i

Design and Implementation of UPFC based Boost

Converter for Efficiency Optimization of Brushless
DC Motor Drive System

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree of

MASTER OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING

By
Subhendu Bikash Santra
Roll No.M4ELE12-15
Reg. No.113465

Under the guidance of

Dr. Debashis Chatterjee

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING
FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY
JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY
KOLKATA-700 032
2012
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Declaration of Originality and Compliance of Academic Ethics

I hereby declare that this thesis contains literature survey and original
research work by the undersigned candidate, as a part of his Master of
Electrical Engineering studies.
All information in this document have been obtained and presented in
accordance with academic rules and ethical conduct.
I also declare that, as required by these rules and conduct, I have fully cited
and referred all materials and results that are not original to this work.

Name:

Subhendu Bikash Santra

Roll Number: M4ELE12-15

Thesis Title: Design and Implementation of UPFC based Boost Converter

for Efficiency Optimization of Brushless DC Motor Drive System.

Signature with Date:

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iii

JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Engineering and Technology

CERTIFICATE
We hereby recommend that the thesis prepared under our supervision and guidance by
Subhendu Bikash Santra entitled Design and Implementation of UPFC based Boost
Converter for Efficiency Optimization of Brushless DC Motor Drive System be
accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Master
of Electrical Engineering at Jadavpur University. The project, in our opinion, is worthy
of its acceptance.

Supervisor

Dr. Debashis Chatterjee

Associate Professor
Department of Electrical Engg.
Jadavpur University
Kolkata
Countersigned

Prof. Nirmal Kumar Deb

Head of the Department
Department of Electrical Engg.
Jadavpur University
Kolkata

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iv

JADAVPUR UNIVERSITY
Faculty of Engineering and Technology

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL
The foregoing thesis is hereby approved as a creditable study of an
engineering subject carried out and presented in a satisfactory manner to
warrant its acceptance as pre-requisite to the degree for which it has been
submitted. It is notified to be understood that by this approval, the
undersigned do not necessarily endorse or approve any statement made,
opinion expressed and conclusion drawn therein but approve the thesis only
for the purpose for which it has been submitted.

Final Examination for the

Board of Examiners

Evaluation of Thesis
..

..

..

*Only in case thesis is approved

Jadavpur University

(signature of the Examiners)

M.E.E Thesis

Dedicated
To
My parents, sister and my teachers.

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M.E.E Thesis

vi

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Truly speaking I believe that just a mere thank you doesnt do proper justice to
peoples contribution towards most of the endeavors. But usually, that remains the only
thing we can offer, not just to acknowledge their efforts but also to pacify our
consciences.
The most important thing we learn or try to learn over our life is how to think in simpler
ways. First and foremost, I would like to thank Jadavpur University,for providing me
such a graceful opportunity for studying M.E.E. and do a specialization in field of
Electrical Machines. I believe the man who epitomizes this process is my guide Prof.
Ashoke Kumar Ganguli. I was amazed to watch him think from the very basic and sort
out complicated issues in very logical ways. My co-guide Dr. Debashis Chatterjee
helped me in every possible ways whenever I got stuck. Both of them are truly
workaholic. I feel opportune that they gave me prospect to carry out research under their
guidance and supervision in spite of their busy schedule.
I would like to thank research scholar and friend Krishna Roy ,Dipten Maity, Rupak
Bhowmick who gave me their precise time for improvement of this project. Here I would
like to thank my friends Bikram Dutta, Subhendu Dutta, Abhinandan Basak, Aloke Raj
Sarkar, Sutirtha Sen and Uddipta Bhaumik for being my comfort zone. I could resolve
various so called trivial issues by discussing with them. Thank you very much. You all
have been remarkable.
I would also like to express gratitude to all laboratory assistants in the Electrical
Machines Lab in the Department of Electrical Engineering for always expending their
helping hands.
I am from a family, which always encourages for higher studies. My parents
despite their modest formal education always give highest preference to my studies. I feel
deep respect about my family. I am fortunate and proud to be a member of such a family.
Most importantly, I would like to give God the glory for all the efforts I have put into the
work and for giving me the physical strength and mental perseverance to carry out the
work.
Kolkata:
May, 2012

Jadavpur University

..
(Subhendu Bikash Santra)

M.E.E Thesis

vii

CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTSvi
CONTENTS..vii
LIST OF SYMBOLS...x
LIST OF ABBREVIATION...xi
1 Introduction.....................................................................................................................1
1.1Background.....1
1.2 Objective2
1.3 Review of relevant literature..2
1.4 Thesis outline.4
2 Boost Converter System.....6
2.1 Boost Converter.6
2.1.1 Circuit analysis for continuous mode.8
2.1.2 Circuit analysis for discontinuous mode...10
2.2 Power Factor Correction..12
2.2.1 Causes of low power factor...13
2.2.2 Standards for line current harmonics13
2.2.3 The need of PFC...14
2.2.4 Types of PFC15
2.2.4.1 Passive PFC...15
2.2.4.2 Active PFC.16
2.3 Current Mode Control..17
2.3.1 Purpose of current mode control..18
2.3.2 Types of current mode control..19

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2.4 Average current mode control.19

2.4.1 Advantage of average current mode control.20
2.4.2 Disadvantage of average current mode control20
2.5 Active power factor controller using UC3854.20
2.5.1 Feed-Forward Loop Compensation..23
2.5.2 Voltage Loop Bandwidth Selection..24
2.5.3 High PFC Controller Circuit.25
2.6 Proposed Design..29
3 Brushless DC Motor.37
3.1 Comparison with Brushed DC Motor..38
3.2 Brushless DC Motor vs Normal AC Induction Motor.....40
3.3 Components of a Brushless DC Motor41
3.4 Construction of Typical BLDC Motor.41
3.4.1 Stator.41
3.4.2 Rotor.43
3.4.3 Hall Sensors..43
3.5 Working Principle of BLDC Motor.45
3.6 Torque/Speed Characteristics..46
3.7 Typical BLDC Motor Application...48
4 Harmonic Analysis of Back E.M.F and Phase Current Waveform of Trapezoidal
BLDC Motor.51
4.1Back E.M.F of non sinusoidal BLDC machine52
4.2 Phase Current of non sinusoidal BLDC machine53
4.3 Different Conduction Mode of Trapezoidal BLDC Motor..53
4.4 Harmonic analysis of Ideal current waveform for different conduction mode54
4.5 Rising Angle55
4.6 Harmonic analysis of phase current waveform considering delay angle.....55
5 Loss minimization and efficiency improvement.........................................................61
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5.1 Loss calculation...61

5.1.1 Stator Resistive Losses.61
5.1.2 On state conduction loss across switch.64
5.1.3 Switching Loss..64
5.1.4 Iron Loss...67
5.2 Efficiency Comparison and improvement through proposed technique..70
6 Simulation and Experimental Result..........................................................................73
6.1 Simulink M File...74
6.2 PFC controller Block...75
6.3 Simulink results and Output Waveforms.76
6.4 Hardware Configuration..81
6.5 Experimental Result.82
7 Conclusions89
7.1 Conclusions..89
7.2 Scope for future work..89
References.90

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LIST OF SYMBOLS

Back E.M.F of BLDC motor (V)

Time (sec)

Phase current of BLDC motor (A)

Maximum value of phase current (A)

Average power (watt)

V
i

Input voltage to boost converter (V)

Inductor current (A)

V
o

Output voltage (V)

Inductance (H)

Stored energy (joules)

Duty ratio

Output current (A)

Diode current (A)

C
o

Output capacitance (F)

Peak inductor current (A)

ph

I,I

Inductor ripple current (A)

ripple

Feedforword resistance (ohms)

ff

Greek letters

Speed of rotor (rad/s)

Switching angle (degree)

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xi

LIST OF ABBREVIATION

BLDC

Brushless Direct Current Machine

E.M.F

Electro Motive Force

PFC

Power Factor Correction

EMI

Electromagnetic Interference

ACMC

Average Current Mode Control

PWM

Pulse Width Modulation

CEA

Current Error Amplifier

SMPS

Switching-mode power supply

CCM

Continuous Conduction Mode

THD

Total Harmonic Distortion

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1
Introduction
This thesis covers the analysis, design and implementation of UPFC using UC3854
which is used to drive BLDC motor for efficiency optimization issue. In common
practice if we use simple rectifier to convert AC to DC voltage then input current
contains significant harmonics which is undesirable where efficiency of conversion is a
major topic.

1.1 Background:
Electronic equipments recently in use ( PCs, TVs, and Telecommunication Equipments
etc.) require power conditioning of some form, typically rectification, for their
proper working. But since they have non-linear input characteristics and they are
connected the electricity distribution network they produce a non-sinusoidal line
current. Current of frequency components which are multiples of the natural
frequency are produced that are otherwise called the line harmonics. With
constantly increasing demand of these kind of equipments at a high rate, line
current harmonics have become a significant problem. There has been an introduction
of a lot of international standards which pose limitations on the harmonic content in
the line currents of equipments connected to electricity distribution networks. This
calls for measures to reduce the line current harmonics which is also otherwise
known as Power Factor Correction - PFC.
There exist two kinds of power factor correction techniques passive power factor
correction and active power factor correction. In this thesis we tried to devise an active
power factor correction method for improvement of the power factor. In this work
the advantages of a boost converter is combined with that of the average current
mode control to implement the technique. UC3854 was used to design the power
factor corrector. This integrated circuit had all the circuits necessary to control a power
factor corrector and was designed to implement the average current mode control.
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M.E.E Thesis

Permanent magnet brushless DC (PMBLDC) motors are the latest choice of researchers
due to their high efficiency, silent operation, compact size, high reliability and low
maintenance requirements. These motors are preferred for numerous applications;
however, most of them require sensorless control of these motors. The operation of
PMBLDC motors requires rotor-position sensing for controlling the winding currents.
The sensorless control would need estimation of rotor position from the voltage and
current signals, which are easily sensed. This thesis presents state of the art PMBLDC
motor drives with an improved efficiency. PMBLDC motors find applications in diverse
fields such as domestic appliances, automobiles, transportation, aerospace equipment,
power tools, toys, vision and sound equipment and healthcare equipment ranging from
microwatt to megawatts. Advanced control algorithms and ultra fast processors have
made PMBLDC motors suitable for position control in machine tools, robotics and high
precision servos, speed control and torque control in various industrial drives and process
control applications.

1.2 Objective:
BLDC based drive circuits are usually used in battery operated vehicles or system
requiring high overall efficiency. Since the input to the system is usually at lower voltage,
a boost topology is generally used. Thus the efficiency of the input system to the inverter
is also important for overall efficiency improvement of the system. In this thesis an
UPFC based boost converter topology using UC3854 is designed and implemented. The
results obtained tally with the simulation results. Also the switching of the inverter
introduces different order of harmonics to the machine which creates losses to the
machine. In this thesis two well known topologies e.g.120 and 180 switching schemes
are studied and compared losses due to harmonics to arrive at a composite switching
scheme which takes care of the torque ripple and overall efficiency of the system.

1.3 Review of relevant literature:

The use of permanent magnets (PMs) in electrical machines in place of electromagnetic
excitation results in many advantages such as no excitation losses, simplified
construction, improved efficiency, fast dynamic performance, and high torque or power

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M.E.E Thesis

per unit volume. The PM excitation in electrical machines was used for the first time in
the early 19th century, but was not adopted due to the poor quality of PM materials. In
1932, the invention of Alnico revived the use of PM excitation systems, however it has
been limited to small and fractional horse power dc commutator machines. In the 20th
century, squirrel cage induction motors have been the most popular electric motors, due
to its rugged construction. Advancements in power electronics and coercive force as
compared to ceramic magnets are economical but their maximum energy density product
is low due to lower values of retentivity. however, Neodymium-Iron-Boron (Nd-Fe-B)
rare earth magnets are more in demand because they provide the highest energy density
and higher residual flux density than others [12-14].
PMBLDC motors are generally powered by a conventional three-phase voltage source
inverter (VSI) or current source inverter (CSI) which is controlled using rotor position.
The rotor position can be sensed using Hall sensors, resolvers, or optical encoders
[4][5][14].
Recently some additional applications of PMBLDC motors have been reported in electric
vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs) due to environmental concerns of
vehicular emissions. PMBLDC motors have been found more suitable for EVs/HEVs and
other low power applications, due to high power density, reduced volume, high torque,
high efficiency, easy to control, simple hardware and software and low maintenance [68].
As the use of energy is increasing, the requirements for the quality of the supplied
electrical energy are more tighten. This means that power electronic converters must be
used to convert the input voltage to a precisely regulated DC voltage to the load.
Regulated DC power supplies are needed for PMBLDC motor drive system. Most power
supplies are designed to meet regulated output, isolation and multiple outputs. SMPS are
needed to convert electrical energy from AC to DC. SMPS are used as a re placement of
the linear power supplies when higher efficiency, smaller size or lighter weight is
required. Motors, electronic power supplies and fluorescent lighting consume the
majority of power in the world and each of these would benefit from power factor

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M.E.E Thesis

correction. In the middle of 1990s, many of the countries of the world have adopted re
quirements for power factor correction for new products marketed [15].
Improved power quality converters are mostly required for many applications involving
power converters. PMBLDC motors are suitable for many low power applications due to
high efficiency and wide speed control [9-11]. Increasing concern of PQ problems in the
international power communities has prompted the use of power factor correction (PFC)
converters with a PMBLDCM. Since, these PMBLDCMs are fed from a single-phase AC
mains through a diode bridge rectifier (DBR) and a smoothening DC link capacitor,
which results in a pulsed current from AC mains having various power quality (PQ)
disturbances such as poor power factor (PF), increased total harmonic distortion (THD)
and high crest factor (CF) of current [9]. Moreover, various international PQ standards
for low power applications such as IEC 61000-3-2 [10] , emphasize on low THD of AC
mains current and near unity power factor. Therefore, use of a PFC converter topology
for a PMBLDC motor drive amongst various available topologies [11] is essential.
Some [16-21] application note are the invaluable source of understanding UPFC boost
converter design used to drive PMBLDC motor.

1.4 Thesis outline:

The thesis presents Efficiency Optimization Of BLDC Motor Drive Systems. Harmonics
contents of Back E.M.F waveform of BLDC machine with different conduction angle is
calculated. DC voltage is given to the BLDC machine. But normal rectifier with capacitor
has lower conversion efficiency as input AC current is peaky in nature rich with
harmonics. Thus with the increase of supply converter efficiency overall drive system
efficiency will increase. The different parts of the thesis work include:
Chapter 1, the introductory chapter it is discussed the importance of PMBLDC motor in
present day application and how efficiency can be improved.
Chapter 2, Boost Converter with UPFC is analyzed and designed using UC3854
Chapter 3, Elementary study of BLDC motor is done and its importance is analyzed.

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M.E.E Thesis

Chapter 4, Harmonic contents of non-sinusoidal BLDC motor for both 120 and 180
Phase current conduction mode is analyzed in this chapter.
Chapter 5, a discussion of loss minimization and efficiency improvement through
proposed technique is discussed in this chapter.
Chapter 6, a discussion on software simulated result and experimental result is presented.
Chapter 7, is the concluding chapter where conclusion of the thesis is drawn and scope of
future work is discussed.

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2
Boost Converter System

2.1 BOOST CONVERTER:

It is a type of power converter in which the DC voltage obtained at the output stage is
greater than that given at the input. It can be considered as a kind of switching-mode
power supply (SMPS). Although it can be formed in different configurations, the
basic structure must have at least two semiconductor switches (generally a diode and
a transistor) and one energy storing element must be used.
Among the three basic power converters buck, boost, buck-boost the boost converter is
the most suitable for use in implementing PFC. Because the boost inductor is in series
with the line input terminal, the inductor will achieve smaller current ripple and it is
easier to implement average current mode control. Buck converter has discontinuous
input current and would lose control when input voltage is lower than the output voltage.
The buck-boost converter can achieve average input line current, but it has higher voltage
and current stress, so it is usually used for low-power application . The power stage
adopted in this thesis is boost converter operating in continuous conduction mode. Figure
2.1 shows the circuit diagram of the boost PFC converter.

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Fig.2.1.Boost Converter
The Boost converter assumes two distinct states.
The On-state, in which the switch S in Fig 2.1 is closed, and then there is a constant
increase in the inductor current. The Off-state, in which the switch S is made open and
the inductor current now flows through the diode D, the load R and the capacitor C. In
this state, the energy that has been accumulated in the inductor gets transferred to the
capacitor. The input current and the inductor current are the same. Hence as one can
see clearly that current in a boost converter is continuous type and hence the design of
input filter is somewhat relaxed or it is of lower value.

Fig.2.2.The two states of a boost converter that change with change in state of the switch

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M.E.E Thesis

2.1.1 Circuit analysis for Continuous mode:

During continuous mode of operation of a boost converter, the inductor current (I ) never
L

becomes zero during a commutation cycle.

Fig.2.3.Current and voltage waveforms while a boost converter operates in continuous

mode.

The switch S is closed to start the On-state. This makes the input voltage (V ) appear
L

across the inductor, and that causes change in inductor current (I ) during a finite time
L

period (t) which is given by the formula:

IL

V
= i
t
L

(2.1)

When the On-state reaches its end, the total increase in I

Lon

1 DT
DT
V
Vi dt=
L 0
L i

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is given by:

(2.2)

M.E.E Thesis

Where D is known as the duty cycle i.e. the ratio of time period for which the switch is
On and the total commutating time period T. Therefore D has a value between 0 ( that
indicates S is never on) and 1 ( that indicates S is always on).
When the switch S is made open the converter operates in Off-state. During that
time period the load serves as a path for the inductor current. If voltage drop in the diode
is neglected or assumed to be zero, and the capacitor is taken to be large enough
for maintaining a constant voltage, the equation of I

is given by:

dI
V -V =L L
i o
dt

(2.3)

During the time period for which the converter remains in Off state, the change in

is given by:

(1-D)T V -V
i o dt= (Vi -Vo )(1-D)T
I
=
Loff
L
L
0

(2.4)

As we consider that the converter operates in steady-state conditions, the amount

of energy stored in each of its components has to be the same at the beginning and at the
end of a commutation cycle. In particular, the energy stored in the inductor is given by:
E =

1
L IL 2
2

(2.5)

Therefore, the inductor current has to be the same at the beginning and the end of the
commutation cycle. This can be written as

ILon +ILoff =0

(2.6)

Substituting and by their expressions yields:

I L o n + I L o ff =

Vi D T
L

( V i -V o ) ( 1 -D ) T
L

=0

(2.7)

which in turns reveals the duty cycle to be :

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10

V
D=(1- i )
Vo

(2.8)

From the above expression it is observable that the output voltage is always greater than
the input voltage (as D is a number between 0 and 1), and that it increases as D
increases. Theoretically it should approach infinity as D approaches 1. For this
reason boost converter is also known as step-up converter.

2.1.2 Circuit analysis for Discontinuous mode

The only difference in the principle of discontinuous mode as compared to the
continuous mode is that the inductor is completely discharged at the end of the
commutation cycle. In this node of operation before the switch in the circuit is
opened the inductor current value reaches zero. This kind of case happens when the
energy to be transferred is very small and the process of transfer requires a time period
less than the commutating time period.

Fig.2.4.Waveforms of current and voltage in a boost converter operating in

discontinuous mode

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As the inductor current at the beginning of the cycle is zero, its maximum value

L m ax

ViD T

During the off-period, I

L m ax

(2.9)

L
L

(V i -V o ) T
L

falls to zero after T:

=0

(2.10)

Using the two previous equations, is:

ViD

(2.11)

V i -V o

The load current Io is equal to the average diode current ( I ). As can be seen on figure 4,
d
the diode current is equal to the inductor current during the off-state. Therefore
the output current can be written as:

I
I =I = L m ax
o
D
2
Replacing and I

Lmax

(2.12)

and by their respective expressions yields:

2
Vi DT Vi D
Vi2D T
I =

=
o 2L V -V 2L(V -V )
o i
o i

(2.13)

Therefore, the output voltage gain can be written as flow

Vo
ViD2T
=1+
Vi
2LIo

2.14)

In comparison to the output voltage expression for the continuous mode, this expression
is much more complicated. Furthermore, in discontinuous operation, the output voltage
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gain not only depends on the duty cycle, but also on the inductor value, the input
voltage, the switching frequency, and the output current.
The Active PFC method proposed in this thesis deals with the continuous mode
of operation for its simplicity and easy design process.

2.2 Power factor Correction

The term, power factor can be defined as the ratio of real power to apparent
power.

AveragePower
P
=
ApprentPower
Vr.m.s Ir.m.s

P.F =

(2.15)

Assuming an ideal sinusoidal input voltage source, PF can be expressed as the product of
two factors: the displacement factor K and the distortion factor K .The displacement

d
factor K is the cosine of the displacement angle between the fundamental input current

and the input voltage. The distortion factor K

is the ratio of the root-mean-square

(RMS) of the fundamental input current to the total RMS of input current. These
relationships are given as follows:

P.F =

Vrms Irms cos

1
Vrms Irms

=K K
d

(2.16)

Where: V
is the total RMS voltage value.
rms
I

rms

rms1

is the total RMS current value.

is the current fundamental harmonic RMS value.

is the displacement angle between the voltage and current fundamental

harmonics.
K =cos is the displacement factor.

rms1
is the distortion factor.
K =
d I
rms

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13

Power factor correction is a modern concept which deals with increasing the degraded
power factor of a power system by use of external equipments. The objective of
this described in plain words is to make the input to a power supply appear as a
simple resistor. As long as the ratio between the voltage and current is a constant the
input will be resistive and the power factor will be 1.0. When the ratio deviates from a
constant the input will contain phase displacement, harmonic distortion or both and
either one will degrade the power factor.
In simple words, Power factor correction (PFC) is a technique of counteracting the
undesirable effects of electric loads that create a power factor ( PF ) that is less than 1.

2.2.1Causes of low power factor

he power factor gets lowered as the real power decreases in comparison to the
apparent power. This becomes the case when more reactive power is drawn. This may
result from increase in the amount of inductive loads (which are sources of
Reactive Power) which include - Transformers, Induction motors, Induction generators
(wind mill generators), High intensity discharge (HID) lighting etc. However in such
a case the displacement power factor is affected and that in turn affects the power factor.
The other cause is the harmonic distortion which is due to presence of the non
linear loads in the power system. Due to the drawing of non-sinusoidal current there is
further reduction in the power factor.

2.2.2 Standards for line current harmonics

For limiting the line current harmonics in the current waveform standards are set
for regulating them. One such standard was IEC 555-2, which was published by
the International
Committee

Electro-technical

Committee

in

1982.

In

1987,

European

for Electro-Technical Standardization CENELEC, adopted this as an

European Standard EN 60555-2. Then standard IEC 555-2 has been replaced by standard
IEC 1000-3-2 in 1995. The same has been adopted as an European standard EN
61000-3-2 by CENELEC.

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14

Hence, these limitations are kept in mind while designing any instrument. So that there is
no violation and the negative effects of harmonics are not highly magnified.

2.2.3 The need of PFC

Constant increasing demand of consumer electronics has resulted in that the average
home has a huge variety of mains driven electronic devices. These electronic
devices have mains rectification circuits, which is the dominant reason of mains
harmonic distortion. A lot of modern electrical and electronic apparatus require to
convert ac to dc power supply within their architecture by some process. This causes
current pulses to be drawn from the ac network during each half cycle of the supply
waveform. Though a single apparatus (a domestic television for example) may not
draw a lot of reactive power or it cannot generate enough harmonics to affect the
supply system significantly, but within a typical phase connection there may exist 100s of
such devices connected to the same supply phase resulting in production of a significant
amount of reactive current flow and current harmonics.
With improvement in semiconductor devices field, the size and weight of control circuits
are on a constant decrease. This has also positively affected their performance and
functionality and thus power electronic converters have become increasingly popular in
industrial, commercial and residential applications. However this mismatch between
power supplied and power put to use cannot be detected by any kind of meter used for
charging the domestic consumers. It results in direct loss of revenues.
Furthermore 3-phase unbalance can also be created within a housing scheme since
different streets are supplied on different phases. The unbalance current flows in
the neutral line of a star configuration causing heating and in extreme cases cause burn
out of the conductor.
The harmonic content of this pulsating current causes additional losses and
dielectric stresses in capacitors and cables, increasing currents in windings of rotating
machinery and transformers and noise emissions in many products, and bringing about
early failure of fuses and other safety components. The major contributor to this problem
in electronic apparatus is the mains rectifier. In recent years, the number of

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15

rectifiers connected to utilities has increased rapidly, mainly due to the growing use of
computers.
Hence it has become very necessary to somehow decrease the effect of this distortion.
Power factor correction is an extra loop added to the input of household applications to
increase the efficiency of power usage and decrease the degree of waste.

2.2.4 Types of Power Factor Correction (PFC)

Power Factor Correction (PFC) can be classified as two types :

Passive Power Factor Correction.

Active Power Factor Correction.

2.2.4.1 Passive PFC

In Passive PFC, only passive elements are used in addition to the diode bridge rectifier, to
improve the shape of the line current. By use of this category of power factor
correction, power factor can be increased to a value of 0.7 to 0.8 approximately.
With increase in the voltage of power supply, the sizes of PFC components increase in
size. The concept behind passive PFC is to filter out the harmonic currents by use of a
low pass filter and only leave the 50 Hz basic wave in order to increase the power factor.
Passive PFC power supply can only decrease the current wave within the standard and
the power factor cannot never be corrected to 1. And obviously the output
voltage cannot be controlled in this case.

Advantage Of Passive PFC

It has a simple structure.

Disadvantage Of Passive PFC

For achieving better power factor the
dimension of the filter increases.

It is reliable and rugged.

Due to the time lag associated with the

passive elements it has a poor dynamic
response.

In this equipments used dont generate The voltage cannot be regulated and the

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high-frequency EMI.

efficiency is somewhat lower.

Only the construction of a filter is Due to presence of inductors and capacitors

required which can be done easily. Hence interaction may take place between the
the cost is very low.

passive elements or they may interact with

the system and resonance may occur at
different frequencies.

The high frequency switching losses Although by filtering the harmonics can be
are absent and it is insensitive to filtered out, the fundamental component
noises and surges.

may get phase shifted excessively thus

reducing the power factor.
The shape of input current is dependent
upon the fact that what kind of load is
connected.

2.2.4.2 Active PFC

An active PFC is a power electronic system that is designed to have control over
the amount of power drawn by a load and in return it obtains a power factor as
close as possible to unity. Commonly any active PFC design functions by controlling
the input current of the load in order to make the current waveform follow the
mains

voltage waveform closely (i.e. a sine wave). A combination of the reactive

elements and some active switches are in order to increase the effectiveness of the line
current shaping and to obtain controllable output voltage.
The switching frequency further differentiates the active PFC solutions into two classes.

A. Low frequency active PFC:

Switching takes place at low-order harmonics of the line-frequency and it is
synchronized with the line voltage.

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B. High frequency active PFC:

The switching frequency is much higher than the line frequency.
The power factor value obtained through Active PFC technique can be more than 0.9.
With a suitable design even a power factor of 0.99 can be reached easily. Active PFC
power supply can detect the input voltage automatically, supports 110V to 240V
alternative current, its dimension and weight is smaller than passive PFC power supply
which goes against the traditional view that heavier power supply is better.

Advantages of Active PFC

The weight of such a system is very less

Disadvantages of Active PFC

The layout design is bit more complex.

The dimension is also smaller and a Since it needs PFC control IC, high voltage
power factor value of over 0.95 can be MOSFET, high voltage U-fast, choke and
obtained through this method

other circuits; it is highly expensive.

Diminishes the harmonics to remarkably

low values
By this method automatic correction can
be obtained for the AC input voltage.
It is capable of operating in a full range
of voltage.

2.3 CURRENT MODE CONTROL

Current mode control uses the load current as feedback to regulate the output voltage. In
this approach there is direct control over the load current whereas output voltage is
controlled indirectly, hence it is called "current-mode programming"
In this control a functional block using local feedback is formed to create a voltage-tocurrent converter. By using this voltage-to-current converter block inside an overall

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voltage feedback loop, a voltage regulator can be produced where the control
voltage sets the load
oad current rather than the switch duty cycle (as in the voltage
mode programming in which duty cycle is varied as it is directly proportional to
the
he control voltage). Figure 2.5 is a block diagram of the concept.

Fig.2.5.. Block diagram of an ideal current mode converter

2.3.1 Purpose of Current Mode Control:

The current-mode
mode approach offers the following advantages

Since the output current is proportional to the control voltage,

voltage the output current
can be limited simply by clamping the control voltage.

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The energy storage inductor is effectively absorbed into the current source. A
simpler compensation network can stabilize the control-to-output transfer
function.

When this is applied in higher power applications, parallel connection is used for the
power stages. The power stages can be made to share equal current by connecting them to
a common bus. This is possible because the output current is proportional to the control
voltage.
Last is the automatic feed forward from the line voltage. This particular feature is
actually more readily attained in voltage-mode converters by a technique known as
"ramp compensation". In fact, in current-mode converters perfect feed forward is
obtained only by a particular value of slope compensation.

2.3.2 Types of Current Mode Control:

There are various types of current control schemes. Generally a scheme would be
named based on the type of inductor current information being sensed and/or how the
information is used to control the power switches.
The various current mode control schemes are average current control, peak current
control, hysteresis control, borderline control, valley current control, emulated
current control.

2.4 Average Current Mode Control (ACMC):

In this current mode control scheme the inductor current is sensed and filtered by
a current error amplifier and the output from it drives a PWM modulator. By doing
this extra step the inner current loop minimizes the error between the average input
current and its reference. This latter is obtained in the same way as in the peak current
control.
Average Current Mode Control is typically a two loop control method (inner loop,
current; outer loop, voltage) for power electronic converters. The main distinguishing
feature of ACMC, as compared with peak current mode control, is that ACMC

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uses a high gain, wide bandwidth Current Error Amplifier (CEA) to force the average
of one current within the converter, typically the inductor current, to follow the
demanded current reference with very small error, as a controlled current source.
Below in Fig 2.7 the scheme for average current mode control is shown. This technique
of average current mode control overcomes the problems of peak current mode control by
introducing a high gain integrating current error amplifier (CEA) into the current loop.
The gain-bandwidth characteristic of the current loop can be tailored for optimum
performance by the compensation network around the CA. Compared with peak current
mode control, the current loop gain crossover frequency, can be made approximately the
same, but the gain will be much greater at lower frequencies.

2.4.1 Advantages of average current mode control :

It also operates with a constant switching frequency.

In this case any compensation ramp is not required.

Since the current is filtered the control is less sensitive to commutation noises
unlike peak current mode control.

Better input current waveforms than for the peak current control since, near the
zero crossing of the line voltage, the duty cycle is close to one.

2.4.2 Disadvantages of average current mode control :

The inductor current needs to be sensed which is not easy.

In this current mode control scheme a current error amplifier is needed. For this
error amplifier a compensation network needs to be designed in addition,
and that must account for different converter operating points.

2.5 Active power factor controller using UC3854:

As shown in Figure 2.6 (a), the controller has two tasks:Current tracking forces the
average inductor current to track the current reference so that it has the same shape as the
input voltage, as shown in Figure 2.6 (b). This task gives the input a unity PF.Voltage

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regulation regulates the output voltage keeping the output voltage equal to 50V, which is
higher than the input voltage as shown in Fig.2.6.(c).

Fig.2.6.Boost PFC converter controller: (a) Boost PFC with controller, (b) Waveforms of
input voltage and inductor current, (c) Waveforms of input voltage and output voltage.

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The analog controller for PFC is often achieved by a current-mode PFC control chip.In
this thesis Unitrode UC3854 chip is used . The analog control structure for a single
switch CCM PFC boost converter is illustrated in Figure 2.7. The PFC converter has a
three-loop control structure. The fast current loop keeps the input current the shape of the
input voltage, which renders the unity PF. The input voltage feed-forward loop is to
compensate the input voltage variation . The voltage loop keeps the output voltage at
fixed value (in this thesis it is 50 volt) .The voltage loop is very slow to avoid introducing
2nd harmonic ripple into the current reference,illustrated in 2.5.2.

Fig.2.7.Analog average current control For boost-type PFC

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2.5.1 Feed-forward Loop Compensation:

The current reference is given by:

ref

AB
C2

(2.17)

Where A=K V ( K : Input voltage gain), B=V ( V : Voltage compensator

in in
in
c
c
output) and C= K .V
( K : Input voltage feed forward gain).
ff in_rms
ff
Assume the inductor current tracks the reference perfectly. The input current is
proportional to the input voltage, which means the voltage loop can be affected by input
voltage variation. The feed-forward loop is inserted to compensate the line voltage
variation . C is in proportion to the input-voltage RMS value. It is derived from a second
order low-pass filter (as shown in Fig.2.8).

Fig.2.8.voltage feedforword loop

Because both the input voltage and output voltage contain 2ndharmonic component, there
are ripples in B and C. The ripples in components B and C are passed into the current
reference. From Equation (2.17), it is derived that:

ref = B -2 C .
C
i
B
ref

(2.18)

Although the phases of B and C are unknown, the worst case occurs when they have
a 180 phase shift:

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ref = B +2 C
C
i
B
ref

(2.19)

If given a maximum acceptable THD of 1.5%, Equation (2.19) means that thedistortion
of C should be smaller than 0.5%, and the total distortion of B should be smaller than
0.5%. Selecting the cut-off frequency of the feed-forward low -pass filter and voltage
compensator gain should be based on this criterion.

2.5.2 Voltage Loop Bandwidth Selection:

Assuming that input voltage is

V = 2V
sin(t) , that the input current is I = 2I
sin(t) ,
in
rms
in
rm s
=2f angular frequency where f is the line frequency.

P =P =V I =V I (1-cos2t). where V = 2V
o in in in m m
m
rms
Assume that the output voltage varies small enough to be constant. Then the output
current, as shown in Figure 2.9 is

Io =

Po Vin Iin
=
(1-cos2t)
Vout Vout

(2.20)

Equation (2.20) indicates that the output current consists of a large 2nd harmonic
component, as shown in Figure 2.9 (b), which is given by:

V I
=(- in in )cos2t
ripple
Vout

(2.21)

This current ripple charges and discharges the output capacitor, leading to the2nd
harmonic ripple at the output voltage, such that:

Vin Iin
Vripple =
sin(2t+)
2Vout Co

Jadavpur University

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25

Vin Iin
Voripple =
2Vout Co

(2.23)

Fig.2.9. (a) Input voltage and current waveform, (b) Average Diode forward current
waveform.
The 2nd harmonic in the output voltage produces a fundamental component and3rd
harmonic distortions in the line current . The amplitude of the 3rdharmonic equals to half
of 2nd harmonic amplitude at the voltage compensator output . Another bandwidth
selection of the voltage loop is based on the total allowable 3rd harmonic distortions .

2.5.3 High power factor control circuit:

A block diagram of a boost power factor corrector is shown in Fig 2.10. The power
circuit of a boost power factor corrector is the same as that of a dc to dc boost
converter. A diode bridge is used to rectify the AC input voltage ahead of the inductor.

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The capacitor generally used for this conversion is kept at the output of the converter and
even if any capacitor value is used in the input bridge, its value is very less and it
is only used to control any noise.

Fig.2.10.Basic configuration of a high power factor control circuit

A constant voltage is obtained at the boost converter output but the input voltage
by some programming forces the input current to be a half wave. The power obtained
by the output capacitor is in the form of a sine wave which has a frequency equal to twice
that of the line frequency and is never constant. This is illustrated in the Fig 2.11.
In the figure below, the voltage and current that goes into the power factor corrector are
indicated by the top waveform. The second waveform shows the power that flows
into and out of the capacitor in periods of its charging and discharging. When the
input voltage is higher than the voltage of the capacitor energy is stored in the
capacitor. When the input voltage drops below the capacitor voltage, to maintain the
output power flow the capacitor starts releasing energy. The third waveform in the figure

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indicates the charging and discharging current. This current appears as if it is the
second harmonic component and is different in shape as compared to the input
current. Flow of energy reverses direction continuously and that in turn results in a
voltage ripple which is shown as the fourth waveform. Since the voltage ripple is
generated due to storage of reactive energy it is displaced by 90 degrees relative to
the current waveform above it. Ripple current of high frequencies are generated due
to the switching of the boost converter. The rating of the output capacitor should be
such that it can handle the second harmonic ripple current as well as the high frequency
ripple current.

Fig.2.11.Pre-regulator waveforms

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The active power factor corrector is required to control both the input current and
the output voltage. The rectified line voltage programs the current loop in order to make
the converter input appear as resistive. Average amplitude of the current that is used as a
programming signal is changed to achieve control over the output voltage. The rectified
line voltage is multiplied with the output of voltage error amplifier by an analog
multiplier. This produces the current programming signal and provides it the shape
of the input voltage and average amplitude which helps control the output voltage.
Figure 2.10. is a block diagram which shows the basic control circuit arrangement
necessary for an active power factor corrector. The output of the multiplier is the current
programming signal and is called Imo for multiplier output current. A rectified line
voltage is shown as the multiplier input.
Figure 2.10 has a squarer as well as a divider along with the multiplier in the voltage
loop. The divider divides the output of the voltage error amplifier by the square of the
average input voltage. The resulting signal is then multiplied by the rectified input
voltage signal. The voltage loop gain is maintained at a constant value due to the
presence of the combination of these blocks. Otherwise the gain would have varied
with change in square of the average input voltage ( called feed forward voltage, Vff ).
This voltage only is squared by which the output of voltage error amplifier is later
divided.
For increasing the power factor to the maximum value possible, the rectified line voltage
and the current programming signal must match as closely as possible. The bandwidth of
the voltage loop should be maintained at a lower value than the input line frequency,
failing which huge distortion is produced in the input current. However on the other hand
for fast transient response of the output voltage the bandwidth needs to be made
as large as possible. In case of wide input voltage ranges, the bandwidth needs to be
as close as possible to line frequency. This is achieved by the action of the
squarer and divider circuits which help maintain the loop gain constant.
These circuits that maintain constant loop gain convert the output of voltage error
amplifier into a power control. Hence, now the power delivered to the load is controlled

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by this output of the voltage error amplifier. Here we consider an example. Suppose that
the voltage error amplifier output is constant and then we double the input voltage. As
the programming signal depends on the input voltage it will also get doubled. Then it will
get divided by square of the feed forward voltage, which is equal to four times the input
now. This results in reducing the input current to half of its original value. Since the input
voltage is doubled, a factor of two is associated with it. Then it gets multiplied with half
of the input current. This results in no change in the input power and it remains same as
before. The output of the voltage error amplifier, then, controls the input power level of
the power factor corrector. This can be used to limit the maximum power which
the circuit can draw from the power line.
Provisions can be made for clamping the output of the voltage error amplifier at
some value which would correspond to some maximum power level. Then as long as the
input voltage is within its defined range, the active power factor corrector will not draw
more than that amount of power.

2.6 Proposed Design

For designing the proposed method of power factor correction, a power factor corrector
of output rated at 220 W is taken.

Specifications:
Determination of the operating requirements for the active power factor corrector.
Pout (max) : 220W
Vin(range):22.5V-31.25 VAC(r.m.s)
Line Frequency:50Hz
Output Voltage:50Vdc

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Selection of switching frequency :

The switching frequency must be high enough to minimize the size of power circuit and
reduce

distortion.

On

the

other

hand

it

should

be

less

for

greater

efficiency.Compromising between the two factors the value is selected as 2KHz.

Inductor selection:

The inductor is selected from the value of maximum peak current which flows through it
when the input voltage has minimum value.
1. Maximum peak line current.
Pin =Pout(max)

2Pin

(2.25)

PK V
in(min)

220
=10.34amp
PK
30
2. Ripple current.
I

(2.24)

=1.41

(2.26)

Ripple current is usually assumed to about 20% of the peak inductor current. In this case
it is arbitrarily selected to be 22% of it.

ripple

=0.22I

PK

=0.2210.34=2.2748amp

(2.27)

3. Determination of the duty factor at Ipk where Vin(peak) is the peak of the
rectified line voltage at low line.

D=

(V0 -Vin_Peak ) 50-42.42

=
=0.1514
V0
50

(2.28)

4. Calculation of the inductance. fs is the switching frequency.

L=

Vin D
42.4260.1514
=
=1.411mH we take 1mH
fs Iripple 20002.2748

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5. Selection of output capacitor. With hold-up time, the equation below was
used. Typical values for Co are 1uF to 2uF per watt. At is the hold-uptime in
seconds and V1 is the minimum output capacitor voltage.

C0 =

2Pout Vt 222042.43ms
=
=184.84mF
2
2
2
2
V 0 V1
51 -50

(2.30)

6. Selection of current sensing resistor.This is required to sense the inductor

current. Sense resistor is the least expensive method and is suitable for low
power applications. Keeping the peak voltage across the resistor at a low value.
1.0V is a typical value for Vrs.
I
2.2748
=10.34+
=11.4747
PK 2
2

Find I

Calculating Current sensing resistor value.

R =
s I

PK_max

Vrs
PK_max

=I

1.00
=0.087;0.1ohm
11.4747

(2.31)

(2.32)

7. Setting up independent peak current limit. Rpk1 and Rpk2 are the resistors in the

voltage divider. Choosing a peak current overload value, Ipk(ovld). A typical value for
Rpk1 is 10K.

V
=I
R =11.47470.1=1.14V
rs(ovld) PK(ovld) s

(2.33)

R PK
1 = 1.1410K =1.52K
=V

PK 2 rs(ovld) V
7.5
ref

(2.34)

8. Multiplier setup:

The operation of the multiplier is given by the following equation. Imo is

the multiplier output current, Km=1 , lac is the multiplier input current, Vff
is the feedforward voltage and Vvea is the output of the voltage error amplifier.
Imo =K m Iac

(Vvea-1)
2
Vff

(2.35)

Feedforward voltage divider. Changing Vin from RMS voltage to average

voltage of the rectified input voltage. At Vin (min) the voltage at Vff should
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be 1.414 volts and the voltage at Vffc, the other divider node, should be about
7.5 volts. The average value of Vin is given by the following equation where
Vin(min) is the RMS value of the AC input voltage:

V
=V
0.9
in(av) in(min)

(2.36)

The following two equations are used to find the values for the Vff divider
string. A value of 1Megohm is usually chosen for the divider input
impedance. The two equations must be solved together to get the resistor
values

V =1.414V=V

ff
in(av) R

R ff3

V
=7.5V=V

node
in(av) R

ff1

=910K

ff2

(2.37)

ff1+R ff2 +R ff3

R ff2 +R ff3

(2.38)

ff1+R ff2 +R ff3

=91K R

ff3

=20K

Rvac selection. Maximum peak line voltage is found out.

V
= 2V
= 231.25=44.19V
PKmax
inmax

(2.39)

Dividing by 600 microamps, the maximum multiplier input current.

R

V
= PKmax =73.65K , choosing 100K
vac 600E-6

(2.40)

Rb1 selection. This is the bias resistor. Treating this as a voltage divider
with Vref and Rvac and then solving for Rb1. The equation becomes:

b1

=0.25R

vac

=0.25100K=25K

(2.41)

Rset selection. Imo cannot be greater than twice the current through Rset.
Finding the multiplier input current, lac, with Vin(min). Then calculating the
value for Rset based on the value of lac just calculated.

Vin(pk) 44.19
=
=0.4419mAmp
acmin R
100K
vac

(2.42)

3.75
3.751000
=
=4.243K
set 2I
20.4419
acmin

(2.43)

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Rmo selection. The voltage across Rmo must be equal to the voltage across
Rs at the peak current limit at low line input voltage

Vrs(ovld) 1.12 1.141.121000

=
=1.45K
mo
2Iacmin
20.4419
=

(2.44)

9. Oscillator frequency:

Calculate Ct to give the desired switching frequency.

1.25
1.25
C =
=
=147.6uF
t R f 4.2342000
set

(2.45)

10. Current error amplifier compensation:

Amplifier gain at the switching frequency. Calculate the voltage across the
sense resistor due to the inductor current down slope and then divide by
the switching frequency.
500.1
V =
=2.5
rs 0.0012000

(2.46)

This voltage must equal the peak to peak amplitude of Vs, the voltage
on

the

timing capacitor (5.2 volts). The gain of the error amplifier is

therefore given by:

Vs 5.2
=
=2.08
ca V
rs 2.5
=

(2.47)

Feedback resistors. Setting Rci equal to Rmo.

R =R
ci mo
R

cz

=G R =0.8321.45K=0.9568K;1K
ca ci

Current loop crossover frequency.

V R R
500.11K
f = out s cz =
=105.59Hz
ci V 2LR
s
ci 5.223.140.0011.45K

(2.48)

(2.49)

Ccz selection. Choose a 45 degree phase margin. Setting the zero at the
loop crossover frequency.

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1
1
=
=
=1.508uF
cz 2f R
ci cz 23.14105.591

(2.50)

Ccp selection. The pole must be above fs/2.

1
1
=
=
=79.57pF
cp 2f R
220001
s cz

(2.51)

11. Voltage error amplifier compensation:

Output ripple voltage. The output ripple is given by the following equation
where fr is the second harmonic ripple frequency.

Pout
2201000
V
=
=
=0.0947Vac
o(pk) 2f C V 22000184.84
r o o

(2.52)

Amplifier output ripple voltage and gain. Vo(pk) must be reduced to

the ripple voltage allowed at the output of the voltage error amplifier.
This sets the gain of the voltage error amplifier at the second harmonic
frequency.
The equation is:

Vvao %Ripple 40.015

=
=0.6335
va
Vo(pk)
0.0947
=

(2.53)

Feedback network values. Find the component values to set the gain of the
voltage error amplifier. The value of Rvi is reasonably arbitrary.
Choosing Rvi=100K

vf

1
1
=
=1.25pF
2f r R vi G va 22000100K0.6335

(2.54)

Setting DC output voltage.

R V
100K7.5
= vi ref =
=17.64K
vd V -V
50-7.5
o ref

(2.55)

Finding pole frequency.

fvi = unity gain frequency of voltage loop.

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Pout
f2 =
=(34.726)2 Hz
vi V V R C C (2)2
vao o vi o vf

f =34.726Hz
vi
Finding R

vf

(2.56)

vf

1
1
=
=366K
2f vi C vf 234.7261.25pF

(2.57)

12. Feed forward voltage divider capacitors:

These capacitors determine the contribution of Vff to the third harmonic distortion
on the AC input current. Determine the amount of attenuation needed. The second
harmonic content of the rectified line voltage is 66.2%. %THD is the allowed percentage
of harmonic distortion budgeted to this input from step 10 above.
%THD 1.5
G =
=
=0.0227
ff 66.2% 66.2

(2.58)

Using two equal cascaded poles. Find the pole frequencies. fr is the second harmonic
ripple frequency.

f = G ff f = 0.0227100=15.06Hz
p
r

(2.59)

13. Select Cff1 and Cff2.

1
1
=
=
=0.259uF
ff1 2f R
p ff2 26.7391K

(2.60)

1
1
=
=1.18uF
ff2 2f R
p ff3 26.7320K

(2.61)

Inductor design for the boost converter:

I
I =I + =11.4747amp
m pk 2

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E=0.5LI2 =65.8310-3 joules

m

2E
A =A A =
=3.65mm4
p w c K K JB
w c
m

(2.62)

[B =0.2ferrite,J=3A/mm 2 ,K =0.6,K =1]

m
w
c

Proper choice of core E 65/32/13

A =2.66cm 2 ,A =5.37cm 2 ,A =14.284cm 4
c
w
p

No of turns

N=

A=

LIm
Ac Bm

=21.56 22turns

Wire gauge

Ipk
J

10.34
=3.446mm2
3

For this SWG 9 is a proper choice.

Cross Checking

The inequality A K >aN has to be satisfied

w w

A K =322 and AN=75.81

w w
Hence the inequality is satisfied which means windings will fit into the available
window area.

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3
Brushless DC Motor

A brushless dc motor is a rotating self-synchronous machine with a permanent

magnet rotor and with known rotor shaft positions for electronic commutation. A BLDC
motor meets this definition whether the drive electronics are integral with the motor or
separate from it.
Brushless DC motors compete with many other types of motors in the world of
motion control. However, for fractional-horsepower applications, brush and brushless DC
motors are often the main alternatives. Brushless motors are generally recognized as
being superior for a number of reasons including the elimination of maintenance,
increased efficiency, and reduced size and noise. In the past, for systems above a few 10's
of watts, brush motor systems have had a price advantage. This has changed. Advances in
magnet and electronic technologies, together with tooling investments by brushless motor
manufacturers, are reducing the costs of designing in brushless DC motors. In fact, many
high-volume applications such as automotive and appliances are moving to brushless.
Brushless DC motors (or BLDC motors) are generally recognized as being superior over
their brush counterparts. Their rich set of features includes high efficiency, greatly
reduced maintenance, high reliability, and elimination of brush debris, low acoustical and
electrical noise, small size, and a large speed range. Still, designers are reluctant to
specify brushless motors because of concerns about cost. However, the cost of using
brushless DC (BLDC) motors has been falling over the past few years so that in many
applications, they can compete on cost alone. This is due to three major factors: advances
in magnet technology, improvements in motor control electronics, and capital
investments by BLDC manufacturers. As a result, brushless DC motors are being used in
a wide range of cost sensitive applications including automotive, instrumentation,

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printers, plotters, computer peripherals, document sorters, compressor and sewing

machines.
3.1 Comparison with brushed-DC motors:
BLDC motors offer several advantages over brushed DC-motors, including higher
efficiency and reliability, reduced noise, longer lifetime (no brush erosion), elimination of
ionizing sparks from the commutator, and overall reduction of electromagnetic
interference (EMI.) The maximum power that can be applied to a BLDC motor is
exceptionally high, limited almost exclusively by heat, which can damage the magnets.
BLDC's main disadvantage is higher cost, which arises from two issues. First, BLDC
motors require complex electronic speed controls to run. Brushed DC-motors can be
regulated by a comparatively trivial variable resistor (potentiometer or rheostat), which is
inefficient but also satisfactory for cost-sensitive applications.
BLDC motors are considered more efficient than brushed DC-motors. This means for the
same input power, a BLDC motor will convert more electrical power into mechanical
power than a brushed motor, mostly due to absence of friction of brushes. The enhanced
efficiency is greatest in the no-load and low-load region of the motor's performance
curve. Under high mechanical loads, BLDC motors and high-quality brushed motors are
comparable in efficiency.
BLDC motors are similar to brush PM motors. However, electronic commutation
eliminates the brushes and the mechanical commutator. This leads to many advantages.
Following table lists the advantages of BLDC motors compared to a Brushed DC motor:Features

BLDC Motors

Brushed Dc Motor

Commutation

Electronic commutation based on Hall Brushed commutation.

position sensors.

Maintenance

Less required due to absence of Periodic

maintenance

is

brushes.

required.

Life

Longer.

Shorter.

Speed/Torque

Flat Enables operations at all speeds. Moderately flat At higher.

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Characteristics with rated load.

speeds,

brush

friction

thus

reducing

increases,

useful torque.
Efficiency

High No voltage drop across Moderate.

brushes.

Output

High Reduced size due to superior Moderately low The heat

Power/Frame

thermal

size

BLDC has windings on the stator, dissipated in the air gap,

characteristics.

Because produced by the armature is

which is connected to the case, the thus

heat dissipation is better.

increasing

the

temperature in the air gap

and limiting specs on the
output power/frame size.

Rotor Inertia

Low as it has permanent magnet on Higher rotor inertia limits

the rotor. This improves dynamic dynamic characteristics.
response.

Speed Range

Electric Noise

Higher No mechanical limitations Lower

Mechanical

imposed by brushes/ commutators.

limitations by brushes.

Low.

Arcs in the brushes will

generation

generate noise causing EMI

in the equipment nearby.

Cost of

Higher Since it has permanent Low.

building

magnets, building costs are higher.

Control

Complex and expensive.

Control

A controller is always required to keep No controller is required for

Requirement

the motor running. The same controller fixed speed, a controller is

can be used for variable speed control.

Simple and inexpensive.

required only if variable

speed is desired.

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3.2 Brushless motor vs Normal AC Induction Motor

Features

BLDC Motors

AC Induction motors

Speed/Torque

Flat Enables operations at all Nonlinear Lower torque at

Characteristics

speeds with rated load.

Output

High Since it has permanent Moderate Since both stator

Power/Frame size

magnet on the rotor, smaller and rotor have windings, the

lower speeds.

sizes can be achieved for a output power to size is lower

given output power.
Rotor Inertia

Low

Better

than BLDC.
dynamic High

characteristics.
Starting current

poor

characteristics.

Rated No special starter Approximately

circuit required.

dynamic

up

to

seven

times of rated Starter circuit

rating

should

be

carefully

selected. Normally uses a Star

Delta starter.
Control

A controller is always required No controller is required for

Requirement

to keep the motor running. The fixed speed, a controller is

same controller can be used for required only if variable speed is
variable speed control.

Slip

desired.

No slip is experienced between The rotor runs at a lower

stator and rotor frequencies.

frequency than stator by slip

frequency and slip increases
with load on the motor.

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3.3 Components of a Brushless DC Motor:

(Refer Fig 3.1)

(1) Brushless motor

- stator
- stator windings
- PM rotor or salient pole
soft iron rotor
(2) Controller
- switches
- driver
(3) Shaft Position Sensor
- sensor units
- sensor armature
(4) Regulator
Fig.3.1.Components of BLDC Motor

3.4 Construction of typical BLDC motor

3.4.1 STATOR:
Traditionally, the stator resembles that of an induction motor; however, the windings are
distributed in a different manner. There are two types of stator windings variants:
trapezoidal and sinusoidal motors. This differentiation is made on the basis of the
interconnection of coils in the stator windings to give the different types of back
Electromotive Force (EMF). As their names indicate, the trapezoidal motor gives a back
EMF in trapezoidal fashion and the sinusoidal motors back EMF is sinusoidal, as shown
in Figure 3.2 and Figure 3.3. In addition to the back EMF, the phase current also has
trapezoidal and sinusoidal variations in the respective types of motor. This makes the
torque output by a sinusoidal motor smoother than that of a trapezoidal motor. However,
this comes with an extra cost, as the sinusoidal motors take extra winding
interconnections because of the coils distribution on the stator periphery, thereby
increasing the copper intake by the stator windings

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Fig 3.2: Trapezoidal Back E.M.F.

Fig 3.3: Sinusoidal back E.M.F.

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3.4.2 ROTOR:
The rotor is made of permanent magnet and can vary from two to eight pole pairs
with alternate North (N) and South (S) poles. Based on the required magnetic field
density in the rotor, the proper magnetic material is chosen to make the rotor. Ferrite
magnets are traditionally used to make permanent magnets. As the technology advances,
rare earth alloy magnets are gaining popularity. The ferrite magnets are less expensive
expe
but they have the disadvantage of low flux density for a given volume. In contrast, the
alloy material has high magnetic density per volume and enables the rotor to compress
further for the same torque. Also, these alloy magnets improve the size
size-to-weight ratio
and give higher torque for the same size motor using ferrite magnets. Neodymium (Nd),
Samarium Cobalt (SmCo) and the alloy of Neodymium, Iron and Boron (NdFeB) are
some examples of rare earth alloy magnets. Continuous research is going on to improve
im
the flux density to compress the rotor further. Figure 1.4 shows cross sections of different
arrangements of magnets in a rotor.

Circular Core with magnets on

the periphery

Circular core with rectangular

magnets embedded in the
rotor

Circular core with rectangular

magnets inserted into the
rotor core

Fig.3.4. Rotor magnet cross section

3.4.3 Hall Sensors::

Unlike a brushed DC motor, the commutation of a BLDC motor is controlled
electronically. To rotate the BLDC motor, the stator windings should be energized in a
sequence. It is important to know the rotor position in order to understand which winding

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will bee energized following the energizing sequence. Rotor position is sensed using Hall
Effect sensors embedded into or outside the stator. Most BLDC motors have three Hall
sensors embedded into the stator on the non
non-driving
driving end of the motor. Whenever the rotor
magnetic poles pass near the Hall sensors, they give a high or low signal, indicating the N
or S pole is passing near the sensors. Based on the combination of these three Hall sensor
signals, the exact sequence of commutation can be determined. Figure 1.5 shows a
transverse section of a BLDC motor with a rotor that has alternate N and S permanent
magnets.

Fig.3
Fig.3.5.BLDC
Motor transverse section
Hall sensors are embedded into the stationary part of the motor. Embedding the
Hall sensors into the stator is a complex process because any misalignment in these Hall
sensors, with respect to the rotor magnets, will generate an error in determination of tthe
rotor position. To simplify the process of mounting the Hall sensors onto the stator, some
motors may have the Hall sensor magnets on the rotor, in addition to the main rotor
magnets. These are a scaled down replica version of the rotor. Therefore, whenever
when
the
rotor rotates, the Hall sensor magnets give the same effect as the main magnets. The Hall
sensors are normally mounted on a PC board and fixed to the enclosure cap on the nonnon
driving end. This enables users to adjust the complete assembly of Hall sensors, to align
with the rotor magnets, in order to achieve the best performance. Based on the physical
position of the Hall sensors, there are two versions of output. The Hall sensors may be at
electrical angle of 60 or 120 phase shift to each other. Based on this, the motor

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manufacturer defines the commutation sequence, which should be followed when

controlling the motor.

3.5 Working Principle Of BLDC Motor:

In conventional DC motors, the armature is rotor, and the field magnets are placed
in the stator. The construction of modern brushless DC (BLDC) motors is very similar to
the AC motor, known as the permanent magnet synchronous motor. The armature
windings are part of the stator, and the rotor is composed of one or more permanent
magnets. The windings in a BLDC motor are similar to those in a polyphase AC motor
and the most orthodox and efficient motor has a set of three-phase windings and is
operated in bipolar excitation. BLDC motors are different from AC synchronous motors
in that the former incorporates some means to detect the rotor position (or magnetic
poles) to produce signals to control the electronic switches.
Figure (3.6) shows a simple three-phase unipolar-operated motor that uses optical
sensors (phototransistors) as position detectors. Three phototransistors PT1, PT2, and
PT3 are placed on the end-plate at 120 intervals and exposed to light in sequence
through a revolving shutter coupled to the motor shaft.

Fig.3.6.Three Phase Unipolar-Driven BLDC motor

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As shown in figure (3.6) the south pole of the rotor now faces the salient pole
P2 of the stator, and the phototransistor PT1 detects the light and turns transistor Tr1 on.
In this state, the south pole which is created at the salient pole P1 by the electrical current
flowing through the winding W1 is attracting towards the north pole of the rotor to move
it in the direction of the arrow (ccw).When the north pole comes to the position to face
the salient pole P1, the shutter, which is coupled to the rotor shaft, will shade PT1 and
PT2 will be exposed to the light and a current will flow through the transistor Tr2. When
a current flows through the winding W2, and creates a south pole on salient pole P2, then
the north pole in the rotor will revolve in the direction of the arrow and face the salient
pole P2.At this moment, the shutter shades PT2 and the phototransistor PT3 is exposed to
light. These actions steer the current from the winding 2 to W3. Thus salient pole P2 is
de-energized, while the salient pole P3 is energized and creates the south pole. Hence the
north pole on the rotor further travels from P2 to P3 without stopping. By repeating such
a switching action in a particular sequence the permanent magnet rotor revolves
continuously.

3.6 Torque/Speed Characteristics:

A motor which uses permanent magnets to supply the field flux can be represented by the
simple equivalent circuit of figure (3.7). This is a series circuit of the armature resistance,
Ra and the back e.m.f, E.

Fig.3.7 single phase equivalent circuit of BLDC motor

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If the voltage drop across the brushes is ignored, the equation for the voltage is
V= Ra.Ia+KE

(3.1)

Ia = (V- KE)/ Ra

(3.2)

The armature current Ia is

Therefore, from equation (3.1) and (3.2) the torque T is

T= KTIa = KT/ Ra(V- KE)

(3.3)

Fig.3.8.Torque-Speed characteristics of BLDC motor

Figure (3.8) shows the relation between T (torque) and (rotational speed) at two
voltages. The torque decreases linearly as the speed increases. The slope of this function
is a constant KTKE/Ra and is independent of the terminal voltage and the speed. Such
characteristics make the speed or position control of a dc motor easy. However, only dc
and brushless dc motors have this feature ac and stepping motors do not.
Figure (3.9) shows an example of torque/speed characteristics. There are two
torque parameters used to define a BLDC motor, peak torque (TP) and rated torque (TR).
During continuous operations, the motor can be loaded up to the rated torque. In a BLDC

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motor, the torque remains constant for a speed range up to the rated speed. The motor can
be run up to the maximum speed, which can be up to 150% of the rated speed, but the
torque starts dropping. Applications that have frequent starts and stops and frequent
reversals of rotation with load on the motor, demand more torque than the rated torque.
This requirement comes for a brief period, especially when the motor starts from a
standstill and during acceleration. During this period, extra torque is required to
overcome the inertia of the load and the rotor itself. The motor can deliver a higher
torque, maximum up to peak torque, as long as it follows the speed torque curve.

Peak Torque TP

Torque
Intermittent
torque zone
Rated Torque
TR Continuous torque zone

Rated Speed
Fig 3.9.Torque Speed characteristics

3.7 TYPICAL BLDC MOTOR APPLICATIONS

BLDC motors find applications in every segment of the market. Automotive,
appliance, industrial controls, automation, aviation and so on, have applications for
BLDC motors. Out of these, we can categorize the type of BLDC motor control into three
major types:
Constant load
Varying loads
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Positioning applications
Applications with Constant Loads
These are the types of applications where a variable speed is more important than
keeping the accuracy of the speed at a set speed. In addition, the acceleration and
deceleration rates are not dynamically changing. In these types of applications, the load is
directly coupled to the motor shaft. For example, fans, pumps and blowers come under
these types of applications. These applications demand low-cost controllers, mostly
operating in open-loop.
Applications with Varying Loads
These are the types of applications where the load on the motor varies over a
speed range. These applications may demand a high-speed control accuracy and good
dynamic responses. In home appliances, washers, dryers and compressors are good
examples. In automotive, fuel pump control, electronic steering control, engine control
and electric vehicle control are good examples of these. In aerospace, there are a number
of applications, like centrifuges, pumps, robotic arm controls, gyroscope controls and so
on. These applications may use speed feedback devices and may run in semi-closed loop
or in total closed loop. These applications use advanced control algorithms, thus
complicating the controller. Also, this increases the price of the complete system.
Positioning Applications
Most of the industrial and automation types of application come under this
category. The applications in this category have some kind of power transmission, which
could be mechanical gears or timer belts, or a simple belt driven system. In these
applications, the dynamic response of speed and torque are important. Also, these
applications may have frequent reversal of rotation direction. A typical cycle will have an
accelerating phase, a constant speed phase and a deceleration and positioning phase. The
load on the motor may vary during all of these phases, causing the controller to be
complex. These systems mostly operate in closed loop. There could be three control
loops functioning simultaneously: Torque Control Loop, Speed Control Loop and
Position Control Loop. Optical encoder or synchronous resolvers are used for measuring

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the actual speed of the motor. In some cases, the same sensors are used to get relative
position information. Otherwise, separate position sensors may be used to get absolute
positions. Computer Numeric Controlled (CNC) machines are a good example of this.
Process controls, machinery controls and conveyer controls have plenty of applications in
this category.

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4
Harmonic analysis of Back E.M.F and Phase
Current Waveform of Trapezoidal BLDC Motor

Cost minimization and performance improvement of the electrical machine drives is

more attractive for low cost applications where permanent magnet brushless dc (BLDC)
motors are widely used, now-a-days . Harmonics content present in the phase current and
back-EMF of BLDC motor are analyzed both for 120 and 180 mode of switching
schemes. A detailed analysis shown in this thesis reveals , efficiency is improved by
eliminating those current harmonics , both for 120 and 180 mode of switching
schemes and efficiency improvement is higher in case of 120 conduction mode of
inverter.

Brushless DC motors have been widely used in a variety of applications in industrial

automation and consumer appliances because of their high power density, compactness,
high efficiency, low maintenance and ease of control. Nowadays, many studies have been
focused on how to improve operating efficiency of BLDC motor without performance
degradation. The energy saving of variable speed drives such as BLDC motor drives is
accomplished by two approaches. One is the topological approach and the other is the
control approach. From a topology point of view, using high grade magnetic material and
design changes are required. In control approach eliminating harmonics content and
mechanical sensors are required for the inverter circuit to reduce conduction losses and
mechanical hazards. The back-EMF and phase current of BLDC motor both for 120 and
180 Conduction mode contains harmonics. It is quite obvious by eliminating these
current harmonics, torque ripple along with stator resistive losses minimized, thus
claiming maximum efficiency in the given speed range. Critical and central to achieving
such a performance is a good controller implementation based on back-EMF wave and
phase current characteristics, which is able to eliminate harmonics content present in the
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phase current, optimizing machine efficiency. Accordingly, this chapter is centered on the
derivation of analytical expression for back-EMF and phase current with harmonic
contents for 120 and 180 mode of conduction.
Later in chapter 5 it is analyzed, which conduction mode is better for efficiency
improvement.

4.1 BACK EMF OF NON SINUSOIDAL BLDC MACHINES:

Irrespective of the type of the winding (distributed, concentric, fractional or alternate
teeth wound) and the type of the rotor( surface mount or interior type),generalized phase
to neutral back EMF expression for three phase non sinusoidal BLDC machines is
described by equation (4.1)

1
1
4E
[sin ( ) sin ( t ) + sin ( 3 ) sin ( 3t ) + sin ( 5 ) sin ( 5t ) +
E =

a
32
52
1
+ sin ( 7 )sin ( 7t )+.......nth term] (4.1)
72

Fig 4.1 Back E.M.F waveform of trapezoidal BLDC Motor

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4.2 Phase Current of non sinusoidal BLDC machine:

In the fig 4.1 at an angle when switch is on current flows through corresponding
phase winding. Ideally at switching time current should build instantaneously. It is shown
below in fig (4.2)

Fig.4.2. Ideal phase current waveform.

4.3 Different Conduction Mode of Trapezoidal BLDC Motor:

There are two types of current conduction mode in phase winding of BLDC motor.

120 conduction mode:

In 120 conduction mode each phase winding conducts for 120 out of a half
period.
Fig 4.2 shows ideal 120 conduction mode of phase current when =30.

180 conduction mode:

In 180 conduction mode each phase winding conducts for 180 out of a half
period.
Fig 4.3 shows ideal 180 conduction mode of phase current.

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Fig.4.3. Ideal Phase Current waveform for 180(=60) conduction mode

4.4 Harmonic analysis of Ideal current waveform for different

conduction mode:

120 conduction mode:

The expression for ideal current in 120conduction mode is given by equation
(4.2)

4I
1
1
I = [cos ( ) sin ( t ) + cos ( 3 ) sin ( 3t ) + cos ( 5 ) sin ( 5t ) +
a
3
5

1
+ cos ( 7 ) sin ( 7t ) +.nth term]
7

(4.2)

Putting =30 in above equation (4.2) we get a harmonics spectrum given below in fig
4.4

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Fig 4.4 Harmonic contents present in 120 ideal current conduction mode

180 conduction mode:

The expression for ideal current in 180conduction mode is given by equation
(4.3)
3I
1
1
1
(4.3)
Ia =( )[sin ( t ) + sin ( 5t ) + sin(7t)+ sin(11t)+nth term]

5
7
11

Fig.4.5.Harmonic contents present in 180 ideal current conduction mode

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4.5 Rising Angle:

An angle made by the phase current with horizontal line after switch is ON
called current rising angle. Fig 4.6 illustrate this, given below.

Fig.4.6 Ideal and Actual Current Switching

Ideally when switch is on, current through the winding should reach to its maximum
value instantaneously but due to circuit inductance it requires specific time depends on
the circuit time constant.

4.6 Harmonic analysis of phase current waveform considering rising

delay angle:
In any conduction mode of trapezoidal BLDC motor, when inverter switch is on current
should build instantaneously to the rated value in corresponding phase winding. But due
to the winding inductance current cant build or decay instantaneously after switching. It
takes time to build up.

120 conduction mode:

Fig 4.7 is the phase current waveform for 120 considering rising delay.

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Fig.4.7 Phase Current waveform for 120 conduction mode ( = 30 ),considering

1
( 2 1 )rising delay.
For this current waveform in 120 conduction mode the current equation (4.4) is given
below.

4I
Ia =
-
2 1

[ sin -sin sin ( t ) + 1 sin 3 -sin 3 sin ( 3t ) +
2
1
2
1

32

( ( ) ( ))

( ( ) ( ))

( ( ) ( ))

1
+ sin 5 2 -sin 51 sin ( 5t
t ) ++n th term]
(4.4)
2
5
The order of the harmonics ( 1 = 30 and 2 = 45 ) for 120 conduction mode are given
in fig.4.8.

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1.2
1
0.8
0.6
Harmonics content
0.4
0.2
0
1

10

11

order of harmonics

Fig.4.8. Harmonic contents present in 120 conduction mode.

The changes in the harmonic contents with the change in rising delay angle for this
conduction mode is given below.(fig.4.9)

5th

0.25

3rd
7 th

0.2

9th
0.15

11th

0.1
0.05
0

10

15

Fig.4.9. Changes in the harmonic contents ,Y-axis with increase in angle ( 2 1 ) Xaxis, for 120 conduction mode.

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180 conduction mode:

Fig 4.10 is the phase current waveform for 180 considering rising delay. And for
180 mode of conduction current expression is given by equation (4.5)

( ( ) (

) ( ))

( ( ) (

1
2I
I =(
)[ sin 1 +sin 1 +2 -sin 2 sin ( t ) + sin 31 +sin 32 +31 -sin 3 2
a
32
1

( ( ) (

))

) (

1
sin ( 3t ) + sin 51 +sin 51 +5 2 -sin 5 2 sin ( 5t ) ++n th term]
52

) (

(4.5)

Fig.4.10.Phase current waveform for 180 conduction mode ( = 60 ) taking

2
1
rising delay.

The order of the harmonics and its value ( 1 = 15 and 2 = 60) corresponding to 180
conduction mode is given below. (fig.4.11)

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60

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
Harmonics content
0.4
0.2
0
1

10

11

Order of harmonics

Fig.4.11. Harmonic contents present in 180 conduction mode.

The changes in the harmonic contents with the change in rising delay angle for this
conduction mode is given below.(fig.4.12)
0.25

5th

0.2

11th
0.15

7th
0.1

0.05

10

15

Fig.4.12. Change in the harmonic contents ,Y-axis with increase in angle ( 1 )X axis ,
for 180 conduction mode.

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5
Efficiency and Loss Comparison

5.1
.1 Loss Calculation:
Calculation
From previous chapter it is clear that by eliminating the harmonics present in the
phase current in both the switching schemes the stator resistive losses and core losses
can be minimized and efficiency can be effectively improved.
5.1.1 Stator Resistive Losses
Losses:
The r.m.s values
lues of the phase current taking ideal waveform for 120 and 180
conduction mode are respectively as following,

r.m.s

r.m.s

=I

2
For 120mode
120
of Conduction.
3

I
For 180mode of conduction
2

(5.1)

(5.2)

For 120 mode of conduction two inverter switch will operate at a time. Thus tak
taking a
normal resistive circuit according
accordi to fig (5.1) when Q1 and Q operate,
4

Fig.5.1.Inverter with resistive load.

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Thus copper loss at any switching instant is given by equation (5.3)

I

r.m.s

2 2R= 4 I2 R=1.33I2 R
3

(5.3)

For 180 mode of Conduction three inverter switch will operate at a time. Thus taking
a normal resistive circuit again according to fig.4.1 when switch Q1 , Q and Q will
3
4
operate,
Thus copper loss at any switching instant is given by equation (5.4)
I

23R= 3 I2 R=1.5I2 R
r.m.s
2

(5.4)

Thus copper loss is higher in 180conduction mode than 120 conduction when
current waveforms are ideal. But practically we cant neglect coil inductance and
current takes time to build up.
Practically for any rise angle of current waveform of 120 Conduction mode have
more harmonic contents. Let us take 15 rise angle and for 120mode
Harmonic contents
3rd Harmonic
th

Percentage of fundamental(%)
15.71

5 Harmonic

23.31

7th Harmonic

2.03

9th Harmonic

10.175

11thHarmonic

4.81

Similarly for 180 conduction mode

Harmonic contents

Percentage of fundamental(%)

5th Harmonic

23.31

7th Harmonic

2.03

11th Harmonic

4.8

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r.m.s
180

=0.726997I and I

r.m.s
120

=0.73895I

Thus copper loss for 180 conduction mode is = 1.5855I2R and for 120 conduction
mode copper loss is = 1.0920I2R
From the above discussion it is clear that in 180 conduction mode copper loss is higher.
But the discussion above is at different torque, now we have to compare copper loss for
same average torque.

Fig.5.2 Torque curve for ideal 120(=30) conduction mode

2EI
is the average torque for 120conduction mode (fig 5.2)
T =
avg 3

Fig.5.3.Torque curve for 180 conduction mode

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EI
is the average torque for 180 conduction mode (fig 5.3)
T =
avg 2

Thus for same average torque,

Copperloss180 3I2 R
=
=1.5
Copperloss120 2I2 R

(5.5)

So, for same average torque copper loss is higher in 180 conduction mode than 120
conduction mode.

5.1.2 On State Conduction Loss Across Switch:

On state conduction loss across switches is same for 120 and 180 conduction mode.
Let, on state voltage drop= V
On state current= I
min
max

I
For 120 conduction loss= 2V
according to fig.4.1
min max
I
I

For 180 conduction loss= V

I
+ Vmin max + Vmin max =2V
I
min max
min max
2
2

according to fig.5.1

Thus for both the conduction mode on state loss across switch is same.

5.1.3 Switching Loss:

During Switch on time:

Fig.5.4 Voltage and Current waveform during switch ON

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From fig.5.4. the phase current equation is

I
-I
I ( t ) = max min t+I
min
Ton

(5.6)

And the phase voltage equation is

V
-V
V ( t ) =- max min t+V
max
Ton

(5.7)

Now energy loss during ON time is

Ton
E = V( t )I( t )dt
on
0
Ton V
I

-V
-I
= - max min t+Vmax max min t+Imin dt

Ton
Ton

Ton V
-V
I
-I
= - max min max min

Ton
Ton
0

2 Vmax Imax -Imin V

-V
t- max min
t +

Ton
Ton

Imin t+Vmax Imin dt

+V
V
V

= Imax -Imin max + min T +I

T max min
3 on min on
2
6

If we make, I
E

on

=0 and
min
Imax V maxTon
6

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V
=0 just like an ideal condition, we get
min
(5.8)

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During switch off time:

Fig.5.5 Voltage and Current waveform during switch OFF

From fig.5.5. the phase current equation is

I
-I
I ( t ) =- max min t+I
max
Toff

(5.9)

And the phase voltage equation is

V
-V
V ( t ) = max min t+V
min
Toff

(5.10)

Now energy loss during ON time is

Toff
E = V( t ) I( t )dt
off
0
I
I
+I
I
=(V
-V
)( max + min )T +V
T ( max min )
max min
off min off
6
3
2

If we make, I

min

=0 and V
=0 just like an ideal condition, we get
min

V
I
T
= max max off
off
6

(5.11)

Thus total energy loss within a period is

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E=E

on

+E

off

V
I
= max max (T +T )
on off
6

(5.12)

Average Switching loss

V
I
W= max max (T +T )f
on off switching
6

(5.13)

As there are three switch operate at a time in 180 conduction mode switching loss is
more in 180 conduction mode than 120. For one IRFZ44N, T =1s , T =1.5s
on
off
The

switching

loss

is

(taking

switching

frequency=10KHz)=

5010
(2.510-6 )10103 =2.08watt .
6

5.1.4 Iron loss:

Hysteresis Loss:
This loss id due to the revarsal of magnetisation of the armature core.Every
portion of the stationary stator core passes under N and S pole
alternatively,thereby attaining S and N polarity respectively.The core
undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic revarsal after passing under one
pair of poles.
The loss depends upon the volume and grade of iron,maximum value of flux
density( B
) and frequency of magnetic revarsal.Hysteresis loss is given
max
by Steinmentz formula.According to the formula,
W =K B1.6 f watts
h
h max

Where f=Fundamental frequency.

K =Hysteresis constant.
h
Now taking harmonic components in account, we can write,
W =K B1.6 fV+K VB1.6 f +K VB1.6 f +K VB1.6 f +.....nth term
h
h max
h
3max 3 h 5max 5 h
7max 7

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The percentage of hysteresis loss components for 120 phase current

conduction mode taking 15 rising angle delay is given in figure below (5.6).
0.3

Y axis X 100%

0.25

X axis=Order of Harmonics

0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1

10

11

Fig.5.6 Hysteresis loss components of total core loss for 120

And similarly for 180 phase current current conduction mode percentage of
hysteresis loss components taking 15 riging angle delay is given below.Fig.5.7
0.35
0.3

Y axis X 100%

0.25

X axis=Order of Harmonics

0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1

10

11

Fig.5.7 Hysteresis loss components of total core loss for 180

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Eddy Current loss:

When PM rotor rotates ,flux linkage changes in stator armature core.Thus
according to the laws of electromagnetic induction an e.m.f is induced in the
core body.This e.m.f though small, sets up large current in the body of the
core due to its small resistance.This current is known as eddy current.The
power loss due to the flow of this current is known as eddy current loss. Thus
the core is made of thin lamination to incrrease the current path resistance
thereby reducing eddy current loss.
It is found that eddy current loss W is given by the following relation:
e
W =K B2 f 2 watt
e
e max

V=Volume of the armature core, t=thickness of each lamination.

Now taking harmonic components in account, we can write,

W =K B 2 f 2 +K B2
f 2 +K B2
f 2 +......nth term
e
e max
e 3max 3
e 5max 5

The percentage of eddy current loss components of total core loss for 120 phase current
conduction mode taking 15 riging angle delay is given in figure below 5.8
0.2
0.18

Y axis X 100%

0.16

X axis=Order of Harmonics

0.14
0.12
0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1

10

11

Fig.5.8 Eddy current loss components of total core loss for 120

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70

And similarly for 180 phase current current conduction mode taking 15 rising angle
delay percentage of eddy current loss components is given below.Fig.5.9
0.3
0.25

Y axis X 100%
X axis=Order of Harmonics

0.2
0.15
0.1
0.05
0
1

10

11

Fig.5.9 Eddy current loss component of total core loss for 180

5.2 Efficiency Comparison and Improvement through proposed

technique:
Overall drive efficiency is dependent upon three categories

UPFC converter efficiency. ( )

1
Inverter efficiency. ( )
2
Bldc motor efficiency. ( )
3

UPFC converter efficiency:

If we use narmal diode rectifier with capacitor at output then efficiency of the conversion
is

not good along with line current harmonics which reduces power factor.In this

thesis (Chapter2) boost converter with PFC using UC3854 is used which increases the
supply converter efficiency with low line harmonics.

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Inverter Efficiency:
Sinusoidal pulse width modulated inverter with selective harmonics elimination ensures
minimization of phase current harmonics which reduces copper loss and iron loss in
BLDC motor which in turn increases motor efficiency.
BLDC motor efficiency:
If we use high quality magnet for PM rotor and laminated silicon steel in stator core we
can minimise core losss.But this is design aspects.For a given motor only thing is left to
increase efficiency is to increase supply and inverter efficiency.

=
overall 1 2 3

Fig.5.10 conventional system with large harmonic distortion

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Fig 5.11 Active PFC circuit + PWM inverter

In BLDC motor the major part of losses is copper loss.In 180 phase current conduction
mode this copper loss, switching loss, core losses are more than 120 conduction mode.
Thus 120 phase current conduction mode with reduced harmonics is preferable for
BLDC motor efficiency improvement.

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6
SIMULATION RESULTS

MATLAB software:
MATLAB is a software package for high performance numerical computation and
visualization.It provides an interactive environment with hundreds of build-in-functions
for technical computation,graphics and animation.Best of all, it also provides easy
extensibility with its own high-level programming language.
In this thesis boost converter with power factor improvement is modelled in MATLAB
simulink.
There are two stages of modelling:

Power circuit modelling.

Controller modelling for PFC.

Power circuit modelling is done similar as boost converter in practical (fig.5.1).And after
controller is modelled according to chapter 3,described earlier.

Fig.6.1 Power circuit model

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6.1 Simulink M-File:

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6.2
.2 PFC Controller Block:

Fig.6.2 controller model

After scaling of load voltage it is compared with a constant referance voltage such that
after desired load voltage the error is minimum,ideally zero.
Let this error voltage=A
Input Voltage gets fixed DC voltage after filter=C ,used for feedforward scaling.

Sin(
Input voltage=B= 2 Sin(t)

Output of Divide block is=

A 2 Sin(t)
=K Sin(t) and it current referance signal.This
C2

current referance signal is compared with actual inductor current.This error signal helps
to create pulse which in turn drive MOSFET so that inductor can track the actual
referance
ance current signal.
This will force the line current to follow the line voltage and PFC is achieved.

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6.3
.3 Simulink Result and Output Waveform:

Output Waveforms:

Fig6 Boost Converter Output Voltage.

Fig6.3

Fig.6.4
.4 Input Voltage and Current Waveform at 2KHz frequency

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Fig 6.5 Voltage PI controller output

Fig 6.6 Inductor Current at 2 KHz frequency

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Fig 6.7. Pulse output from controller

When switching frequency is increased then current ripple will decrease as in this thesis it
is observed in 100 Khz.

--Input Voltage ---Input Current

Fig 6.8 Input voltage and current waveform at 200KHz frequency

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Simulation Results for the Power Factor Corrector

Rating of the active power factor corrector
Maximum output power =220W
Operating Frequency = 50 Hz
Switching Frequency = 2 KHz
Range of input voltage =22.5-31 V AC (r.m.s)
Output voltage =50Volt
Load Resistance =11.35 ohms
Inductor value = 0.1mH
Output Capacitor = 2200 uF

Line
Voltage
(in V)

Converter
input
voltage
[in V(r.m.s)]

Output
Voltage
(in V)

Power
Factor

Total
Efficiency
Harmonics (in %)
Distortion
(in %)

180

22.5

50.25

0.98425

17.96

75.96

190

23.75

50.4

0.9822

19.11

73.70

200

25

50.2

0.9812

19.66

74.62

210

26.25

50.23

0.9760

22.31

75.89

220

27.5

50.2

0.9756

22.46

74.81

230

28.75

50.1

0.9721

24.11

74.21

240

30

50.15

0.9689

25.51

82.34

250

31.25

50.1

0.9696

25.21

82.15

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For switching frequency 100 KHz, result is given below.

Line
Voltage
(in V)

Converter
input
voltage
(in V)

Output
Voltage
(in V)

180

22.5

50.25

0.9985

5.46

89.95

190

23.75

50.4

0.99825

5.92

93.757

200

25

50.2

0.99845

5.50

92.342

210

26.25

50.23

0.99866

5.17

91.295

220

27.5

50.2

0.99842

5.66

90.65

230

28.75

50.1

0.9990

4.21

90.27

240

30

50.15

0.9987

5.01

90.31

250

31.25

50.1

0.9986

5.22

86.70

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Power
Factor

Total
Efficiency
Harmonics
(in %)
Distortion
(in %)

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6.4 Hardware Configuration:

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6.5 Experimental Result:

For smooth operation of the inverter which is connected with UPFC boost converter,
output voltage from boost converter should remain constant at different loading. This is
verified by taking 100 variable resistance. It is seen that output voltage remains
constant during variation of load. It is shown in output waveforms given below.

Output Waveforms:

Fig.6.9. Boost Converter Output Voltage.

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Input Current

Input Voltage

Fig.6.10. Input Voltage (Blue) and Current Waveform (yellow) at 12.92KHz frequency.

Fig.6.11.Input voltage (Blue) and current (yellow) in same frame at 12.92 KHz
frequency.

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Fig.6.12.Inductor Current waveform at 12.92 KHz frequency.

Fig.6.13.Input Current Waveform of UPFC Boost Converter.

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Fig.6.14. Pulse Output from controller.

Input voltage and current waveform is measured with a R-L load ( R=100
variable and 25mH inductor) and the output waveform is given below.

Fig 6.15. Voltage (Blue) and Current Waveform (yellow) at 12.92 KHz with R-L load

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Fig.6.16.Total UPFC Boost Converter Circuit using UC3854.

Fig 6.17. Controller Circuit of PFC

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Fig.6.18.Power Circuit of Boost Converter

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Fig.6.19 UPFC based BLDC drive set up

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7
Conclusions

7.1 Conclusions:
An UC3854 based UPFC boost converter is designed and tested at the input side of
PMBLDC motor drive. A mathematical model of UPFC is designed and analyzed in
MATLAB and practical circuit from this is verified. By using active PFC at input side the
power quality and efficiency of the conversion is improved. It is also analyzed that
efficiency of the BLDC drive can be further improved if we use 120 phase current
conduction mode.

7.2 Scope for future work:

More suitable design procedure can be implemented with soft switching scheme
at active PFC circuit to have very low THD in input current and higher conversion
efficiency. In this thesis it is concluded that 120 conduction mode is better for
efficiency improvement. But in 120 conduction mode torque ripple will increase
for a given speed range [1] [2] [3].

So to have low torque ripple and improved efficiency both altogether hybride
switching is required. Thus the optimum conduction mode for both torque ripple
minimization and efficiency improvement is to be studied.

The system can be implemented using DS1104 dspace module replacing the use
of UC3854.

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References

[1] R. Carlson, M. Lajoie-Mazenc, and J.C.D.S. Fagundes,. Analysis of torque

ripple due to phase commutation in brushless DC machines, IEEE Trans. Ind.
Appl., vol. 28, no.3, pp. 632-638, May/June1992.
[2] J. Holtz and L. Springob, Identification and compensation of torque ripple in
high-precision permanent magnet motor drives, IEEE Trans. Ind. Ecn., vol. 43, no.2,
pp 309-320, April 1996.
[3] S.S.Bharatkar, R. Yanamshetti, D. Chatterjee, A.K. Ganguli, Dual-mode switching
technique for reduction of commutation torque ripple of brushless dc motor Published in
IET Electric Power Applications, 2011, Vol. 5, Iss. 1, pp. 193202.
[4] R. Krishnan, Electric Motor Drives: Modeling, Analysis, and Control, Prentice
Hall, New Jersey, 2001
[5] R Krishnan, Permanent Magnet Synchronous and Brushless DC Motor Drives,CRC
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[6] Parag Kshirsagar, R Krishnan,Efficiency Improvement Evaluation of NonSinusoidal Back-EMF PMSM Machines Using Field Oriented Current Harmonic
Injection Strategy,IEEE Trans,On Power Electronics,Vol.12.No.3,November-2011.
[7] Tae-Hyung Kim, Mehrdad Ehsani, Sensorless Control of the BLDC Motors From
Near-Zero to High Speeds IEEE Trans. On Power Electronics, Vol. 19, No. 6,
November 2004.
[8] T. H. Kim, B. K. Lee and M. Ehsani, Sensorless control of the BLDC motors from
near zero to high speed, in Proc. IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conf. and Expo. ,
Vol. 1, pp. 306-312, 2003.
[9] C. L. Puttaswamy, Bhim Singh and B.P. Singh, Investigations on dyanamic behavior
of permanent magnet brushless DC motor drive, Electric Power Comp. and Sys.,vol.23,
no.6, pp. 689 - 701, Nov. 1995.
[10] Limits for Harmonic Current Emissions (Equipment input current less than 16 A per
phase), International Standard IEC 61000-3-2, 2000.

Jadavpur University

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[11] B. Singh, B. N. Singh, A. Chandra, K. Al-Haddad, A. Pandey and D. P.Kothari, A

review of single-phase improved power quality AC-DCconverters, IEEE Trans .
Industrial Electron ., vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 962 981, Oct. 2003.
[12] D. C. Hanselman, Brushless Permanent Magnet Motor Design , McGraw hill, New
York, 1994.
[13] T. J. E. Miller, Brushless Permanent Magnet and Reluctance Motor Drive,
Clarendon Press, oxford, 1989.
[14] T. Kenjo and S. Nagamori, Permanent Magnet Brushless DC Motors , Clarendon
Press, oxford, 1985.
[15] ] F.C. Lee, Power converter modeling and control, Lecture notes for ECE 5254 at
Virginia Tech, Spring 2003, http://www.cpes.vt.edu/public/courses/EE5254/contents.html.
[16] C. Silva, Power factor correction with the UC 3854, Application Notes, Unitrode
Integrated Circuits.
[17] L. H. Dixon, High Power Factor Preregualtor for offline power supplies, Unitrode
Design Seminars Manual, 1990.
[18] Hill 1987. 5. Phil Todd, "UC3854 Controlled Power Factor. Correction Circuit
Design", Unitrode Application.
[19] Philip C. Todd, UC3854 controlled power factor correction circuit design.Texas
Instruments, Inc., UC3854, High Power Factor Preregulator.
[20] UC 3854 datasheet, 1998, http://focus.ti.com/lit/ds/symlink/uc3854.pdf .
[21] Abraham I.Pressman , Switching Power Supply Design, Second Edition,McGrawHill,1998.

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