepping
What is commonly referred to as microstepping is often "sine cosine microstepping" in
which the winding current approximates a sinusoidal AC waveform. Sine cosine
microstepping is the most common form, but other waveforms can be used. Regardless
of the waveform used, as the microsteps become smaller, motor operation becomes
more smooth, thereby greatly reducing resonance in any parts the motor may be
connected to, as well as the motor itself. Resolution will be limited by the
mechanical stiction, backlash, and other sources of error between the motor and the end
device. Gear reducers may be used to increase resolution of positioning.
Step size repeatability is an important step motor feature and a fundamental reason for
their use in positioning.

41

4.3.3 TWO-PHASE STEPPER MOTOR WIRING DIAGRAM :

42

4.4 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM :

Interfacing with Microcontroller

4.5 CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION :

Output of proximity switch is fed to the PORTB (RB0 Pin). PORTC is working
as output Port which provides the output signal as the program burnt in it. This
circuit works at a clock frequency of 1MHz. In this Circuit motor which is
working as actuator is interfaced directly with Microcontroller.

43

4.6 PROGRAM:
#include<pic.h>
void time_delay(unsigned int i)
{
unsigned int k;
for(k=0;k<6*i;k++);
}
unsigned char pulse_count()
{
unsigned char count,t=0;
unsigned int i;
count=0;
for(i=0;i<6000;i++)
{
if(t^RB0)
{
if(RB0==1)
count++;
t=RB0;
}
}
return count;
}
void main()
{
unsigned char count,temp=0;
TRISC=0;
TRISB=0xFF;
for(;;)
{
count=pulse_count();
if(count>=5 && temp==0)
44

{
PORTC=0x08;
time_delay(100);
PORTC=0x02;
time_delay(100);
PORTC=0x04;
time_delay(100);
PORTC=0x01;
time_delay(100);
temp=1;
}
if(count<5 && temp==1)
{
PORTC=0x04;
time_delay(100);
PORTC=0x02;
time_delay(100);
PORTC=0x08;
time_delay(100);
PORTC=0x01;
time_delay(100);
temp=0;
}
}
45

}
4.7 PROGRAM DESCRIPTION :
For compilation of the program and generating .hex file we have used HI-TECH
C compiler integrated with MPLAB IDE.
In this Program PORTB is set to Input mode and PORTC is set to output mode.
The pulse_count() function is used to count the no of pulses in one second.
Pulse_count() function counts the no of times the RB0 pin goes from low to
high and returns the no of counts every second. Value of no of count from
pulse_count() function is returned to variable count of main() function. In the
main function when the value of count is greater than or equal to 5, which is the
corresponding value of pulse for speed of 20 km/h, the output value to operate
motor is send to PORTC i.e. actuator is activated. If the count is less than 5 the
actuator is not activated. Once the actuator is activated the value of variable
temp is changed to 1 from 0 and actuator is not activated again (i.e. motor does
not rotate) is count is more than 5. But if the count is less than 5 motor is rotated
in the opposite direction. Time_delay() function provides time delay in ms.

46

5 FUTURE SCOPE OF AUTOMATIC ACTUATION :

Following are the application of automatic actuation :
1.mining ventilation.
2.garbage dumpers.
3.openin and closing of doors automatically.
4.automation counting of industrial goods.
5.anti-collission security.

47

CONCLUSION
The project for Automatic actuator control with speed is very important
project for the mines safety and for high production. It reduces the human
involvement and increases man-machine interaction. For achieving our goal we
went through different approaches with different techniques. In our first
approach we were using tachometer and relay but after finding difficulties in
applying this technique we had to look for another one. In our second approach
we have used proximity switch, counter, relay, 555 timer and we almost
achieved our goal but this approach was unable to operate the actuator in
backward direction also a lot of hardware involvement increased the
complication thus we moved to new technique. This technique used the
Microcontroller (PIC16F877A). Use of microcontroller reduced the need for the
counter and separate control circuit. Program was burnt into the microcontroller
which counts the no of pulse generated by the proximity switch and operates the
actuator as per the requirement. To fulfill our task we have used different
equipment and learned to operate them. This project has vital role in our day to
day life not only inside the underground mines for ventilation but also in almost
every field where speed is concerned.
Through this project during our training we have learnt about many techniques
and ideas. Learnt about different type of ICs, switches and most importantly
programming for microcontroller. This project helped us to gain sufficient
knowledge from industrial training.

48

REFERENCES
WEBSITES:
1. http://www.electronicsproject.org
2. http://www.kitsrus.com
3. http://www.piclist.com
4. http://www.8051projects.net
5. http://www.arduino.cc
6. http://www.mikroe.com
7. http://www.extremeelectronics.co.in
8. http://www.mstracey.btinternet.co.uk
9. http://www.edaboard.com
10. http://www.freescale.com
11. http://www.rockwellautomation.com

BOOKS:
Mazidi A.Muhammad and Mazidi G.Janice, Microcontroller And
Embedded Systems

49