ERPILLAR

GENERATOR SETS

ELECTRICAL
FUNDAMENTALS
CATERPILLAR ENGINE DIVISION

TABLE OF CONTENTS
I.

INTRODUCTION. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

II.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Electrical Charges and Their Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Alternating Current. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

Sources of Electrical Energy .................................. 11

Applications of Electrical Power .............................. 15
Measurement Techniques .................................... 15

III.

GENERATOR SETS ....... ....................................... 18

KW and kVA Requirements of Load .......................... 18
Generator Versus Engine Size ................................ 18
Motor Starting Requirements ................................ 18
Multiple Generator Set Installations .......................... 18
Parallel Operation of Generator Sets .......................... 18
Balancing of Loads on Available Phases ....................... 20

IV.

AUXILIARY EQUiPMENT ..... ................................... 21

Circuit Breakers ............................................. 21
Indicating Instruments ....................................... 22
Transfer Switches ........................................... 22
Ground Fault Protection ...................................... 23
Automatic Start-Stop Systems .............................. 23
Regenerative Power -

Parasitic Loads ....................... 23

Solid-State (SCRl Controlled Loads ........................... 23

V.

ELECTRICAL TABLES . ........................................... 23

VI.

INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS ................................. 37

"

"

I.

INTRODUCTION

The continuing growth of civilization and its technology has been accompanied
by an ever-increasing dependence on electrical power. Business and industry as
it exists today cannot function without a reliable supply of electricity. In the
case of hospitals, broadcasting stations and other facilities providing essential
public services, a constant supply of electrical power may spell the difference
between life and death. Most often the need for electrical power is met by public
utility companies with their central generating plants and vast power
distribution networks. Such systems, however, are subject to occasional
malfunctions, which can have serious effects unless the user is prepared to
supply emergency power from onsite sources. In addition, many users are
finding that with the improved energy recovery techniques now available it is
advantageous from the standpoints of economy and reliability to supply all of
their power requirements with on-site equipment. In remote areas, where
centrally-generated power, if available at all, is expensive and less than optimally
reliable, the advantages of generator set power are even more obvious. Diesel
and natural gas generator sets have proven their effectiveness in meeting
needs for both prime and standby power systems.
It is important that persons involved in the application of generator sets have an
understanding of the fundamentals of electrical power generation and
distribution. This manual is intended to provide the information necessary to
correctly apply the guidelines found in the Generator Set Application and
Installation Guide and the requirements listed in consulting engineers
specifications. Readers who have had little contact with the power generation
and distribution field will find this book a reliable aid to learning. The more
experienced can use it as a review or reference. Tables, Formulae and Technical
Terms will be useful to all who work in this field.

II.

FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTRICITY

Electricity is used by millions of people daily. but

understood by only a relative few. Fortunately. no
extensive knowledge is needed to put electricity to
work. A vast array of electrical devices may be
connected and operated by following a few simple
rules and safety measures. All of the complicated
planning and design work has been done by engineers
specializing in this field. However. when one becomes
involved in the design of electrical systems. a fairly
complete knowledge of fundamentals becomes
necessary.

which the electrons are transfered has more

negative charges than positive and is therefore
negatively charged. Figure 1 shows two spheres
which have been charged in this manner. Of course
each sphere still has a large number of both positive
and negative charges. but for clarity only the excess
charges are shown.

The proper application of generator sets demands

some general awareness of the nature of electricity.
the means by which it is generated and the ways in
which it may be applied to perform useful work. The
material presented in this chapter is intended to aid
readers whose experience in this area is limited.

Two Charged Spheres

Figure 1

Charged particles always tend to distribute

themselves evenly over the volume of material in
which they reside (assuming that no external forces
are applied). much as air molecules distribute
themselves evenly throughout a room. If a path were
available between the two spheres along which
electrons could move. those in sphere B would move
along the path onto sphere A until they were evenly
distributed between the two spheres and a balance
of charges was restored. The excess electrons in
sphere B thus have a potential energy with respect
to sphere A. just as a stone suspended above the
surface of the earth has a potential energy because
of the gravitational force acting upon it. The stone
will exert a force upon the device used to suspend it.
The electrical equivalent of this force is potential
difference or electromotive force (EMF). The
unit by which this force is measured is the volt,
abbreviated (Vl. In electrical formulae the letter (E) is
commonly used to denote this force. Potential
difference is often referred to simply as voltage.

ELECTRICAL CHARGES AND THEIR

MOVEMENT
The phenomenon called "electricity" is based upon
the existence and movement of charged particles. All
material objects are made up of tiny particles called
molecules which. in turn. are composed of
combinations of atoms of the various chemical
elements. Atoms consist primarily of even smaller
particles called neutrons. protons and electrons.
Neutrons are. as the name implies. neutral particles;
that is. they carry no charge. Protons and electrons.
on the other hand. are charged particles. Each has an
electric field of force surrounding it in much the same
way as the earth is surrounded by its gravitational
field of force. Protons and electrons carry positive
and negative charges. respectively. It is characteristic of these charges and their respective fields that
like charges repel and opposite charges attract each
other. Thus. two electrons in close proximity will
exert a repellant force on each other.

If the stone mentioned above is released. it will fall to

the earth. thereby changing its potential energy into
other forms of energy. such as momentum while it is
falling. and sound and heat upon impact. Similarly. the
potential energy of electrons may be converted to
other forms of energy when the electrons move. and
these forms of energy may be very useful. Every
lightning storm is a graphic demonstration of this
principle. The movement of electrons through the air
from the negatively charged earth to a positively
charged cloud overhead generates a tremendous
amount of light. sound and heat as the moving
electrons release some of their potential energy to
break down the molecular structure of the air.

In most atoms the charges are equally balanced. For

every positively charged proton there is a negatively
charged electron. The protons and neutrons make up
the nucleus of the atom-the very dense central
portion-while electrons travel around the nucleus in
orbital paths. Because the electrons are not
confined to the tight nuclear structure it is possible
for them to be torn away from the atom when
external forces are applied. If one or more electrons
are removed from an atom. the charges are no longer
balanced. and the atom is left with a net positive
charge. Such an atom is called an ion. The electron
which has been removed is a "free" electron.

Electrical Potential

Current

By certain techniques. it is possible to remove some

of the electrons from a body of material and transfer
them to another body. The body from which the
electrons are taken then has more positive particles
than negative and is positively charged. The body of

The movement of a number of electrons is referred

to as an electrical current, by analogy with the flow
of water in a stream or river. The basis unit of
electrical current is the ampere. often shortened to

"amp" and abbreviated (A). In electrical equations,

current is usually represented by the letter m The
ampere is a measure of the number of electrons
passing a given point per unit time. Although current
flow is actually composed of moving electrons,
conventional electrical theory treats current as if it
were the movement of positive charges. This
convention was adopted before the mechanics of
electricity were fully understood. Throughout the
present text, the conventional direction of flow will be
used.

element having a specified resistance, in this case, 1

ohm. The source is connected to the load by means of
conductors, drawn as lines, whose resistance is
small enough that it may be ignored for the present.
The circuit also includes a switch, a device for
interrupting the flow of current. When the switch is
open, as shown, the circuit is broken and current
cannot flow. When it is closed the contacts touch,
the circuit is completed and current flows through
the load.
I

':T~~~~ ~~

Conductors and Insulators

Electrons move only with great difficulty through
many substances such as air, glass or rubber. A
large potential difference (voltage) is required to
force charges to move even a short distance through
such mediums. These substances are called
insulators because they effectively block the
movement of electrons. Through other materials,
such as most metals, electrons can move with
comparative ease. These materials are termed
conductors because they "conduct" the flow of
electrons. Materials whose conductive properties
fall in between conductors and insulators are known
as semiconductors. These substances have found
important applications in the fabrication of modern
diodes and transistors, devices used to control the
flow of electrical current. Insulators, it should be
noted, offer a great amount of opposition to the flow
of current until an excessively large voltage is
applied, at which point they "break down" and allow
the current to flow more readily. The voltage
required to cause this change in a substance is
known as breakdown voltage. It depends not only
on the type of material but also on the thickness,
which determines the path length which the
electrons must traverse.

1 VOLT (V)

= AMPERE

(A)

LOAD
RESISTANCE
1 OHM (n)

Simple Electrical Circuit

Figure 2

Ohm's Law
A fundamental law of electricity, Ohm's Law,
relates the quantities of voltage and current in a
circuit. It states that the voltage which appears
between the terminals of a resistance is equal to the
value of the resistance in ohms multiplied by the
magnitude of the current flow in amperes. In
mathematical terms, this law is written:
E= IR
where

E
I
R

= voltage

in volts
= current in amperes
= resistance in ohms

IEq.1J

By simple algebra this equation may be written:

E
1=R

Resistance
Resistance is the term used to denote the amount
of opposition which a substance offers to the flow of
electrical current. The basic unit of resistance is the
ohm, denoted by the Greek symbol n . The amount
of resistance that a given object exhibits depends
not only on the type of material from which it is made,
but also on its physical dimensions, such as cross sectional area and length. For a given physical
configuration, objects made from insulating
materials have high resistance while those made
from conductive materials have relatively low
resistances.

IEq.2J

or

E
R =I

IEq.3J

If two of the three quantities are known, the third

may be found by using the appropriate equation. In
the circuit of Figure 2, the voltage and resistance are
given. The current which will flow can be found from
Equation 2:

E
1 volt
1=- =
1 ohm
R

Electrical Circuits
An electrical circuit is a closed path through which
electrons can flow from a source of potential
difference, or voltage, through a load, a device in
which electrical energy is used, and back again to the
source. In the circuit shown in Figure 2, the source is
a battery having a potential difference at its
terminals of 1 volt. The load is a resistor, a circuit

1 ampere

Series Circuits
Figure 3 shows a somewhat more complicated
circuit. Here the load is composed of two resistors
connected in series. All of the current flowing in the
curcuit must flow through both of the resistors

before it can return to its source. The total

resistance of the load is the sum of the resistances
of the two resistors. Since each resistor has a value
of 1/2 ohm, the total load resistance is one ohm,
as in the former circuit and the total current
remains the same. The total resistance, RT' of any
number of resistors In series is given by:
RT

= R1

+ R2 + R3 + ... RN

The effective resistance [RT) of the resistors

composing the load in Figure 4 IS:
RT =

=1

ampere x 1/2 ohm

(Eq. 4)

1= 1. =

= 1/2 volt

Because the two resistances are equal, the voltage

applied to the two in series divides equally between
them.

1V

= 1/2 ampere

Parallel circuits are used in every household electrical

power system. Appliances are connected in parallel
across the source of incoming power. Electrical
appliances are designed to operate on a specified
voltage, but they draw varying amounts of current,
since the internal resistance of each type of
appliance is different. By connecting the devices in
parallel, the voltage at the terminals of each one will
remain constant, even though the current flow
through them may be different.

SERIES
LOAD

1 volt
2 ohms

In this circuit, the current will divide equally between

the two resistors. If the resistances were different,
however, the current through each resistor would be
different.

1=1

SOURCE:

= 1 ohm

The total current flowing in the circuit is therefore

once again one ampere. However, because the
terminals of each resistor are effectively connected
across the terminals of the battery, the voltage
across each resistor is one volt. The current flowing
through each resistor may be found from Equation 2:

The voltage at the terminals of one of the two

resistors may be found from Equation 1:
E = IR

1
1j'2 + 1j'2

Circuit With Series-Connected Load

Figure 3

Power
If the circuits shown in any of the above figures were
actually connected, the resistors would become
warm. The potential energy of the electrons is
changed to heat energy as they pass through the
resistances. The heat [or other forms of energy)
produced is the power which the load dissipates. It
is a function of the applied voltage and the amount
of current flowing through the load. The unit of
quantity for electrical power is the watt, abbreviated
[W) and denoted in electrical formulae by the letter
[Pl. The law relating power to the other quantities in
an electrical circuit is given by the expression:

Parallel Circuits
The load shown in the circuit of Figure 4 is somewhat
different. Here the resistors have been connected
side-by-side instead of end-to-end. When this
configuration is used, the resistors are connected in
parallel. In this case there are two paths for the
current to follow and it consequently divides, part
passing through one resistor and part through the
other. The total resistance of any number of resistors
connected in parallel is given by the equation:

= IE

(Eq.6)

(Eq. 5)

where P
I
E
PARALLEL
LOAD

I=1A

= power in watts
= current in amperes
=

voltage in volts

This equation for power may also be transposed to:

(Eq.7)

SOURCE

1V

2n

2n
or
(Eq. 8)

Circuit With Parallel-Connected Load

Figure 4

ALTERNATING CURRENT

From Ohm's law it is known that E = IR. If this

expression for voltage is substituted in the power
law, we can derive the additional equation:

In the circuits discussed above, the current flow has

always been in the same direction, dic~ated by the
polarity of the sour~e. C~rr~nt flo~ whl~h ~I~ays
moves in only one direction In a given cl.rcUl~ IS .
referred to as direct current [DC]. All CircUits uSing
batteries as energy sources operate on direct
current because the polarity of batteries does not
change.

(Eq.9)

If we use the equation for current from Ohm's law,

I = ~, the equation for power becomes:
P = E2
R

(Eq. 10)

+100

As an example of the way in which these equations

may be applied, consider again the circuit in Figure 2.
The power dissipated by the one-ohm load may be
found by using Equation 10:
P = E2
R

O~---+---r-----

= [1 volt]2 = 1 watt
1 ohm

TIME ---.

Or, since the current flowing in the circuit has

already been calculated to be one ampere, Equation 6
could be used:
P = IE

Alternating Current Waveform

Figure 5

Another mode of current flow is much more

common in the generation and distribution of
electrical power. In this form, the polarity of the
energy source reverses periodically, causing the
direction of current flow in the load to reverse also.
Current flowing in this manner is known as
alternating current [AC). Figure 5 is a graph of the
magnitude and polarity of the output voltage of an
alternating current generator. The voltage starts at
zero, rises to a certain positive value, drops back to
zero, continues to increase in the negative direction
until it reaches a maximum, and again falls to zero.
This process is repeated continuously as long as .the
generator is in operation. One complete excurSion,
from zero to a positive maximum, through zero to a
negative maximum and back to zero is known as one
cycle. The graphical representation of a voltage
plotted against time is the waveform of that voltage.
The waveform shown is a sine wave because it
corresponds to the sinusoidal form obtained by
plotting the value of the trigonometric sine function
for increasing angles. It is also "symmetrical" about
the zero axis.

= 1 ampere x 1 volt = 1 watt

It should be observed that the power consumed in

the load and given off in the form of heat is the
same amount of power being supplied by the
battery. Since the load is dissipating one watt of
power, the battery must be releasing one watt of
power. The watt, then, can be a measurement ?f
either the power supplied or the power consumed In
a given circuit.
The form of power released at the load in an
electrical circuit is dependent on the type of devi~e
used as a load. If a light bulb, for example, IS
connected in place of the resistor in Figure 2, the
electrical energy is converted to light and heat. If an
electric motor is substituted, the energy is changed
to mechanical motion and heat.
Energy
Power is the rate at which energy is produced or
consumed. The total energy expended in an
electrical circuit is expressed as the product of the
instantaneous power consumption and the number
of hours that power is expended. The unit of
quantity for energy is therefore the watt-hour. [A
different unit, the ampere-hour, is generally used to
specify battery energy-storage capability for reaso~s
which will be discussed later.] The watt-hour IS
commonly employed by utility companies in
measuring the amount of electrical energy used by
their customers. While the watt is a measure of the
rate of energy consumption, the watt-hour is the
measure of the total quantity of energy consumed.

Frequency
The frequency of an alternating current or voltage is
the number of cycles completed within a one-second
period. The unit of frequency is the hertz,
abbreviated [Hz); one hertz is one cycle per second.
One of two "standard" frequencies is supplied by the
commercial [utility) power sources in various parts
of the world. In much of North America, 60 Hz is
the standard frequency. Europe is generally 50 Hz.
Countries in South America, Africa, Asia, and the
Pacific Basin have 50 Hz as standard. Some of these
areas have standardized on 60 Hz. Some countries
have two frequencies and others are changing from

50 Hz to 60 Hz. A very limited number of mines and

processing plants have their own 40 Hz, 25 Hz, or
DC power plants. It may be seen that the reversal of
polarity occurs rapidly, with typically 1/6Oth or 1/5Oth
of a second required to complete an entire cycle.

of exactly the same frequency, then the times at

which they reach their positive maximums, their
negative maximums and their zero voltage points will
be identical. In this case the two voltage waveforms
are in phase. If, however, the waveforms start at
different times or if they are of different frequencies,
they are said to be out of phase. Corresponding
points on the waveforms no longer coincide in time.

AC Voltage and Current

The measurement of voltage in AC systems is
somewhat more complex than with direct current,
since the magnitude is a function of time. One
method of treating the problem is to measure the
voltage at the maximum points of the waveform. The
value obtained is known as the peak voltage. In
Figure 5, the peak voltage is 100 volts. If the
measurement is made from the maximum value of
one polarity to the maximum of the opposite polarity,
the peak-to-peak voltage is obtained. In Figure 5,
the peak-to-peak voltage is 200 volts.

+
w

t.!I

j:!

;."J

I
I

A more useful, hence more widely accepted measure

of AC voltage or current is the RMS (root means
square) value. RMS voltage is usually specified in the
requirements of electrical devices. A requirement
for a 240 volt generator almost universally refers to
the RMS voltage. A circuit breaker having an
interrupting capacity of 10,000 amperes refers to
RMS amperes unless other designations are quoted,
such as peak. If voltage waveform is a sine wave, the
RMS voltage relates to the peak value as follows:
RMS voltage

= 0.707 x peak voltage

90

1 BO 270 360

Two AC Waveforms 90 Degrees Out of Phase

Figure 6

Figure 6 shows, superimposed on the same

drawing, two waveforms which are slightly out of
phase. Wave A is said to lead wave B (which in turn
lags wave A) since it apparently started earlier in
time. For the sake of measuring phase differences,
the time required to complete a full cycle of a sine
wave is divided into 360 electrical degrees. The
amount by which wave B lags wave A in Figure 6
may be measured as 90 degrees.

(Eq. 11)

or
Peak voltage = 1.414 x RMS voltage

I
I

Reactance
In instances where the load applied to an AC
generator is a resistance, the voltage and current in
the load circuit are in phase. When the voltage is
zero the current is zero; when the voltage reaches
its positive maximum, the current is also maximum
in the positive direction, etc. If a reactance is introduced into the circuit, however, the current waveform
may actually lead or lag the voltage waveform.
Reactances are of two types: capacitive and inductive. Capacitive reactance will be considered first.

(Eq.12)

A 120 volt (RMS) voltage has a peak value of 169.7

volts.
Equations 11 and 12 also apply to current. The peak
current is 1.414 x RMS current. Thus, a 10 ampere
(RMS) heater passes 14.1 peak amperes at the
peak of the AC voltage wave.
"Effective" values of AC voltage or current relate to
the heating capacity of the AC voltage when applied
to a given resistance. A pure DC voltage is then
applied to that resistance and increased in value
until the heating effect equals that of the AC voltage.
The value of that DC voltage defines the "effective"
value of the AC voltage. If the wave form is a sine
wave, the effective value will equal the RMS value.
This one relation causes the two terms to be used
interchangeably. Later references avoid mention of
the terms "effective voltage" or "effective current."

Capacitance
If two plates of metal are placed in close proximity to
each other as shown in Figure 7, and a negative
charge is applied to one of the plates, negative
charges at the adjacent surface of the other plate
will be repelled. If negative charges on this second
plate are allowed to drain off to some large
reservoir of charges, such as the earth, the two
plates will maintain a charged condition. The plates
have then stored electrical energy. A device of this
type is known as a capacitor and is usually
represented in electrical drawings by the symbol
shown at the right in the drawing. The amount of
energy which can be stored in a capacitor at a given
voltage is dependent on the size of the plates and
the spacing between them, as well as the material
which separates them.

Phase
Another factor of importance when dealing with AC
waveforms is phase, the relationship in time
between two waveforms of the same frequency.
Suppose that two AC generators are operating
simultaneously. If their output voltages both start at
zero at precisely the same time and if they are both

The storage capability is known as the capacitance

of the device and is measured by a unit called the
farad. Capacitors have only a small fraction of the
energy-storage capability which batteries exhibit, but
they can accept and release their charges very
quickly because no chemical reactions are involved.

This analysis can be carried through for the entire

cycle of operation.

AC
GENERATOR

+
+

+
+1----,

+
+

-iE-

VOLTAGE - -

CAPACITOR
SYMBOL

CURRENT---

~~-~-+--;---

A Capacitor and its Schematic Symbol

Figure 7

If a resistor and capacitor are connected in series

across a source of DC voltage, as shown in Figure 8,
a very large current will flow momentarily as charges
flow into one capacitor plate and drain off from the
other. As the charges continue to accumulate, the
voltage at the terminals of the capacitor will slowly
rise until finally it equals the battery voltage. At that
time, the voltages at both ends of the resistor are
equal. From Ohm's Law [E=IR) we know that if no
potential difference exists across the resistor then
no current is flowing through it. The current flow in
the circuit has therefore stopped; continuous current
flow through a capacitor cannot be sustained
because of the insulating material between the plates.
However, during the time that the capacitor is
charging or discharging, current can flow briefly.

00

Capacitor Connected to AC Generator, Showing Phase

Relationship of Voltage and Current
Figure 9

The waveform drawing of Figure 9 shows the

relationship of the applied voltage to the capacitor
current in this circuit. Note that the current is at a
maximum when the voltage is at or very close to
zero. The capacitor current is out of phase with the
generator voltage; the current leads the voltage by
90 degrees. Notice that the capacitor does
effectively allow alternating current to flow, even
though the phase of that current is shifted by 90
degrees from the current that a resistance would
pass.

~--~~~.---~

1-

90 0 1800 270 0 3600

The amount of alternating current that a capacitor

will conduct depends on its ability to store charges
[its capacitance). A capacitor therefore offers a
certain amount of opposition to the flow of
alternating current much as a resistance does.
Because the capacitor affects the phase of the
current, however, a different term, capacitive
reactance [denoted by the symbol XC). is used to
define its opposition to the flow of current. The
reactance of a capacitor is a function of its
capacitance in farads and also of the frequency of
the applied voltage. The following relates these
variables:

Capacitor Charged Through a Resistor from a DC Source

Figure 8

Consider now the case where a capacitor is connected across a source of AC voltage as shown in
Figure 9. At the beginning of a cycle, when the voltage
from the generator starts to rise above zero, the
capacitor passes a relatively heavy current as it
begins to store charges. As the voltage continues to
increase, the rate at which the capacitor draws
current decreases until, finally, as the voltage reaches
a maximum in the positive direction and starts again
to decrease, the capacitor voltage will equal momentarily the voltage of the generator. At this instant,
the current through the capacitor will be zero. As
the generator voltage decreases, the capacitor
voltage remains larger than the generator voltage
and the capacitor discharges into the generator.

[Eq. 13)

where

Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms

f = frequency in hertz
C = capacitance in farads
1t=3.1416

The equivalent value of capacitors connected in

parallel is the sum of their individual capacitances.
The equivalent for series-connected capacitors may
be found by using the equation for parallel
resistances [Equation 5). Note that these rules
apply to capacitance but not to capacitive
reactance. Capacitive reactances in series and
parallel should be treated in the same way as series
and parallel resistances respectively.

at the terminals of the coil. This principle underlies

the generation of electricity from mechanical motion.
By passing a coil through a magnetic field, or by
moving a magnetic field past a coil, electrical energy
may be produced.
Referring again to Figure 11, when voltage is applied
to the coil, current begins to flow and a magnetic
field starts to build up. The magnetic lines of force
cross some of the turns of wire and induce a
voltage in the coil of the same polarity as that of the
battery. This voltage is referred to as "back EMF."
The result is that the potential difference between
the battery and the coil is reduced and the current
flow is less than it would be if the resistance of the
coil wire were the only limiting factor. As the
magnetic field nears its final size, fewer lines of
force cross the turns of the coil, generating less
back EMF and the current rises to its final value.

Inductance
Inductors are the second type of reactive element
found in AC circuits. An inductor is formed by
wrapping a number of turns of insulated wire around
a form as shown in Figure 10. Current passing
through a wire causes a magnetic field to be set up
around the conductor. If a number of turns of wire
are concentrated in a small area, the magnetic field
generated by current passing through each individual
turn adds to that of neighboring turns and a strong
magnetic field is generated in the area of the coil.

If the battery is now replaced by a resistor, the

magnetic field begins to collapse, the lines of force
cut through the turns of the coil in the opposite
direction, and a voltage of the opposite polarity
appears at the terminals of the coil. The energy
stored in the magnetic field is converted to heat as
current flows through the resistor. Coils, or as they
are more frequently called, inductors, thus have an
energy storage capability similar to that of
capacitors. A useful rule to remember is that the
back EMF of a coil is always of a polarity that
opposes any change in the current flow.

[
INDUCTOR
SYMBOL
An Inductor and its Schematic Symbol
Figure 10

The magnitude of the magnetic field set up by

current passing through an inductor varies with the
geometry of the coil as well as with the quantity of
current. The characteristic energy storage capability
of an inductor is its inductance [L), measured in
henries.

Energy is required to create the magnetic field, and

this energy comes from the current flowing through
the coil. Figure 11 shows a coil connected to a
battery. The current flowing from the battery
through the coil sets up the magnetic field indicated
by the dotted lines around the coil. The magnetic
field will remain until the current is interrupted when
it will collapse, releasing its stored energy.
",-'" N -,

1/
I

.......,

I .... '

,~ ,I

~I

\ '.

I ,

\\

\ ,

I I
I \

I I

\\ \

I I'

\\ 11'\

I I

VOLTAGE - CURRENT---

I /

II

', ...../S
..// \ .....
...........

Inductor Connected to a Source of Direct Current

Figure 11

TIME----'

A coil operated on direct current is often referred to

as an electromagnet. Like a common magnet, it
has both a north and a south pole. Coils also have
another interesting property: if passed through
magnetic lines of force, a voltage will be developed

Inductor Connected to a Source of Alternating Current,

Showing Phase Relationship of Voltage and Current
Figure 12

merely be treated according to the rules for series

and parallel resistors. The phase of the current in
such a circuit will vary between 90 degrees leading
and 90 degrees lagging with respect to the voltage,
depending upon the size of the various reactances.

When an inductor is connected to a generator of

AC voltage, as illustrated in Figure 12, it will be
observed that the current passing through the
inductor is of a different phase than the voltage
applied. When the voltage is at a maximum, very
little current flows through the inductor because of
the back EMF. The current gradually builds up until it
reaches a maximum when the generator voltage
nears zero. As the generator voltage moves toward
its negative maximum, the collapsing magnetic field
induces a back EMF in the coil of the same polarity
as the generator, so the current again falls to zero.
The waveform drawing of Figure 12 follows this
process through a complete cycle, showing that the
phase of the current in an inductive circuit lags the
voltage by 90 degrees.

The impedance (Z) of a circuit is the net opposition

it offers to the flow of alternating current of a
specified frequency. If the resistance, capacitive
reactance and inductive reactance in a parallel
circuit are known, the impedance of the circuit can
be found from the formula:
(Eq.15)

where

Because an inductor must repetitively store and

release energy, it, like a capacitor, offers some
opposition to the flow of alternating current. This
opposition is termed inductive reactance. The
amount of reactance exhibited by a particular coil
depends on its inductance and on the frequency of
the applied voltage, and may be found once the
inductance is known by applying the following formula:

Z = impedance in ohms
R = resistance in ohms
XL = inductive reactance in ohms
Xc = capacitive reactance in ohms

Note that the impedance will vary with frequency,

since both Xc and XL are frequency dependent. In
practical AC power circuits, Xc is often small and
can be neglected. In that case, the formula above
simplifies to:
(Eq.16)

(Eq.14)

where

Power and Power Factor

Power is determined in AC circuits in much the
same way as in DC circuits as long as the current
and voltage are in phase. For purely resistive loads,
the power in watts is found by multiplying the RMS
voltage by the RMS current in amperes (Equation
6). When inductive or capacitive elements are
present in the load, however, the product of voltage
and current no longer gives a true indication of the
actual power being consumed. In such cases a
correction factor must be applied, known as the
power factor of the load. The apparent power is
the product of voltage and current, expressed In
volt-amperes. The actual power is expressed in
watts. The power factor is defined as the ratio of
the actual power to the apparent power:

XL = inductive reactance in ohms

f = frequency in hertz
L = inductance in henries
7t=3.1416

Inductances in series may be added to find the total

equivalent inductance. Parallel inductances may be
calculated by using the formula for parallel
resistances (Equation 5). Inductive reactances in
series or parallel are always treated in the same
way as series or parallel resistances respectively.
Impedance
Pure inductances, resistances, and capacitances
are never found in practical electrical components.
A resistor, particularly the type made from many
turns of resistive wire, will exhibit some inductance.
Also, the turns, which are wound in close proximity
to each other, act like the plates of many tiny
capacitors. Consequently, what purports to be a
simple resistor will actually be a combination of all
three types of circuit elements. In many cases, the
unwanted characteristics are small enough that they
may be ignored, but in other cases, they may have a
significant effect on the performance of the circuit.
In addition, many common electrical appliances
require a combination of electrical components in
order to operate properly.

Power Factor= Actual Power (watts)

Apparent Power (V.A)

(Eq.17)

In mathematical terms, the power factor is equal to

the cosine of the angle by which the current leads
or lags the voltage. If the current lags the voltage in
an inductive circuit by 37 degrees, the power factor
will be 0.8, the value of the cosine function at 37
degrees.
Actual Power=VI cos. 0

(Eq.18)

A power factor of 0.8 lagging is considered typical of

most electrical circuits. If the phase of the current
in a load leads the phase of the voltage, the load is
said to have a leading power factor; if it lags, a
lagging power factor. If the voltage and current are
in phase, the circuit has a unity power factor.

In order to evaluate the total equivalent resistance

or reactance exhibited by a circuit having a combination of components, a further concept is needed.
Because the phase relationships of the current
flowing through the various types of components is
complex, the reactances and resistances cannot

It should be apparent from the preceding formulae

that if the power factor of a load is low, more
current will flow at a given voltage to deliver a
specified power to the load than If the power factor
is unity. This fact would be relatively unimportant in
an ideal circuit where generators and conductors
have no resistance. In practical applications,
however, resistances do exist. The wire with which
the generator coils are wound and the wires which
carry the current from the generator to the load
both have a finite resistance. Equation 9 shows that
the power dissipated in a resistance is a function of
the square of the current. A small increase in
current will cause a much larger increase in the
power dissipated as heat. Since electrical equipment,
and insulation in particular, can withstand only a
certain amount of heat, it is desirable to reduce the
current flow as much as possible in delivering power
to the load. With a power factor of 1.0, the current
for a given load power is minimized, and the full
capacity of the equipment may be utilized to provide
useful power to the load.

There are many instances in which it is desirable to

change voltages. The most important involves the
transmission of electrical power over long distances.
If a generator supplies a given amount of power to a
load over a long pair of wires, a certain amount of
power will be lost in heating the wires as a result of
their inherent resistance. It has been shown that
the power lost in a conductor increases as the
square of the current. If the power is transmitted at
low voltage and high current, a large portion of the
power may be dissipated in the conductors rather
than in the load. By transforming the generator
output to a higher voltage, transmitting it via the
wires and retransforming it to the original voltage
near the load, the current carried by the conductors
is reduced and hence the power loss will also be
decreased.
Transformers consist of two coils located so that
each intersects the magnetic field lines of the other.
In practice, the coils are usually wound on the same
core, made of a material such as iron which readily
conducts magnetic lines of force. A schematic
drawing of a transformer is shown in Figure 13. As
alternating current passes from the generator
through the first coil, called the primary winding, a
magnetic field alternately is produced and collapses.
The magnetic field lines are intersected by a second
coil, the secondary winding, and the constantly
changing field strength induces a varying voltage in
the secondary winding corresponding to the primary
voltage. Transformers cannot be used to change DC
voltage levels. If direct current is applied to the
primary, the magnetic field only changes during the
time that the current rises to its final value. After
that time, the magnetic field lines no longer move
across the turns of the secondary, so no voltage
appears at the transformer output terminals.

In situations where the load consists primarily of

large electric motors which are low power factor
loads, it may not be practical to achieve a unity
power factor. The generator then must be designed
to withstand loads having low power factors. The
excess current that flows in a circuit with less than
unity power factor is known as the reactive
component of the total current. The amount of the
apparent power, which is due to this reactive
component, is termed the reactive volt-amperes,
and it represents the difference between the
apparent power and the actual power. In power
circuits, where voltages are often measured in kilovolts (thousands of volts), this reactive component of
the apparent power is denoted by the abbreviation
KVAR or RKVA - reactive kilovolt amperes. The
reactive kV.A in a circuit may be found by the use of
Equation 27, Table 1.
Energy
As with direct current, the energy used in an AC
circuit is the product of the instantaneous power
consumption and the length of time for which the
power is expended. The watt-hour is the basic unit
for measurement of this energy. The volt-ampere is
not an appropriate unit to use in place of the watt
for AC energy measurements because, depending
on the power factor of the load, it may not give a
true indication of the actual power consumed.

A Transformer
Figure 13

If the number of turns of wire in both windings of a

transformer are the same, the voltage that appears
at the secondary will be of the same magnitude as
the voltage at the primary. If the number of turns is
different, the voltage produced at the secondary is
given by:

Transformation
A key reason for the use of alternating current
instead of direct current in power distribution
systems, other than the ease with which it may be
generated, is that it may be readily converted from
one voltage level to another with very little loss of
power. The conversion process is transformation
and the devices used to perform the conversion are
called transformers.

Vs

= Vp Ns

[Eq.19)

Np

where Vs = secondary voltage

Vp = primary voltage
Ns = number of secondary turns
Np = number of primary turns

10

Transformers used to increase the input voltage are

called step-up transformers; those used to
decrease voltage are step-down transformers.

SECONDARY

chemical reaction. no more electricity can be

produced. The reaction in this type of battery is
irreversible-the battery cannot be recharged.
These batteries have a limited "shelf life." Some
deterioration of the cell will occur even when current
is not being drawn.
In another type of battery. the discharging process
is reversible and the cell can be recharged from an
outside source of electrical energy. Passing current
through the battery in the opposite direction from
that in which it flows during the discharge reverses
the chemical reaction and restores the original
energy to the cell. The process may be repeated
many times. limited only by the destructive effects
on the cells by secondary chemical reactions and
physical deterioration. The common lead-acid
storage battery used in automobiles is an example
of a rechargeable battery. A portion of the battery's
stored energy is used in operating the cranking
motor when starting the engine. After the engine has
started. an electromechanical generator driven from
the engine supplies current to recharge the battery.

~IMAAY {o---"
An Auto-Transformer
Figure 14

In some types of transformers. called autotransformers. only one winding is used. The coil is tapped
at some point as shown in Figure 14. The turns of
the "primary" actually form a part of the "secondary"
winding. If a low voltage is applied to the primary
winding. a higher voltage will appear across the
secondary winding. Equation 19 may be used to
calculate the secondary voltage. bearing in mind
that the primary turns must be included when
counting the number of secondary turns. The
autotransformer may be used in reverse as well. If
the input voltage is applied to the secondary. a lower
voltage will appear across the primary.
Autotransformers have the disadvantage that the
secondary is not electrically isolated from the
primary. and can therefore present a safety hazard
at high voltages or when used improperly. They are
very convenient. however. whenever a voltage. must
be changed a small amount to suit a particular piece
of electrical equipment.

The output voltage of most batteries will decrease

slowly as they are discharged. For this reason
battery capacity is usually rated in ampere-hours
rather than watt-hours. The number of ampere
hours of current that a battery will deliver is
dependent on its temperature [lower temperatures
slow the chemical reactions and decrease the
amount of available energy) and upon the rate at
which it is discharged. Batteries have some internal
resistance to the flow of current; if the battery is
discharged at a high current. more of the energy
will be dissipated in this resistance. Thus a battery
will deliver considerably more total useful energy if
discharged at low currents over a long period of
time rather than rapidly at high current.

SOURCES OF ELECTRICAL ENERGY

Although the existence of electrical energy sources
has been assumed in the foregoing material. no
detailed information about them has been presented.
There are many types of sources ranging from the
common flashlight battery to more exotic devices
such as photoelectric cells and thermocouples. The
two types most frequently employed are batteries.
which produce electrical energy from chemical
reactions. and electromechanical generators.
which convert mechanical motion into electrical
energy. The latter are of prime importance in power
generating and distribution systems.

Electromechanical Generators
In the section above on inductors. it was stated that
a voltage will be induced in a coil of wire moving
through a magnetic field. This principle is put to use
in the generation of electrical energy from motion. If
a force is applied to continuously turn a coil in a
magnetic field. an alternating voltage will be
produced at the coil terminals. This voltage may
then be transmitted through wires to a load where it
can perform useful work. The mechanical energy
required to move the coil is converted to electrical
energy which. in turn. is converted to another form
of energy at the load.

Batteries
Batteries are employed where it is desirable to store
electrical energy for a period of time and yet have it
instantly available whenever required. All batteries
produce electricity from chemical reactions too
involved to discuss here. One type of battery. the
common "dry cell" or flashlight battery. releases
electrical energy as a result of chemical reactions
taking place between the compounds from which
the cell was originally manufactured. The reaction
proceeds only when current is being drawn. When
all of the original materials have undergone the

In practical AC generators. the magnetic field is produced by passing direct current through a second
smaller coil of wire called the field winding. Only a
small amount of current is necessary to "excite" the
field coil. The coil in which the electricity is actually
produced is called the armature. Since the field coil
can be made appreciably smaller than the armature.
the latter is often constructed on a stationary form
and the field coil made to rotate inside it.
11

The current required to excite the field is supplied to

.the rotating coil by means of collector rings, which
are rings of metal insulated from the shaft on which
the coil rides and connected to the ends of the field
winding. The rings rotate with the shaft and carbon
brushes make contact between them and the
source of the field current, which may be an external
battery derived from a belt or direct driven DC
generator or from a small rotating AC generator and
rectifiers. See Figure 16 for the several methods.

to control the flow of current. When the gate

terminal is not energized, the rectifier conducts no
.current, but when a voltage is applied to the gate
terminal, current is passed in one direction. By
applying gate voltage at various points on the AC
cycle, pulses of current may be fed to the field and
the average field current varied. During the
remainder of the cycle the magnetic field
surrounding the field coil collapses, thus inducing
current in the coil. A second rectifier is connected
across the field terminals to allow a path through
which this current may flow.

Four-pole and six-pole field coils are commonly used.

Adjacent poles are of opposite magnetic polarity, so
that as the field turns within the fixed armature, or
stator, winding, the magnetic field at any given point
is reversed each time a pole face passes. The
angular velocity of the field coil can thereby be
reduced for a given output frequency, since one
cycle of output power is produced each time a pair
of magnetic poles passes the stator coil.

This gate of the SCR is controlled by a voltage

regulator circuit which senses the generator output
voltage and automatically adjusts the field coil
current to maintain the desired output. If a load is
applied to the generator, the output voltage will drop
slightly. The voltage regulator circuit causes the SCR
to conduct for a longer period of time during each
cycle, thus increasing the field current and restoring
the output voltage to the desired level.

The field current often is taken from the output of

the generator itself. When the field coil is set into
motion, a small amount of electricity is available at
the generator output as a result of the residual
magnetism in the field coil core material. This small
current is supplied to the field coil, adding to the
residual magnetic field. More electricity is then
produced until after a few rotations the full field
current is flowing and full generator output is
available. When operating, the field coil uses only a
minute fraction of the generator output current.

.... 1 CYCLE-.

Since the output of the generator is an AC voltage

and the field must be excited with DC, rectifiers are
used to change the AC voltage to DC before applying
it to the field. A rectifier is a device which exhibits a
very high resistance to the flow of current in one
direction and a very low resistance to the flow in the
opposite direction. For practical purposes, the
rectifier only permits current to flow in one direction
in the circuit, and thus it can convert AC into
pulsating DC, which is adequate for field excitation.
Modern generators use semiconductor rectifiers to
accomplish the conversion. A separate exciter with
rotating diodes permits construction of a "brush less"
excitation system.

180

360

PHASE A
PHASE B
PHASE C

Phase Relationships in a Three-Phase Circuit

Figure 15

Phase Arrangement
The armature of a generator may be a single coil, or
there may be three coils spaced at 120 degree
intervals around the frame. In the latter case, the
output of the three coils will exhibit a phase
difference, since the magnetic poles of the field coil
pass the three armature coils at different times.
The output waveforms of each of the three coils are
shown in Figure 15. Generators constructed in this
manner are called three-phase generators, while
those having only one armature coil are called
single-phase generators. Three-phase machines
are common where a large amount of electrical
power is to be generated.

Voltage Regulation
The voltage at the output of the generator armature
winding is dependent on the field coil angular velocity
and the intensity of the magnetic field produced.
Since it is usually desirable to maintain a constant
frequency at the output of the generator, the
velocity cannot be varied to adjust the output
voltage. The field current is commonly controlled to
obtain the desired voltage.

A three-phase system is an AC circuit to which is

applied three" voltages of the same frequency but
displaced electrically by one-third of a cycle or 120
degrees. The three generator windings used may be
connected in either a delta or a wye [star)
configuration.

In modern generators, the field current is adjusted

by silicon controlled rectifiers [SCRs). These
devices, like ordinary r,ectifiers, pass current in one
direction only, but they also include a "gate" terminal

The wye [star) connection [17 A, C) has a neutral

point, often connected to earth. The delta [mesh)
connection [17 B, D) does not have a neutral point.
Coils generally have a midpoint. A midpoint of one

12

Methods Of Field Excitation

DC Exciter
Exciter

II Field

Generator
Field

,..----------- L

L
------------ L
~-----------------------------L

Slip Rings
Slip Rings

Control Reactors (3)

DC Exciter, Belt Driven, Supplies Rotating Field Through

Slip Rings and Brushes.

Three-Phase Half Wave Rectifier Supplies Rotating Field

Through Control Reactors And Slip Rings.

Exciter
[Rotating)

Diode SCR

Exciter Field [Stationary)

L

Generator
Field

~--N

-......_ _- - - L

Generator
Field
[Rotating)

~------------------L

L
L

Slip Rings

Two-Phase Half Wave Rectifier Supplies Rotating Field

Through Control Rectifier [SCR) And Slip Rings. Diode
Maintains Self-Induced Field Current When SCR Is
"Off".

"Brush less" Rotating Exciter Supplies Generator Field

Through Rectifiers. Exciter Field Supplied From Generator. Output Controlled By SCR. Diode Maintains Exciter
Field Current when SCR Is "Off".

Figure 16

13

240 VOLTS

240 VOLTS
240 VOLTS

THREE-PHASE, THREE-WIRE (DELTA)

B

THREE-PHASE, THREE-WIRE (WYE)

A

230 VOLTS
216 VOLTS
230 VOLTS
230 VOLTS
115 VOLTS
THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE (DELTA)

THREE-PHASE, FOUR-WIRE (WYE)

Three-Phase Connection Systems

Figure 17

coil may be connected to earth, Generators rated

above 300 kW are generally constructed in wye
configuration, Generators rated below 300 kW may
be either wye or delta, If all of the coil ends
terminate in accessible connections, field
reconnection from wye-to-delta or delta-to-wye is
possible, Terminal voltages would change.

It is also common to find combination services

entering an existing building. An example is the use
of a single-phase three-wire service for lighting loads
and a three-phase three-wire service for motor
loads. The load distribution on each of the three
phases in a given installation should be determined,
as well as the amount of single-phase power
required and the manner in which it is to be
distributed on the three available phases of the
generator set. If any of the three phases is required
to supply excessive single-phase power in addition to
the portion of the three-phase load which it carries,
the generator may be overloaded. The connection of
single-phase loads will then have to be redistributed
more evenly among the available phases or, if
existing wiring makes this impractical, a larger size
generator will have to be specified to carry the extra
single-phase load.

A single-phase AC circuit is one to which one

voltage at a given frequency is applied. Such circuits
are used mostly for lighting and fractional
horsepower motor loads and are served by two
wires with one being neutral [earth or ground], or by
three wires, one neutral and the other two
operating with equal voltage relative to neutral.
These two types of single-phase circuits are shown
in Figure 18. The coils supplying the power may be
either the secondaries of step-down transformers or
the stator windings of a generator set.

~115V

~115V

DC Generators
Direct-current generators are rarely used today
except in certain special applications. A notable
exception, of course, is in motor vehicles, where
direct current is needed to recharge the storage
batteries which supply power for engine cranking. A
DC generator is usually constructed with the field
coil stationary. The armature consists of many coils
of wire, set at small angles around the shaft, each
connected to a pair of commutator bars mounted
on insulators near the end of the shaft. As one of
the coils passes the field pole pieces, a voltage is
induced in it. At the same time, brushes contact the
commutator bars connected to the ends of that coil,
allowing current to flow into the load. As the first
coil of the armature moves away from the pole

NEUTRAL

NEUTRAL

~115V

Two- and Three-Wire Single-Phase AC Circuits

Figure 18

14

pieces, a second coil moves into place, and the

brushes simultaneously make contact with the
commutator bars connected to this second coil. If a
sufficient number of armature poles are provided, a
nearly steady flow of direct current is produced.

device passes current or by varying the amount of

current permitted to flow. Automatic controls may
be constructed to switch heating elements on and
off according to the heating load demand, or to
control the current flow. The latter type of system is
called "proportional controL" Thermostats, devices
which sense the ambient temperature and compare
it to a preset level, are used as control devices.

When direct current is required and a source of AC

power is available, rectifiers are usually employed to
convert the AC power to DC instead of using less
efficient DC generators. In fact, modern automotive
electrical systems use AC generators [alternators)
and semiconductor rectifiers in place of DC
generators which were standard in the past.

Mechanical Power
Electric motors are used to convert electrical
energy into mechanical motion. If current is passed
through a coil located within a magnetic field, the
coil will tend to change its orientation until its field
aligns with the external magnetic field. By mounting
the coil on a shaft which is free to rotate, and by
periodically reversing the direction of current
through the coil or the sense of the external
magnetic field, the coil can be forced to rotate
continuously. In three-phase AC motors a revolving
magnetic field is supplied by a three-phase stator
winding. The stator and rotor coils have a number of
poles around their circumference, the number being
inversely related to motor speed. The rotor revolves
as it attempts to align itself with the applied
magnetic field.

APPLICATIONS OF ELECTRICAL POWER

Lighting
One of the earliest and still one of the most
important uses of electrical power is in lighting. The
original type of device used to convert electrical
energy to light, the incandescent lamp, is
commonplace in an improved form today. Electrical
current is passed through a very thin resistive
filament, heating it to a white-hot glow. Although the
incandescent lamp is inefficient because much of the
energy is lost in producing unwanted heat, its simplicity and low cost have made it extremely popular.

Polyphase AC motors are of two basic types: the

first of these is the induction motor. Power is
applied to the stator winding and current is induced
in the rotor windings by the magnetic field of the
stator. In squirrel cage motors no connections are
made to the rotor winding. In wound rotor (slip
ring) motors the rotor winding is connected to an
external variable resistance by means of slip rings
and brushes.

The fluorescent lamp has replaced the

incandescent type in many applications. This lamp
takes the form of a long glass tube with a small
heating element at either end. The tube is filled with
mercury vapor and the inside of the glass is coated
with a fluorescent material. The heaters are used
both to assist in starting the lamp and as electrodes
when the lamp is operating. A voltage is applied
between the heater-electrodes and the mercury
vapor is ionized as a stream of electrons flow the
length of the tube from one electrode to the other.
The ionized gas emits ultraviolet light which strikes
the fluorescent coating and causes it to give off
visible light. A ballast transformer is used to supply
low voltage to the heaters and to limit the current
through the lamp.

Induction motor speed is not directly synchronized to

the AC power frequency. They operate somewhat
below synchronous speed, depending on the load
applied. A second basic type of AC motor is the
synchronous motor. These have a salient pole field
winding whose current is supplied by a DC exciter.
They run at synchronous speed regardless of load
changes. Synchronous speed is determined by the
frequency of the AC voltage and the number of poles
in the field.

Heating
As electrical power has become increasingly
economical, the very large amounts of energy
required for electrical heating applications have
become feasible. From the enormous electric
furnaces used in the production of steel to small
electric ranges or home heating systems, electricity
provides a clean and easily controlled source of
heat.

In order to apply electrical power intelligently, one

must be able to accurately measure such quantities
as voltage, current, power, power factor, phase and
frequency.

In most heating devices, heat is produced from

electrical energy by the simple process of passing
current through a resistive element. In some cases,
electricity is used to produce a varying magnetic
field which, in turn, heats the material through
which it passes, a technique used in induction
furnaces. The amount of heat produced may be
controlled by the length of time that the heating

Voltage
Voltage in electrical circuits is measured by means
of devices called voltmeters. They consist of a coil
of wire mounted on a rotatable shaft and positioned
between the pole pieces of a permanent magnet. A
pointer is attached to the shaft in such a manner
that as the coil and shaft rotate, the pointer passes
in front of markings on a dial scale. When current

MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

15

passes through the coil it moves to align its

magnetic field with the external field, causing the
shaft and pointer to rotate against the force of a
spring. The position at which the pointer comes to
rest is an indication of the strength of the current
flow. Since the coil has a fixed resistance, each
value of current corresponds to a specific voltage.
The dial scale may therefore be directly calibrated in
volts. Meters are available in a wide range of fullscale voltages. Voltmeters have a very high coil
resistance so that very little current is drawn from
the circuit to which they are connected.

The coil resistance of ammeters is very low,

however, since the current to be measured is
allowed to flow through the meter coil. A high
resistance coil would result in a large voltage drop
across the meter, which would drastically reduce
the current flow in the circuit to be measured. The
meter scale is calibrated directly in RMS amperes
[or some fraction thereof) instead of in volts. As
with voltmeters, rectifiers are included if the meter
is intended for measurement of AC currents.
Ammeters designed to measure very large currents
may have a fairly low-current basic movement
shunted by a low resistance, as shown in Figure 20.

A voltmeter of the type described will work properly

on DC but not on AC voltages. Since AC voltages
reverse every fraction of a second, the direction of
pointer movement would also attempt to reverse.
Because of its inertia, the coil and pointer assembly
cannot follow these rapid movements and it remains
nearly at rest. For AC voltage measurements,
meters are usually supplied with an internal rectifier
which converts the AC voltage to DC. AC voltmeters
for the measurement of very high voltages may also
be equipped with a potential transformer which
reduces the voltage to be measured by a known
ratio to a level suitable for the meter movement.

AMMETER

SHUNT
Ammeter with Shunt Resistor
Figure 20

Practical voltmeters used in AC measurements are

calibrated to read RMS voltage, assuming that the
waveform is sinusoidal, which is very nearly the case
in most applications. Special voltmeters are available
to measure the peak voltage of AC waveforms.
Oscilloscopes, devices which provide real-time
graphic displays of voltage versus time, may be used
to measure the amplitude and duration of transients
- short abnormal variations in amplitude.

Most of the load current flows through the shunt

resistor and only a small fraction passes through
the meter coil. The scale may then be calibrated for
a much higher current. Another type of high-current
ammeter uses a current transformer, as in Figure
21. The high current flowing in the transformer
primary winding is transformed to a lower current in
the secondary, which is connected to the meter. If
the turns ratio of the transformer is known, the
factor by which the current is scaled can be
determined.

LOAD

AMMETER

VOLTMETER
Proper Connection of a Voltmeter
Figure 19
CURRENT
TRANSFORMER

Voltmeters are always connected in parallel with the

circuit to be measured, as shown in Figure 19. If
the output voltage of a generator is to be
determined, the voltmeter is connected directly
across the output terminals. If the voltage at the
input of a motor is to be measured, the voltmeter is
connected across the motor terminals. To measure
the voltage drop through a pair of conductors, the
voltmeter is connected first across the generator
end of the pair and then across the load end. The
second reading is subtracted from the first.

Ammeter with Current Transformer

Figure 21

A special case of the current-transformer ammeter

is the clamp-on or tong-type meter. The secondary
of the current transformer is contained inside a
tong-shaped probe which can be clamped around a
current-carrying wire. The wire is surrounded by a
magnetic field when current is flowing through it, and
it forms the primary of the transformer. Tong-type

Current
Current is measured through the use of ammeters,
which are very similar in construction to voltmeters.

16

generator to find out which one is connected to

each phase, an indicating device may be used to
determine the phase sequence. The device will
indicate, with reference to a given phase, which of
the other two phases lags by 120 degrees and
which lags by 240 degrees. The phase sequence
may thus be deter-mined. Such measurements are
important when connecting devices such as electric
motors which will work properly only when their
leads are connected to the proper phase leads of
the power source. Three-phase motor rotation can
be reversed by reversing any two phase connections
to the motor.

ammeters are very useful in making rapid

measurements since the circuit does not have to be
broken to insert the meter. Conventional ammeters
must be inserted in series with the circuit so that
the current can pass through the meter coil and its
shunts.
Power and Power Factor

Power in DC circuits may be determined by measuring the voltage and current and multiplying the
results, since P = I E [Equation 6). Apparent power
in AC circuits, measured in volt-amperes, may be
found in the same way. Actual power in watts,
however, must take into account the power factor.
Wattmeters are available which simultaneously
measure voltage, current and power factor and
automatically multiply the results to give an
indication of true power. They employ two coils, one
for voltage and one for current, mounted in such a
way that the pointer deflection is a product of the
two quantities with correction made for any variation
in phase angle between the two waveforms. To
prevent damage to the instrument, care must be
taken to ensure that the rating of neither the
voltage nor the current coil is exceeded, as the
pointer may not indicate an overload condition.

Simple indicators are also available to indicate over

a limited range the frequency of an AC waveform.
These devices employ vibrating reeds, each
resonant to a particular frequency. For 60 Hz
systems, reeds are usually chosen which resonate
at 58,59,60,61, and 62 Hz. If 60 Hz energy is
supplied to the meter, the reed resonant at 60 Hz
will vibrate, giving a visible indication of the power
f~equency. If the generator frequency is slightly too
high or too low, one of the other reeds will vibrate,
indicating that the speed of the generator must be
adjusted to restore it to operation at the proper
frequency.

Power factor may be calculated by measuring both

the actual power and the apparent power. The ratio
of the two values yields the power factor [Equation
17]. Power factor may be measured directly in
three-phase circuits with a clamp-on power factor
meter. This device contains a current transformer
and three voltage leads. It can give a reasonably
accurate indication of both leading and lagging
power factors.

Frequency can also be measured by a vane-type of

meter which uses a capacitor, resistor and rectifier.
Alternating current supplied to the internal circuit
results in a small direct current of very low voltage
that is directly proportional to frequency. Essentially,
the instrument indicates the resulting DC current,
but the scale is calibrated in hertz. These
instruments are available in three ranges: From
about 47 to 53 Hz, from about 56 to 64 Hz, and
from about 45 to 65 Hz.

Phase and Frequency

In three-phase AC circuits, the phase of each leg

lags the phase of the preceding leg by 120
electrical degrees. If the three legs are denoted A,
B, and C, then leg B will lag leg A by 120 degrees
and leg C will lag leg A by 240 degrees. Since it is
not always possible to trace the leads back to the

Digital readout frequency meters are also used.

These are comparative devices which constantly
count the cycles per unit of time and at preset
intervals display the result. Other types average the
frequency over some preset interval of time and
then display the result.

17

III.

GENERATOR SETS

KW AND KV'A REQUIREMENTS OF LOAD

exceed the kW equivalent of the motor nameplate

horsepower. The generator set must be capable of
supplying this short term demand without excessive
speed or voltage reduction. Motor characteristics
and speed-load characteristics are necessary to
accurately predetermine the effect of these loads.

In selecting the correct size generator set for a given

load, the load kW requirements are naturally the
most important factor. The generator set should
have sufficient capacity to supply maximum load
conditions after the load factor has been taken into
account, but it should also have reserve capacity to
allow for motor starting and for some future expansion in load where indicated. Standard practice is
that the generator set have 20 to 25 percent more
capacity than required for actual maximum load conditions. It is assumed that single-phase loads will be
evenly balanced on the phases of a three-phase generator set. If this cannot be accomplished, a larger
capacity generator may be required to handle the
extra kVA load on the phases carrying single-phase
circuits in addition to the normal three-phase load.
This problem is considered in more detail in a later
section of the present chapter. In situations where
the power factor of the load is significantly below the
value at which the generator set kW output is rated,
a larger capacity generator may be required to
supply the additional kVA. The line current requirements of the actual load must never exceed the generator nameplate rating.

MULTIPLE GENERATOR SETS

In some situations, the use of more than one generator set is mandatory; in others, it may prove more
economical. In the former category are installations
in which the prime power source is a generator set,
and failures cannot be tolerated. A second generator
set capable of carrying critical loads should be made
available in case of failure of the primary set and for
use during prime set maintenance periods.
Cases where multiple generator set installations
may prove more economical are those where there is
a large variation in load during the course of a day,
week, month, or year. Such variation is typical in
plants in which operations are carried on primarily
during the day while only small loads exist at night.
The more closely a generator set comes to being fully
loaded, the greater the fuel economy per kilowatt
produced. Therefore, the use of a small unit to power
light off-hour loads will often result in long-term fuel
economy.

GENERATOR VERSUS ENGINE SIZE

Normally a generator set is furnished with a generator which matches the engine output capability.
Where power factors are low, however, it may be
advantageous to select an oversized generator
rather than specify the next larger size generator
set. Since the engine horsepower output is related to
kW and not necessarily to kVA, for a given engine
output, an oversized generator will supply essentially
the same kW output as a normal generator, but will
be able to tolerate a higher value of reactive kVA
because of its greater current-carrying capacity.

In installations where the load does not vary to the

extremes encountered between day and night
conditions, it is sometimes profitable to share the
load between several small units operating in parallel
rather than using a single large set. One or more of
the units may then be shut down when the load is
lighter, thereby .loading the other units more nearly
to capacity. An instance in which this type of system
shows an advantage is where load demand is
seasonal.

PARALLEL OPERATION GENERATOR SETS

MOTOR STARTING REQUIREMENTS

Two or more AC generator sets may be operated in

parallel provided three fundamental conditions are
satisfied:

The generator set must include enough kW capacity

to handle the electric motor operating load. Additionally, the generator set must accept the motor starting kVA load and the starting kW load without excessive voltage reduction. An oversize generator is
useful where motor starting kVA demand is high in
relation to the actual starting kW demand. A larger
than normal generator can also provide increased
inertia-developed energy, thus reducing speed and
voltage drop during the motor starting period.

1.
2.
3.

Their voltages must be the same.

Their frequencies must be the same.
Their phase sequences must be the same.

The first condition must be satisfied at the time that

the generator sets are specified, and also by
adjusting the output voltage controls of each unit
when put into operation. The phase sequence
requirement can be satisfied at the time the units
are connected together by observing the
manufacturer's instructions regarding phase
sequence. The lamp circuit in Figure 22 may be used
as a test device for proper sequence if other

Centrifugal pumps, blower fans, and some very high

inertia loads may take advantage of an electric
motor characteristic which provides two times
normal torque during the starting period. The kW
demand of motors starting these loads may far

18

information is not available. Before connecting a

generator set to a power bus being supplied by other
units, the light bulbs should be observed with all
machines operating. If all the bulbs become light,
then dark, then light again simultaneously, the phase
sequence is correct. If it is incorrect, the lights will
never all be light or dark at the same time. If the
latter is the case, two of the three lines from the
generator set must be interchanged. If the machines
are operating at precisely the same frequency, the
intensity of the lights will not change. The frequency
of the generator set under test may be varied slightly
to perform the check.

Engine governor speed must therefore be adjusted

to match generated frequency before actually
paralleling the generator with other generator sets.
The process of synchronization involves the
measurement of the frequency difference between a
generator set to be connected to a bus and those
already supplying power to the bus. Engine
tachometers are not sufficiently accurate to set the
generator sets to precisely the same frequency.
Manufacturers are able to supply switchgear with
built-in lamps to indicate when the oncoming
generator set is operating at the correct speed.
Figure 24 shows a typical circuit. When a frequency
difference exists, the lamps will flicker at a rate equal
to that difference. As the generator set speed is
slowly increased or decreased as required, the lamp
flicker rate will become slower. When the flicker has
slowed to approximately two-second intervals, the
connecting switch should be thrown at the
estimated center of one of the dark periods.

BUS

BUS

SYNCHRONIZING LAMPS
MAIN SWITCH

TO GENERATOR
AC
GENERATOR

Lamp Connections for Phase Sequence Test

[use resistors in series with lamps
for voltages over 120 volts)
Figure 22

Synchronizing Lamps for Parallel Operation

Figure 24

A second method of comparing phase sequence is

shown in Figure 23. A small three-phase induction
motor is connected alternately to the power bus and
to the generator set under test. If the motor rotates
in the same direction in both cases, the phase
sequence is correct. If not, two of the leads from the
generator set should be interchanged.

Synchronization may also be accomplished by use of

a synchroscope, a device which indicates the
difference in phase and frequency of two circuits. It
usually has a revolving pointer and a dial marked to
indicate whether the oncoming generator frequency
is high or low. The connecting switch is thrown when
the pointer is stable in the center (zero phase
difference) position.

BUS --~-.---------

Once the alternating current generator sets are in

parallel, load division between units is entirely
controlled by the speed setting of the engine
governors. Increasing the speed setting of one
engine will cause it to absorb more load, and other
generator sets in the system will be relieved of some
load. Conversely, decreasing the speed setting of one
engine will cause it to decrease load. Other
generator sets will absorb that load. All load can be
removed from a generator by slowly decreasing the
speed setting. If the speed setting is moved lower
than the no load point, that generator set will absorb
power from other units which will continue to drive it
at synchronous speed. It is impossible to have stable
parallel operation if more than one unit in the system
is set for zero speed droop (isochronous) operation
unless the governors are the electronic load sharing
type. Three percent speed droop governors perform

,e ,e ,

\~\~\======lCD'
+ + +

TO INCOMING GENERATOR

Connections for Phase Sequence Tests

Using Small Induction Motor
Figure 23

Adusting Frequency-Synchronization

For any given generator, the frequency is entirely

controlled by engine speed.
F=

Poles x RPM
120

19

very well in parallel systems where precise load

share is not required.

Problem 2:
The generator set is rated to deliver 1 00 kW at a 0.8
power factor. It is a three-phase machine with a coil
current rating of 334 amperes. The three-phase
load to be supplied is 50 kW at 0.8 power factor. The
single-phase load consists of both 125 and 216 volt
circuits. The 125 volt load has a power factor of 0.9
and is connected from neutral to one leg. This leg is
common with one of the two supplying 10 kW at a
0.8 power factor to the 216 volt load (see Figure 25).

BALANCING OF LOADS ON
AVAILABLE PHASES
If the electrical distribution system served by a
three-phase generator set consists entirely of
three-phase loads, the system is balanced. The coils
making up the generator's three phases each supply
the same amount of current to the load. If singlephase loads are added to the three-phase load,
however, a condition of unbalance will exist unless
the single-phase loads are equally distributed among
each of the three phases of the generator set.
In many applications, balancing of single-phase loads
may not be practical. If these loads are relatively
small (10 percent or less of the generator set threephase kVA capacity), unbalanced single-phase
loading is not cause for concern provided that each of
the three line currents does not exceed the
generator set rating. The following problems
illustrate the method of determining the maximum
single-phase load which may be safely drawn from a
generator set supplying single-phase and threephase power simultaneously. Table 2 gives formulas
which are useful in making calculations of kVA for
various phase configurations.

216 VOLT
SINGLE-PHASE
10 KW@
.8 P.F. LOAD

Circuit Diagram, Problem 2

Figure 25

Problem 1:
Find the amount of single-phase power which can be
safely drawn from a three-phase 125/216 volt
four-wire generator set rated to deliver 1 00 kW at a
0.8 power factor. The coil current rating of the
generator set is 334 amperes. Assume that the
single-phase load is connected from one line to
neutral and has an operating power factor of 0.9
lagging, and that the generator set is also supplying a
three-phase load of 50 kW at a power factor of 0.8.

Solution:

1. The current drawn from each line by the threephase load is found by the procedure used in step
1 of problem 1 to be 167 amperes.

2. The coil capacity available for single-phase loads

is again 1 67 amperes.

Solution:

1. Find the current drawn from each of the lines by

the three-phase load.

3. Find the 216 volt single-phase load current.

P =./3E x I x P.F.
1000

1= P x 1000
Ex P.F.

1= P x 1000 =
50 x 1000 =167 amperes
~ x E x P.F. 1.73 x 216 x 0.8

2.

single-phase 125 volt load.

167 -

3.

10 x 1000 = 58 amperes
216 x 0.8

4. Find the coil current capacity remaining for the

Find the coil current capacity remaining for the

single-phase load.
334 -

THREE-PHASE
50 KW
216 VOLT
_8 P.F. LOAD

58

109 amperes

167 =167 amperes

5. Find the 125 volt single-phase power available.

Find the single-phase power available.

P _ E x I x P.F. _ 125 x 167 x 0.9 = 18 8 kW
1000 1000
.

P _ E x I x P.F.
1000

20

125 x 109 x 0.9 = 12.3 kW

1000

IV.

AUXILIARY EQUIPMENT
Once line current has been determined. final
selection of the circuit breaker trip rating may be
calculated from the formula:

CIRCUIT BREAKERS
Circuit breakers are devices which protect
generating equipment and distribution lines from
damage which may result from excessive current
flow. They are available in a wide range of current
ratings. When the rated current is exceeded by a
small amount. the circuit breaker automatically
"trips" and opens the electrical circuit. Normally
they are of the dual type. tripping instantaneously on
heavy overloads such as short circuits. but only after
a certain time interval on lesser overloads. The time
delay effect prevents their tripping on normal
momentary overloads such as motor-starting
currents.

Line current x percent overcurrent

rating

The percent overcurrent is the minimum percentage

of rated continuous current flow which will cause the
breaker to open. The ideal overcurrent percentage to
use in determining the trip rating is 125 percent. but
any figure in the range from 110 to 1 50 percent may
be used to arrive at a trip rating which is standard for
commercially available breakers. Because of the
inherent time delay in most breakers. the percent
overcurrent figure is pertinent for continuous
overloads only. Considerably larger current surges
will not actuate the breaker.

Voltage Ratings
Several different types of circuit breakers are
available. The selection of the correct type for use
with a given generator set is made on the basis of line
voltage and rated full-load line current. For all
voltages less than 600 volts either an air circuit
breaker or a molded-case thermal magnetic breaker
may be used. depending on line current. For voltages
over 600 volts. oil or air breakers must be used
regardless of line current.

Circuit Breaker Selection

The largest current trip rating available in a thermaltype circuit breaker is 2000 amperes. This breaker
type is suitable for generator sets with line currents
up to 1800 amperes. A 200 ampere safety factor is
allowed for high ambient temperatures. For higher
line currents magnetic breakers must be used.

Circuit Breaker Trip Ratings

Once the circuit breaker type has been selected. the

type of switchgear may also be determined.
Magnetic. thermal and oil circuit- breakers larger
than 1200 amperes require floor-standing
switchgear because of their physical size. Thermal
circuit breakers rated at 1200 amperes and smaller
can be used with wall-mounted switchgear cabinets.
However. other switchgear components may still
dictate the use of a floor-standing arrangement.

Full-load three-phase line current may be calculated

by substituting the generator set kW. power factor
and voltage ratings in the following formula:
I - kW

1000

- f f x E x P.F.

From this formula a constant can be determined for

each voltage if a three-phase system at 0.8 power
factor is assumed. This constant when multiplied by
the generator set kW rating will yield line current.

Voltage

Constant

115
125
200
230
240
380
400
460
480
575
2400
4160

6.27
5.28
3.61
3.14
3.01
1.90
1.80
1.57
1.50
1.26
0.30
0.17

= trip

Special Circuit Breaker Features

There are several commonly-used circuit breaker
modifications available. One of these is the shunt trip
feature. This modification allows for tripping the
breaker with an electrical signal from a remote
location. For example. the shunt trip on each breaker
can be connected to the engine low oil pressure and
high water temperature alarm contactors so that in
the event of an engine malfunction or overload. the
circuit breaker for the generator set will be tripped.
This arrangement is particularly recommended
when generator sets are to operate in parallel. as it
will prevent the affected set from being motored by
other machines on the power bus. The shunt trip has
an auxiliary contact to provide for breaking the
energizing circuit after the breaker has tripped.
An undervoltage trip is sometimes a desirable
modification for the circuit breaker. This device

21

automatically actuates the trip mechanism when

line voltage drops 40 to 60 percent below normal
voltage. It cannot be used, however, with automatic
start-stop systems.

load, it is possible to use a lower cost non-inductive

transfer switch for the lighting load. For voltages
above 600 volts, oil-type transfer switches are
required.
For reasons of maximum standby system reliability,
cables carrying power from the prime source and
those from the standby generator set are never run
in the same conduits or housings, with the single
exception of the transfer switch cabinet. By
observing this precaution, damage to leads carrying
power from one source will not simultaneously
damage leads from the other source, making it
inoperable also.

INDICATING INSTRUMENTS
Switchgear selected for use with a generator set
should include, in addition to the circuit breaker, a
number of indicating devices to enable the operator
to monitor system performance. A minimal system
would provide an ammeter with a phase-selector
switch to permit monitoring of current on any of the
three lines, and a voltmeter to monitor generator
output voltage. Any necessary current and potential
transformers would, of course, be included.

Automatic Transfer Switches

The automatic transfer switch includes voltagesensing supervisory relays to trip the switch when
the voltage of the incoming prime source falls below a
specified value, normally 70 percent of rated voltage.
Figure 26 shows a typical transfer switch assembly.
There are some applications where 70 percent voltage is intolerable. Close differential relays are available which actuate the switch at voltages as high as
90 percent of normal.

Optional additions to these basic requirements

include a frequency meter, a wattmeter, an alarm
panel to provide a visual indication of high water
temperature and low oil pressure, a set of
synchronizing lamps and switch to permit parallel
operation, a governor switch for use with a governor
synchronizing motor, and a more elaborate meter
switch to permit monitoring of both voltage and
current on any of the three phases.

TRANSFER SWITCHES
For standby systems, a means must be provided to
switch the load from the normal (or preferred) power
source to an emergency supply should normal
voltage fail or be substantially reduced, and to
retransfer it to the normal source when voltage has
been restored. Transfer switches perform this
function: they may be either manually operated or
may include sensing devices which throw the switch
automatically when conditions warrant. Automatic
transfer switches are more frequently used. In
combination with an automatic start-stop system
they provide for completely unattended operation of
the standby generator set.

Transfer Switch Ratings

Under normal conditions, the transfer switch
connects the load to the prime power source. For
this reason, the contacts should be rated to handle
the normal load current, even if the standby
generator set is to carry only a portion of the regular
load. Since the switches are usually employed in
applications calling for long-sustained operation,
they should be sized for continuous service. A good
figure to use in determining the normal load current
rating is the 15 minute demand load. Transfer
switches are rated for all-class inductive loads or for
non-inductive loads. For three-phase loads
comprised of motors alone or of motors mixed with
non-inductive loads, such as lighting or heating
devices, the all-class load switch should be used. In
applications where the motor and lighting loads are
separate, thus requiring one three-pole switch for
the motor load and a two-pole switch for the lighting

Automatic Transfer Switch

Figure 26

All electrical power systems are subject to transient

outages of duration less than one or two seconds. It

22

is desirable to prevent the transfer switch from

actuating on these momentary interruptions,
especially if the installation is equipped with an
automatic start-stop system, since the transient
failures will cause the generator set cranking motors
to start. Transfer switches with time delay relays
set for a delay of 1 to 3 seconds can eliminate
unnecessary actuation of the switch.

contemplated, generator frame and neutral

grounding become very important. Only one path
from ground to generator neutral assures maximum
protection capability of either type fault detection
system.

AUTOMATIC START-STOP SYSTEMS

As mentioned above, equipment is available for use in
standby systems to automatically start the
generator set and transfer the load to it when
normal power is interrupted. The latter fuction is
provided by an automatic transfer switch, which in
this case should be equipped with an auxiliary or pilot
contact to actuate the automatic cranking control
panel. The cranking control devices start the
cranking motor and keep it in operation until sensing
devices indicate that the engine has started.
Provision is usually included to shut down the
generator set upon command from the automatic
transfer switch after normal power has been
restored. With this type of system, standby
generator set operation may be completely
unattended except for periods of routine
maintenance and testing. For successful operation
of an automatic start-stop system, the transfer
switch should include both start and retransfer delay
relays as well as a test switch. Automatic start-stop
systems may also include paralleling and load
sharing.

Time delays can also be provided to prevent the

transfer switch from reconnecting the load to the
normal power source until its stability is certain. This
feature prevents having to repeat the transfer
operation should the normal power source be
restored only momentarily or intermittently for a
period of time. Another reason for using a delay on
retransfer is that an engine, once started, should be
allowed to run until it has reached operating
temperature to eliminate moisture condensation.
The retransfer delay can be selected to provide the
necessary warmup period.
Another convenient addition to the automatic
transfer switch is a test switch, which allows the
operator to simulate a prime-source failure for
purposes of equipment testing. In most emergency
standby systems, the addition of a battery charger is
required to keep cranking batteries fully charged.
Some transfer switches are available with a built-in
trickle charger.

REGENERATIVE POWER LOADS

GROUND FAULT PROTECTION

Recent codes and regulations are requiring that
larger prime power and standby generator sets be
capable of operating into electrical distribution
systems having ground fault detection or protection
equipment. Available systems provide protection
from arcing faults in wiring and distribution panels on
the load side of the generator circuit breaker.
Generally the fault system consists of a sensing
device that opens the circuit breaker by the shunt
trip when some predetermined value of ground
return (not neutral return) current exists. There are
two general types of sensing devices. One measures
the amount of current returning to generator (or
transformer) neutral by way of the earth ground
connection or ground strap. This system is
commonly called "ground strap detection," and is
readily adaptable to existing distribution systems.

PARASITIC

On-line electric motors can deliver power to the line

if driven above their synchronous speed. A squirrel
cage motor, for example, can produce almost as
much power working as a generator as it absorbs
when running as a motor. This is called regeneration
and is cause for caution when a generator set is
supplying power to highly cyclic motor loads such as
elevators, hoists, or conveyors. If motor load can
deliver regenerative power, some load may be
necessary to absorb this power. It may be possible to
overspeed the driving engine if it is the only power
absorbing unit on the line. In this instance, the friction
horsepower of the engine and the losses in the
generator are the only restraining effort. Safety
considerations may require that a parasitic load be
kept on any system where regenerative power can
possibly exceed the engine friction horsepower.

The other system is called "zero sequence" or

"phase-neutral conductor detection". It works on
the principle that instantaneous summation of
currents in the three lines and the neutral lead must
be zero. In event of a fault to ground somewhere
beyond the circuit breaker, zero summation no
longer exists at the detection device. The resulting
induced current in the detection transformer
triggers the shunt trip on the circuit breaker.

SOLID-STATE (SCR) CONTROLLED LOADS

Solid-state electronic switching devices are
extensively used in commercial applications ranging
from lamp dimmers to DC voltage level conversion.
This entire group of devices is generally called "SCR
drives". Benefits gained by solid-state rectifier-type
devices are accompanied by certain penalties which
affect all power sources. The undesirable effects are
most evident when the power source is of limited

When a ground fault protection system is used, or

23

capacity, such as a generator set. Inherent

operating characteristics of the SCR control
system can result in problems with the controlled
equipment, with instruments or monitoring devices,
with other loads connected to the same generator
set, or possibly with the generator set. Since these
indications seldom appear when these items are
powered from an unlimited source (utility), the
generator set is held at fault. Some controlled

equipment uses a bank of capacitors to help the

operating power factor on the ut.ility source. If the
same system is powered from a generator set, the
capacitors may supply enough leading power factor
current to overexcite the generator, making the
automatic voltage regulator ineffective. Possible
difficulty can be minimized if the SCR drive supplier is
advised that his equipment will be operating from a
limited source.

24

v.

ELECTRICAL TABLES
TABLE 1
ELECTRICAL FORMULAE

Alternating Current
To Obtain

Single-Phase

Three-Phase

Direct Current

v x I x P.F.
1000

1.732 x V x I x P.F.
1000

V xl
1000

vxI
1000

1.732 xV x I
1000

KW
.746 x EFF. (Gen.J

KW
.746 x EFF. (Gen.J

KW
.746 x EFF. (Gen.J

(Eq.21)

KW input when HP
known (Motor)

HP x.746
EFF. (Mot.J

HP x .746
EFF. (Mot.J

HP x .746
EFF. (Mot.J

(Eq.22)

Amperes when HP
known

HP x 746

V x P.F. x EFF.

HP x 746
1.732 x V x EFF. x P.F.

HP x 746
V x EFF.

(Eq.23)

Amperes when
KW known

KW x 1000
V x P.F.

KW x 1000
1.732 x V x P.F.

KW x 1000

(Eq.24)

Amperes when
KV'A known

KVA x 1000

KVA x 1000
1.732 x V

(Eq.25)

Frequency (c.p.sJ

Poles x RPM
120

Poles x RPM
120

(Eq.26)

1.732 x V x I x.;1 - (P.F.J 2

1000

(Eq.27)

Kilowatts

KVA
Horsepower required
when KW known
(Generator)

vx

Reactive KVA (KVARl

010

I x';1- (P.F.J 2
1000

100 (VNL -VFLl

VFL

Voltage Regulation

=
=
=

=
=

=
=

current in amperes
power in kilowatts (actual power)
kilovolt-amperes (apparent power)
horsepower
revolutions per minute
reactive kilovolt-amperes
efficiency as a decimal factor
no load
full load
power factor

NOTE: DC KW

100 (VNL -VFL)

VFL

(Eq.28)

Because the basic units of electrical quantities are

often inconveniently large or small, prefixes are often
added to the terms which denote those units. The
prefixes have the effect of multiplying or dividing the
quantity by some factor, usually one thousand or one
million. "kilo-" is used, for instance, to express a
multiplication of one thousand. A kilovolt (kV) is
therefore 1000 volts. A milliampere (mA) is one
thousandth of an ampere. The commonly-used
prefixes, their multiplying factors .and their
abbreviations are tabulated below:
Prefix
Factor
Symbol

= voltage in volts

=
=

(Eq. 20)

100 (VNL -VFL)

VFL

The following abbreviations are used in the table:

V
I
KW
KV.A
HP
RPM
KVAR
EFF.
NL
FL
P. F.

(Eq. 19)

--

kilomegamillimicro-

= DC KVA
25

x
x
-;-;-

1000
1,000,000
1000
1 ,000,000

k
M
m
J.l.

TABLE 2
KVA OF AC CIRCUITS
Single-Phase, Two-Wire

LlNE--0~V--------

vxI
KV'A =

1000

LINE

Single-Phase, Three-Wire-Balanced

KVA =

-----'-------i0-

LINE

NEUTRAL

vxI
1000

LINE

Single-Phase, Three-Wire-Unbalanced

(V, XI,)

KV'A =

+ (V 2

NEUTRAL

Xb)

1000

Three-Phase, Three-Wire-Balanced

KVA =

I,

LINE

LINE

LINE

LINE

1.732 X V x I
1000

LINE

Three-Phase, Three-Wire-Unbalanced
( I,

KV'A=

1.732 xV x
1000

LINE

+b3 +1,)

LINE

LINE

Three-Phase, Four-Wire-Balanced

NEUTRAL
LINE

3 xV x I
1000

KV'A =

I,

LINE

LINE

Three-Phase, Four-Wire-Unbalanced

KV.A =

xVx

( I,

1000

NEUTRAL

+ 12 + 1,)

LINE

3
LINE
LINE

26

(5

G
G)
G)

(5

TABLE 3
COPPER WIRE CHARACTERISTICS

Wire
Size
AWG
[B &SJ

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Diam.
in
Mils

Circular
mil
Area

289.3
257.6
229.4
204.3
181.9
162.0
144.3
128.5
114.4
101.9
90.7
80.8
72.0
64.1
57.1
50.8
45.3
40.3
35.9
32.0

83690
66370
52640
41740
33100
26250
20820
16510
13090
10380
8234
6530
5178
4107
3257
2583
2048
1624
1288
1022

Ohms
per
1000 ft.
25 0 C
[77 0 FJ

Diam.
in
mm

Nearest
British
SWG
No.

.1264
.1593
.2009
.2533
.3195
.4028
.5080
.6405
.8077
1.018
1.284
1.619
2.042
2.575
3.247
4.094
5.163
6.510
8.210
10.35

7.348
6.544
5.827
5.189
4.621
4.115
3.665
3.264
2.906
2.588
2.305
2.053
1.828
1.628
1.450
1.291
1.150
1.024
.912
.812

1
3
4
5
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
18
19
20
21

TABLE 4
SINGLE-PHASE AC MOTORS
FULL LOAD CURRENTS IN AMPERES

HP
114

113
112
3/4
1
1112
2
3
5
7112
10

115 V

20BV

230V

440 V

5.8
7.2
9.8
13.8
16
20
24
34
56
80
100

3.2
4.0
5.4
7.6
8.8
11
13.2
19
31
44
55

2.9
3.6
4.9
6.9
8
10
12
17
28
40
50

21
26

27

TABLE 5
THREE-PHASE AC MOTORS-SO% POWER FACTOR
FULL LOAD CURRENT IN AMPERES
INDUCTION-TYPE. SQUIRREL CAGE AND
WOUND ROTOR

HP
1/2
3/4

1
11/2
2
3
5
71/2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600
700
800
900
1000

110V

208 V

220 V

440 V

550 V

2300 V

4
5.6
7
10
13

2.1
3.0
3.7
5.3
6.9
9.5
16
23
29
43
55
68
83
110
133
159
198
262
330
380
510
697
837
976
1114
1254
1393
1672
1950
2220
2504
2789

2
2.8
3.5
5
6.5
9
15
22
27
40
52
64
78
104
125
150
185
246
310
360
480
657
790
922
1051
1192
1317
1578
1842
2103
2365
2639

1
1.4
1.8
2.5
3.3
4.5
7.5
11
14
20
26
32
39
52
63
75
93
123
155
180
240
328
394.5
461
526
592
657
789
921
1051
1194
1316

.8
1.1
1.4
2.0
2.6
4
6
9
11
16
21
26
31
41
50
60
74
98
124
144
192
262
315
368
421
473
526
632
737
842
947
1050

7
8.5
10.5
13
16
19
25
31
37
48
65.7
78.8
92.2
105.2
118.3
130
157
184
210
233
265

TABLE 6
DIRECT CURRENT MOTORS
FULL LOAD CURRENT IN AMPERES

HP
1/4
113

1/2
3/4

1
11/2
2
3
5
71/2
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200

115 V

230 V

550 V

3
3.8
5.4
7.4
9.6
13.2
17
25
40
58
76
112
148
184
220
292
360
430
536

1.5
1.9
2.7
3.7
4.8
6.6
8.5
12.5
20
29
38
56
74
92
110
146
180
215
268
355
443
534
712

1.6
2.0
2.7
3.6
5.2
8.3
12
16
23
31
38
46
61
75
90
111
148
184
220
295

28

TABLE 7
CONDUIT SIZES FOR CONDUCTORS
Size
AWG
or
MCM
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
:,3
2
1
0
00
000
0000
250
300
350
400
500
600
700
750
800
900
1000
1250
1500
1750
2000

Number of Conductors in One Conduit or Tubing'::1

1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
112
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4

1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
3/4
3/4

1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
3/4
3/4

1/2
1/2
1/2
3/4
3/4

1/2
1/2
3/4
3/4

1/2
1/2
3/4

1/2
3/4

3/4
3/4

3/4
3/4

1
1

1114
1114
1114
1114
11/2
11/2
2
2
2
2
2
2
21/2
3
3
3

1114
1114
1114
1114
1112
2
2
2
21/2
2112
3
3
3
31/2
31/2
31/2
31/2
4
4
5
5
5
6

1
t1114

1114
1114
11/2
2
2
2
2112
2112
2112
3
3
3
31/2
31/2
31/2
4
4
4
5
5
6
6

1
11/4
11/2
1112
2
2
2112
2112
2112
3
3
3
31/2
31/2
4
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6

1114
1112
11/2
2
2
2
21/2
2112
3
3
3
3112
31/2
31/2
4
5
5
5
5
5
6
6
6

1
1
11/4
11/2
2
2
2
2112
2112
3
3
3
31/2
4
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
6

1
1
1
11/4
2
2
2
2112
2112
3
3
3
3112
4
4
5
5
5
6
6
6
6
6

1
1

1114
11/2
2
2
2112
2112
3
3
3
31/2
3112
4
5
5
5
5
6
6
6

1
11/4
11/4
11/2
2
2112
2112
2112
3
3
3112
3112
4
5
5
5
5
6
6

t Where a service run of conduit or metallic tubing does not exceed 50 feet 115.3 m) in length and does
not contain more than the equivalent of two quarter bends from end to end. two No.4 insulated and one
No.4 bare conductors may be installed in 1-inch 125.4 mm) conduit or tubing .

.,!-

Rubber covered: Types RF-2. RFH-2. R. RH. RW. RH-RW. RU. RUH. RUW
Thermoplastic: Types TF. T. and TW

29

TABLE 8
ALLOWABLE CURRENT-CARRYING CAPACITIES OF INSULATED COPPER CONDUCTORS*

BOC

75C

85C

110C

125C

200

TYPES OF INSULATION
Rubber

Paper

Size,
AWG
or
MCM

R, RW,RU,
RUW
14-2
Thermoplastic
T,TW

TYPE RH,
RHW

Var-CamType V
90C
Thermoplastic
Asbestos-TA
Asbestos-VarCam-AVa

14
12
10
8
6
4
3
2
1
0
00
000
0000
250
300
350
400
500
600
700
750
800
900
1000
1250

15
20
30
40
55
70
80
95
110
125
145
165
195
215
240
260
280
320
355
385
400
410
435
455
495

15
20
30
45
65
85
100
115
130
150
175
200
230
255
285
310
335
380
420
460
475
490
520
545
590

25
30
40
50
70
90
105
120
140
155
185
210
235
270
300
325
360
405
455
490
500
515
555
585
645

Asbestos

Var-Cam
Type AVA
Type AVL

Impregnated
Type A1
14-8
A1A

30
35
45
60
80
105
120
135
160
190
215
245
275
315
345
390
420
470
525
560
580
600

30
40
50
65
85
115
130
145
170
200
230
265
310
335
380
420
450
500
545
600
620
640

680

730

0.94
0.90
0.87

0.95
0.92
0.89

Correction Factors for Room Temperatures Over 30C

C

40
45
50

.,~

104
113
122

0.82
0.71
0.58

0.88
0.82
0.75

0.90
0.85
0.80

With not more than three conductors in a raceway or cable and a room temperature of 30C (86FJ.

30

Type A
14-8
AA

30
40
55
70
95
120
145
165
190
225
250
285
340

TABLE 9
CODE LETTERS USUALLY APPLIED TO RATINGS
OF MOTORS NORMALLY STARTED ON FULL VOLTAGE

Code Letters
HorsePower

3-phase

15 - up

10 - 7112

2 - 1112

2 -1112

1-phase

1-

TABLE 10
IDENTIFYING CODE LETTERS ON AC MOTORS*

NEMA
Code Letter

Starting KVA per HP

0.00- 3.14
3.15- 3.54
3.55- 3.99
4.00- 4.49
4.50- 4.99
5.00- 5.59
5.60- 6.29
6.30- 7.09
7.10- 7.99
8.00- 8.99
9.00- 9.99
1 0.00-11 .1 9
11.20-12.49
12.50-13.99
14.00-15.99
16.00-17.99
18.00-1 9.99
20.00-22.39
22.40-

A
B
C

o
E

F
G
H
J
K
L
M
N
P
R
S
T
U
V
~*"

Wound rotor motor has no code letter.

Note: Code letters apply to motors up to 200 HP.

31

3/4

112

TABLE 11
CONVERSION - HEAT AND ENERGY

1 - Kilowatt =

1 .341 horsepower
{ 44,254 foot pounds/minute
56.883 Btu/minute

1 - Kilowatt Hour =

1.341 horsepower hours

{ 2,655,217 foot pounds
3413 Btu

1 - British Thermal
Unit [Btu) =

1 - Horsepower Hour =

1 - Horsepower

777.97 foot pounds

1054.8 watt seconds
0.000293 kilowatt hours
0.293 watt hours
0.000393 horsepower hours

0.7457 kilowatt hours

{ 1 ,980,000 foot pounds
2545 Btu

0.7457 kilowatt
745.7 watts
33,000 foot pounds/minute
42.418 8tu/ minute
1.0139 metric horsepower

TABLE 12
APPROXIMATE EFFICIENCES SQUIRREL CAGE INDUCTION MOTOR

HP
112
3/4

1112
2
3
5
7112
10
15
20
25
30
40
50
60
75
100
125
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
600

Full Load
KW Required

Full Load
Efficiency

0.6
0.8
1.0
1.5
1.9
2.7
4.5
6.7
8.8
13.0
16.8
21.0
24.9
33.2
41.5
49.2
61.5
81.2
101.5
122.0
162.5
203.0
243.0
281.0
321.0
362.0
401.0
482.0

68%
71 %
75%
78%
80%
82%
83%
83%
85%
86%
89%
89%
90%
90%
90%
91 %
91 %
92%
92%
92%
92%
92%
92%
93%
93%
93%
93%
93%

NOTE: Efficiencies listed are approximate only for

new or near new motors. For accurate efficiency
figures check motor nameplate data with motor
manufacturer or manufacturer's representative.

32

TABLE 13
APPROXIMATE ELECTRIC MOTOR EFFICIENCY TO USE IN CALCULATING INPUT

MOTOR
SIZES
LOAD

1 to 3 HP
1/2

DIRECT CURRENT
lal Shunt wound
Ibl Compound wound ....................
Icl Series wound
ALTERNATING CURRENT
Single-Phase
lal Commutator type ....................
TWO - OR THREE-PHASE
Squirrel Cage
lal General Purpose
Normal starting current
Normal starting torque ...............
Ibl Low starting current
Normal starting torque ...............
Icl Low starting current
High starting torque .................

5 to 15 HP

3/4 4/4

1/2 3/4

4/4

78

82

83

80

83

85

65

72

75

75

78

80

78

80

80

84.5 85
82

SLIP RING MOTOR .........................

30 to 60 HP
1/2 3/4

4/4

86

87

88

85

85

88

89

83

83

88

89

89

83

83

82

88

89

89

81

82

83

88
85

89

90

88

89

SYNCHRONOUS MOTOR ...................

It is to be noted that efficiency of electric motors varies with speed, type and line voltage. The above percentages
are therefore approximate and are intended only to assist in calculating input. Where the margin of power of
generator over actual requirements is shown to be quite close, it is well to obtain true efficiency of motors from
motor manufacturer.

TABLE 14
REDUCED VOLTAGE STARTERS

Type of
Starter

Full Voltage Starter

Auto Transformer
80% tap
65% tap
50% tap
Resistor Starter
Single Step ladjusted for
motor voltage to be 80% of
line voltagel
Reactor
50% tap
45% tap
37.5% tap
Part Winding
!low speed motors onlyl
75% winding
50% winding

Motor Voltage
% Line Voltage

Line Current

Starting Torque

% Full Voltage

% of Full Voltage

Starting Current

Starting Torque

100

100

100

80
65
50

68
46
30

64
42
25

80

80

64

50
45
37.5

50
45
37.5

25
20
14

100
100

75
50

75
50

33

TABLE 15
COMPARISON OF REDUCED VOLTAGE STARTING METHODS

Characteristic

Autotransformer

Starting Line Current

at Same Motor Terminal
Voltage

Least

Starting Power Factor

Low

Power Draw from Line

During Starting

Low

Primary Resistor

Reactor

Two-Step Part Winding

........... More than autotransformer type .......... .

High.,:-

Low

Low

........... More than autotransformer type .......... .

Increases slightly
Increases rapidly with
with speed
...........speed .......... .
Motor momentarily
Smooth. Transfer made
disconnected from line
with little change in
from start to run
.... motor terminal voltage ....

Torque
Smoothness of
Acceleration

Increases slightly
with speed
Smooth

Average

Lower in small
size - otherwise
equal

Average

Less than others

Ease of Control

Same

Same

Same

No provision for
adjustment of
starting current

Maintenance

Same

Same

Same

Less than others

Relative Cost

Line Disturbance

.,~

....... Varies with conditions and type of load ...... .

More than others

Resistor starting adds considerable kW load to a generator set. Total power required includes the
motor kW and the kW which is lost as heat in the resistor. The series resistors account for a higher
than normal starting power factor.

TABLE 16
EFFICIENCY OF DIRECT CURRENT GENERATORS

KW CAPACITY

-----1200 RPM----LOAD

VOLTAGE

1800 RPM

100

200

250

300

30

40

60

75

100

150

4/4

125
1250

90.5
91.0

90.0
92.0

90.5
92.2

92.3

87.5
87.5

86.5
89.0

89.0 90.0
90.0 90.0

89.3
90.6

90.0

3/4

125
1250

90.0
90.0

88.3
91.2

89.2
91.3

91.3

86.5
86.0

84.0
87.0

87.0 88.5
89.0 88.5

88.0
89.5

89.5

2/4

125
1250

88.0
89.0

85.0
89.0

86.5
89.4

89.2

84.5
83.0

80.5
83.5

85.0 87.0
87.0 87.0

85.1
86.8

88.0

Note: Efficiencies of 3-wire generators will be slightly lower than those of 250-volt generators
because of losses in 3-wire parts.

34

TABLE 17
TYPES OF ELECTRIC MOTORS AND WHERE USED

DIRECT CURRENT -

Infinitely Variable Speed

1. Shunt Wound
2. Series Wound
3. Compound Wound

- General purpose !light starting loads)

- Hoists, cranes (heavy starting loads)
- Machine tools, pumps, etc.

ALTERNATING CURRENT - Constant Speed Except Where

Indicated
Single-Phase, 2-Wire
1. Commutator Type
2. Centrifugal Switch
3. Capacitor Type

- Small tools and printing presses

- Blowers, centrifugal pumps, etc.
- High starting torque applications

Three-Phase
1. Squirrel Cage Induction~<- (has no commutator
or brushes)
a. Normal starting current, normal
starting torque
b. Low starting current, normal
starting torque
c. High starting torque, low starting
current

- General purpose such as blowers

- Machine tools, textile machinery,
attrition mills, feed grinders
- Compressors, conveyors

2. Synchronous (has two collector rings)

- General purpose, especially where isochronous

speed is desirable. Seldom used under 40 HP.
In larger sizes sometimes used as a means of
improving a lagging power factor.

3. Wound

- Car pullers, hoists, hammer mills, winches,

presses, crushers where variable speed is required.

Rotor~<-

(has three collector rings)

~<-Modern

practice is often the use of a squirrel cage induction motor with thyristor control to provide variable speed.
The thyristor is a silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) with which the power input to a motor can be controlled.

TABLE 18
POWER FACTOR OF TYPICAL AC LOADS

UNITY (OR NEAR UNITY)

POWER FACTOR
LAGGING POWER FACTOR
Approximate
Approximate
Power Factor
Power Factor Load
Load
Incandescent Lamps
(Power factor of lamp
circuits operating off
step-down transformers
will be somewhat below
unity)

1.0

Fluorescent Lamps
(With built-in capacitor)

.95 to .97

Resistor Heating Apparatus

1.0

Synchronous Motors
(Operate at leading power
factor at part loads: also
built for leading power
factor operation)

1.0

Rotary Converters

1.0

Induction Motors (rated load

& speed)
Split phase below 1 HP
Split phase 1 to 10 HP
Polyphase, Squirrel Cage
High speed 1 to 10 HP
High speed 10 HP and
larger
Low speed

.55 to .75
.75 to .85

;::L.::.o;::ad~_ _ _ __

Synchronous Motors
are designed in standard ratings at unity,
0.9 and 0.8 leading
power factor.

.75 to .90
.85 to .92
.70 to .85

Wound Rotor

.80 to .90

Groups of Induction Motors

.50 to .90

Welders
Motor generator type
Transformer type

.50 to .60
.50 to .70

Arc Furnaces
Induction Furnaces

.80 to .90
.60 to .70

35

LEADING POWER
FACTOR

Synchronous Condensers-nearly zero leading power factor.

(Output practically all
leading reactive
kVA)

Capacitors-zero
leading power factor
(Output practically all
leading reactive
kVA)

VI.

INDEX OF TECHNICAL TERMS

The terms below are described or discussed on the indicated page in the text or defined here.
Across-the-line starting
Refers to starting an electric motor at the
available supply voltage without the use of
voltage reduction transformers.
Actual load
Sometimes specified to indicate the actual
on line load at any given time. Usually only a
fraction of the connected load.
Actual power. p. 9
Alternating current (AC). p. 5
Ammeter. p. 1 6
Ampere (A). p. 2
Apparent power. p. 9
Armature. p. 11
Auto-compensator
Another name for an autotransformer
used to reduce the applied starting voltage
of an electric motor.
Automatic start-stop system. p. 23
Automatic transfer switch. p. 22
Autotransformer. p. 11
Available current
The maximum current which a source
(generator) can supply to the terminals of
the equipment being supplied. Clarity
requires that the value be identified as
RMS. symmetrical RMS. asymmetrical
RMS or peak.

Direct current (DC). p. 5

Direct current generator. p. 14
Electromagnet. p. 8
Electromechanical generator. p. 11
Electromotive force (EMF). p. 2
Field winding. p. 11
Filament. p. 15
Fluorescent lamp. p. 15
Frequency. p. 5
Full-voltage starting
Another term for across-the-line starting.
Generator. p. 14
Hertz. p. 5
Impedance. p. 9
Incandescent lamp. p. 15
Inductance. p. 8
Induction motor. p. 15
Inductive reactance. p. 9
Inductor. p. 8
Inherent regulation
Value is 20% to 40% on most generators and is
determined as follows: With fixed excitation. at
full voltage. a 100% load is removed. The resulting no load voltage determines the inherent
regulation. If 460 volts at full load. 560 volts at
no load. the inherent regulation is 100 ..;- 460 =
22%.
Insulator. p. 3

Battery. p. 11
Breakdown voltage. p. 3
Capacitance. p. 6
Capacitive reactance. p. 7
Capacitor. p. 6
Circuit. p. 3
Circuit breaker. p. 21
Collector ring. p. 12
Commutator. p. 14
Conductor. p. 3
Connected load
Usually listed in specifications as "Total
Connected Load". Refers to the total hp.
kW. or KVA connected to a system.
Current. p. 2
Current transformer. p. 16
Cycle. p. 5
Cycles per second-see hertz
Cyclic deviation angle
Term applies to large. slow speed engines
directly driving generators. Value is
determined from engine cyclic irregularity
and is measured in electrical degrees.
Usual limit is 2.5 degrees. SR 4. SRCR
generator sets show less that 1 .0 degree.

Kilovolt-see volt
Kilowatt-see watt
KVA. p. 18
KVAR. p. 10
Lagging phase. p. 6
Lagging power factor. p. 9
Leading phase. p. 6
Leading power factor. p. 9
Load. p. 3
Load factor
The mathematical ratio of the actual load divided
by the connected load.
Motor. p. 15
Motor-generator set
A generator. AC or DC. driven by an electric
motor. Typical usage includes arc welders.
frequency changers. battery chargers. and
precise frequency voltage supplies.
Neutral. p. 1 2
Ohm. p. 3
Ohm's law. p. 3

Delta connection. p. 1 2

37

Sine wave. p. 5
Single-phase AC circuit. p. 14
Single-phase generator. p. 1 2
Slip ring. p. 1 5
Slip ring motor. p. 1 5
Squirrel cage motor. p. 15
Stator. p. 12
Step-down transformer. p. 11
Step-up transformer. p. 11
Switch. p. 3
Synchronization (generator). p. 19
Synchronous motor. p. 1 5
Synchroscope. p. 19

One Coil. p. 1 2. 14
Oscilloscope. p. 16
Parallel circuit. p. 4
Part-winding starter (motor)
A system of using two or three parallel coil windings in large electric motors. Windings are
sequentially connected to the line to minimize
current inrush yet provide accelerating torque
for the motor and its load.
Peak-to-peak voltage. p. 6
Peak voltage. p. 6
Phase (0). p. 6
Phase sequence. p. 17
Potential difference. p. 2
Potential transformer. p. 1 6
Power. p. 4
Power factor. p. 9
Primary (transformerl. p. 10
Primary reactor starter (motor)
An iron core coil inserted in the line leads of
electric motors to reduce starting voltage and
current inrush.
Primary resistor starter (motor)
A variable resistor (usually carbon discs) inserted in the line leads of electric motors to reduce
starting voltage and current inrush.

Three-phase circuit. p. 14
Three-phase generator. p. 1 2
Transfer switch. p. 22
Transformation. p. 10
Transformer. p. 10
Transient. p. 16
Unity power factor. p. 9
Volt (V). p. 2
Voltage. p. 2
Voltage regulator. p. 12
Voltmeter. p. 15
Watt. p. 4
Watt-hour. p. 5
Watt-hour meter
A recording device that totals the aVI
Ie
power (kW) passing through it in a period of time.
The reading is kilowatt hours. 10 kWh means 10
kilowatts for a one hour period. or one kilowatt
for ten hours. or any product of power and time
that equals ten.
Wattmeter. p. 17
Waveform. p. 5
Wound-rotor motor. p. 1 5
Wye connection. p. 1 2

Reactance. p. 6.
Reactive volt-ampere. p. 10
Rectifier. p. 12
Reduced-voltage starting
Makes use of an autotransformer. primary
reactor starter. or primary resistor starter to
lower the starting voltage.
Resistance. p. 3
Resistor. p. 3
RKVA. p. 10
RMS. p. 6
Secondary (transformerl. p. 10
Semiconductor. p. 3
Series circuit. p. 3
Short circuit ratio
Figure gives some indication of generator
response under suddenly applied load. Value is
determined by test and is usually 0.4 to 0.8.
Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR). p. 12

X/R ratio
This ratio is used in calculations of circuit breaker requirements. The ratio determines the time
in which an asymmetrical current becomes
symmetrical. Most generators have a figure of 6
to 10.
Y connection-see wye connection

38

LEH03210 (4-93)
Supercedes LEH02380

1993 Caterpillar