Revision notes- Cells

Cells- 1660s, Hooke looked at slices of cork from tree bark and
under a light microscope he made, saw that the slices were
made up of chambers that looked like monk cells, and so he
called them cells
Magnification- the number of times greater an image is than
the object
Resolution- the ability to see two see two distinct points
separately
Light microscope

The eyepiece magnifies the specimen x10. There are usually

four objective lenses x4, x10, x40, x100 (oil immersion- oil
placed over specimen).
Objectiv
Eyepiece
e
Magnific
Magnific
ation
ation

Overall
Magnific
ation

X10

X4

X40

X10

X10

X100

X10

X40

X400

X10

X100

X1000

Preparing specimens for the light microscope

Staining- coloured stains contain chemicals which bind to
chemicals in/on the specimen which allow it to be seen clearly
(acetic orcein bins to DNA, Gentian violet bind to bacterial cell
walls)
Sectioning- thin sections can be made by embedding the
specimen in wax and cutting thin slices. These thin slices let
more light through and so they are easier to see
Relationships between units of measurements

Relationship between actual size, magnification

and image size

Using an eye piece graticle and a stage micrometer to

determine cells size
An eye piece graticle is like a small ruler and is placed into the
microscope eye piece. When you look through this ruler is
superimposed over the specimen

The eye piece graticle need to be calibrated using a slide

micrometer which is placed on the microscope stage. The stage
micrometer is 1mm long and divided into 100 divisions so each
division is 10 micrometres.

In example (a) above, the magnification was x40, so 40 eye

piece units equals the 1mm (or 1000 micrometre) slide
micrometer (in pink).
So each eye piece unit (EPU) is 1000/40 which is 25
micrometers
In example (b), the magnification is times 100.
So 1 EPU equal 1000/100= 10 micrometres
How to use the graticule to work out the size of
specimen/feature of interest example- if a nucleus is
3.2 epu long and you have worked out your epu is worth
10mm then 3.2 multiplied by 10 gives you the length of
32mm
Electron microscopes
Light microscopes have low resolution so when you increase
the magnification above x1500, the image is not clear
(resolution 200nm)
Electron microscope resolution is 0.2nm so you can magnify a
specimen more and still see it clearly.

2 types of electron microscope

Transmission electron microscope (TEM)
Scanning electron microscope (SEM)
TEM- electron beam is passed through a very thin section of a
specimen. The electrons do not pass through denser parts of
the specimen so easily, giving a two-dimensional image

SEM- the electrons do not pass through but bounce off the
sample giving a 3D image

Caparison of light and electron microscopes

False-colour- images from electron microscopes are always

black and white and so false-colour is added afterwards using
computer software

Electron microscopes need to operate in a vacuum i.e. no air

particles present so that electrons are not scattered by the air
particles making the image clearer.
Cells and living processes
Seven characteristics of living things (MRS GREN)- movement,
reproduction, sensitivity, growth, respiration, excretion,
nutrition

Different structures in the cell are used in carrying out these

different characteristic functions.
Ultrastructure- detail of the inside of the cell seen with an
electron microscope
Division of labour- each organelle in the cell has a particular
role within the cell.
Movement and stability of cell
Cytoskeleton- is a network of protein fibres which keeps the
cells shape stable. Some of these fibres are made of actin
which can contract and bring about movement in white blood
cells, and can move organelles within the cell. Some fibres are
known as microtubules and are made of the protein tubulin.
These can move microbes through liquid. Proteins (microtubule
motors using ATP) present on microtubules can move
organelles in the cell e.g. chromosomes in cell division
Flagella (unipodia) and cilia- are hair-like extensions from
the cells and contain 11 microtubules in a 9+2 arrangement (9
in a circle and 2 in the middle)

Ciliated epithelial cells have many cilia to sweep substances

e.g. in the lungs. Unipodia are like cilia but are longer and
cause movement e.g. as the tail of a sperm and occur in ones
or twos.
Organelles in the cell

Nucleus- contains the genetic material. The chromatin is

surrounded by the nuclear envelope which contains nuclear
pores. Inside the nucleus is a spherical structure called the
nucleolus (where ribosome synthesis occurs)
Endoplasmic reticulum- smooth endoplasmic reticulum is
involved in making lipids and rough endoplasmic reticulum is
studded with ribosomes and is where proteins are made
Golgi apparatus- is where proteins made in the ribosomes are
carried in vesicles to be modified

Mitochondria- are spherical or sausage-shaped (depending on

which plane they are cut in). They have an outer and inner
membrane and the inner membrane is folded into cristae. The
central part is called the matrix. ATP is made in the
mitochondria

Chloroplasts- found in plants and has two membranes with

the inner one folded into flattened sacs called thylakoids. Many
thylakoids are stacked in granum. In chloroplasts, light energy
is used to synthesise carbohydrate form carbon dioxide and
water

Lysosomes- are spherical sacs which contain digestive

enzymes to breakdown materials.
Organelles without membranes surrounding themRibosomes- are bound to endoplasmic reticulum and are the
site of protein synthesis
Centrioles- are small tubes of protein fibres (microtubules)
and take part in cell division as they form fibres making up the
spindle
Organelles and their involvement in making protein

Prokaryotes and eukaryotes

Eukaryotes- have a true nucleus
Prokaryotes- do not have a true nucleus e.g. bacteria
Prokaryotes- have only one membrane (no nuclear
membrane). Do not have a membrane around organelles. They
have cell walls (made of murein NOT cellulose) DNA is in a
circular loop and lies in an area called the nucleoid. ATP
production in infolds of the surface region called mesosomes.
Some prokaryotes have flagella (unipodia) for movement. Some
prokaryotes have resistance coded into the plasmid DNA for
antibiotics (e.g. MRSA methicillin-resistant staphylococcus
aureus). They can pass this resistance on to their daughter
cells. Prokaroytes can be useful e.g. in cheese and yoghurt
making. In mammalian gut they make vitamin K and help
digest some food.

Plasma membranes
Roles- separate cells contents from outside, cell components
from the cytoplasm, used for cell recognition and signalling,
regulate movement of materials in and out of cells
Plasma membrane and phospholipidsPhospholipids have a phosphate group head (hydrophilic) and
two fatty acid tails (hydrophobic)

If phospholipids are surrounded by water, they form a bilayer

Specialised plasma membranes- plasma membranes of

growing shoots contain receptors to detect growth regulating
substances. Muscle cell membranes have a large number of
channels to take up glucose to provide energy for contraction.
White blood cell plasma membranes contain special proteins to
recognise antigens.
Permeability- permeable to water and some solutes and so is
called partially permeable.

Fluid mosaic model

Model proposed by Singer and Nicholson in 1972

Model consists of : Phospholipid bilayer
Protein molecules floating in the bilayer
Extrinsic proteins (partially embedded in the bilayer) and
intrinsic proteins (span the bilayer)
Glycolipid and glycoproteins- have carbohydrate attached
to them are attached to the bilayer (involved in cell signalling
and some are hormone receptors)
Cholesterol- gives stability to the bilayer
Channel proteins- molecules that are too large (e.g. sugar) or
too hydrophilic can pass through these channels to get across
the bilayer
Carrier proteins- actively move substances across the
membrane using ATP
Receptor sites- are on the membrane for substances such as
hormones or drugs to bind and affect cell metabolism e.g.
glycoproteins and glycolipids

Metabolic processes- In the membrane in chloroplasts

photosynthesis occurs, and in the membrane of mitochondria,
respiration takes place

Effect of temperature on membranes- when temperature

increases, molecules gain kinetic energy and the plasma
membrane becomes more leaky. Organisms that live in
extremes temperatures have different cholesterol content to
stabilise the membrane.
Communication and cell signalling
Single-celled organisms need to respond to signals around
them e.g. presence of nutrients and the cells of multicellular
organisms need to respond to internal and external signals.
Cells need receptors (often made of protein or modified protein)
to detect these signals and bring about a response.
Hormone receptors- any cell with a receptor for a hormone
molecule is called target cell. The receptor is a complementary
shape to the hormone molecule. When the hormone binds to
the receptor in the target cell responds in a particular way.
Example insulin hormone- insulin is released by beta-cells of
the Islet of Langerhans in the pancreas. It attaches to protein
receptors on cells such as muscle and live cells. When the
hormone attaches to the receptor, more glucose channels open
allowing more glucose to enter cells.
Drugs interfering with receptors- Beta-blocking drugs block
receptors on heart muscle cell plasma membranes preventing
increase in heart rate.
Movement of substances across the plasma membrane
Passive movement simple diffusion and facilitated
diffusion
Active processes- active transport, endocytosis and
exocytosis

Passive movement
Substances need to get into cells for metabolic reactions and
waste needs to be removed
Simple diffusion- there is a net random movement of
molecules across the plasma membrane as the molecules have
kinetic energy and they move down a concentration gradient.
No energy is required- passive. In living organisms there are
features that ensure that equilibrium is never reached e.g. in
plants cells use carbon dioxide for photosynthesis and so
carbon dioxide levels are lower in the cell than outside.
Factors affecting the rate of diffusion:- Temperature,
concentration gradient, stirring/movement, surface area,
distance/thickness, size of molecule
Lipid-based molecules (including hormones) can easily
diffuse across the phospholipid bilayer along their
concentration gradient.
Very small molecules and ions are small enough to pass
through the bilayer even if they are polar e.g. water
Facilitated diffusion- molecules which are small and charged
or large molecules cannot diffuse through the bilayer. These
can travel through proteins which span in bilayer and do move
by facilitated diffusion.
2 protein types
Channel proteins- form pores through the membrane
and only allow one type of ion through e.g. sodium and
calcium. Many are gated so can be opened and closed

 Carrier proteins- shaped to the specific molecule which

travels through them. When the molecules fits into the
carrier protein, the protein carrier changes shape which
allows the molecule to be released on the other side of the
membrane e.g. glucose and amino acids

Active transport
Sometimes substances need to be transported across the
plasma membrane against their concentration gradient and this
requires energy.
Carrier proteins and active transport- some carrier
proteins act as pumps and take molecules (large or charged
ions) across the membrane against their concentration
gradient. Like the ones used in facilitated transport, the carrier
proteins are a complementary shape to the molecule but the
molecule is moved in only one direction across the membrane,
it is faster and ATP is required. ATP changes the shape of the
carrier protein and so now the molecule no longer fits and
leaves the carrier on the other side of the membrane e.g.
calcium involved in muscle fibre contraction.

Bulk transport (moving large amounts)- this require ATP

and large quantities of material are moved into a cell
(endocytosis) or out of a cell (exocytosis).

Naming bulk transportEndo- inwards

exo= outwards

Phago= solid material pino= liquid material

So exopinocytosis= movement of liquid material out of a cell
Osmosis
Is a special type of diffusion
It is the movement of free water through a partially permeable
plasma membrane, along its concentration gradient

If a solute dissolves in water (solvent) to form a solution, there

is less free water available.
Water potential is the tendency of free water to move from one
place to another. When water is pure it has a water potential of
zero. When solutes are dissolved in it, the water potential is
lowered (goes below zero) as there is less free water to move.
This means that strong solution that have a lot of solute
dissolved in it have a very negative water potential.

Osmosis in plant and animal cells

Mitosis
Mitosis is cell division that results in two daughter cells that are
genetically identical to the parent cell, but is only a small part
of the overall cell cycle for the cell

(above are the stages of the cell cycle)

Copying of DNA for cell division to produced identical

cells- In eukaryotes, the DNA in the chromosomes is
wrapped in proteins called histones (DNA + histone
proteins= Chromatin). When new cells are going to be
produced, chromosomes are copied, and the two copies of
each chromosome are held together at the centre by a
centromere.

Copies of chromosomes are proof-read by enzymes to

ensure that the genes are copied precisely otherwise mutations
can occur.
Why are new cells needed Growth- multicellular organism need to produce
genetically identical new cells to grow
Repair- damaged cells need to be replaced with new ones
Replacement- RBCs and skin cells need to be replaced
with new ones when they die
Asexual reproduction- single-celled organisms divide
and produce two separate organisms (Paramecium). Some
multicellular ones (Hydra) produce offspring from parts of
the parents. The offspring are called clones
Stages of mitosisAre 4 stages to mitosis
1. Prophase
2. Metaphase
3. Anaphase
4. Telophase
Prophase- chromosomes supercoil and become visible, the
nuclear envelope breaks down, centrioles divide and move to
opposite poles of the cell.
Metaphase- chromosomes move to the middle of the cell
and protein threads attach from the centrioles to the
centromeres of the chromosomes
Anaphase- spindle fibres shorten and pull the sister
chromatids apart (now called chromosomes again) towards
the poles of cells.

Telophase- spindle breaks down and nuclear envelope

forms around each set of chromosomes
Cytokinesis- this is where the cell splits into two identical
daughter cells. In animal cells, cytokinesis starts with the cell
pinching in from the outside but in plant cell a cells plate
forms along the middle of the cell.

Bacteria do not divide by mitosis by rather by binary fission,

as mitosis is cell division involving chromosomes and bacteria
do not have these, but have naked DNA not associated with
histone proteins, and they are free in the cytoplasm as there
are no nuclear envelopes
Plant clones- Produced when a plant is grown from a cutting,
and plants such as strawberry plants that grow clone plants at
the end of runners
Animal clones- Dolly the sheep was a clone. A nucleus from a
sheeps udder cell (full set of chromosomes) was placed in the
egg cell of another sheep where the nucleus had been
removed. The egg cell containing a full set of chromosomes
was placed in the uterus of another sheep. When the lamb is
born it is a clone of the sheep from which the full set of
chromosomes was originally obtained.
Stem cell- called omnipotent or totipotent as can differentiate
to become any sort of specialised cell. Stem cells can be

obtained in small numbers from bone marrow. More can be

obtained from left-over embryos from IVF
Growth in animals and plants- most animal cells can undergo
mitosis and cytokinesis but in plants only cells in the meristem
(shoot tips and roots) can.

Producing genetically different cells

Happens during sexual reproduction

Gametes (egg and sperm) are produced by meiosis cell division

and result in half the number of chromosomes. Homologous
chromosomes have the same genes e.g. eye colour but the
alleles (versions of the same gene) may be different e.g. blue
colour allele, brown colour allele. When meiosis cell division
occurs some eggs/sperm will have the gene for blue eyes and
other for brown eyes.

Meiosis is different from mitosis as cells produced have

half the number of chromosomes and are genetically
different from each other

Cell specialisation
Differentiation- this is where cells become different from
others to carry out a particular role. They become specialised
for that role.
Cells can become differentiated in a number of ways such as
changes to the number of a particular organelle, shape of the
cell, or some of the contents of the cell.
Examples of differentiated cellsBlood cells produced in the bone marrow are undifferentiated
(stem). If they lose their nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi, and RER,
they become red blood cells (packed with haemoglobin to carry
oxygen from the lungs to the tissues). If the cells remain the
same but have loads of lysosomes they become white blood
cells which ingest and kill microbes.
Tissues- made up of similar cells that carry out a common
function
Organs- made up of different tissues working together to
perform a particular function
Organ systems- made up of different organs which work
together to perform an overall life function.
Plant tissues

 Xylem tissue- made up of xylem vessels with

parenchyma cells and fibres. Meristems produce small
cells that elongate. They then reinforce their walls with
lignin and this also makes the cells waterproof (because
Xylem transports water). The waterproofing kills the cell.
The ends of the cells disintegrate to form tubes running
the whole length of the plant. They transport water up the
plant and help support the plant.
Phloem tissue- Meristem makes small cells that elongate
and line up end to end. The ends do not completely break
down this time but have many holes so they are called
sieve plates. They are alive this time and they each have a
companion cell that does a lot of the metabolic work for
the phloem (bit like a life support system for the phloem
cell as it has been changed so much)
Animal tissues
4 main groups of animal tissues
1. Epithelial cells layers and linings i.e. lining of the
intestines
2. Connective Tissues Holds structures together and
provides support e.g. cartilage and bone
3. Muscle tissues- specialised to contract to cause
movement
4. Nervous tissues- Cells that can convert stimulus into
electrical signals and conduct those impulses
Squamous epithelial cells These are flattened thin cells that form thin, smooth flat
surfaces. This makes them perfect for lining tubes like
blood vessels. Smooth to allow quick flow and thin to allow
diffusion through them. They secrete basement
membrane (bit like glue) made from collagen and
glycoproteins to attach themselves to connective tissues

Ciliated epithelial cells These are column shaped cells with cilia on the top. Found
on the inner surface of tubes: e.g. lungs, uterus and
oviducts. Some produce mucus. So for example in the
lungs they secrete mucus to trap particles that are
inhaled, the cilia then beat in rhythmic waves to move the
mucus and trapped dirt back up the throat to where they
are swallowed

Plants tissues working together for photosynthesis

Upper epidermis- transparent top layer to let light

through
Palisade layer- long thin neatly packed cells full of
Chloroplasts (containing Chlorophyll)
Spongy Mesophyll Layer- loosely packed to allow the
movement of gases
Lower epidermis layer- containing pores called stomata
(they can open and close) these let gases into and out of
the leaf
Xylem and Phloem tubes - bring in water and take away
the glucose made by photosynthesis

Opening and closing of stomata

Gas exchange occurs through the stomata
Guard cells contain chloroplasts unlike the rest of the
lower epidermis

When glucose is made by photosynthesis in the guard

cells, water potential decrease and so water moved in.
This causes the guard cells to bulge and open the stomata
to allow more gases in and out of the leaf.