THE

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

EVOLUTION

THE

BY

A.

EINSTEIN

AND

first

series

language
specialist

LIBRARY

SCIENCE,

books

new

suitable

for

reader,
branches

many

The

of

series

is

is

CAMBRIDGE

general

modern

Dr

by

published

science.
C.

LONDON,

P.

Snow,

by

PRESS

UNIVERSITY

HOUSE,

non-

position

present

of

in

describing,
the

the

edited

and

BENTLEY

INFELD

in

appeared

MODERN

OF

in

L.

CAMBRIDGE

THE

PHYSICS

OF

EUSTON

N.W.

ROAD

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

PHYSICS

BY

ALBERT

EINSTEIN
"

LEOPOLD

SCIENTIFIC

THE
in

CHARING
LONDON

INFELD

BOOK

CLUB
ROAD

CROSS
W.C.

PREFACE

BEFORE

begin reading,

you

be

simple questions to
this

book

been

for whom

Who

quite superfluous, at

find

simpler

it

intend

to

be.
Here

is

physical

facts

and

sketch
to

the

in

of

to

representation

had

Facts

We

probletn
devoted
left out,
but

should
to

chosen.

be

it. Some

not

because

of facts
not

they

and

do

world.

judged by

the

they

lines

of

seemed
lie

road

along

thought
us

the

our

of

maze

significant.
had
to

importance
number

to

ideas

highway

general aim,
The

not

the
some

this

show

But

and

ideas.

essential

because

our

our

to

invent

to

by

forced, by

were

choice

definite

reached

not

of ideas

world

choose

to

human

the

tried

characteristic

most

us

of

simple. Through
had

we

theories

and

omitted.

to

be

rather

was

science
of

of

elementary

intention

have

reality

to

in

course

not

textbook

We

the

We

does

the

compel

easier,

book

between

which

much

attempts

phenomena.

concepts

seemed

the

questions

book.

written

Our

outline

corresponding

which

reader

of the

this

systematic

no

be

end

what

theories.

forces

and

the

not

connection

world

active

have

broad

find

just

say

We

physics.

these

would

This

convincingly.

to

facts

has

purpose

imaginary

begin by answering

to

though

the

some

it is meant?

and

and

what

is the

clearly

mind

For

answered.

written?

It is difficult

to

rightly expect

you

to

be

make
of

of pages
have

been

unimportant,
road

we

have

PREFACE

VI

Whilst
the

characteristics
deal

good

and

about
of

found

ideas

and

which

he

understand

passages.
any

though

he

page

He

carefully.

ones

popular,

admire

to

He

realized

must

have

knew

must

less

that

not

be

physics
virtues.

with

patience

and

interesting
that

in
the

read

scientific

read

in

philosophical

the

the

through

struggled

of
of

and

physical

for

up

number

great

in

forced

were

difficult

more

quite

making

knowledge

concrete

any

interested

we

him

to

as

worried

and

reader

had

We

discussions

long

idealized

our

by

him

had

we

him.

mathematics

We

book

of

lack

complete

the

writing

the

order

to

preceding
book,

same

even

as

way

novel.

The

may
our

some

is

book
find
aim

it

boring

will

be

idea

human

governing

simple

of

mind

or

between

chat

interesting,
if

accomplished
the

for

physical

eternal

fuller

and

you

dull

or

these

struggle

understanding

You
but

exciting,
give

pages

of

us.

the

you

inventive
of

the

laws

phenomena.
A.

E.

L.

I.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

WE

us

to

WISH

with

the

I.

M.

her

Phillips
kind

very

for

for

Steinberg

who

this

for

his

have

kindly

so

in

book,

photographs

helped

particular

Princeton,

Shenstone,

Poland,

Lwow,

Dr

those

of

G.

A.

N.

all

preparation

Professors

Loria,

thank

on

N.J.,

and

plate

III.

St

drawings.

reading

the

manuscript

for

and

help.
A.

L.

E.

I.

CONTENTS

I.

THE

RISE

The

great

The

first clue

OF

mystery

THE

MECHANICAL

VIEW

story

page 3
5

Vectors

12

The

riddle

One

clue

Is heat

of motion

19

remains

34

substance?

38

The

switchback

The

rate

The

philosophical background

55

The

kinetic

59

II.

of

47

exchange

theory of

THE

two

The

magnetic

The

first serious

The

velocity

The
What
The

riddle
a

wave

fluids

The

two

83

difficulty

of

87

light

94

97
100

wave?

104

of

theory
or

the

as

light

no

light waves?

transverse

mechanical

III.

field

71

of colour

and

The

VIEW

substance

Longitudinal
Ether

MECHANICAL

THE

fluids

electric

as

is

matter

OF

DECLINE

The

Light

51

view

FIELD,

the

123

RELATIVITY

representation

pillarsof

120

field

theory

29

142

CONTENTS

The

realityof

Field and
The

the field

156

ether

and

160

scaffold

mechanical

Ether

page 148

motion

172

Time, distance, relativity

186

and mechanics
Relativity
The time-spacecontinuum
General
relativity

202

Outside

226

and

Geometry

209
220

inside the lift

and

experiment
and its verification
relativity

General
Field and

255

QUANTA

Continuity,discontinuity
Elementary quanta of matter
The quanta of light
Light spectra
waves

249

matter

IV.

The

235

and

263
265

electricity

272
280

286

of matter

Probabilitywaves
Physicsand reality

310

Index

OF

LIST
Plate

i.

n.

in.

Brownian
Diffraction

294

facingPaSe

waves

66
118

light

Spectrallines,diffraction
electronic

PLATES

movement

of

of

X-rays and

of
286

I.

OF

THE

THE

MECHANICAL

RISE

VIEW

THE

OF

The

MECHANICAL

"

One

"

switchback

THE

IN

Such

follow

the

solution
the

of

the

Can
who

solutions

of

it has

extended
the

just

the

and

endeavour

very

modified
of

in

of
to

science

we

book

book

the

will have

disclosure

itself,contrary

moment
a

to

be

us;

expect
to

the

to

it
solve

more

the

to

over,
more-

it.

scientists,

continue

seek

to

The

of nature?
abandoned

justificationwhich
make

we

complete

author's

generations

mysteries

the

disappoint

not

pels
com-

If

case.

at

solution

of such

modicum

the

of

the

story.

clues, and

arrive

before

The

successive

is false and

comparison
but

the

The

"

perfect mystery

theory

the reader

throughout

riddle

ground
philosophicalback-

essential

the

own

book.

at

liken

we

all

mysteries, does

it appears

substance?

The

the

exists

our

for ourselves
end

The

"

STORY

plot carefully, we

of inferior

those

heat

MYSTERY

presents

form

to

us

Vectors

"

theoryof matter

there

story

Is

"

"

GREAT

IMAGINATION

clue

of exchange

rate

kinetic

VIEW

fast

remains

clue

The

"

The

"

at

The

great mystery story

motion

of

THE

RISE

later,
be

may

appropriate
mystery

of

the

universe.
This

great

mystery

story is still unsolved.

We

to

cannot

EVOLUTION

THE

be

even

has

that it has

sure

already given
of the

language

understand

many

of

excitement

and

joy

of science.
volumes

read

and

final solution. The

it has

of nature;

of the

But

much;

us

PHYSICS

OF

the

has

been

ments
the rudi-

to

us

source

oftentimes

realize that in

understood

us

enabled

it has

clues,and
in

we

taught

reading

we

vance
painful adspiteof all the

stillfar from

are

complete solution,if,indeed, such a thing exists at all.

At every stage we
try to find an explanationconsistent
with the clues alreadydiscovered. Tentativelyaccepted
of the facts,but
theories have
no
explained many
general solution compatible with

all known

clues has

evolved.

Very often a seeminglyperfecttheory

has proved inadequate in the lightof further reading.
New
facts appear,
plained
contradictingthe theory or unexwe
read, the more
fullydo we
by it. The more
appreciatethe perfectconstruction of the book, even
vance.
adto recede
we
as
though a complete solution seems
yet been

In

nearly

every

stories of Conan

detective

Doyle

novel

there

comes

since
a

the

time

admirable
when

the

has collected all the facts he needs for at

investigator
least some
phase of his problem. These facts often seem
quite strange, incoherent, and wholly unrelated. The
further investiga
great detective,however, realizes that no
is needed

at

the moment,

and

that

only pure

thinkingwill lead to a correlation of the facts collected.

So he plays his violin,or lounges in his armchair
joying
ena pipe,when
suddenly,by Jove, he has it ! Not
only does he have an explanationfor the clues at hand,

RISE

THE

he

but

OF

that

knows

Since

happened.
for it,he may

MECHANICAL

THE

he

other

certain

events

have

must

look

exactlywhere to
to collect further
likes,

knows

now

out, if he

go

VIEW

firmation
con-

for his
The

scientist

allowed

be

to

solution for
of other

theory.
reading the

repeat the

himself;for he

stories often

the reader

In

our

to

explain,at

case

coherent

find the
phrase, must
cannot, as impatientreaders
turn

to

part, the

obtain

and

may

trite

even

the

of the

end

book.

seeking
investigator,
of events

relation
a

to

the

partialsolution

collect the unordered

scientist must
them

To

if we

of nature,

is also the

least in

their rich context.

make

do,

book

facts available

understandable

by

and

creative

thought.
It is

broad

our

outline

that

the

pure

to

shall be
and
the

aim, in the followingpages,

describe

in

of

sponds
correphysicistswhich
We
thinking of the investigator.

work

chieflyconcerned

ideas in the

to

adventurous

with

the

search

role

for

of

thoughts
knowledge of

physicalworld.

THE

FIRST

GLUE

Attempts to read the great mystery story are as old as

human
thought itself. Only a little over three hundred
years
ago, however, did scientists begin to understand
the language of the story. Since that time, the age of
Galileo and Newton, the readinghas proceededrapidly.
ing
Techniquesof investigation,
systematicmethods of findand followingclues,have been developed. Some
of

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

been

PHYSICS

the riddles of nature

have

of the solutions have

proved temporary

lightof

in the

further

those

research.

the

understand

observe

we

into the

pushed along
To

superficial

problem, for thousands of years

is that of motion.
by its complications,

motions

thrown

stone

and

fundamental

most

wholly obscured
All

solved,althoughmany

in

nature

that

"

air,a ship sailingthe

street

are

"

in

sea,

of
a

cart

intricate.

realityvery

phenomena it is wise to begin

with the simplestpossiblecases, and proceed gradually
Consider
to the more
a body at rest,
complicated ones.
where
there is no motion
at all. To
change the position
of such a body it is necessary
influence
to exert
some
it,to push it or liftit,or let other bodies,such as
upon
horses

steam

or

is that

motion

these

engines,act
is connected

upon

with

it. Our
the

intuitive idea

acts

of

pushing,

or
lifting
pulling.Repeated experience would make us
that we
risk the further statement
must
push harder if
the body faster. It seems
wish to move
natural to
we
that the stronger the action exerted on a body,
conclude
the greater will be its speed. A four-horse
carriage
by only two horses.
goes faster than a carriage drawn
connected
Intuition thus tells us that speed is essentially

with

action.

It is
that

fact to

false clue muddles

solution.
was

were

familiar

The
wrong

held

for

fiction

the story and

led to false ideas

centuries.

throughout Europe

of detective

postpones the
tion
of reasoning dictated by intui-

method
and

readers

was

Aristotle's

perhaps

the

of motion

great
chief

which

authority
reason

for

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

PHYSICS

of the observable
already a theoretical interpretation
which
evidence,an interpretation
is,in fact,arbitrary.
One
significant
step farther and we shall have the right
clue. Imagine a road perfectly
smooth, and wheels
with

friction

no

stop the cart,

to

conclusion

all. Then

at

that

so

is reached

there

it would

for

run

nothing
This

ever.

only by thinkingof an idealized

be actually performed,
can
never

experiment, which
since it is impossible
to eliminate
The
idealized experiment shows
formed

be

would

the foundation

all external

influences.

the clue which

of the mechanics

really

of motion.

of approaching the
Comparing the two methods
problem, we can say: the intuitive idea is the greater
"

the

action,the greater the velocity.Thus

shows
a

whether
The

body.

or

not

clue

new

external
found

forces

by

the

acting

are

Galileo

velocity

is : if

on

body

is neither

acted on
in any
other
pushed, pulled,nor
if no
external forces act on
a
briefly,
or, more
way,
uniformly, that is, always with the
body, it moves
same
velocityalong a straightline. Thus, the velocity
does

on

whether

show

not
a

or

not

external

forces

body. Galileo's conclusion, the

are

correct

ing
act-

one,

the
as
generation later by Newton
law of inertia. It is usually the first thing about physics
of us may
which
learn by heart in school,and some
we
formulated

was

remember

it:

Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform

motion
in a rightline,unless it is compelled to change that
state by forces impressed thereon.
We

have

seen

that

this law

of inertia

cannot

be

RISE

THE

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

VIEW

derived

directlyfrom experiment,but only by speculative

thinkingconsistent with observation. The idealized
be actuallyperformed, although
experiment can never
it leads to a profound understanding of real experiments.
From

the

around

us

choose

we

is the

This

forces

varietyof complex
as

along

road

move

there
can,

from

never

can

are

the

world
tion.
mo-

external

no

however,

be

never

pushed
cause
absolutelyuniformly betower,

the

eliminate

cannot

we

motion

thrown

stone

in

first example uniform

our

simplest,because

acting. Uniform

realized; a

motions

influence

cart

of external

forces.
In

often

good

lead

to

understand

the

most

the

the

story

of nature

obvious

intuitive

thought

creates

obvious

most

suspects. In

wrong

laws

the

our

clues

attempts

to

that
find, similarly,

we

explanation is

often

the

one.

wrong

Human
the

mystery

universe.

Galileo's

ever-changingpictureof
contribution
to destroy the
was
an

This is the
one.
replaceit by a new
of Galileo's discovery.
significance
mediatel
arises imBut a further questionconcerning motion
indication of the exIf the velocityis no
ternal
forces actingon a body, what is? The
to
answer
this fundamental
found
by Galileo and
question was
still more
conciselyby Newton, and forms a further
intuitive view

clue in
To
more

our

find

and

investigation.
the

correct

deeply about

answer

the cart

we
on

must

think

smooth
perfectly

little
road.

IO

THE

In

idealized

our

due

was

now?

motion

the absence

that the

would

its

of the motion.

the
the

slowed
decelerated,
or

Thus

or

in the

direction.
Two
.

external

an

happens
viously,
Just as ob-

follows at

conclusion

force

of motion
this

saw

city.
changes the velo-

in

or

clearlyand

the

opposite
in

wrote

his

Sciences :

velocityonce
be rigidlymaintained
.

What

oppositeto that of the

speed. In the first case the
push, in the second case

down.

direction

Galileo

New

given

velocityitself but its change is a

of pushing or pulling.Such a force either
decreases the velocity
accordingto whether

consequence

it acts

us

the

not

increases

tion
mo-

direction

by

of

is

cart

is increased.

speed

decrease

the action

the

of all external forces. Let

uniformly moving

the

is accelerated

once:

PHYSICS

experimentthe uniformityof

Obviously
a push in

cart

OF

in the direction

push

to

imagine

now

EVOLUTION

any

acceleration
is found

as

retardation

or

only

planes which

imparted

on

long

to
as

moving body

the

external

removed,

are

horizontal

planes;

slope downwards

causes

condition

for

in

will

the

of

which
case

of

there is

already present a
cause
on
planesslopingupwards there
is retardation; from
this it follows that motion
along a
horizontal plane is perpetual; for, if the velocitybe uniform,
of

while
acceleration;

it cannot

be

diminished

or

slackened, much

less

destroyed.

By followingthe right clue we

achieve
understandingof the problem of motion. The
between

not,

as

we

connection

force

should

and

think

between

the

change
according to

force

and

the

of

deeper
tion
connec-

velocity and
the
our
intuition,
velocityitself" is
"

THE

the

RISE

basis

of

OF

THE

MECHANICAL

classical

VIEW

mechanics

II

formulated

as

by

Newton.
We

have

been

use

of two

the

further

making

concepts which
play principalroles in classical mechanics: force and

change

of

science

both

velocity. In

of these concepts

They

extended

are

of

development
and

be examined
must, therefore,

alized.
gener-

closely.
What
is force?
feel what is meant
we
Intuitively,
by
this term.
The
from the effort of pushconcept arose
ing,
throwing or pulling from the muscular sensation
accompanying each of these acts. But its generalization
think
can
goes far beyond these simpleexamples.We
more

"

of force

without

even

! We
the

speak of the force

the earth,the earth

and

sun

forces

those

force

which

by which
and

where

and

observe

we

An
in

in his

wrote

impressed force

order

to

change

uniformlyforward
This

change

longer

maintains

body,

in

must

between
and

moon,

of

speak of the

ourselves

its

which

is

action

an

its state, either

in

the

riage
car-

and

all the

of influence

sphere

the wind

makes

of trees.

When

external
an
velocity,
be held responsible.

:
Principle,

exerted
of rest,

upon
or

body,

of

moving

rightline.

force consists in the

in the

and

the leaves

force,in the general sense,

Newton

attraction

within

moves

pullinga

tides. We

of the force with

or

horse

of

compels

remain

to

us

the sea,

on

the

cause

the earth

objects about
waves

picturinga

when

action

the

it

action

only; and
is

over.

remains
For

no

body

acquires,by its vis inertiae

only. Impressed forces are of different origins;as from
force.
percussion,from pressure, from centripetal
every

new

state

12

EVOLUTION

THE

If

is

is

stone

by

the stone

dropped from

the top of
the

uniform;

means

no

conclude:

falls.We

PHYSICS

OF

an

velocityincreases
external

in the direction of the motion.

the

earth

the

attracts

happens when

What

take

us

another

is thrown

stone

force is

as

ing
act-

Or, in other words

Let

stone.

its motion

tower

ample.
ex-

straight

upward? The velocitydecreases until the stone reaches

in
its highestpoint and begins to fall. This decrease
force as the acceleration
velocityis caused by the same
the force acts in the
of a fallingbody. In one
case
direction of the motion, in the other case in the opposite
direction. The
or

force is the same,

deceleration

dropped

according

thrown

or

but it
to

tion
accelera-

causes

whether

the

is

stone

upward.
VECTORS

All
that

motions

have

we

been

rectilinear,

consideringare

line. Now
is,along a straight

we

must

go

one

step

gain an understandingof the laws of nature

and
by leaving out
by analysing the simplest cases
of our
first attempts all intricate complications.A
It is, however,
straightline is simpler than a curve.

farther. We

impossible to

be

rectilinear motion

satisfied with
alone. The

an

motions

understanding
of the moon,

of

the

justthose to which the principles

planets,
been
of mechanics
have
applied with such brilliant
motions
are
along curved paths. Passingfrom
success,
rectilinear motion
to motion
along a curved path brings
earth and

new

the

difficulties. We
them

if

we

have

must

wish

to

the

understand

courage

the

to

come
over-

principles

RISE

THE

THE

OF

of classical mechanics
and

formed

so

the

MECHANICAL

which

VIEW

the

us

gave

for
starting-point

the

13
first clues

development

of science.

Let

consider

another

experiment,in
which
a
perfectsphere rolls uniformly on a smooth
table. We
that if the sphere is given a push, that
know
is,if an external force is applied,the velocitywill be
that the direction of the blow
changed. Now
suppose
is not, as in the example of the cart, in the line of
motion, but in a quite different direction,say, perpendicular
that
line. What
to
happens to the sphere?
Three
the
be distinguished:
can
stages of the motion
us

initial

motion, the

after the force has

motion
the

law

action
there

of

is

changed.

of the
ceased

inertia,the velocities

of the

and

force

both

are

difference

between

after the action

final motion

force, and
to

will be

somewhere

and

before

between

the force if the blow

is

hard

to

after the
But

the uniform

fore
be-

of the force

them,

final

perfectlyuniform.
:

nearer
one

and

motion

the direction

sphere and
perpendicularto each
along neither of these

are

the

According

act.

initial path of the

The

of the force

but

action

idealized

is

tion
the direcother. The
two

lines,

the direction

of

city
the initial velo-

originalline of motion if the blow

is gentle and the initial velocitygreat. Our
new
clusion,
conbased on the law of inertia,
is : in general the
action of an external force changes not only the speed
but also the direction of the motion.
An understanding
small,nearer

the

of this fact prepares

into

physicsby

us

for the

introduced
generalization

the concept of vectors.

14

THE

We

EVOLUTION

continue

OF

PHYSICS

method
straightforward
of reasoning.The starting-point
is again Galileo's law
of inertia. We
stillfar from exhaustingthe conseare
quences
of this valuable clue to the puzzle of motion.
Let us consider two
rections
spheresmoving in different dican

on

to

may

each

use

smooth

we
picture,

to

So

table.

the two

assume

other.

our

Since

have

to

as

directions

there

are

definite

lar
perpendicuforces

external

no

acting,the motions
are
perfectlyuniform. Suppose,
further,that the speeds are equal, that is,both cover
the

distance

same

is it correct

to

velocity?The
of two
is usual

to say

in

the

interval

same

say that the two

answer
cars

that

can

both

sphereshave

be yes
show

of time.

or

! If the

no

fortymiles

they have the

the

per

But
same

meters
speedohour, it

speed or velocity,
in which
matter
direction they are travelling.
no
But
science must
its own
create
cepts,
conlanguage, its own
for its own
Scientific concepts often begin
use.
with those used in ordinary language for the affairs,
of everyday life,but they develop quite differently.
and lose the ambiguity associThey are transformed
ated
with them in ordinarylanguage,gaining in rigorthat they may
ousness
be applied to scientific
so
thought.
From
the physicist's
pointof view it is advantageous
to

say

that the velocities of the two

different directions
matter

four

same

of

are

spheresmoving in
different. Although purely a

convention, it is

cars

travelling
away

on

different roads

more

from

do

not

convenient
the

same

have

the

to

say

that

traffic roundabout
same

velocity

l6
it is

in

or,

and

scale of units is

chosen

some

whose

If four

direction

PHYSICS

be

Velocity may
brieflyspeaking,by

arrow.

an

arrow

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

a
a

representedby an
whose
vector
length
of the speed,
measure

is that of the motion.

diverge with equal speed from a traffic

roundabout, their velocities can be representedby four
of the same
vectors
length,as seen from our last drawing.
In the scale used, one
inch stands for 40 m.p.h. In this
be denoted
velocitymay
by a vector, and
way
any
conversely,if the scale is known, one may ascertain the
velocityfrom such a vector diagram.
If two
cars
pass each other on the highway and their
speedometersboth show 40 m.p.h.,we characterize their
with arrows
different vectors
velocities by two
pointing
So also the arrows
in opposite directions.
indicating
subway trains in New
"uptown" and "downtown"

York

cars

point in oppositedirections.

must

moving

uptown

avenues

with

which

nothing

the

be

may

about

train passes or
is running. In

convention,

regarded
lines,are

at

different

stations

speed
representedby
a
on

same

vector

to

all such

the

all trains

on

different

velocity,

same

singlevector.

indicate

which

There

stations

is
the

tracks it
parallel
words, according to the accepted

which

other

have

or

But

of the many

vectors,

as

drawn

below,

may

be

or
equal; they lie along the same
parallel
of equal length, and
finally,have arrows

as

THE

RISE

pointingin
vectors

or

all

the

MECHANICAL

THE

direction.

same

different,because

direction, or

drawn

OF

in another

both.
way,

The

VIEW

The

they differ

same

in which
"*

figure shows
either in length

next

four

they

vectors

all

may

be

diverge from

l8
a

point. Since

common

matter, these
cars
or

moving

away

can

from

travellingwith

indicated

OF

the

PHYSICS

does
starting-point

not

represent the velocities of four

the

same

cars

in

the

traffic roundabout,
different

indicated

parts of the

speeds

in

the

directions.

be used to describe
now
representation
may
linear
the facts previouslydiscussed concerning rectitalked of a cart, moving uniformly
We
motion.
line and receivinga push in the direction
a straight
which
increases
its velocity.Graphically
its motion

This

of

vectors

velocities of four

the

country

in

EVOLUTION

THE

vector

this may

be

denoting the
in the

same

representedby two vectors, a shorter one

velocitybefore the push and a longer one
direction denoting the velocityafter the

is clear; it
meaning of the dotted vector
for which, as we know,
represents the change in velocity
the push is responsible.
where
For the case
the force
is directed
is
against the motion, where the motion
slowed
different.
down, the diagram is somewhat

push.

The

-XAgain the dotted vector

corresponds to a change in
but in this case
its direction is different.
It is
velocity,
clear that not only velocities themselves
but also their
But every
changes are vectors.
change in velocityis

RISE

THE

due

the action

to

also

must

be

characterize
hard

we

be

have

force

the

In the two
of the

of

MECHANICAL

IQ

order

In

vector.

it is not

VIEW

force; thus the force

external

an

representedby

alone. Therefore
must

THE

sufficient

to

to

how

state

tion
push the cart; we must also say in which direcpush. The force,like the velocityor its change,
representedby a vector and not by a number

we

must

OF

the external force is also

direction

same

truly as

as

change

dotted vectors

drawings the

force

the

as

in

velocity.

the direction

show

indicate

they

vector, and

the

change

in

velocity.
Here

the

scepticmay

in the
been

introduction

accomplished is
facts

to

convince

into

the

an

him

he

that

of vectors.

unfamiliar

that he is wrong.

and

that

vantage
adhas

be

difficult
he

the moment

language leads

to

an

justthis strange
in which
important generalization

vectors

to

be

essential.

is,in fact,right.But

appear

RIDDLE

THE

So

long
line,we

we

as
are

in

we

shall

no

recognized
previously
complicated

indeed
For

sees

All

of

translation

this stage it would

At

language.

remark

see

OF

that

MOTION

deal
far

nature.

only with motion along a straight

from
served
understanding the motions obconsider
motions
We
must
along

paths,and our next step is to

governing such motions. This is no

curved

of rectilinear

case

change
we

do

of

not

motion

our

determine
easy

concepts

the laws

task.
of

In the

velocity,

useful.
and force proved most
velocity,
immediately see how we can apply them

But
to

2O

THE

motion

along

imagine

often
not

must
must

Should

try

we

generalizationof
used

It is indeed

to

unsuited

are

that

and

possibleto

follow

ones

new

our

We

old

in science.

is

concept

must

path, or

process

very

method

of

fulfilled.

explainthis by the example with which

dealing.We can try to generalizethe old

best

can
now

are

and
change of velocity,
concepts of velocity,
the

scriptio
the de-

to

generalizationis
ous
uniquely determined, for there are usuallynumerOne requirement,however,
ways of carryingit out.
be rigorouslysatisfied: any generalizedconcept
reduce to the original
when
the originalconditions
one
are

we

path.

PHYSICS

one?

new

The

curved

general motion,

created.

seek

OF

that the old concepts

of

be

EVOLUTION

of motion

force for

curved

path. Technically,
when
include
speaking of curves, we
straightlines.
The
straightline is a specialand trivial example of a
curve.
If,therefore,velocity,
change in velocity,and
force are
for motion
introduced
along a curved line,
case

along

then

they are
automatically introduced for motion
dict
along a straightline. But this result must not contracomes
bethose results previouslyobtained.
If the curve
a straight
line,all the generalizedconcepts must
reduce
to the familiar ones
tion.
describingrectilinear moBut

this restriction is

sufficient to determine

not

the

generalization
uniquely. It leaves open many possibiliti
The
historyof science shows that the simplest
successful and somesometimes
times
generalizations
prove
not.

We

must

first make

guess.

In

our

case

it is

RISE

THE

OF

simple matter
The

MECHANICAL

the

to guess

concepts

new

understand

us

to

as

that of the
And

THE

now

the motion

and force mean

velocity,
along a curved line? Let
the

curve

right. Such
dot

the

on

small

very

small

rightmethod

prove

planets.
justwhat do

in

curve

VIEW

very

of

the words

of

21

tion.
generaliza-

successful and
thrown

stone

as

help
well

velocity,change

in

generalcase of motion
us
begin with velocity.Along
body is moving from left to
in the

body is often
our
drawing

The
particle.
shows the positionof
time. What
is the velocity
position?Again Galileo's

the

called

instant of
at some
particle
correspondingto this time and
We
clue hints at a way of introducingthe velocity.
must,
once
use
our
imagination and think about an
more,
idealized
along the
experiment. The particlemoves
the influence
of exfrom
left to right, under
ternal
curve,
forces. Imagine that at a given time, and
at

point indicated by

the

act.

to

cease

law

of

the dot, all these forces

Then, the motion

inertia,be

uniform.

suddenly
must, according to the
of
In practice we
can,
a
body from all external

completelyfree
influences. We
can
only surmise "what
if.
?" and judge the pertinenceof our
course,

never

would

conclusions

agreement

which
with

can

be

drawn

experiment.

from

it

happen
guess by the
and by their

THE

22

The

to

were

motion

It is the

vanish.

Looking
microscope one sees
appears

as

at

if all external

direction

of the

forces

so-called

moving particlethrough

a
a

PHYSICS

drawing indicates the guessed

of the uniform

tangent.

which

OF

in the next

vector

direction

EVOLUTION

very

small

small

part of the

segment. The

curve,

tangent is its

prolongation.Thus the vector drawn

represents the
lies on
vector
velocityat a given instant. The velocity
the tangent. Its lengthrepresents the magnitude of the
the speed as indicated,for instance,by the
or
velocity,
speedometer of a car.
Our idealized experiment about destroyingthe motion
in order to find the velocity
be
not
vector
must
taken too seriously.
what
It only helpsus to understand
should call the velocityvector
and enables us to
we
determine
it for a given instant at a given point.
In the next
drawing, the velocityvectors for three
different positions
of a particle
moving along a curve

shown.

In this

only the direction but the

indicated by the length
as
magnitude of the velocity,
of the vector, varies during the motion.
are

case

not

EVOLUTION

THE

24

*-"

"

and

the

new

separate the

lines in

two

coincide

they would
We

We

one.

have

now

to

have

force
that

had

and
we

make

change

in

formulate

can

understand

to

"

regained
remark

may
our

most
so

as

special

that

had

we

to

drawing, since otherwise

indistinguishable.

the last step in

take

generalization.It is the
we

is

be

and

PHYSICS

.........

previous concept

of the

case

OF

our

important of

far. The

velocityhas

all the guesses

connection
to

the clue which

be

of

process

between

established

will enable

us

so

to

generalproblem of motion.
The clue to an explanationof motion
along a straight
for change
line was
simple: external force is responsible
direction as
in velocity;
has the same
the force vector
what
the change. And
is to be regarded as the
now
clue

to

the

curvilinear

Exactly the

motion?

same

! The

a
only difference is that change of velocityhas now
broader
meaning than before. A glance at the dotted
of the last two drawings shows this point clearly.
vectors
If the velocityis known
for all pointsalong the curve,

the direction
at

once.

One

point can be
velocityvectors

of the force at any

must

draw

the

deduced
for two

separated by a very short time interval and

each
therefore
corresponding to positionsvery near
other. The
from
the end-point of the first to
vector
that of the second indicates the direction of the acting
force. Butvit is essential that the two
velocityvectors
instants

THE

should

RISE

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

VIEW

25

time
separated only by a "very short"
interval. The
rigorousanalysisof such words as "very
it was
near", "very short" is far from simple. Indeed
this analysiswhich
Leibnitz
led Newton
and
to the
discoveryof differential calculus.
It is a tedious and elaborate path which
leads to the
show
here
generalizationof Galileo's clue. We cannot
how

be

abundant

and

fruitful the

of this

consequences

proved. Its applicationleads to

facts preconvincingexplanationsof many
viously

generalizationhave

simple and

incoherent

From

and

misunderstood.

extremely rich varietyof motions we shall

take only the simplestand
apply to their explanation
the law justformulated.
A bullet shot from a gun, a stone
thrown
at an
angle,
of water
stream
a
emerging from a hose, all describe
familiar paths of the same
the parabola. Imagine
type
a
speedometer attached to a stone, for example, so
for any instant.
that its velocityvector
be drawn
may
the

"

The

result may

drawing. The
is justthat of

representedin
direction of the force actingon
the change in velocity,
and we

how

it may

be

next

drawing,

well

be that

determined.
indicates

The

the stone
have

result,shown

that the force is

above

the

seen

in the

vertical,and

26

THE

directed downward.
stone

is allowed

It is

to

exactlythe

A
around
All

the centre
stone

in

attached
a

the

the

when

tower.

The

but
velocities,
direction,that is,

the

are

same

earth.

the end

to

horizontal

the vectors
have

of the

also

as

same

top of

the

fall from

as
paths are quite different,
the change in velocityhas

toward

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

plane

of

moves

string and
in

circular

swung

path.

tion
diagram representingthis molength if the speed is uniform.

in the
same

the velocityis not uniform, for the path

Nevertheless,
line. Only in uniform, rectilinear mois not a straight

RISE

THE

tion

are

are,

and

there

forces involved.

no

27

VIEW

Here, however, there

velocitychanges not in magnitude but in

there must
According to the law of motion

the

direction.
be

MECHANICAL

THE

OF

force

responsiblefor

this

change, a force in
this case
the stone
the hand
between
and
holding the
string.A further questionarises immediately: in what
direction does the force act?
Again a vector diagram
The
the answer.
shows
for two
velocityvectors
very
near
points are drawn, and the change of velocity
some

found.

This

last vector

string toward

the

the

of the

Very

is the

of the

exerts

same
our

former

earth

around

tween

along

the

it

directed

was

but

moon,

of

centres

from

is
we

the

tower.

on

no
can

always

tangent.

In

the

by

stone

This

the
toward

be

earth
the

tion.
mo-

for

the

hand

in

stringconnecting the
imagine a line be-

toward

stone

the

may

circular

bodies; the

two

is directed

earth, just as the force

uniform

toward

example. There

this line and

dropped

on

the earth.

as

is directed

that

the

and

or

is

important example of

more

moon

force

reason

force

represented approximately
The

circle,and

along the

string.

similar

revolution

of the

directed

velocityvector,

words, the hand

means

be

to

seen

centre

perpendicularto
other

is

force

the centre

thrown

in the

lies

of the
air

or

28
that

All

summed
are
velocity

in

observed.

thought

to

motion

be

can

Force and

change of

direction. This

is the

problem of motion, but it certainly

for a thorough explanationof all motions

The

that

of

in

the

corner-stone

concerning

the

to

suffice

not

said

PHYSICS

single sentence.
having the same

vectors

initial clue
does

have

we

up

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

transition
Galileo

formed

foundation

Aristotle's line of

from
a

most

of science.

important
Once

break

was

made, the line of further development

clear.

Our

interest here lies in the first stages of

this
was

ment,
develop-

followinginitial clues, in showing how new

physicalconcepts are born in the painfulstrugglewith
old ideas. We
concerned
are
only with pioneer work
and
consists of finding new
in science, which
pected
unexin
paths of development ; with the adventures
scientific thought which
create
an
ever-changing picture
in

of the universe.

The

initial and

fundamental

steps

gination
revolutionarycharacter. Scientific imafinds old concepts too confining,
and
replaces
The
continued
them
ones.
by new
development along
in the nature
of evolution,
any line alreadyinitiated is more
until the next
turningpoint is reached when a
stillnewer
field must
be conquered. In order to understand,
difficulties force
and what
however, what reasons
know
a change in important concepts, we
must
not only
the initial clues,but also the conclusions which
be
can
are

always of

drawn.
One

of the most

important characteristics

physicsis that the conclusions

but
not
are
only qualitative

drawn
also

from

of modern
initial clues

quantitative. Let

us

RISE

THE

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

VIEW

2Q

again consider a stone dropped from a tower. We have

that its velocityincreases as it falls,
but we
should
seen
like to know
much
more.
Just how great is this change?
And
at

what

is the

time

any

positionand
after it begins to
and

predict events

to

whether

observation

thus the initial

To

of

language

everyone.

of

fall? We

determine

confirms

these

wish

the stone

to

be able

by experiment
predictionsand

assumptions.

mathematics.

of science

rule, be

velocityof

conclusions
quantitative

draw

ideas

to

the

Most

of

must

we

the

use

the

fundamental

essentially
simple,and may, as a
expressed in a language comprehensible to
To

are

follow

up

these

ideas demands

the knowledge

refined

technique of investigation.
Mathematics
tool of reasoning is necessary
if we
as
a
wish
which
be compared
draw
conclusions
to
may
with experiment. So long as we
concerned
are
only
the
with
fundamental
avoid
physical ideas we
may
Since in these pages we
do
language of mathematics.
this consistently,
must
selves
we
occasionallyrestrict ourof the results
to quoting, without
proof, some
for an
understanding of important clues
necessary
arisingin the further development. The price which
matics
be paid for abandoning the language of mathemust
of someand the necessity
is a loss in precision,
times
quoting results without showing how they were
highly

reached.
A

very

earth
closed

important example

around
curve,

the

It is known

sun.

called

of motion

the

The
ellipse.

is that

that the

of the

path

construction

is
of

a
a

THE

30

EVOLUTION

of the

diagram

vector

the force

on

OF

change

PHYSICS

in

the earth is directed

velocityshows
toward

the

that
But

sun.

this,after all,is
be

able

scant

information.

We

like to

should

predictthe positionof the earth and the

other planets for any
arbitraryinstant of time, we
should
like to predict the date and
duration
of the
and many
solar eclipse
other astronomical
next
events.
It is possible
but not on the basis of
to do these things,
to

initial clue

our

alone, for it is

now

necessary

to

know

only the direction of the force but also its absolute

the
value
who
made
its magnitude. It was
Newton
inspiredguess on this point. According to his law of
bodies
the force of attraction between
two
gravitation
depends in a simple way on their distance from each
not

"

other.

it
specific

To

be

the

distance

distance

Thus
we

have

smaller

It becomes

is

see

becomes

doubled,

3x3

that in the

succeeded

in

the distance
times

2x2=4

three times

is made
we

when

as

times

increases.
smaller

smaller

if

if the

great.
of

force
gravitational
in a simple way, the
expressing,
case

EVOLUTION

THE

32

OF

PHYSICS

the

change in velocityduring a short time interval.

Knowing the initial velocityand its change, we can
find the velocityand positionof the planet at the end
of the time interval. By a continued repetition
of this
the whole
path of the motion may be traced
process
without

further

to

recourse

observational

data. This

is,

in

mechanics
the way
of
predictsthe course
principle,
used here is hardly
a body in motion, but the method
practical.In practicesuch a step-by-stepprocedure
tunately,
Forwould
be extremelytedious as well as inaccurate.
it is quiteunnecessary;
furnishes
mathematics
short cut, and makes
a
possibleprecisedescriptionof
for a single
in much
less ink than we
the motion
use
The

sentence.

proved

or

The

same

disprovedby
kind

of

motion

revolution

conclusions

stone

of the

earth's attraction

reached

can

be

observation.

of external

force is

fallingthrough
moon

in this way

in its

for material

recognizedin

the

air and

the

in the

orbit,namely, that of the

bodies.

Newton

nized
recog-

falling
stones, of the moon,
of a
and of planetsare only very specialmanifestations
universal gravitational
force acting between
two
any
be described
bodies. In simple cases
the motion
may
In remote
and predictedby the aid of mathematics.
and extremely complicated cases, involving the action
of many
bodies on each other,a mathematical
tion
descripis not
so
principles
simple, but the fundamental
that the motions

are

the
We

of

same.

find

followingour

the

conclusions,at which

initial clues, realized

we

arrived

in the motion

by
of

THE

RISE

OF

thrown

stone,

and

planets.

the

It is
be

found

proved

that

the

Nevertheless

we

based

of the

system

be

can

33

moon,

the

of guesses

which

isolated

planetsmoving
well

can

the

around
works
that

imagine

earth,
is to

No

for separate

of mechanics

system

different

on

motion

VIEW

disproved by experiment.

or

of the

case

MECHANICAL

whole

assumptions

the

In

the

reallyour

either

of the

in

THE

one

testing.
it is

sun

splendidly.

another

system,

work

assumptions, might

just

as

well.

Physical concepts
mind, and are not,
the

by
understand

sees

and

but

has

he

ingenious

he

could
but

only

be

never

no

somewhat
of

moving hands,
of

way

opening

be

endeavour

like

explain his
his

compare

trying

man

the

If he

case.
a

is

mechanism

things

his

He

its ticking,

hears

even

to

watch.

closed

all the

quite sure

human

our

picture of

some

never

could
to

the

termined
uniquely de-

seem,
In

responsible for

may

able

world.

form

be

he

it may

are

of

creations

mechanism

the

may

which

one

external

the

the face

which

however

realitywe

understand

to

free

are

he

serves,
ob-

picture is the

observations.

He

will

with

the

real

picture

the

possibility
the meaning of such a comparison. But he certainly
or
believes that, as his knowledge increases, his picture of
simplerand simplerand will explain
realitywill become
of his sensuous
wider
and
wider
impressions.
a
range
mechanism

He

of

and

also

may

knowledge

mind.

He

may

he

cannot

believe

and

even

in the

that

existence

of the

ideal

limit

approached by the human

ideal limit the objectivetruth.

it is

call this

imagine

34

THE

EVOLUTION

GLUE

ONE

When

REMAINS

first
that

settled for

and

suspect the existence

noticed

of

for three

clue is connected
of mechanics

Again

impression
of science is simple,
all time. One would hardly

studying mechanics
everythingin this branch

fundamental

one

PHYSICS

OF

years.

The

of the fundamental

one

that of

"

important clue

an

hundred

with

the

has

one

which

no

neglected
concepts

mass.

simple idealized experiment

of the cart on
a
perfectlysmooth road. If the cart is
and then given a push, it afterwards
at rest
initially
moves
uniformlywith a certain velocity.Suppose that
the action of the force can
times
be repeated as many
of pushing acting in the
as
desired,the mechanism
force on
the same
and
same
exertingthe same
way
However
times the experiment is repeated,
cart.
many
the final velocity
is always the same.
But what happens
if the experiment is changed, if previously
the cart was
and

empty
a

return

we

smaller

now

it is loaded?

The

loaded

final

velocitythan

the

empty

is: if the

bodies, both
will not
on

the

the

to

force

same

at
initially
rest,

be the

We

same.

acts

the

that

say

on

cart
one.

will have
The

two

clusion
con-

different

resultingvelocities
the velocitydepends
if the

mass

know, therefore,at least in theory,how

to

mass

of the

body, being

smaller

is

greater.
We

the
many

of

mass

times greater

identical

forces

one

acting on

body
mass

two

or,

more

is than

termine
de-

exactly,how

another. We

restingmasses.

have

Finding

RISE

THE

that the

velocityof

that

than

is three

of the

times

not

two

masses.

the

do

of

us

We

determining

in

This

is

certainly

similar

based

way,

the

upon

of inertia.

in the way

discuss

greater

of

some

law

answer.

times

that the first mass

the second.

reallydetermine

we

is three

mass

35

determining the ratio of

nevertheless,well imagine having

in

the

VIEW

conclude

we

than

can,

this,or

correct

Let

second,

We

of course,

MECHANICAL

the first

smaller

applicationof
How

THE

practicalway

very

it in

done

OF

in

practice? Not,
Everyone knows
just described.
do it by weighing on
a scale.
mass

detail

more

the

different

two

ways

mass.

do
to
experiment had nothing whatever
with
cart
gravity, the attraction of the earth. The
and
horizontal
moves
along a perfectlysmooth
plane
after the push. Gravitational
the
force, which
causes
the plane, does not change, and plays no
cart
to stay on
It is quite different
of the mass.
role in the determination
scale if the
with
a
use
weighing. We could never
earth did not
attract
bodies, if gravity did not exist.
first

The

The

difference

between

mass

is that

first has

of

the

gravity while

the

the

nothing

second

of

determinations

two

with

do

to

is based

the

force

essentiallyon

its

of two

masses

in

same

sult?
re-

existence.
We

both

ask

answer

results

not

have

not

reason.

we

determine

described

ways

The
The

if

are

been
Let

above,

the
do

ratio

obtain

we

the

given by experiment is quite clear.

could
! This conclusion
exactly the same
foreseen, and
us, for

the

is based
sake

of

on

observation,

call
simplicity,

the

36
mass

determined

in the first way

that

determined

in

In

mass.

the
it

world

our

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

the

second

happens

the

way

that

and

inertial mass

gravitational

equal,but

they are

imagine that this should not have been the

at all. Another
case
question arises immediately: is this
identityof the two kinds of mass
purely accidental,or
well

can

we

it have

does

the

point of

the two

is

is accidental

masses

be

should

The
deeper significance?
is :
view of classical physics,
a

attached

to

and

it. The

identityof
deeper significance
of modern
physics

no

answer

the

just the opposite: the identityof

fundamental

and

forms

and

new

from

answer,

the

two

essential

is

masses

clue

ing
lead-

profound understanding.This was, in

fact,one of the most important clues from which the
so-called general theory of relativity
was
developed.
A mystery story seems
inferior if it explainsstrange
accidents. It is certainlymore
to
events
as
satisfying
have the story follow a rational pattern. In exactlythe
offers an explanationfor the
a theory which
same
way
is superior
identityof gravitationaland inertial mass
which
to
one
interpretstheir identityas accidental,
provided,of course, that the two theories are equally
to

more

consistent with
Since
was

this

identityof

fundamental

we
relativity,
closelyhere.

that

the two

masses

from

inertial and

for the

gravitationalmass

formulation

of the

in examining
justified
What
experiments prove

are

masses

Galileo's old

facts.

observed

are

the

same?

The

experiment in which

he

He

that

tower.

noticed

it

theory

of

littlemore

convincingly
answer

lies in

dropped different
the time required

RISE

THE

for the fall

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

37

VIEW

always the same, that the motion of a

To link this
fallingbody does not depend on the mass.
simple but highly important experimental result with
tricate
the identityof the two
rather inneeds some
masses
reasoning.
A body at rest givesway
before the action of an external
force,moving and attaininga certain velocity.It
less easily,
or
according to its inertial mass,
yieldsmore
is large
the motion
more
resisting
stronglyif the mass
than if it is small. We
pretending to
may
say, without
be rigorous:the readiness with which
a body responds
to

the

mass.

with
would

call of
If it

the
move

greatest inertial

fall in

the

all bodies

must

which

different.

the
Now

mass

But

other.
same

earth
the

way.
attracts

earth

tracts
at-

gravity and knows

The
nothing about its inertial mass.
"calling"force of
the earth depends on
the gravitational
The
swering"
anmass.
of the stone
motion
depends on the inertial
Since the
mass.
answering motion is always the same
all bodies dropped from
the same
height fall in the
that gravitational
it must
be deduced
same
mass
way
and inertial mass
are
equal.
More
a
physicistformulates the same
pedantically
conclusion : the acceleration
of a falling
body increases
in proportionto its gravitational
and decreases in
mass
bodies
Since all falling
proportionto its inertial mass.
a

stone

with

be

by

all bodies

attracts

any

the force

masses

of

its inertial

on

than
slowlyin falling
case:

that

depends

that the earth

force, that

more

means

different

true

were

the

force

external

an

same

this is not

This

was

the

force

of

"

"

"

"

"

38

EVOLUTION

THE

have

the

must

be

In

OF

acceleration,the

constant

same

PHYSICS

two

masses

equal.
story there

great mystery

our

wholly solved

are

settled for all time.

and
had

problems

no

dred
After three hun-

problem of
to
motion, to revise the procedure of investigation,
had been
ing
find clues which
overlooked, thereby reacha different pictureof the surrounding universe.
we

years

the realm

of heat

divide

science

to

here

and

with

are

those

in
originating
is impossible,
however,

It

unrelated

separate and

into

find that the

soon

with

interwoven
we

clue,one

new

phenomena.

shall

Indeed, we

the initial

to

SUBSTANCE

follow

begin to

we

return

HEAT

IS

Here

to

those
A

developed in one branch of science

of events
applied to the description
different

concepts

character.

in

often modified

are

both

of those to

and

sprang
The

of those

most

this

In
so

duced
concepts intro-

new

shall still meet.

as

sections.

alreadyfamiliar,
line of thought

can

very

often be

apparently quite
the original
process
advance

to

phenomena
which
they are

from

the understanding
which

they
newly applied.
concepts in the description

fundamental

phenomena are temperature and heat. It took

an
unbelievablylong time in the historyof science for
but once
this distinction
these two
to be distinguished,
made
cepts
was
rapid progress resulted. Although these con-

of heat

are

them

tfiem.

now

familiar

to

everyone,

closely,emphasizing

the

we

shall examine

differences

between

40

THE

the

at

them

end
all in

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

of which

time, if we apply a thermometer

succession, it will point preciselyto the

to
same

degree.
The

italicized word

heats

day nomenclature,
A
man's

be

physician taking the thermometer

mouth
like this: "The
might reason

indicates its

mercury

We

column

But

in contact

thermometer

sick

thermometer

the

with

the

that

assume

increases in

in temperature.
minutes

from

umn
temperature by the lengthof its col-

own

of mercury.

and

should,accordingto presentreplaced by the word temperatures.

length

proportionto

thermometer

my

of the

the increase

was

for

few

bothjjatient
P^ientjjojhat

havef the Tame

temperature.

con-

cIuHe,therefore,that my patient's
temperature is that
The
doctor
registeredon the thermometer."
probably

mechanically,but
without
thinkingabout
acts

But

of heat
assume

does
as

he
it.

the

thermometer

the

body

that two

of the

bodies

just because their

Black remarked, be

appliesphysicalprinciples
contain
man?

the

Of

same

course

amount

not.

To

contain

of heat
equal quantities
temperatures are
equal would, as

taking a very hasty view of the subject. It is confounding

the quantity of heat in different bodies with its general
strengthor intensity,
though it is plain that these are two
different things,and should always be distinguished,
when
we
are
thinkingof the distribution of heat.
An

understanding of this distinction can be gained

by consideringa very simple experiment. A pound of

RISE

THE

placed

water

change

from

OF

THE

over

MECHANICAL

flame

gas

VIEW

takes

some

4!

time

to

the

boilingpoint.
A
much
longer time is required for heating twelve
in the same
vessel by means
of
pounds, say, of water
the same
flame. We
this fact as indicatingthat
interpret
of "something" is needed
and we
call this
now
more
"something" heat.
A
further
important concept, specific
heat^is^
gained
by the followingexperiment: let one vessel contain a
and another
of mercury,
both
a pound
pound of water
in the

heated

be

to

much

temperature

room

same

The

way.

quickly than

the

to

mercury

gets hot

showing that less

"heat"
is needed
to raise the temperature by one
degree.
different amounts
In general?
of "heat"
are
requiredto
change by one degree,say from ^ojtp 41 degreesFahmore

renheit, the temperatures

as~water, mercury,
samelrTass.
heat

We

say

water,

of different

iron,copper,
that each

substances

woodTelc^

substance

such

aTroTtHc

has its individual

heat.
capacit^^j)Y,
specific

Once

one

vestiga
having gained the concept of heat, we can inits nature
We
have two
more
bodies,
closely.
of a
hot, the other cold, or more
precisely,one

higher temperature
contact

and

free

than
them

the other. We
from

all other

Eventually they will, we

But

how

bring them
external

know,

does this take

reach

into

fluence
inthe

place? What
the instant they are
happens between
brought into
and
the achievement
of equal temperatures?
contact
The
other
pictureof heat "flowing" from one body to anlike water
flowing from a higher
suggests itself,

same

temperature.

EVOLUTION

THE

42
level to

of the

picture,though primitive,seems
facts,so that the analogy runs :

Water"

Higher

Heat
"

"

Higher temperature
Lower

temperature

peratures,
proceeds until both levels,that is,both temare
equal.This naive view can be made more
considerations.
If definite masses
by quantitative

flow

useful

of water

will lead
mixture.

to

alcohol, each

and

mixed

are

us

level
level

Lower
The

PHYSICS

This

lower.

fit many

to

OF

at

definite temperature,

heats
together,a knowledge of the specific
of the
to a predictionof the final temperature
perature,
Conversely,an observation of the final temtogetherwith a little algebra,would enable

find the ratio of the two

heats.
specific

recognizein the concept of heat which

here a similarity
to other physicalconcepts.
according to our view, a substance, such as
We

mechanics.

Its

put aside in

quantitymay

safe

safe will remain

locked, and
isolated
such

so

or

change

spent. The

unchanged

so

will the amounts

amount

long as
of

body. The ideal thermos

safe. Furthermore, just as
is

or

mass

Heat

is,

mass

in

not, like money

of money

in

the safe remains

and

flask is

the

appears

mass

heat

in

an

analogous
of

an

to

lated
iso-

if a chemical
formation
transunchanged even
takes place,so heat is conserved
even
though
it flows from one
body to another. Even if heat is not
of a body but for
used for raisingthe temperature
melting ice,say, or changing water into steam, we can
stillthink of it as a substance
and regain it entirely
by

system

RISE

THE

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

VIEW

43

The
old
liquefyingthe steam.
latent heat of melting or vaporization,show
names,
that these concepts are drawn
from the pictureof heat
Latent heat is temporarilyhidden, like
a substance.
as
in a safe,but available for use if one
put away
money

freezingthe

or

the lock combination.

knows

heat is certainlynot

But

Mass

mass.

as

water

can

of heat?

what

substance

detected

be

Does

by

means

in the

of

same

sense

scales,but

when
piece of iron weigh more
red-hot than when
ice-cold?
Experiment shows that it
If heat is a substance at all,it is a weightless
does not.
"heat-substance"
The
was
one.
usually called caloric
first acquaintance among
and is our
a whole
family of
weightlesssubstances. Later we shall have occasion to
fall. It is
follow the historyof the family, its rise and
the birth of this particularmemsufficient now
to note
ber.

The

wide
so

far

seen

of any

purpose
a

of

range

as

it does

that

the

physicaltheory is to explain as
in
phenomena as possible.It isjustified
make

events

substance

understandable.

theory explainsmany

We

have
of the

become
ever,
phenomena. It will soon
apparent, howbe
that this again is a false clue,that heat cannot
This is clear
weightless.
regarded as a substance, even
if we
about
think
some
simple experiments which
marked
the beginning of civilization.
We
think of a substance
as
something which can

heat

be

destroyed.Yet primitiveman
amples
Exby friction sufficient heat to ignitewood.
of fact,
of heating by friction are, as a matter

neither

created

created

nor

44
much
In

too

and

numerous

all these

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

PHYSICS

familiar

to

need

recounting.
is created, a

quantity of heat
for by the substance
fact difficult to account
theory. It
is true
invent
that a supporter of this theory could
for it. His reasoningwould
to account
run
arguments
something like this: uThe substance theory can explain
of heat. Take
the apparent
creation
the simplestexample
of two
one
piecesof wood rubbed
againstthe
other. Now
rubbing is something which influences the
and
wood
changes its properties.It is very likelythat
the properties
that an unchanged quanare
so modified
tity
cases

some

produce a higher temperature than

before. After all,the only thing we
notice is the rise
It is possiblethat the friction changes
in temperature.
the specific
heat of the wood
and not the total amount
of heat

to

comes

of heat."
this stage of the discussion

At

with

argue

is

supporter
which

matter

can

of the substance
be

settled

identical pieces of
Imagine two
equal changes of temperature are
methods; in one
case
by friction
with

contact

have

the

be useless to

it would

theory, for this

only by experiment.
and

wood
induced
and

suppose

by

different

in the other

radiator,for example. If

the

two

by
pieces

heat at the new

specific
temperature, the
whole substance theorymust
break down. There are very
for determining specific
heats, and the
simple methods
fate of the theory depends on
the result of just such
Tests which
measurements.
are
capable of pronouncing
verdict of life or death
quently
frea
on
a
theory occur
in the history
of physics,
and are called crucial
same

THE

RISE

OF

THE

MECHANICAL

VIEW

45

experiments.The crucial value of an experiment is revealed

only by the way the questionis formulated,and
only one theory of the phenomena can be put on trial
by it. The determination of the specific
heats of two
bodies

of the

by friction and
of

kind, at equal temperatures attained

same

heat

crucial

flow

is a typicalexample
respectively,
experiment. This experiment was
hundred
and
fiftyyears ago by

performed about a
Rumford, and dealt
theory of heat.
An

from

extract

death

blow

Rurnford's

to

the

account

own

substance

tells the

story:
It

frequentlyhappens, that

in the

ordinary affairs and

occupationsof life,opportunitiespresent themselves of contemplating

of the most
curious operationsof Nature;
some
and very interesting
philosophicalexperiments might often
be made, almost without
trouble or expense,
of
by means
mechanical
machinery contrived for the mere
of
purposes
the

and

arts

I have
and

manufactures,

had
frequently

occasion

persuaded, that a
thing that is going

habit

to

make

this

observation;

of

keeping the eyes open to

in the ordinary course
of the
on
every
business of lifehas oftener led, as it were
by accident,or in
the playfulexcursions of the imagination,put into action
by contemplating the most
to useful
common
appearances,
doubts, and sensible schemes for investigation
and improvement,
am

than

all the

more

in the hours

intense meditations

of

philosophers,

expressly apart
study
in
Being engaged, lately, superintending the boring of
in the workshops of the militaryarsenal at Munich,
cannon,
I was
struck with
the very
considerable
degree of Heat
which
a brass gun
acquires,in a short time, in being bored ;
and

with

the

for

set

still more

intense

Heat

(much

greater

than

46

EVOLUTION

THE

that

of

boiling water, as I
chipsseparatedfrom

metallic

From

whence

by experiment) of

found
it

by the borer
actuallyproduced

the

....

the Heat

comes

PHYSICS

OF

mechanical
Is

by

operationabove mentioned?
it furnished
by the metallic chips which

in the

the solid

the borer from

are

separated

of metal?

mass

then, according to the modern

doctrines of latent Heat, and of caloric,the capacityought
not only to be changed, but the change undergone by them
If this

should

the

were

case,

sufficiently
great

be

to

for all the

account

Heat

produced.
change had taken place; for I found, upon
taking equal quantities,
by weight, of these chips,and of
thin slipsof the same
block of metal separatedby means
of a fine saw
and
putting them, at the same
temperature
of
of
(that boilingwater), into equal quantities cold water
(thatis to say, at the temperature of 59^" F.) the portion
of water
into which
the chips were
not, to all
put was
But

such

no

heated

appearance,

portion,in
Finallywe
And,

in

consider
of the

which

either

the

reach

slipsof

this

Heat

to
to

it be

other

put.

were

subject,we

must

not

forgetto

be

inexhaustible.

add, that anything which any

of bodies, can
continue
to furnish
and
possiblybe a material substance]
possible,
if not quite imextremely difficult,
to

distinct idea

communicated,

communicated

of

anything, capable

in the

in these

manner

of

the Heat

Experiments, except

MOTION.

Thus
be

any

and

excited and

was

to

me

form

being excited

the

circumstance, that the source

generated by friction,in these Experiments,

cannot
limitation,

it appears

metal

than

remarkable

most

appeared evidentlyto be
It is hardly necessary
insulated body, or system
without

more

or

his conclusion

reasoning on

that

less

more

we

see

exact,

the breakdown
we

see

that

of the old
the

theory,or to
substance
theory is

48

EVOLUTION

THE

for himself

find out

must

is to

run

up

and

down, with

trial and

by

simple rule: he may

he pleases
so
long as
point. If the car is

its

course,

times

he

as

be

consider

Let

us

idealized

build

The

one.

to

attain

may

level.

he

He

exceed

never

by

very

in whatever

path
starting-

feet

it. The

car

at

covers
dis-

soon

follow

must

hundred

car

starting-point,
say,

pointis higherthan the

proceed freelyto the end

no

reached

on

an

of the

as

many

initial

height

actual

track

hypotheticalengineerneed

our

that.

follow

the motion

switchback

language lesson:
oranges." It is
having

its

build

his track

of the idealized
it

as

the

connection

to

that

As
starting-point.
the ground diminishes, but
sentence
at first sight may

from

PHYSICS

ground

error

of friction,but

because
not

height

likes,but

never

can

how

feet above

hundred

one

OF

"I
not

between

six oranges,

have
so

my
but

begins
it

its

roll downward

to

its distance

moves

speed

remind

the

on

car

us

increases.
of

one

from
This

from

pencil,but you have six

There
is no
stupid,however.
having no pencil and your
no

there is

very

real correlation

THE

between

RISE

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

the distance

of the

its speed. We

can

mathematical

formulae.

VIEW

from

car

the

49

ground

and

speed of the car at any

know
if we
how
moment
high it happens to be above
the ground, but we
omit this point here because of its
quantitativecharacter which can best be expressedby
At
one

its

the

calculate

highestpoint the

hundred

feet from

car

the

has

zero

ground.

At

velocityand
the lowest

is

sible
pos-

point it is no distance from the ground, and has

its greatest velocity.These
be expressedin
facts may
has potential
At its highestpoint the car
other terms.
energy

but

no

kinetic energy

or

energy

of motion.

At

its

lowest

point it has the greatest kinetic energy and no

At all intermediate
tions,
posipotentialenergy whatever.
where
there is some
elevation,
velocityand some
it has both kinetic and
potentialenergy. The potential
the kinetic
increases with the elevation,while
energy
becomes
greater as the velocityincreases. The
energy
suffice to explain the motion.
principlesof mechanics
in the mathematical
Two
expressionsfor energy occur
each
of which
changes, although the sum
description,
It is thus possible
tically
mathemadoes not vary.
to introduce
the concepts of potential
and rigorously
energy,
depending on position,and kinetic energy, depending
introduction
of the two
The
names
on
is,of
velocity.
arbitrary and justified
only by convenience.
course,
remains
of the two quantities
The sum
unchanged, and
is called

constant

of the

be

kinetic
with

can
plus potential,
kept intact
money

motion.

as

The

compared,
to

amount

total energy,
for
but

example,
changed

EVOLUTION

THE

5O

OF

PHYSICS

to
another, say from
continuallyfrom, one
currency
dollars to pounds and back again,according to a welldefined rate of exchange.
In the real switchback, where
friction prevents the
from again reaching as high a point as that from
car
tween
which
it started,there is stilla continuous
change bekinetic and
Here, however,
potentialenergy.

the

does

sum

Now

The

the

wealth

of consequences

more

smaller.

is needed

aspects of motion.

from
generalizations

and

later.

than kinetic and potential

Something more
energies
now
involved, namely, the heat created by friction.

Does

this heat
energy,

seen

heat

and

grows

step

courageous

mechanical

this step will be

is

constant, but

remain

important and

one

relate

to

not

new

form

guess

in

diminution

chanical
me-

that is kinetic and

is imminent.

If heat

of energy,

kinetic and
heat

the

correspond to

potentialenergy?
be regarded as a
may
of all three
heat,

perhaps the sum

potentialenergies remains

alone, but heat and

"

other

forms

"

constant.

Not

of energy

taken

THE

RISE

togetherare,

OF

like

THE

MECHANICAL

VIEW

substance,indestructible.

5!

It is

if

as

in francs for
pay himself a commission
also
changing dollars to pounds, the commission
money

must

man

being

saved

francs is

that

so

fixed

the

of

sum

according to

amount

and

dollars,pounds,

defiYiite

some

exchange rate.
The

of science

progress

of heat

as

with

THE

than

led

to

the

heat

RATE

OF

hundred

years

of

concept

heat

older

destroyedthe

substance.

substance,energy,

Less

has

We
as

try

create

to

cept
connew

of its forms.

one

EXCHANGE

the

ago
as

form

which

clue

new

of energy

was

guessed by Mayer and confirmed

Joule. It is a strange coincidence

experimentallyby
that nearly all the

fundamental

the

concerned

work

with

of heat

nature

done

who
by non-professional
regarded
physicists
the
was
physicsmerely as their great hobby. There
versatile Scotsman
Black, the German
physicianMayer,
Count
and the great American
adventurer
Rumford,
was

afterwards

who

lived

became
activities,

in

Minister

and,

Europe
of War

among

for Bavaria.

other

There

English brewer Joule who, in his spare

most
cerning
time, performed some
important experimentscon-

was

also the

the conservation

Joule
a

form

verified

of energy,

It is worth
The

our

kinetic

by experiment
and

while
and

constitute

of energy.

determined

the

of

the rate

justwhat
potentialenergy
to

that

guess

see

its mechanical energy.

In

is

exchange.

his results
of

heat

were.

system
the

case

gether
to-

of

THE

52

switchback

the

mechanical

OF

EVOLUTION

made

we

that

guess

of the

some

If this is

into heat.

converted

was

energy

PHYSICS

be here and
in all other similar
right,there must
physical processes a definite rate of exchangebetween
the two. This is rigorously
a quantitative
question,but
the fact that a given quantity of mechanical
energy
be changed into a definite amount
of heat is highly
can
what
number
should
like to know
important. We
the
of exchange, i.e., how
much
rate
expresses
of mechanical
heat we
obtain from
a
given amount
energy.

The

of this number

determination

Joule'sresearches.
is very

The

of

mechanism

as

not

runs

one

of

the system.

to

further interfered with, it may

down.

will

have

be

If the

regarded

Gradually the weights fall and

closed system.

clock

objectof
his experiments

winding of such a clock consists of

thereby adding potentialenergy
clock is

the

weight clock. The

elevatingtwo weights,

like that of

much

was

At

the

end

reached

of

their

certain

time

the
the

lowest

positionand
has happened to
the clock will have
stopped. What
the energy? The
potentialenergy of the weights has
changed into kinetic energy of the mechanism, and
has then graduallybeen dissipated
heat.
as

weights

clever alteration in this

Joule

to

measure

the

heat

sort

of mechanism

lost and

thus

enabled
the

rate

of

exchange. In his apparatus two weights caused a

in water.
The
paddle wheel to turn while immersed
potentialenergy of the weights was changed into kinetic
energy

of the movable

parts, and

thence

into heat which

THE

raised
this

RISE

the

OF

THE

temperature

change

MECHANICAL

of the

of temperature

known

specificheat

of heat

absorbed.

trials as follows

and, making

summarized

53

measured

Joule

water.

of water,

He

VIEW

calculated
the

use

the

of the
amount

results of many

quantity of heat produced by the friction of

solid or liquid,
is always proportionalto the
bodies,whether
energy] expended.
quantity of force [by force Joule means
i st.

That

the

And

quantity of heat capable of increasingthe

and
of a pound of water
(weighed in vacuo
temperature
taken at between
55" and 60") by i" Fahr. requiresfor its
force [energy]
the expenditure of a mechanical
evolution
by the fall of 772 Ib. through the space of one foot.
represented
2nd.

In

That

other

elevated

words,
foot

the

potentialenergy
above
the ground

of 772

is

pounds

equivalentto

quantityof heat necessary to raise the temperature

perimenters
one
pound of water from 55" F. to 56" F. Later exwere
capableof somewhat
greater accuracy,

the
of

one

the

54

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

PHYSICS

what
equivalentof heat is essentially
Joule found in his pioneerwork.
Once
this important work
was
done, further progress
was
rapid. It was soon recognizedthat these kinds
of energy, mechanical
and
heat, are only two of its
forms.
Everything which can be converted into
many
but

the mechanical

either of them

given

off

is also
the

by

into

heat

Coal

motor.

heat when
form
at

on

system,

is conserved

and

thus

of

system,

we

proudly

can

of the nineteenth

or

In

no

closed

energy

in such

of any

whole

kind

one

with

system is

universe

part of it can

The

substance.

as

the

century that the energy

is invariant,that

one

influences,the energy
like

announce

as

another, always

exchange.

behaves

possibleforms of
constant, although the amount
changing. If we regard the

liberated
in nature

event

of

the wheels

energy,

into

external

of all

sum

turns

or

is being converted

isolated from

one

wire

In every

rate

electric current

An

represents chemical

well-defined

some

radiation

The

for part of it is transformed

earth.

the

the coal burns.

of energy

of energy.

is energy,

for it heats

possesses energy,
a

sun

form

ever

may
a

be

closed

physicists

of the

verse
uni-

be created

destroyed.
Our

energy.

concepts of substance

two

Both

cannot

Matter

has

therefore
laws.
this

Are

two

are,

then, matter

and

obey conservation laws: An isolated system

in total energy.
or
change either in mass
We
have
weight but energy is weightless.
different concepts and

these ideas stillto be taken

apparentlywell-founded

two

conservation

seriously?Or has
picturebeen changed in

56

EVOLUTION

THE

In

the

By

convention

OF

PHYSICS

whole

sophy
historyof science from Greek philomodern
to
physics there have been constant
attempts to reduce the apparent complexity of natural
ideas and relations.
simple fundamental
phenomena to some
This is the underlying principleof all natural
of the
in the work
philosophy. It is expressed even
Atomists. Twenty-three centuries ago Democritus
wrote
:
is sweet,

sweet

bitter

convention

by

is

cold is cold,
hot is hot, by convention
colour
is colour.
But
in reality there are

bitter,by convention
convention

by

be

to

the void. That

and

atoms

but

and

real

in truth

is,the objectsof

it is customary

they

the

them

regard

to

Only

not.

are

are

sense

as

such,

the void

and

atoms

supposed
are

real.

This

idea

remains

philosophy nothing
than an
more
ingeniousfigment of the imagination.
of nature
Laws
were
known
unrelatingsubsequent events
Science connecting theory and
to the Greeks.
experiment reallybegan with the work of Galileo. We
the initial clues leading to the laws of
have
followed
of scientific
motion.
Throughout two hundred
years
force and
research
the underlying conmatter
cepts
were
in

all endeavours

in

to

impossibleto imagine
matter

demonstrates

its action

by

Let
with

cases

on

forces
are

the

one

understand
without

its existence

other

consider

us

imagine

ancient

the

source

simplestexample:

lie

The

them.

those of attraction
vectors

as

other

It is

because
of force

matter.

actingbetween

force

the

nature.

on

and
a

two

particles

easiest forces to

repulsion.In both
line connecting the

THE

RISE

OF

THE

MECHANICAL

VIEW

57

material

for simplicity
leads to the
points.The demand
each
pictureof particles
attractingor repelling
other;

Attraction
*

Repulsion
other

any

assumption about

acting
give a much
more
complicatedpicture.
an
equally simple assumption about the

forces would
Can

make

we

length of
force
on

the force vectors?

specialassumptionswe

too

between

any

the distance

This
forces

could

depend

not

of the

stillsay

can

imagined,

Much

to

avoid

thing:the

one

such

as

more

those

only on the distance but

With matter
two
particles.

fundamental

want

we

given particlesdepends only

forces.
them, like gravitational

two

between

be

if

Even

simple enough.

seems

of the

the direction

also

and

complicated
which
might
on

the

force

cities
veloas

our

hardly imagine simpler

assumptions than that forces act along the line connecting
the particles
and depend only on the distance.
But is it possible
all physicalphenomena by
to describe
concepts,

we

can

forces of this kind alone?

The

great

achievements

of

branches, its strikingsuccess

astronomy,

the

these

in

of
application

different and

thingscontributed

mechanics

its ideas

non-mechanical
to

the

in

all

its

development of
to problems apparently
in

character, all

the belief that it is

possible

58

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

PHYSICS

all natural

describe

phenomena in terms of simple

unalterable objects.
forces between
Throughout the two
centuries following Galileo's time such an
endeavour,
conscious
or
unconscious, is apparent in nearly all
to

This

scientific creation.

the middle

about

Helmholtz

clearly formulated

was

of the nineteenth

discover

Finally, therefore, we

by

century

the

problem of physical
material science to be to refer natural phenomena back to
unchangeable attractive and repulsiveforces whose intensity
depends wholly upon distance. The solubilityof this problem
of the complete comprehensibilityof
is the condition
nature.

Thus, accordingto Helmholtz, the line of development

is determined

of science

a
strictly

fixed

course

And

phenomena

proof given
phenomena
This

century

will be

its vocation

of natural

that

an

appears

physicist.It

dull
would

and

soon

as

naive

to

frightenhim

of research

unexcitingif

established

as

the

reduction
the
the

capable.

are

view

ended

simple forces is complete and

the only reduction
of which

to

this is

the great adventure

and

follows

and

could be

infallible

twentieth-

think

to

so

soon

pictureof

the

that

finished,
universe

for all time.

Although

these tenets

would

reduce

the

description

simple forces,they do leave open the

tance.
questionof justhow the forces should depend on disIt is possiblethat for different phenomena this
dependence is different. The necessityof introducing

of all events

many

to

different

kinds

of force

for different

events

is

THE

RISE

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

from
certainlyunsatisfactory
view.

Nevertheless

VIEW

59

point of
philosophical

this so-called

mechanical

view,most

clearlyformulated

by Helmholtz, played an important

The development of the kinetic theory
of the greatest achievements
directly

role in its time.

of matter

is

one

influenced

view.
by the mechanical
Before witnessingits decline,let

the

century and
their

pictureof

it

what

see

THE

Is

view

point of

held

by

the

cept
acprovisionally
of the past
physicists
us

conclusions

from

world.

the external

THEORY

KINETIC

draw

can

we

OF

MATTER

explain the phenomena of heat in

of particles
motions
interactingthrough

possibleto
of the

terms

simple forces? A closed vessel contains a certain mass

of gas
air,for example at a certain temperature. By
heatingwe raise the temperature, and thus increase the
"

energy.

"

But

is this heat

how

connected

with

motion?

is suggested both
of such a connection
possibility
tentativelyaccepted philosophicalpoint of
by our
view
and
by the way in which heat is generated by

The

Heat

motion.

must

be

mechanical

energy

if every

The
flf*^r kmtic
one.
gljr/it
problem is a mechanical
of matVr
just in this
theoryis to present the cop^p^
According to this theory a gas is a congregation
way.
Of

ar"

moving in all directions

changingin
There
in

must

collidingwith^each

direction of
exist

large human

an

motiorpwitheach

other

and

collision.

speed of molecules,just as
community there exists an average
average

6O
age,

an

or

vessel

wealth.

average

kinetic

average

energy

per

PHYSICS

There

will

particle.More

is not
tKiiTpicture,
heat, accofdlilgTo
different from

energy

the kinetic

the

mechanical

of molecular

energy

be
therefore^
heat

energy.
^verageTffietic

greater

means

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

motion.

an

in the

Thus

specialform of
but is just
one
To

any

definite

corresponds a definite average kinetic

This is,in fact,not
an
arbitrary
energy
per molecule.
assumption.We are forced to regard the kinetic energy
temperature

of

molecule

gas

of

there

as

wish

if we

to

of the

measure

form

consistent

temperature
mechanical

of the

picture

matter.

This

It

theory

is

more

than

play

of the

imagination.

theory of gases is not

only in agreement with experiment,but actuallyleads
to a more
profound understanding of the facts. This
be illustrated by a few examples.
may
We
have a vessel closed by a piston which
can
move
of gas to
freely.The vessel contains a certain amount
If the pistonis initially
be kept at a constant
temperature.
it can
be moved
at rest in some
upward
position,
by removing and downward
by adding weight. To
push the pistondown force must be used acting against
the

can

be shown

inner

pressure

of this inner

that the kinetic

of the

gas.

What

is the

mechanism

according to the kinetic theory?

A tremendous
number
of particles
constitutingthe gas
the walls
are
moving in all directions. They bombard
and the piston,
bouncing back like balls thrown against
continual
bombardment
a wall. This
by a great number
of particles
keeps the piston at a certain height by
pressure

RISE

THE

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

6l

VIEW

on
opposing the force of gravity acting downward
direction there is a
the pistonand the weights. In one
constant
force,in the other very many
gravitational
irregularblows from the molecules. The net effect on
the pistonof all these small irregularforces must
be
equal to that of the force of gravityif there is to be
equilibrium.

Inner
Pressure

Gravitational
Force

Suppose
the

the

gas

pushed

pistonwere
to

down

so

of its former

fraction

as

to

press
com-

volume,

say

being kept unchanged. What,

kinetic theory,can
we
pen?
expect to hap-

one-half,its temperature

according to

the

Will the force due

or

energy

with

more

The

closely.Although

is stillthe same,
the

the bombardment

before?

less effective than

packed

to

piston will

now

the

be

particlesare
the

average

more
now

kinetic

particles
frequentlyand

collisions of the

occur

more

thus the total force will be greater. It is clear from

this

62

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

PHYSICS

picture presentedby the kinetic theory that to keep

the piston in this lower
quired.
positionmore
weight is reThis simple experimental fact is well known,
but its predictionfollows logicallyfrom
the kinetic
of matter.

view

another

Consider
two

say

Take
experimental arrangement.
vessels containingequal volumes
of different gases,
hydrogen and nitrogen,both at the same
ture.
temperathe two

Assume
on
pistons,

which

that

both

and

pressure.

gases

are

have

vessels

are

closed with

identical

equal weights.This means, briefly,

the same
volume, temperature,

Since

the

temperatue

is the

so,

same,

according to the theory,is the average kinetic energy

Since the pressures
are
equal, the two
per particle.
with the same
total force. On
pistonsare bombarded
carries the same
the average
and
every particle
energy
the same
vessels have
volume.
both
Therefore, the
number
of molecules in each must be the same, although the
portant
chemically different. This result is very imgases are
chemical
for the understandingof many
mena.
phenoIt

means

given volume, at
is something which
gas,

but

that
a

the

certain

number

of molecules

temperature

is characteristic,
not

of all gases.

It is most

and
of

this

pointwe

shall return

very

pressure,

particular
astonishingthat the
a

theory not only predictsthe existence of

universal number, but enables us to determine

kinetic

in

such

it. To

soon.

theory of matter
explainsquantitatively
well as qualitatively
the laws of gases as determined
as
by experiment. Furthermore, the theoryis not restricted
The

kinetic

64

THE

What

EVOLUTION

observed

Brown

OF

PHYSICS

the

was

unceasing agitation

of the

and visible
granules when suspended in water
through the microscope. It is an impressivesight!
Is the choice of particularplants essential for the
Brown
answered
this questionby repeating
phenomenon?
the

and

found

showed

experiment
that

all the

such motion
he

found

when

the

same

with

many

granules, if

different

plants,
small,
sufficiently

suspendedin
kind

of

water.

more,
Further-

restless,irregular

of inorganic as well as
particles
organic substances. Even with a pulverizedfragment
of a sphinx he observed
the same
phenomenon !
How
is this motion
to be explained? It seems
tradictory
conof
to all previousexperience. Examination
the positionof one
suspended particle,say every thirty
seconds, reveals the fantastic form of its path. The
amazing thing is the apparently eternal character of
the motion.
A
swinging pendulum placed in water
external
to rest if not
soon
comes
impelled by some
force. The
existence of a never-diminishingmotion
seems
was
contrary to all experience.This difficulty
clarified by the kinetic theory of matter.
splendidly
most
our
Looking at water
through even
powerful
molecules
and their motion
see
microscopeswe cannot
It must
be
as
picturedby the kinetic theory of matter.
concluded
that if the theory of water
a
as
tion
congregais correct, the size of the particles
of particles
must
be beyond the limit of visibility
scopes.
of the best microLet us nevertheless stick to the theory and assume
that it represents a consistent pictureof reality.
motion

in very

small

RISE

THE

The

Brownian

are

bombarded

bombarded
because

MECHANICAL

THE

Brownian

particlesare
be

averaged out, owing

haphazard character. The

result

of the

uniform

is not

to

observed

unobservable

The

one.

if the

exists

movement

It

small.
sufficiently

this bombardment

cannot

65

VIEW

particlesvisible through a microscope

by the smaller ones
composing the

itself. The

water

and

OF

from

exists

all sides

its irregularand
is thus

motion

the

of the

behaviour

reflects in some
big particles
way that of the molecules,
to speak, a magnificationso
so
high that
constituting,
it becomes
visible through the microscope.The irregular
and haphazard character of the path of the Brownian
particlesreflects a similar irregularityin the path of
which
the smaller
constitute matter.
We
can
particles
understand, therefore, that a quantitative study of
Brownian
movement
can
give us deeper insightinto
the kinetic theory of matter.
It is apparent
that the
visible Brownian
motion
depends on the size of the
There
invisible bombarding molecules.
be
would
no
all if the bombarding
Brdwnian
molecules
motion
at
did

not

possess

certain

words, if they did

the

study

not

of Brownian
of the

mass

of energy

amount

have

motion
of

and

mass
can

or,

velocity.That

lead

molecule

in other

to

mination
deter-

is therefore

not

astonishing.

research, both theoretical and

Through laborious
experimental, the quantitativefeatures of the kinetic
clue originating
The
in the pheformed.
theory were
nomenon
of Brownian
which
EE

led to the

movement

data.
quantitative

was

The

one
same

of

those

data

can

66

EVOLUTION

THE

be

obtained

in different ways,

fact that

clues. The
the

view

same

OF

PHYSICS

ferent
quite dif-

startingfrom

all these

methods

support

is most

important, for it demonstrates

consistencyof the kinetic theory of matter.

the internal

Only one of the many

quantitativeresults reached
here.
by experiment and theory will be mentioned
Suppose we have a gram of the lightestof all elements,
hydrogen, and ask: how many
particlesare there in
this one
will characterize
not
gram? The answer
only
hydrogen but also all other gases, for we already know
under
of

what

conditions

particles.
The
theory enables

certain

gases have

two

to

us

suspended particle.The
great number:
! The
digits

is

answer

question from
motion

of

in

one

astonishingly

an

by twenty- three

of molecules

number

number

same

Brownian

three followed

this

answer

of the

measurements

the

gram

of

other

gen
hydro-

is

303,000,000,000,000,000,000,000.

Imagine

the molecules

in size that
that

say
of

an

each
We

them

molecule
The

answer

o-ooo

of

creased
hydrogen so invisible through a microscope:
a

gram

becomes

that of

as

closely,we

side of which
can

they are

diameter

inch, such

pack

to

the

of

is about

five-thousandth

one

Brownian

should

Then,
particle.

have

one-quarter of

calculate the mass

of one
easily
by dividing i by the number
is a fantastically
small number
ooo

representingthe

ooo

mass

ooo

of

to

ooo

ooo

ooo

one

molecule

box

mile

long !
such hydrogen
quoted above.

0033
of

use

gram,

hydrogen.

PLATE

particles seen

Brownian

Brownian

One

by
covering

Brownian

for

one

of the

particles

microscope

graphed
particle photoand
long exposure

surface

positions

Consecutive
observed

through

The
from

path avenged
these

cutive
conse-

positions

THE

The
of

RISE

determination

of
in

part

this

some

leading

experiments
which

of

theory

achievements

all

only

are

such

plays

the

to

portant
im-

an

physics.

kinetic

the

to

in

tant
imporgeneral
of

explanation

the

interaction

the

of

reduce

its

all

realization

to

programme:

phenomena

and

matter

the

see

we

philosophical

motion

number

67

VIEW

Brownian

on

independent

many

the

MECHANICAL

THE

experiments

the

In

OF

between

particles

of

body

be

matter.

WE

SUMMARIZE:
mechanics

In

and

predicted
the

forces

future

the
its

acting
of

paths

Newton's

are

alone.
the

only

In

from
and
matter.

that

all

distance

kinetic

it

and

leads

to

depending

be

embraces

successful

see

all

by

repulsion,

or

forces

that

suggest
to

branches
action

the

depending

unchangeable

how

the

picture

this

view,

phenomena
of

the

the

distance

the

explained

between

we

active

on

applied

and

example,

mechanics

attraction

matter

problems,

The

can

acting

of

foreseen.

consistently

either

theory

mechanical
how

be

phenomena

representing

for

classical

of

can

be

can

condition

present

Thus,

forces

results

its

if

can

moving

known.

are

planets

view

upon

the

it

upon

great

mechanical

of forces

disclosed

past

all

of

path

gravitational

The

of physics,

future

ticles.
par-

arising

of
structure

heat

of

DECLINE

THE
OF

The

electric

two

difficultyThe

The

fluids
"

"

colour

is

What

of

light

Longitudinal

"

very

simple experiments.
in

become

in

the

bar

will

of

their
of

until

theory

be

some

boring
is

experiments
actual

meaning

the

interesting
un-

performance,
does

experiments
makes

it
of

striking example

is

What

supported
is

from

ii enclosed

only

contact

are

with

of

report

account

Our

so.

the

glass base,

means

of

on

by

electroscope?

an

consisting essentially of

In
we

The

is connected

bar

hanging

This
in

furnish

apparatus

and

Ether

"

of

role

physics.

electroscope.
foil

the

apparent

metal

dull

description

comparison

is to

of

end

the

because

purpose

theory

pages

because

not

theory of

wave

waves?

The

"

FLUIDS

contain

following

also

The

"

ELECTRIC

THE

but

substance

light

transverse

or

TWO

THE

only

wave?

firstserious

view

the mechanical

not

as

"

riddle

The

magnetic fluids

velocityof light Light

"

"

VIEW

MECHANICAL

THE

the
in

short

glassjar

or

flask

non-metallic
to

with

the
hard

is

electroscope
rubber

of

the

rod

and
and

an

simple
of

piece

bodies,

to

leaves

and

each

wire

It

two

of

with

addition

equipped

end

and

gold

metal.

metal

called

metal
a

is

sulators.
inbar

piece

of

flannel.
The

experiment

is

performed

as

follows:

we

look

72

EVOLUTION

THE

whether

OF

PHYSICS

the leaves

hang close together,for this

is their normal
position.If by chance they do not, a
touch
of the finger on
rod will bring them
the metal
preliminary steps being taken, the
together.These
to

see

rubber

rod

into

brought
at

is rubbed

once

vigorouslywith

contact

with

the

They

remain

metal.

apart

even

the flannel

and

leaves separate

The

after the

is

rod

removed.
2.

We

apparatus

hanging
rubbed

as

close

together.This

into

rod

only near

it.

difference

! When

touched

the

their normal
3.

Let

us

another

experiment, using the same

with the gold leaves
before, again starting

perform

actual

Again

time

contact

we

with

do

not

the

the leaves separate. But

the rod is taken

away

bring the
metal, but
there

without

change the

having

metal, the leaves immediately fall back

instead
position

is

to

of

remaining separated.
for a third
apparatus slightly

experiment. Suppose that the metal bar consists of two

pieces,joined together.We rub the rubber rod with

THE

flannel

and

then
case

take

it

rod

the leaves remain

their normal

the metal.

The

But

73
same

let

now

separate parts and

rod. We

notice

that in this

apart, instead of

positionas

It is difficult to

near

VIEW

into its two

the rubber

away

MECHANICAL

the leaves separate.

occurs,

the metal

divide

THE

again bring

phenomenon

us

OF

DECLINE

back
falling
experiment.

in the second

evince

enthusiastic

interest

to

in these

simpleand naive experiments.In the Middle Ages their

probably have been condemned; to
performer would
both dull and illogical.
It would
be very
us
they seem
difficult to repeat them, after reading the account
only
once,

becoming confused.

without

theory makes

them

understandable.

Some
We

notion
could

say

of the
more

to imagine such
experiments perhardly possible
formed
the pre-existenceof
accidental play,without
as
less definite ideas about their meaning.
or
more
shall now
We
pointout the underlyingideas of a very
explainsall the facts
simple and naive theory which

it is

described.
There

exist two

electricfluids,
one

called

positive
( 4- )

like
negative( ). They are somewhat
substance
in the sense
already explained,in that the
be enlarged or diminished, but the total
amount
can
isolated system is preserved.There
in any
is, howand

the

other

"

74

EVOLUTION

THE

ever,

of

OF

essential difference

an

heat,

matter

substances.

or

It is

PHYSICS

between
We

energy.

this
have

impossiblehere

case

that

and

electrical

two

the

previous
unless it is somehow
generalized.A
analogy of money
neutral if the positive
and negative
body is electrically
has
electric fluids exactlycancel each other. A man
nothing,either because he reallyhas nothing,or because
of money
the amount
put aside in his safe is exactly
the debit
equal to the sum of his debts. We can compare
and

credit

entries in his

ledger

to

use

the

to

two

kinds

of

electric fluids.
The

assumption of the theoryis that two

kind repel each other, while
the same

next

fluids of

oppositekind attract. This

graphicallyin the followingway :
the

-f*

final theoretical

A
are

two

of

kinds

be

can

"

assumption is

and those
freely,called conductors,
cannot, called insulators. As is always true

ideal

conductor

or

to

be

taken

insulator

is

too
a

of

represented

necessary:

bodies, those in which

is not

two

"

move

this division

electric

There

the fluids
in which
in such

can

they
cases,

The
seriously.

fiction which

can

THE

DECLINE

OF

be realized.

never

THE

MECHANICAL

75

VIEW

Metals, the earth,the human

body,
equally

all

examples of conductors, although not

good. Glass,rubber, china, and the like are insulators.
Air is only partially
who
has
an
insulator,as everyone
the described
seen
experiments kqows. It is always a
results of electrostatic
to ascribe the bad
good excuse
experimentsto the humidity of the air,which increases
its conductivity.
These theoretical assumptionsare sufficient to explain
the three experimentsdescribed. We
shall discuss them
in the same
order as before,but in the light
once
more,
of the theory of electric fluids.
are

The

rubber

rod, like

all other

neutral.
conditions,is electrically

fluids,positiveand
rubbing
is pure

with

flannel

bodies under

normal

It contains

the two

negative, in equal
separate them.

we

By

amounts.

This

statement

convention, for it is the applicationof the

minology
ter-

created

by the theory to the descriptionof

that the
the process of rubbing. The kind of electricity
afterwards is called negative,a name
rod has in excess
is certainlyonly a matter
of convention.
If the
which
experiments had been performed with a glass rod
rubbed

with

cat's fur

we

should

have

had

to

call the

with the accepted convento conform

tion.
positive,
To proceedwith the experiment,we
bring electric
fluid to the metal conductor
by touching it with the
rubber.
Here it moves
freely,
spreadingover the whole
metal including the gold leaves. Since the action of
the two
leaves try to
negativeon negativeis repulsion,
get as far from each other as possibleand the result is

excess

76

THE

the

observed

OF

separation.The

other

some

EVOLUTION

insulator

so

that

PHYSICS

metal

the

rests

glassor

on

fluid remains

the

on

conductor, as long as the conductivityof the air permits.

We
understand
now
why we have to touch the metal
before
the

beginningthe experiment. In
human
body, and the earth form

with

the electric fluid

remains

diluted that

so

this

the

case

conductor,

vast

one

practically
nothing

the

electroscope.
This experiment beginsjust in the same
2.
the previousone.
But instead of being allowed
the metal the rubber is now
only brought near
on

conductor, being free

fluids in the

two

attracted

separated,one
mix

again when
opposite kinds
Now

3.

each

attract

the

so

that

In

the

here

seem

In

gold

remain

to

it. The
are

move,

repelled.They
as

fluids of

this

parts and

two

the two

case

retain

leaves

an

fluids
of

excess

apart.

simple theory all the

understand

facts in the

other

into

metal

comprehensible.The

enabling us

more,

many

this

lightof

other

as
way
to touch

other.

rod.

the

electric fluid and

one

the

to

rod is removed,

the rubber

remove

mix,

and

separate the

we

afterwards
cannot

metal,

realm

same

facts

tioned
men-

theory does

only these, but

not

of "electrostatics".

The

facts,sugtheory is to guide us to new

gest
new
experiments,and lead to the discoveryof new
this
laws. An example will make
phenomena and new
:lear. Imagine a change in the second
experiment.
aim

of every

Suppose
the

What

same

will

keep

the rubber

time

touch

happen

now?

the

rod

near

conductor

Theory

the metal
with

answers:

and

at

my

finger.

the

repelled

78

THE

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

theories,
althoughthey belong to the past, for
only way to understand the importance of the
and

the extent

of their

In the first pages

of

an

be

regarded

he

knows

this is the
ones

new

validity.

of

book

our

compared

we

the role

investigatorto that of a detective who, after

facts,finds the right solution
gatheringthe requisite
by pure thinking.In one essential this comparison must
Both in life and in
highly superficial.
detective novels the crime is given.The detective must
look for letters,
bullets,guns, but at least
fingerprints,

not

so

as

that
for

has

murder

scientist.

It

been

committed.

should

be

not

This

is

difficult

to

knows
who
imagine someone
absolutelynothing about
since all the ancients lived happilyenough
electricity,
be given
without
knowledge of it. Let this man
any
rod, flannel, in
metal, gold foil,bottles,hard-rubber

short, all the

material

for

required

performing

our

experiments.He may be a very cultured person,

the
but he will probably put wine into the bottles,
use
entertain the idea
flannel for cleaning,and never
once
For the detechave described.
tive
of doing the thingswe
who
the crime is given, the problem formulated:
three

killed Cock

Robin?

commit

own

his

The

crime,

scientist must,
as

well

as

Moreover, his task is

but

case,

all

not

which

phenomena

carry
to

have

least in part,

at
out

the investigation.

explainjust one
happened or may

stillhappen.
In
the
to

the

introduction

influence

of those

of the

concept of fluids

mechanical

explain everythingby

ideas which

substances

and

we

see

attempt

simple forces

THE

DECLINE

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

79

VIEW

the mechanical
them.
To see whether
acting between
be applied to the descriptionof
point of view can
electrical phenomena, we
consider the following
must
small
problem. Two
spheres are given, both with an
of one
electric charge, that is,both carrying an
excess
electric fluid. We
know
that the sphereswill either
attract
or
repel each other. But does the force depend
The
only on the distance, and if so, how?
simplest

in

be

to

seems

guess

the

same

diminishes,say,
distance

valid.

three

between

Newton's

law

attraction
exist

found

only

distance.

on

is

if the

either

There

arises here

attract

connection

dependence
major differences
law are : gravitational

two

the

charges. In the
is only attraction,
but electric
or
repel.
same
sidered
question which we con-

possess

with

weightlesssubstances or
the weight of a piece of metal
or
charged? Our scales show
the

the

similar

Coulomb's

fluids

that

The

discovered

always present, while electric forces

there

forces may

in

and

bodies

case
gravitational

strengthif the
great. The experiments
that this law is really

after Newton

Coulomb
gravitation,

of electrical force

as

showed

years

tance
the dis-

of its former

times

Coulomb

hundred

law of

one-ninth

to

depends on

gravitationalforce, which

as

way

is made

performed by

this force

that

electric fluids

electric

heat.

Are

In other

not?

the
no
are

the

same

whether

difference,
also members

electrical

words,

is

neutral

^e

clude
con-

of the

family of weightlesssubstances^
Further
in the theory of electricity
requires
progress
the introduction of two
new
concepts. Again we shall

80

THE

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

avoid

rigorousdefinitions,
using instead analogieswith
essential
how
concepts already familiar. We remember
it was
for an understandingof the phenomena of heat
between
heat itself and temperature.
It
to distinguish
is equallyimportant here to distinguish
between
electric
potentialand electric charge. The difference between
the two concepts is made
clear by the analogy :
7

Electric

potential Temperature
"

Electric
Two

the

Heat

charge
"

ferent
conductors, for example two
spheres of difelectric charge, that is
size,may have the same

same

excess

of

one

electric

will be different in the two

fluid,but the potential

being higherfor the

smaller
for the largersphere.The
and lower
electric
fluid will have greater densityand^thus be more
pressed
comthe small conductor.
Since the repulsive
on
forces must
increase with the density,the tendency of
the charge to escape will be greater in the case
of the
smaller sphere than in that of the larger.
This tendency
of charge to escape from a conductor
is a direct measure
of its potentials/In
order to show clearlythe difference
between
chargeand potentialwe shall formulate a few
sentences
of heated
describingthe behaviour
bodies,
and
the corresponding sentences
concerning charged
cases,

conductors.

HEAT
Two

ferent

ELECTRICITY

at difbodies, initially

temperatures,

reach

Two

insulated

conductors,

at different electric
initially

THE

the

DECLINE

if

time

MECHANICAL

THE

after

temperature

same

some

OF

potentials,
very quicklyreach
the same
potentialif brought

into

brought

8l

VIEW

contact.

into contact.

quantities of heat
produce different changes of

of electric
Equal amounts
charge produce differem
changes of electric potentia

Equal

in

temperature
if their

heat

bodies

two

in

capacitiesare

different.
A

trical

thermometer

with

in

An

contact

body indicates
by
of
its
length
mercury
a

the

"

column

its

"

and

ture

therefore
of the

perature

the

if their

elec

different
are
capacities

electroscopein

contact

conductor

indicates

with

by the separation of the

its own
elecgold leaves
trie potentialand
therefore
the electric potentialof the
"

tempera-

own

bodies

two

"

tern-

body.

conductor.

But

this

analogy

example

shows

If

hot

body

heat

flows

the

other

and

must

not

the differences

is

brought

from

the

be
as

pushed
well

as

into contact
hotter

to

the

too

far.

An

the similarities.

with

colder.

cold one,
On

the

hand, suppose that we have two insulated conductors

having equal but oppositecharges,one positive
the

other

negative. The

two

are

at

different

we
potentials.By convention
regard the potential
correspondingto a negative charge as lower than that
corresponding to a positivecharge. If the two conductors
are
brought togetheror connected
by a wire, it
follows from the theory of electric fluids that they will
show no charge and thus no difference of electric potential
at all. We
must
imagine a "flow" of electric charge

from

one

in which

conductor
the

to

the

other

difference
potential

during the short

is equalized. But

time
how?

82

THE

Does

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

the

fluid flow to the negativebody, or

positive
negative fluid to the positivebody?
In the material

presented here

decidingbetween

these

either of the

simultaneous

two

in both

two

have

alternatives.

that
or
possibilities,
directions.

adopting a

convention, and

attached

the

to

we

choice, for

no
we

no

We

basis for
can

only a matter
can
significance
no

sume
as-

the flow is

It is

know

the

method

of
be
of

decidingthe question experimentally.Further development

leading to a much
more
profound theory of
this problem, which
is
an
electricity
to
answer
gave
in terms
formulated
of the
quite meaningless when
simpleand primitivetheory of electric fluids. Here we
shall simply adopt the followingmode
of expression.
The
electric fluid flows from the conductor
having the
higher potentialto that having the lower. In the case
of our
two
thus flows from
conductors, the electricity

of
positiveto negative.This expressionis only a matter
and
is at this point quite arbitrary.
convention
The
whole difficulty
indicates that the analogy between
heat
is by no
and electricity
means
complete.
have
the possibility
We
of adapting the meseen
chanical
view to a description
of the elementaryfacts

of electrostatics. The

magnetic phenomena.

same

is

possiblein

the

case

of

THE

DECLINE

shall

proceed

here

83

VIEW

FLUIDS

MAGNETIC

THE

We

MECHANICAL

THE

OF

in the

manner

same

before,

as

startingwith very simple facts and then seeking their

theoretical explanation.
have
We
two
i.
long bar magnets, one
suspended
its centre,

freelyat
ends
a

way

This
must

of the
that

two
a

turn

will

is noticed

the

and

magnet

if the bars

happen

ends

of the magnets

with

the

held

in

are

experiment we
the hand
along

in the attraction

If

done.

hand.

the

The

brought togetherin

are

strong attraction
be

in

held

other

magnets

always

can

the

try the
are

them.

between

attraction

no

other

such

results,
we
thing
Some-

end.

magnetized

all. The

at

To continue
poles.
pole of the magnet

called their
the

move

the

is noticed

other
and

magnet.
the

when

decrease

pole reaches

dence
suspended magnet there is no evifarther
of any force at all. If the pole is moved
is observed, attaining
in the same
direction a repulsion
its greatest strengthat the second pole of the hanging
the

middle

of the

magnet.
2.

The

above

experiment suggests

another.

Each

84

EVOLUTION

THE

magnet
The

has two

idea is very

equal parts. We
the pole of one

PHYSICS

OF

poles.Can we not
simple: just break
have

and

the

one

magnet

of them?
into two

force between

that there is no

seen

magnet

isolate

of the other.

middle

prising
actuallybreaking a magnet is surand unexpected. If we
repeat the experiment
with only half a magnet suspended,
described under
i
there
before ! Where
the results are exactly the same
as
of magnetic force previously,
there is now
trace
was
no

But

result of

the

pole.

strong

these facts to be

explained?We can attempt

to pattern a theory of magnetism after the theory of
electric fluids. This is suggestedby the fact that here,
have attraction
in electrostatic phenomena, we
and
as
repulsion.Imagine two sphericalconductors possessing
positiveand the other negative.
equal charges, one
absolute value;
Here
having the same
"equal" means
the same
for example, have
absolute
+ 5 and
"5,
that these spheresare connected
value. Let us assume
How

are

cally
glassrod. Schematithis arrangement
be representedby an arrow
can
directed from the negativelycharged conductor
to the
positiveone. We shall call the whole thing an electric
dipole.It is clear that two such dipoleswould behave
If we
exactly like the bar magnets in experiment i

by

means

of

an

insulator such

as

think of

our

invention

as

model

for

real magnet,

86

EVOLUTION

THE

iron.

In

Whyr
fluids

PHYSICS

pieceof ordinary iron

mixed,

are

OF

so

that

the two

effect results.

net

no

netic
mag-

of
"command
acts
as
a
Bringing a positivepole near
division" to the fluids,
attractingthe negativefluid of
the iron and
attraction
repellingthe positive.The
between

iron

and

removed, the fluids go back

state, depending
the

the extent

be said about

more

to

magnet

less their

or

which

is

original

they remember
force.

side of the
quantitative
could
two
very long magnetized rods we
attraction (or repulsion)of their poles

problem. With
the
investigate
when
brought near
ends

on

to

voice of the external

commanding

Little need

follows^Ifthe

magnet

one

the

another.

The

if the rods
of the rods is negligible

effect of the other

long enough.
How
does the attraction or repulsiondepend on
the
between
the
distance
answer
poles? The
given by
Coulomb's
tance
experiment is that this dependence on disis the same
law of gravitation
and
as in Newton's
Coulomb's

law

are

of electrostatics.

again in this theory the applicationof a

general point of view: the tendency to describe all
of attractive and repulsive
forces
phenomena by means
changeable
depending only on distance and acting betweenr unparticles.
well-known
be mentioned, for later
fact should
One
of it. The
shall make
earth is a great magnetic
use
we
of an explanation
There is not the slightest
trace
dipole.
North
Pole is approximately
to why this is true. The
as
the minus
( ) and the South Pole the plus (-f ) magnetic
plus and minus are
pole of the earth. The names
We

see

"

THE

only

DECLINE

matter

enable

OF

of

MECHANICAL

THE

convention, but

VIEW

when

once

87
fixed,

designatepolesin any other case. A magnetic

needle supported on a vertical axis obeys the command
of the magnetic force of the earth. It directs its (+ )
pole toward the North Pole, that is,toward the (-)
magnetic pole of the earth.
Although we can consistently
carry out the mechanical
view in the domain
of electric and magnetic phenomena
introduced
to be particularly
here, there is no reason
proud or pleasedabout it. Some features of the theory
if not
are
discouraging. New
certainlyunsatisfactory
to

us

of substances

kinds

fluids and

had

to

be

invented:

two

electric

The wealth
elementarymagnetic dipoles.
of substances begins to be overwhelming !
in a
forces are
The
simple. They are expressible
similar way
for gravitational,
electric,and magnetic
is high:
forces. But the price paid for this simplicity
of new
the introduction
weightlesssubstances. These
rather artificialconcepts, and quiteunrelated to the
are
the

fundamental

substance, mass.
THE

We

are

now

ready

DIFFICULTY

SERIOUS

FIRST
to

note

the

first grave

in
difficulty

point of
general philosophical
later that this difficulty,
view. It will be shown
together
with
another
a
more
serious, caused
even
complete
be
of the belief that all phenomena can
breakdown
the

applicationof

our

explainedmechanically.
tremendous
The
development of electricityas a
branch
of science and technique began with the dis-

88

EVOLUTION

THE

covery

of the

historyof

OF

electric current.

science

one

PHYSICS

Here

of the very

we

find

in the

few instances in which

play an essential role. The story of

the convulsion
of a frog's
different
leg is told in many
Regardless of the truth concerning details,there
ways.
is no doubt
that Galvani's
accidental discoveryled Volt a
at the end of the eighteenthcentury to the construction
This is no longer of
of what is known
a voltaic battery.
as
any practicaluse, but it still furnishes a very simple
in school demonstrations
of current
example of a source
and in textbook descriptions.
of its construction
is simple.There
The principle
are
several glasstumblers, each
with
a
containing water
littlesulphuricacid. In each glass
metal plates,
two
one
accident

copper

seemed

and

to

the other

zinc, are

immersed

in the solution.

plateof one glassis connected to the zinc of

the next, so that only the zinc plateof the first and the
We
unconnected.
copper plateof the last glassremain
detect a difference in electric potential
the
between
can
in the first glassand the zinc in the last by means
copper
if the number
of the
of a fairlysensitive electroscope
with plates,
the
"elements55,that is,glasses
constituting
battery,is sufficiently
large.
It was
only for the purpose of obtainingsomething
with apparatus already described
that
easilymeasurable
introduced
of several elements.
a battery consisting
we
will serve
For further discussion,a singleelement
just
well. The
as
potentialof the copper turns out to be
higher than that of the zinc. "Higher" is used here

The

copper

in the

sense

in which

+2

is greater than

-2.

If

one

THE

DECLINE

conductor
another

OF

THE

is connected

the

MECHANICAL

the

to

89

VIEW

free

plate and

copper

zinc,both will become

charged,the first
and
the other negatively. Up to this point
positively
nothing particularly
new
or
strikinghas appeared, and
we
try to apply our previousideas about potential
may
differences. We
have
that a potential difference
seen
between
conductors
two
be quickly nullified by
can
connecting them with a wire, so that there is a flow
to

of electric fluid from

similar

was

process

by heat flow.
battery?Volta

But

the

to

to

the

other.

This

equalizationof temperatures

does this work

in the

of

case

in his report that the

wrote

like conductors

conductor

one

voltaic

platesbehave

feeblycharged, which

unceasingly or

act

that

so

their

charge after each dischargere-establishes itself;

which, in a
word, providesan unlimited charge or imposes a perpetual
action

or

impulsionof

the electric fluid.

The

astonishingresult of
difference between
potential
does

not

vanish

connected

as

by

in the

experiment

the copper

and

is that

zinc

the

plates

of two

case

wire.

his

tors
charged conducdifference persists,
and

The

according to the fluids theoryit must cause

a constant
flow of electric fluid from
the higher potential level
(copper plate)to the lower (zincplate).In an attempt
the fluid theory,we
to save
that some
assume
stant
conmay
force
and

cause

is
A

acts

to

regenerate

carrying the

potentialdifference

flow of electric fluid. But the whole

astonishingfrom

noticeable

the

quantity of
current,

even

the

menon
pheno-

standpoint of energy.
heat is generated in the wire
enough to melt the wire if

THE

9O
it is

thin

wire.

But

the whole

to

want

voltaic

external

no

the law

save

find where

must

PHYSICS

OF

Therefore,heat-energyis created in the

one.

system, since
we

EVOLUTION

batteryforms an isolated
is being supplied. If
energy

of conservation

the transformations

what

the heat is created.

expense
realize that complicated chemical

place in

of energy

take

place,and

It is not

we

at

difficultto
are

processes

taking

the

battery,processes in which the immersed

take active
copper and zinc,as well as the liquiditself,
the standpointof energy
this is the chain
parts. From
of transformations
which
are
taking place: chemical
of the flowing electric fluid,i.e.,the
energy -" energy
current

-"

heat.

voltaic

batterydoes

not

last for ever;

tricity
changes associated with the flow of elecmake
the battery useless after a time.
The
experiment which actuallyrevealed the great
difficultiesin applying the mechanical
ideas must
sound
hearing about it for the first time. It
strange to anyone
was
performedby Oersted about a hundred and twenty
the chemical

years

ago.

By

these

He

reports :

experiments it seems

needle

moved

was

galvanicapparatus,

and

from

its

that,when

closed, but

not

when

in
physicists

vain

attempted several

not

to

but

no

bent

voltaic

positionby help of
the galvaniccircuit was

certain
years

celebrated

very
ago.

batteryand

conducting
If the wire is connected
to the copper
platebut
difference
the zinc, there will exist a potential

Suppose
wire.

have

as

open,

that the magnetic

be shown

to

to

we

current

form

can
a

flow.

Let

in the
circle,

us

assume

centre

that the wire is

of which

magnetic

DECLINE

THE

OF

THE

MECHANICAL

VIEW

gi

is

placed, both wire and needle lying in the

plane. Nothing happens so long as the wire does
touch the zinc plate.There
forces acting,
are
no
existingpotentialdifference having no influence

needle
same

not

the

whatever

the

It seems
position of the needle.
difficult to
understand
why the "very celebrated
Oersted
called them, expected such an
as
physicists",
on

influence.
But

turns

mediately
join the wire to the zinc plate. Imstrange thinghappens.The magnetic needle
of its poles now
its previousposition.One
let

now

from

pointsto the
the plane of

us

reader
the

if the page

circle. The

of this book

effect is that

to the plane, acting on

perpendicular

Faced

with

the facts of the

magnetic pole.
experiment,we can hardly
the

drawing such a conclusion about

the force acting.
in the
This experiment is interesting,

avoid

represents
of a force,

the direction of

first place,be-

EVOLUTION

THE

Q2

it shows

cause

different
There

OF

relation between

PHYSICS

two

phenomena, magnetism

and

apparentlyquite
electric current.

important.The force
between
the magnetic pole and the small portionsof the
the current
wire through which
lie along
flows cannot
lines connecting the wire and needle, or the particles
of flowing electric fluid and
the elementary magnetic
dipoles.The force is perpendicular to these lines ! For
the first time there appears
a force quite different from
that to which, according to our
mechanical
point of
view,

is another

intended

we

world.

aspect

We

even

more

reduce

to

that

remember

all actions

in the external

the

of

forces

gravitation,

obeying the laws of

and Coulomb, act along the line adjoiningthe
Newton
two
attractingor repellingbodies.
This difficulty
stressed even
was
more
by an experiment
nearly
performed with great skill by Rowland
sixty years ago.
Leaving out technical details,this
experiment could be described as follows. Imagine a
small charged sphere. Imagine further that this sphere
and
electrostatics,

moves

fast in

very

magnetic needle.
as

of

magnetism,

circle

This

motion

we

of the electric

result is indeed
flows in

the
is,in principle,

is

ment
experi-

same

Oersted's,the only difference being that instead

ordinary current

an

of which

the centre

at

similar

have

charge.
to

mechanicallyeffected

Rowland

that observed

circular wire. The

magnet

that the

found
when

current

is deflected

by

perpendicularforce.
Let
on

the

us

charge faster. The force acting

magnetic pole is, as a result,increased; the
now

move

the

94

THE

downfall

only

and

the

broke

EVOLUTION

rise of

the

of

behaviour

the

from

Another

an

the

master

not

was

which

needle

tiny magnetic

successful

and

attack, even

VELOCITY

In Galileo's Two

it

Here

one.

chanical
me-

vigorous,

more

is

this

But

angle.

shall tell it later.

we

THE

of

new

entirelydifferent

story, and

another

apparently well-founded

theories.
came

PHYSICS

OF

New

OF

Sciences we

and

his

of

what

LIGHT

listen

pupils

to

conversation

the

about

velocity of

light:
But

SAGREDO:
consider

this

speed

of

kind

how

and
be?

light to

must

great

Is it instantaneous

we
or

Can
it,like other motion, requiretime?
decide
this by experiment?
not
we
SIMPLICIO:
that the propaEveryday experience shows
gation
of lightis instantaneous
for
when
of
we
see
a
piece
;
fired,at great distance, the flash reaches our eyes
artillery
without
lapse of time ; but the sound reaches the ear only

momentary

after

or

does

noticeable

interval.

SAGREDO:

able to
Well, Simplicio,the only thing I am
infer from
this familiar
bit of experience is that sound, in
reaching our ears, travels more
slowly than light;it does not
inform me
whether
the coming of the lightis instantaneous
or
whether, although extremely rapid, it still occupies
time

....

SALVIATI:
similar

The

conclusiveness

small

observations

once

led

me

to

of these
devise

might accurately ascertain whether

i.e.,propagation of light,is reallyinstantaneous.
which

one

Salviati goes
In

that

the

order

to

on

to

explain the method

understand

velocity of lightis

and

other

method

by
illumination,
.

..

of his

experiment.
his idea let us imagine
not
only finite,but also

THE

in

slow-motion

lanterns
each

and

other.
have

two

film. Two

stand, say,
The

made

A and

men,

at

distance

first man,
an

VIEW

lightis slowed

of

small,that the motion

MECHANICAL

THE

OF

DECLINE

A, opens
that B

agreement

95

down, like that

J5,have covered
mile

from

his lantern.

The

of

one

will open

his the

that in our
light.Let us assume
the lighttravels one
"slow
mile in a second.
motion"
A sends
a
signalby uncovering his lantern. B sees it
after one
This is
second and sends an answering signal.
his own.
seconds after he had
received by A two
sent
That is to say, if lighttravels with a speed of one
mile
.4's
seconds will elapse between
per second, then two
sending and receiving a signal,assuming that B is a
mile away.
Conversely,if A does not know the velocity
of lightbut assumes
that his companion kept the agreement,
and he notices the opening of 5's lantern
two
seconds after he opened his,he can
conclude
that the
he

moment

sees

A's

speed of lightis one

mile

per

second.

experimentaltechnique available at that

time
Galileo
little chance
of determining the
had
a mile,
velocityof lightin this way. If the distance were
With

the

he would
of

one

have

had

to

detect time

hundred-thousandth

Galileo

formulated

the

of

intervals of the order

second

problem

of

determining the

velocityof light,but did not solve it. The formulation

of a problem is often more
essential than its solution,
which
be merely a matter
of mathematical
or
may
new
experimentalskill.To raise new questions,
ties,
possibilito regard old problems from
a new
angle,requires
creative imaginationand marks real advance
in science.

96

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

PHYSICS

The

of
principleof inertia,the law of conservation
and original
thoughts
gained only by new
energy were
about alreadywell-known
experimentsand phenomena.
Many instances of this kind will be found in the following
pages of this book, where the importance of seeingknown
facts in a new
theories
lightwill be stressed and new
described.

Returning to the comparatively simple question of

determining the velocityof light,we may remark that
it is surprisingthat Galileo did not
realize that his
experiment could be performed much more
simplyand
Instead of stationinghis companion
accuratelyby one man.
at

distance he

could

have

mounted

there

automaticallysend back the signal

immediately after receivingit.
hundred
About
and fiftyyears later this very
two
mine
principlewas used by Fizeau, who was the first to deterthe velocityof lightby terrestrial experiments. It
had been determined
much
earlier,
though
by Roemer
less accurately,
by astronomical observation.
It is quite clear that in view
of its enormous
nitude,
magthe velocityof lightcould be measured
only
the
by taking distances comparable to that between
earth and another
planet of the solar system or by a
great refinement of experimentaltechnique.The first
method
that of Roemer, the second that of Fizeau.
was
mirror, which

Since

the

would

days

of these first experiments the very

portant
im-

representingthe velocityof lighthas

been determined
times, with increasingaccuracy.
many
In our
own
century a highly refined technique was
number

DECLINE

THE

OF

for this purpose

devised

MECHANICAL

THE

by

97

VIEW

The

Michelson.

of

result

these

experiments can be expressedsimply : The velocity

is approximately 186,000 miles
light in vacua
per

of

second,

or

kilometres

300,000

LIGHT

second.

per

SUBSTANCE

AS

experimental facts. The

number
the velocity of light in
just quoted concerns
this
vacuo.
Undisturbed,
light travels with
speed
can
through empty space. We
see
through an empty
the air from
it. We
see
glassvessel if we extract
planets,
them
to
stars, nebulae, although the lighttravels from
our
simple fact that we
eyes through empty
space. The
there
is air
not
can
see
or
through a vessel whether
Again

inside

shows

in

of

in

ordinary

room

with

closed

very

All such
in which

small

We

effect

same

next

with

On

is that

this.

if

as

hole

in

light,say,
distant

the

shows

how

tion
propaga-

primitive

In front

of

it.

wall

represented as lighton

drawing

the

shall describe

of

source

lantern.

will be

is connected

the

simplest opticalfacts

is

The

very

air.

experiment showing
with
placed a screen

screen

matters

ments
perform optical experi-

can

lightis rectilinear.
is

of air

presence

we

no

naive

source

the

reason

of the

source

the

an

were

One

and

this

few

that

us

little. For

there

with

start

we

small
the

point
point
ing
open-

hole

dark

in

ground.
back-

this

phenomenon
rectilinear propagation of light.
the more
even
complicated cases

phenomena,
light,shadow,

and

half-shadows

appear,

can

98
be
in

EVOLUTION

THE

assumption that light,in

lines.
along straight

explainedby
air,travels

Let

take

PHYSICS

OF

the

another

example,

vacua

or

in which

light
We
have a lightbeam
travelling
passes through matter.
and falling
on
a
glassplate.What
through a vacuum
us

case

still
were
happens? If the law of rectilinear motion
valid,the path would be that shown by the dotted line.
But actuallyit is not. There is a break in the path, such
in the drawing. What
observe here is the
as is shown
we
familiar appearThe
as
phenomenon known
refraction.

THE

DECLINE

of

ance

OF

stick which

half-immersed

to

seems

in water

VIEW

MECHANICAL

THE

is one

99

in the middle

be bent

of the many

if

manifestations

of refraction.
These

facts

mechanical
here

is to

and

forces

sufficient

are

to

theory of lightcould
show

how

indicate
be

how

simple
aim

Our

devised.

the ideas of substances, particles,

penetrated the

field of

and
optics,

how

finally

the old

philosophical
point of view broke down.
The
theory here suggests itself in its simplest and
that all lighted
most
primitive form. Let us assume
bodies emit particles
of light,
which, falling
or
corpuscles,
the sensation of light.
We
on
our
are
already
eyes, create
so

accustomed

for
more

to

introduce

mechanical
without

new

substances,if necessary

explanation,that
any

great

hesitation.

we

can

These

do

it

once

corpuscles

travel

along straightlines through empty space

from
with a known
speed,bringing to our eyes messages
the bodies
emitting light. All phenomena exhibiting
the rectilinear propagation of lightsupport the corpuscular
theory,for just this kind of motion was prescribed
The
for the corpuscles.
theory also explainsvery simply
the reflection of lightby mirrors
the same
kind of
as
in the mechanical
reflection as that shown
experiment
of elastic balls thrown
against a wall, as the next
drawing indicates.
difficult.
The
explanationof refraction is a littlemore
Without
going into details,we can see the possibility
of a mechanical
explanation.If corpusclesfall on the
be that a force is
for example, it may
surface of glass,
of the matter, a force
exerted on them
by the particles
must

4-2

IOO

THE

EVOLUTION

OF

which

strangelyenough
neighbourhood of matter.

acts

moving particlechanges

the

know.

If the

attraction

motion

new

net

force

only in the immediate

Any force acting on

velocity,as

the

will lie somewhere

originalpath

and
to

seems

already

we

is an
light-corpuscles
the
surface of the glass,

the

on

perpendicularto

PHYSICS

between

the line of the

This simple explanation

perpendicular.
for the corpuscular
promise success

the

theoryof light.To determine the usefulness and range

of validity
of the theory,however, we
must
investigate
and more
new
complicatedfacts.
THE

It

again Newton's

was

first time

the wealth

of
description

words

RIDDLE

one

OF

COLOUR

genius which
of colour

of Newton's

explainedfor

in the world.

Here

experimentsin

his

the
is

own

(atwhich time I appliedmyself to the

grinding of optickglassesof other figuresthan spherical)
I procured me
a triangular
glassprism,to try therewith the
celebrated
phenomena of colours. And in order thereto,
In the year

1666

IO2

THE

EVOLUTION

corpuscles
belongingto
for the

violet and

OF

different

PHYSICS

colours,being strongest

for the

weakest

red.

Each

of the

colours will therefore be refracted

along a different path

others when
the lightleaves
rainbow, drops of water play

separatedfrom the
of a
the prism. In the case
the role of the prism.
is now
The substance theoryof light
more
complicated
than before. We have not one
lightsubstance but many,
each belongingto a different colour.
If,however, there
is some
truth in the theory,its consequences
must
agree
and

be

with

observation.

The

series of colours

in the white

lightof

the sun,

as

experiment,is called the spectrum

its visible spectrum. The
of the sun, or more
precisely,
decomposition of white lightinto its components, as
described
of light. The
here, is called the dispersion
separated colours of the spectrum could be mixed
togetheragain by a second prism properly adjusted,
unless the explanationgiven is wrong.
The
process
of the previous one.
should be just the reverse
We
should obtain white lightfrom the previouslyseparated
colours. Newton
showed
by experiment that it is indeed
and the
to obtain white lightfrom its spectrum
possible
spectrum from white lightin this simpleway as many
These experimentsformed
times as one
a strong
pleases.
belongingto
support for the theory in which corpuscles
each colour behave as unchangeable substances. Newton

revealed

wrote

thus

.which
.

by

apparent

Newton's

colours

generated,but only made

by being parted; for if they be again entirely
are

not

new

DECLINE

THE

and

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

VIEW

IO3

blended

that
together,they will again compose
colour, which they did before separation.And for the same
transmutations
made
by the convening of divers
reason,
the difform
colours are
not
real; for when
again
rays are
colours which
severed, they will exhibit the very same
they
the composition; as you
did before they entered
blue
see
and yellowpowders, when
finelymixed, appear to the naked
corpuscles
eye, green, and yet the colours of the component
For
not
are
thereby reallytransmuted, but only blended.
viewed with a good microscope they still appear
when
blue
and yellow interspersedly.

mixt

that

we

have

isolated

the spectrum.

This

means

that

allow

one

Suppose
we

only

to

pass

very

narrow

of all the many

through

the

stripof
colours

the others
slit,

The
beam
which
comes
being stopped by a screen.
through will consist of homogeneouslight,that is,light
which
be split
into further components.
This is
cannot
be easilyconof the theory and
a
can
firmed
consequence
by experiment. In no way can such a beam of
singlecolour be divided further. There are simplemeans
of obtaining sources
of homogeneous light. For
ample,
exsodium, when incandescent,emits homogeneous
to perform
yellow light. It is very often convenient
certain
opticalexperiments with homogeneous light,
well understand, the result will be
can
since, as we
much

simpler.
Let us imagine that suddenly a very strange thing
happens: our sun begins to emit only homogeneous
definite colour, say yellow. The
light of some
great
immediately
variety of colours on the earth would
vanish.
Everything would be either yellow or black!

THE

IO4

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

This

of the substance
theory
predictionis a consequence
of light,
for new
colours cannot
be created. Its validity
where
the
be confirmed by experiment: in a room
can
sodium
of lightis incandescent
only source
everything
is either yellow or black. The
wealth
of colour in the
world reflects the varietyof colour of which white light
is composed.
The substance theoryof lightseems
to work
splendidly
in all these cases, although the necessity
for introducing
as

substances

many

as

colours

may

make

us

somewhat

have

assumption that all the corpusclesof light

in empty space also seems
velocity
exactlythe same

very

artificial.

uneasy.

The

imaginable that another set of suppositions,a

theory of entirelydifferent character, would work just
well and give all the requiredexplanations.Indeed,
as
witness the rise of another
shall soon
we
theory, based
on
entirelydifferent concepts, yet explainingthe same
domain
of opticalphenomena. Before formulatingthe
underlying assumptionsof this new
theory,however, we
connected with these
must
answer
a questionin no
way
to mechanics
opticalconsiderations. We must
go back
It is

ask:

and

WHAT

bit of

very
who
two

and

IS

WAVE?

reaches Edinburgh
gossipstartingin London
quickly, even
though not a single individual
takes part in spreading it travels between
these
cities. There
volved,
two
are
quite different motions inLondon
that of the rumour,
to
Edinburgh,
that of the persons who
The
spread the rumour.

DECLINE

THE

OF

MECHANICAL

THE

wind, passing over

field of

the

and

oscillations. We
wider

thrown

into

is very

different

The

wider

and

pool

from

of the

clearly,for
actual

the

order
let

wave

it

moves

us

that

Suppose
water,

to

and

of

and

the

of the

wave

of

wave

water.

observed
and
shows

in imitation

instead

is

stone

of matter

state

that

waves

The

down.

wave

undergo

particlesof

down

water,

again

being

not

this

of the

carried

wave.

understand

better

the

of the

mechanism

again consider an idealized experiment.

is filled quite uniformlywith
a large space

air,or

or

the

seen

motion

floatingon

up

of the

motion

along by
In

cork

all

of the

up

is that

wave

itself. A

of matter

go

wave

of the

plants,which

The

that

up

circles when

of water.

merely
particles

motion

have

105

field. Here
motion

the

of the separate

motion

only small
spread in

grain, sets

whole

the
spreads our across
between
must
distinguish

which
we

VIEW

there

other

some

is

"medium".

sphere. At

Somewhere

in

the

beginning of the
all. Suddenly the
at
experiment there is no motion
rhythmically,expanding
sphere begins to "breathe"
and
contracting in volume, although retaining its
Let
sphericalshape. What will happen in the medium?
the sphere
at the moment
us
begin our examination
of the medium
in the
begins to expand. The particles
immediate
vicinityof the sphere are pushed out, so that
shell of water, or air,as the case
the densityof a spherical
the

centre

be, is increased

may

when
of

the

above

its normal

value.

Similarly,

sphere contracts, the density of that part

medium
immediately surrounding it will be

the

IO6

THE

decreased.

These

EVOLUTION

the

changes

medium

is that

motion

whole

PHYSICS

of

density are propagated

entire medium.
The particles
ing
constitutperform only small vibrations,but

throughout the
the

OF

of

The

progressivewave.

thing here is that for the first time we

consider the motion
of something which
is not matter,
but energy
propagated through matter.
Using the example of the pulsatingsphere,we may
introduce
two
general physicalconcepts, important for
The
first is the velocity
the characterization
of waves.
with which
the wave
spreads.This will depend on the
and air,for example.
medium, being different for water
The
second concept is that of wave-length.In the case
new
essentially

of

on

waves

trough
crest

of

have
case

of

one

one

wave

our

wave-length

river it is the distance

or

to

wave

greater
of

sea

that

next,

that of the next.

to

wave-length
set

waves

of the

is the

up

than

by

river
a

distance, at

or

Thus

from

the

from

the

sea

waves.

waves

In

the

pulsating sphere
definite

some

the

time,

neighbouring sphericalshells showing

minima
of density. It is evident that this
maxima
or
distance will not depend on the medium
alone. The rate
of pulsationof the sphere will certainlyhave a great
effect,making the wave-length shorter if the pulsation
becomes
more
rapid,longer if the pulsationbecomes

between

two

slower.
This

concept

of

wave

proved

very

successful

in

physics.It is definitelya mechanical

concept. The
which,
phenomenon is reduced to the motion of particles
constituents
of
according to the kinetic theory, are

DECLINE

THE

Thus

MECHANICAL

THE

OF

VIEW

1O*J

theory which uses the concept of

in general,be regarded as a mechanical
wave
can,
theory. For example, the explanation of acoustical
this concept. Vibrating
on
phenomena is based essentially
bodies, such as vocal cords and violin strings,
are
matter.

every

of sound

which

propagated through
the air in the manner
explainedfor the pulsatingsphere.
all acoustical phenomena to
to reduce
It is thus possible
of the wave
mechanics
by means
concept.
It has been
must
emphasized that we
distinguish

sources

between

the motion

which
itself,
very

the

waves

is

different,but

of the
state

are

of the

it is apparent

pulsatingsphere

both

that of the

and
particles
medium.

The

that in

motions

our

take

two

wave
are

example of
place in the

oscillate
of the medium
line. The particles
straight
along short line segments, and the densityincreases and

same

decreases

in
periodically

accordance

with

this motion.

IO8

The

in which

direction

PHYSICS

OF

the

the

spreads and

wave

the oscillations lie

which

on

EVOLUTION

THE

the

are

This

same.

line

type of

But is this the only kind of

longitudinal.
It is important for our
further considerations
to
of a different kind of wave,
called
the possibility

is called

wave

wave?
realize

transverse.

Let

the

change

us

sphere,but

kind,

the

direction

always

previous example.

it is immersed

in

medium

We
of

still have

different

of

more,
Furtherjellyinstead of air or water.
sphere no longer pulsatesbut rotates in one
through a small angle and then back again,

sort

our

in the

same

axis.

The

set

in the medium.

rhythmicalway

and

about

definite

jelly adheres to the sphere and thus the

adhering portions are forced to imitate the motion.
These portionsforce those situated a littlefarther away
is
the same
to imitate
motion, and so on, so that a wave
up

If we

keep in

mind

the distinction

110

part of

EVOLUTION

THE

We

very

large.
sphere whose radius is sufficiently
often speak of small portionsof a spherical
a

far removed

wave

farther
from

from

place

we

the centre

between

PHYSICS

OF

the

the

source

shaded

as

portion of

of the

spheresand
radii,the better

The

plane waves.

drawing
the angle

our

the smaller

of
representation
plane wave, like many

the two

our

The concept of a
plane wave.
other physical
than a fiction which
concepts, is no more
be realized with only a certain degree of accuracy.
can
a

It

is,however,

useful concept

which

shall need

we

later.

WAVE

THE

THEORY

OF

LIGHT

off the descriptionof

broke
why we
opticalphenomena. Our aim was to introduce another
theory of light,different from the corpuscularone, but
also attempting to explain the same
of facts.
domain
To do this we
had to interrupt
our
story and introduce

Let

the

recall

us

concept

of

subject.
It was
Huygens,
forward quite a new
wrote

Now

waves.

we

his treatise

examine

surfaces and
to
a

on

put

lighthe

for its passage

it will follow that

which

"

we

this movement,
going to
impressed on the interveningmatter, is successive;
consequentlyit spreads,as sound does, by spherical

now

and

our

If,in addition,lighttakes time

are

to

of Newton, who

contemporary

theory. In

return

can

stone

waves,

for I call them

those which

is thrown

"

are

seen

into it,and

to

waves

from

be formed

which

in

present

their
water
a

blance
resem-

when

successive

DECLINE

THE

OF

THE

MECHANICAL

though these
spreadingas circles,
and are only in a flat surface.

arise from

According to Huygens, lightis a

of energy

and

not

of substance.

VIEW

We

wave,

have

III

another

cause,

transference
that the

seen

corpusculartheoryexplainsmany of the observed facts.

Is the wave
must
theory also able to do this? We
have
already been
again ask the questions which
answered
by the corpusculartheory, to see whether
the wave
theory can do the answeringjustas well. We
shall do this here in the form of a dialogue between
N
and //, where
N is a believer in Newton's
corpuscular
theory,and H in Huygen's theory. Neither is allowed
to use
developed after the work of the two
arguments
great

masters

was

finished.

JV. In the

theory the velocityof lighthas

corpuscular
definite meaning. It is the velocity
the
at which
a very
does it
corpusclestravel through empty space. What
in the wave
mean
theory?
of course.
H. It means
of the lightwave,
the velocity
definite velocity,
Every known wave
spreadswith some
of light.
and so should
a wave
is not
Sound
N. That
as
waves
simple as it seems.
in water.
must
waves
spread in air,ocean
Every wave
in which
have a material medium
it travels. But light
whereas
sound does not. To
passes through a vacuum,
in empty
to
not
assume
a
wave
reallymeans
space
assume

H.
to

me.

decided

any

wave

at

all.

Yes, that is a difficulty,

although not

My

master

that the

new

one

and
thought about it very carefully,
the existence
only way out is to assume

112

of

THE

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

hypotheticalsubstance, the ether,a transparent

medium
permeating the entire universe. The universe
in ether. Once
have the
we
is,so to speak,immersed
introduce
this concept, everything else
to
courage
becomes
clear and convincing.
JV. But I objectto such an assumption. In the first
hypotheticalsubstance, and
place it introduces a new
There
substances in physics.
we
alreadyhave too many
is also another reason
againstit. You no doubt believe
that we
must
explaineverythingin terms of mechanics.
But

what

about

the ether?

Are

you

able to

answer

the

simplequestionas to how the ether is constructed from

and how it reveals itselfin other
its elementary particles
phenomena?
But by
//. Your
first objectionis certainly
justified.
artificial weightlessether
introducing the somewhat
artificial light
at once
we
more
get rid of the much
We
have
only one
corpuscles.
"mysterious" substance
instead of an infinite number
of them
correspondingto
the great number
think

that

of colours
this is real

in the spectrum.

Do

you

progress? At least all the

difficulties are
concentrated
no
on
one
point. We
longer need the factitious assumption that particles
belonging to different colours travel with the same
speed through empty space. Your second argument is
also true. We
cannot
give a mechanical
explanationof
doubt
ether. But there is no
that the future study of
opticaland perhaps other phenomena will reveal its
At present we
wait for new
structure.
must
ments
experiand conclusions,but finally,
I hope, we
shall be
not

THE

DECLINE

OF

able to clear up

the

MECHANICAL

THE

problem

VIEW

of the mechanical

113
structure

of the ether.
JV. Let
it cannot

leave

the

questionfor

be settled

now.

I should

if

waive

us

theory,even
phenomena
the lightof

we

which
the

the fact that

are

the moment,

like to

see

how

since
your

the difficulties,
explainsthose
so

clear and

understandable

corpusculartheory.Take,
lightrays travel in vacuo or

for

in

in

example,
air along

straightlines. A piece of paper placed in front of a

candle
produces a distinct and sharplyoutlined shadow
the wall. Sharp shadows
be possibleif
would
not
on
the wave
would
theory of lightwere
correct, for waves
bend
the edges of the paper and thus blur the
around
shadow.
A small ship is not an
obstacle for waves
on
it without
the sea, you know; they simply bend around
castinga shadow.
H.
That
is not
a
convincing argument. Take short
the side of a large ship.
waves
on
a river impinging on
Waves
originatingon one side of the ship will not be
the other. If the waves
small enough and
seen
are
on
the ship largeenough, a very distinct shadow
appears.
It is very probablethat lightseems
to travel in straight
its wave-length is very
lines only because
small in
comparison with the size of ordinary obstacles and of
could
apertures used in experiments. Possibly,if we
small obstruction,
shadow
would
create
no
a sufficiently

whether
such

with great experimental difficulties

might meet
show
would
in constructingapparatus which
lightis capable of bending. Nevertheless, if
experiment could be devised it would be crucial

We

occur.

an

114

EVOLUTION

THE

PHYSICS

OF

in

decidingbetween the wave

theoryand the corpuscular
theoryof light.
facts in the
JV". The
wave
theory may lead to new
of any experimentaldata
future, but I do not know
confirmingit convincingly.Until it is definitely
proved
by experiment that lightmay be bent, I do not see any
for not
reason
believingin the corpuscular theory,
which
and therefore better,
to me
seems
to be simpler,
than the wave
theory.
At this point we
interruptthe dialogue,though
may
the subject
is by no means
exhausted.
It still remains

We

be

shown

how

the

theory

wave

lightand the varietyof colours.

corpusculartheory is capable of this,as we know.
shall begin with refraction,
but it will be useful to

explainsthe
The

to

consider

refraction of

first

an

example having nothing

to

do

with

optics.
There

there are
large open space in which
walking two men
holding between them a rigidpole.
At the beginningthey are walking straight
ahead, both
with the same
main
velocity.As long as their velocities reis

the same,

whether

great

small, the

or

stick will

undergoing parallel
displacement;that is,it does not
turn
or
change its direction. All consecutive positions
of the pole are parallel
to each other. But now
imagine
be

that
a

for

second

What

time

which

the motions

will

happen?

the stick will turn,

to
parallel

so

may

be

short

as

of the two

men

It is clear that
that it will

no

itsoriginal
When
position.

are

as

not

fraction of
the

same.

during this moment

longerbe displaced
the equalvelocities

THE

resumed,

are

OF

DECLINE

it is in

This

previous one.

The

change

THE

MECHANICAL

direction

is shown

in direction

interval in which

VIEW

different

clearlyin

took

the

place during

the velocities of the two

115

from

the

drawing.

the

walkers

time
were

different.
This

example
of

will enable

us

to

understand

the

fraction
re-

travellingthrough
plane wave
the ether strikes a plate of glass. In the next
drawing
which presents a comparativelywide front
we
see
a wave
front is a plane on which
as it marches
along.The wave
in
all parts of the ether behave
at any
given moment
Since the velocitydepends on
preciselythe same
way.
the medium
through which the lightis passing,it will
be different in glassfrom the velocityin empty space.
front
During the very short time in which the wave
the glass,different parts of the wave
front will
enters
have

of

wave.

different velocities. It is clear that the part which

has reached
in

the

glasswill

glass,while the other

lightin ether. Because

of light
velocity
with the velocity
difference in velocity

travel with
still moves

of this

the

Il6

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

front during the time

along the wave
in the glass,the direction of the wave
changed.

Thus

but

see

we

that

not

only

the

of "immersion"
itself will be

corpuscular theory,

explanationof
refraction. Further
consideration,togetherwith a little
mathematics, shows that the wave
theory explanation
is simplerand better,and that the consequences
in
are
with observation.
Indeed, quantiperfectagreement
tative
the
of reasoning enable
methods
to deduce
us
if we
how
know
velocityof lightin a refractive medium
the beam
refracts when
ments
passinginto it. Direct measureand thus
splendidlyconfirm these predictions,
also the wave
theory of light.
the question of colour.
stillremains
There
also the

It must

by

wave

theory,leads

be remembered

that

numbers, its velocityand

to

an

wave

its

is characterized

wave-length.The
essential assumption of the wave
theory of lightis that
colours. The
different
wave-lengths
correspondto different
two

Il8
a

EVOLUTION

THE

much

later

PHYSICS

OF

date, the

middle

of

nineteenth

the

with //, JV stated that a

century. In his conversation
decision between
theories was,
the two
in principle,

experimentallypossible.The corpusculartheory does

allow lightto bend, and demands
the existence of
not
sharp shadows.
According to the wave
theory,on the
other hand, a sufficiently
small
obstacle will cast no
shadow.
of Young and Fresnel this result
In the work
was
experimentallyrealized and theoretical conclusions
drawn.

were

An

extremely simple experiment has already been

with a hole was
discussed,in which a screen
placed in
front of a point source
of lightand a shadow
appeared
the wall. We
shall simplifythe experiment further
on
emits homogeneous
light.
by assuming that the source
For

the best results the

Let

us

imagine

smaller

and

succeed

in

that

the

making the
surprisingphenomenon

we

hole

the

in

hole

If

smaller.

should

source

use

small

appears,

be

strong

screen

strong

one.

is made
source

and

and
enough, a new
comprehe
something quite in-

point of view of the corpuscular

theory. There is no longer a sharp distinction
between
lightand dark. Light graduallyfades into the
dark background in a series of lightand
dark rings.
The
of rings is very
characteristic of a
appearance
wave
theory.The explanationfor alternating
lightand
from

dark

areas

different
a

will

clear

in

the

case

experimentalarrangement.

sheet of dark

lightmay

be

the

paper with two

pass. If the holes are

of

somewhat

Suppose we have
pinholesthrough which
close togetherand very

II

PLATE

(Photographedby

Above,
after

we

two

see

beams

Arkadiev)

photograph of light spots

have
passed through two
after the other.
(One pin hole
a

pin holes, one

was
opened, then
opened.) Below, we
is allowed

V.

to

pass

covered

and

the

other

light
stripes when
through both pin holes
sec

simultaneously

(Photographed by I'. Arkadiev)

Diffraction
around

of
a

light bending

small

obstacle

Diffraction

through

of
a

light passing
small

hole

THE

DECLINE

small, and

OF

if the

of

source

VIEW

MECHANICAL

THE

IIQ

homogeneous lightis strong

lightand dark bands will appear on the

wall, gradually fading off at the sides into the dark
background. The explanationis simple."A dark band
is where
from one
a trough of a wave
pinholemeets the
from the other pinhole,so that the two
crest of a wave
cancel. A band
of lightis where
two
troughs or two
from
and
of the different pinholes meet
crests
waves
enough,

many

reinforce

each
in the

other,/ The
of the

case

plicated
comexplanation is more
and
dark
lightrings of our

with one
previousexample in which we used a screen
This appearance
of
hole, but the principleis the same.
dark and lightstripes
in the case
of two
holes and of
lightand dark ringsin the case of one hole should be
borne
in mind, for we
shall later return
to a discussion
of the two

The experimentsdescribed
pictures.
here show
the deviation from the
the diffraction
of light,
rectilinear propagation when
small
holes or obstacles
are
placedin the way of the lightwave.
With

different

the aid of
further.

little mathematics

we

are

able

to

possibleto find out how great

small the wave-length must
be to proor, rather, how
duce
scribed
a
particularpattern. Thus the experiments deenable
the wave-length of the
to measure
us
To give an idea of
homogeneous lightused as a source.
go

how

much

small

the

those

It is

numbers

are

we

shall cite two

of the
representingthe extremes
spectrum, that is,the red and the violet.
The wave-length of red lightis 0-00008 cm.
The
wave-lengthof violet lightis 0-00004 cm.

lengths,
wave-

solar

I2O

EVOLUTION

THE

We

should

small. The

so

the

be

not

observed

astonished

of rectilinear

in

are

shadow, that is,

propagation of light,is

only because

nature

numbers

the

that

of distinct

phenomenon

phenomenon

PHYSICS

OF

all

apertures

and

with
are
extremely large in
ordinarilymet
comparison with the wave-lengths of light.It is only

obstacles

when

very

small

lightreveals

was

the
waves

and

its wave-like

and

finished. The

means

not

final and

apertures
for

theory

ultimate.

For

Let

us

accept

corpuscular theory of light until

of the victoryof
problematic nature
LONGITUDINAL

OR

that

lightis by

TRANSVERSE

century

the modern

physicist
corpusclesand
more
profound

problem of deciding between

this time in a much
again exists,
form.

of

verdict of the nineteenth

entire

intricate

used

are

nature.

the story of the search

But
no

obstacles

the
we

the

of

the

recognize

the

defeat

wave

LIGHT

theory.
WAVES?

opticalphenomena we have considered speak

for the wave
theory.The bending of lightaround small
obstacles
and
the explanation of refraction
the
are
Guided
in its favour.
by the
strongest arguments
mechanical
point of view we realize that there is still
of the
one
questionto be answered : the determination
mechanical
propertiesof the ether. It is essential for
whether
the solution of this problem to know
lightwaves
In other
in the ether are
longitudinalor transverse.
Is the wave
words: is lightpropagated like sound?
due
that the
to changes in the densityof the medium,
so
in the direction of the
oscillations of the particles
are
All

the

THE

DECLINE

OF

THE

VIEW

MECHANICAL

propagation? Or does the ether resemble an

in which
a medium
waves
jelly,
only transverse
set

up

whose

and

that in which

to

in

move
particles

the

121

elastic
be

can

direction

pendicula
per-

itselftravels?

wave

Before

solving this problem, let us try to decide

which
should
be preferred. Obviously, we
answer
be fortunate if lightwaves
should
were
longitudinal.
The difficultiesin designinga mechanical
ether would
Our
be much
simpler in this case.
picture of ether
might very probably be something like the mechanical
pictureof a gas that explainsthe propagation of sound
It would

waves.

be

much

more

difficult

to

form

To imagine
waves.
pictureof ether carryingtransverse
in such a way
made
as
a medium
a jelly
up of particles
that transverse
of it is
waves
are
propagated by means
no
easy task. Huygens believed that the ether would
turn

out

nature

in

be

to
cares

very

this case,

air-like" rather
little for

merciful
all events

understand
In order

"

to

answer

our

than

But
"jelly-like".

limitations. Was

nature,

the

physicists
attempting to
from a mechanical
pointof view?
this questionwe
discuss some
must
to

experiments.

new

We

shall

consider

which

in detail
able

only

one

of many

periments
ex-

supply us with an answer.

have
thin plate of tourmaline
a
Suppose we
very
crystal,cut in a particularway which we need not
describe here. The
be thin so that
crystalplate must
of lightthrough it. But now
able to see a source
are
we
such
take two
let us
platesand place both of them
do we
between
What
our
expect to
eyes and the light.
are

to

EVOLUTION

THE

122

OF

PHYSICS

if the plates
are
sufficiently
pointof light,
chances
thin. The
are
very good that the experiment
will confirm
our
expectation.Without
worrying about
see?

Again

that it may

the statement

be

chance, let

us

assume

we

lightpoint through the two crystals.Now

of the
let us
graduallychange the positionof one
makes
sense
only
crystals
by rotatingit. This statement
which
the rotation
if the positionof the axis about
shall take as an
axis the line
takes place is fixed. We
that we
determined
by the incoming ray. This means
displaceall the points of the one crystalexcept those
the

do

see

on

the axis.

weaker

and

reappears
initial view
Without

as

strange

weaker

thing happens

until

the rotation
when

it vanishes
continues

and

! The

lightgets
completely. It
we
regain the

the initial positionis reached.

going

into

the

details of this and

similar

124

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

PHYSICS

all quite
of them
for introducingso many
necessity
independent of each other, was
enough to shatter the
belief in the mechanical
point of view.
other and simpler objectionsto ether
But there are
be
of constructingit. Ether
than the difficulty
must
wish
exist everywhere, if we
assumed
to
to
explain
the

can
opticalphenomena mechanically. There
empty space if lighttravels only in a medium.

Yet
does

from

know

we

mechanics

resist the

not

that interstellar

no

space

bodies.

material

of

motion

be

The

planets,for example, travel through the ether-jelly

without
encounteringany resistance such as a material
medium

offer to their motion.

would

disturb

in its motion, there

matter

can

does

If ether
be

not

interaction

no

of matter.
of ether and particles
particles
Light
passes through ether and also through glassand water,
but its velocity
is changed in the latter substances.
How
this fact be explained mechanically? Apparently
can
interaction
between
ether
only by assuming some
and matter
We
have just seen
that
particles
particles.
in the case
of freelymoving bodies such interactions
be assumed
not
must
to exist. In other words, there is
between

interaction

between

but

certainlya
There

in

none

seems

difficulties. In

the

twentieth

attempt

from

of nature

the

mechanical

the

whole

the

to

!
out

all these

the

phenomena
point of view,

mechanical

was

of

understand

development

century, it

in

opticalphenomena,
phenomena ! This is

matter

paradoxicalconclusion
be only one
to
way

very

throughout

ether and

of science

necessary

to

up

to

introduce

THE

OF

DECLINE

THE

VIEW

MECHANICAL

artificialsubstances

like electric and

lightcorpuscles,or

ether. The

of all the

concentration

points,such

magnetic fluids,

result

of

case

some

simpleway,

essential

the other

that it is possibleto

point of

mechanical

seem
objections,

explainall events

view.

Science

the mechanical

carryingout
and
today no

tion
assumpfrom

in nature

did not

in

succeed

convincingly,

programme
in the

physicistbelieves

in

ether

an

indicate that the fault liesin the fundamental

to

as

the

opticalphenomena.

all the fruitlessattempts to construct

well

few

Here

as

merely

was

difficulties in

ether in the

as

125

of its
possibility

fulfilment.
In

short

our

have

we

met

some

difficultiesand

upon

all the

formulate

to

attempts

world.

external

in the

was,

inertial

of the

of the

that this force did

remembered

the wire

and

the

equality
the

was

electric

It
difficulty.

not

was

magnetic fluids.

between

unsolved

magnetic needle, an

There

There

mass.

electric and

interaction

of

consistent view

and

clue in classical mechanics

artificial character

and

of the

gravitationaland

There

uniform

phenomena

the unnoticed

of

principalphysicalideas
unsolved
problems, have come
obstacles which
discouraged the
of the

review

act

current

will be

in the line

necting
con-

magnetic pole,and depended

of the moving charge.The law expressing

velocity
its direction and magnitude was
extremely complicated.
the great difficulty
with the
there
And
was
finally,

on

the

ether.
Modern
solved

physicshas

them.

But

in

attacked
the

all these

strugglefor

problems
these

and

solutions

126
and

new

knowledge
of

the

is

and

doubts

WE

SUMMARIZE:

the

In
and
to

the

apply

the

created.

been

than

profound

more

nineteenth

Our

but

century,

that
so

are

difficulties.

theories

wave

and

of

theories

old

and

wider

now

physicist

our

have

problems

deeper

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

electric

of

of

light,

mechanical

witness

we

But

view.

optical phenomena

meet

we

the
the

in

the

in

fluids,

corpuscular

further

attempts

of electric

realm

difficultiesin

grave

this

application.
A

moving

instead

charge

acts

of depending

velocity of

the

charge.
to

But

needle.

magnetic

distance, depends

only upon

perpendicular

acts

upon

The

force

the

line

neither

repels

connecting

the

also

the

upon

but

attracts

not

the

and

needle

the

force,

charge.
In

optics

against

the

have

we

decide

to

corpuscular

in

theory of light.

medium

consisting of particles,

between

them,

the

medium

are

mechanical

is answered.

views

that
as

we

well.

to

But

the

have

to

which

properties?

optical phenomena

great

certainly

through

favour

the

is

mechanical

it up

and

thus

what

this

give up

what
are

reducing

of

before

ones

difficultiesin solving
give

But

and

hope

no

in

forces acting

concept.

light spreads

theory

wave

spreading

Waves

mechanical

with

mechanical

There

the

of

this

problem
the

is
its
the

question
are

mechanical

so

III.

FIELD,

RELATIVITY

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

field

The

"

The

theory
"

Ether

scaffold
"

General

"

and

Geometry

and

THE

the

DURING

FIELD

AS

second

half

the

opened

differing from
of

work

Our
in

science

try

to

The

that

of

for
two

the

"

cation
verifi-

its

creation

of

the

attract

break

through

with
129

the

to

of

velopment
denew

about

show

how

to

We

strength.

in

shall

logically,without
order.
with

connection

simpler

to

mechanics.

other

the

the

of

brought

and

it is

each

view,

reality.

chronological

originated

first time,

decreases

the

to

of progress

about

new

physics;

results
led

clarity and
line

into

Hertz

concepts

new

electricity,but

particles

of attraction
EE

much

and

describe

gained

concepts

new

lift

the

century

The

one.

picture

new

the

too

phenomena
them,

reconstruct

bothering

tinuum
con-

philosophical

new

physics,

these

gradually

they

mechanical

is to

by

nineteenth
introduced

were

to

modern

now

inside

relativityand

the

Maxwell,

forming

task

of

way

Faraday,

concepts,

distance, relativity

REPRESENTATION

ideas

the

of

The

"

time-space

and

General

field

matter

revolutionary

they

The

"

ether

Time,

"

"

relativity Outside
"

Field

"

motion

mechanics

experiment

and

Field

"

the

pillars of

two

field

and

Relativity and

"

and

the

reality of

mechanical

The

representation

as

square

and

introduce
We

that

of the

the

know

this force
distance.
5

We
so

EVOLUTION

THE

130

OF

represent this fact in

can

new

way,

and

it is difficult to understand

though

even

PHYSICS

small

of this. The

circle in

shall do

the advantage

drawing represents

our

Actually,our diagram
body, say, the sun.
attracting
should be imagined as a model
in space and not as a
drawing on a plane. Our small circle,then, stands for
A body, the so-called
a
sphere in space, say, the sun.
the vicinityof
within
test body,brought somewhere
the sun
will be attracted along the line connecting the
an

of the two

centres

indicate the direction

sun
on

for different
each

the sun;

of the

of
positions

line shows
this

the lines in

bodies. Thus

that

the

the

is directed

merely

it further.
our

There

drawing which

there is

and

name

is

one

will be

arrow

toward

attraction. These

the lines offorceofthe gravitational

field.For
this is

of the

force
attracting
test body. The

force

the force is an

means

ing
draw-

our

no

are

the moment,

reason

for stressing

characteristic feature

emphasized later.

The

of

lines

132

speed

of the

assumed

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

actions

along

the

infinitely
great !
bodies, according to Newton's
as

does

distance ; time
to

pass

motion

from

something
We

do

lines of force

The

in

than

more

model

But,

make

to

as

any

drawing

our

leads nowhere.

intend, however,

not

much

mean

to

attempt

an

time

no

on

force has

picture.The

body to another
infinite speed cannot

person,

two

law, depends only

the

enter

be

must

between

force

one

with

reasonable

not

PHYSICS

discuss

to

the

tional
gravita-

It served only as an introduction,

problem justnow
of
simplifyingthe explanationof similar methods

reasoning in the theory of electricity.

shall

We

which

begin

created

with

had

wire circuit in the form

circuit

was

of

our

experiment
mechanical

flowing through

current

circle. In the middle

magnetic needle.

of the

difficulties in

serious

We
interpretation.

discussion

The

moment

of the

the current

force appeared, acting on

the
began to flow a new
ing
magnetic pole,and perpendicularto any line connectthe wire and the pole. This force,if caused
by a
by Rowland's
charge, depended, as shown
circulating
mental
experiment,on the velocityof the charge.These experifacts contradicted
all forces must

act

on

the

the
line

view that
philosophical
connecting the particles

depend only upon distance.

The
exact
ing
actexpressionfor the force of a current
a
on
magnetic pole is quite complicated, much
for gravitational
the expression
more
so, indeed, than
and

can

forces. We

just as

can,
we

however, attempt
did in the

case

of

to
a

visualize the

tions
ac-

force.
gravitational

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

question is: with

Our

upon

be rather

Even

words.

know

about

acting forces by

to
a

this force
would

formula

It is best

act

ity?
in its vicin-

difficult to describe

awkward.
the

the current

somewhere

mathematical

complicated and
we

force does

magnetic pole placed

It would
in

what

133

represent

drawing,

be
all
or

by a spatialmodel, with lines of force. Some

is caused
by the fact that a magnetic pole
difficulty
with another
exists only in connection
magnetic pole,
forming a dipole.We can, however, always imagine
of such length that only the force
the magnetic needle
has to be taken
the current
acting upon the pole nearer
for
other pole is far enough away
The
into account.
the force acting upon
it to be negligible.
To
avoid
ambiguity we shall say that the magnetic pole brought
to the wire is the positive
nearer
one.
the positive
of the force acting upon
The
character
magnetic pole can be read from our drawing.
rather

First
the

we

notice

direction

of

an

the

arrow

near

the

current, from

indicating
higher to lower
wire

THE

134

EVOLUTION

potential.All other
this current

and

properly, they

tell

to

lines

are

lyingon

justlines offeree belonging

certain plane. If drawn
a

to

Our
the

The
such

next

it

as

length.We

given positive

about

is

know,

we

the

vector,

its direction

as

well

rule for
a

are

reading

the

direction

model

is not

where

the lines of force

diagram only

as

point in
in which

and

vector

the

same

the

were

line of force

one

clarifythe procedure.The
tangent to the line of force,as
force

the

acts

on

force from

ample,
previous exstraight.In our

our

in order

is drawn

indicated.

arrows

on

of

force vector

direction. Thus

force

in

simple as

to

the

on

something

as

know

must

we

current

with the prochieflyconcerned

blem
of the direction of the force acting upon
a pole.
questionis: how can we find,from the drawing,
direction of the force,at any point in space?

its

as

determine

of the force vector

the direction

us

representingthe action of the

magnetic pole as well
Force,
length of this vector.
and

PHYSICS

OF

the

lies
The

on

arrow

the
of

line of force

this is the direction

magnetic pole

at

this

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

point. A good drawing,

tellsus something about
at any
point.This vector
lines

are

lines

are

to

good model, also

lengthof the force vector

has to be longer where
the
the

the lines of
us

the

wire, shorter where

far from
dense,i.e.,

In this way,

field,enable

rather

or

denser, i.e.,near
less

135

the wire.

force,or in other words, the

determine

the

forces

magnetic pole at any point in space.

time being, is the only justification
for
of the

construction

field.

shall examine

we

the

Knowing
with

far

acting on
This, for

the

elaborate

our

the field

what

deeper interest

presses,
ex-

the

lines of force

These lines
correspondingto the current.
circles surrounding the wire and lyingon the plane
are
perpendicularto that in which the wire is situated.
Reading the character of the force from the drawing,
once

come

we

in

more

the

to

conclusion

that

the force

direction

perpendicularto any line connecting

the wire and
the pole, for the tangent to a circle is
ledge
always perpendicularto its radius. Our entire knowof the acting forces can
be summarized
in the
acts

construction
the

of the

field between

field. We
that

sandwich

of the

the

and

current

concept
that

of

of the

magnetic pole in order to represent the acting forces

in a simple way.
is associated with a magnetic field,
Every current
i.e.,a force always acts on a magnetic pole brought
the wire through which
near
flows. We
a current
may
remark

in

passingthat

this property enables

sensitive apparatus
a

current.

Once

for

the
detecting

having learned

how

to

us

to

struct
con-

existence

of

read the charac-

136

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

PHYSICS

magnetic forces from the field model of a

shall always draw
the field surrounding
current, we
the current
the wire through which
flows, in order to
of the magnetic forces at any
represent the action
Our
first example is the so-called
point in space.
ter

of the

This

solenoid.

is,in

the

drawing. Our

we

can

current

this

about

aim

the

represents

closed,and
of the

solenoid

the

magnetic field

and

of

in

solenoid
a

in

with

the

incorporate
field. A drawing
to

lines

curved

of

shown

learn, by experiment,all

the construction

surround

as

magnetic field associated

result. The

our

coil of wire

is to

flowing through

knowledge in

The

fact

way

of force

are

istic
character-

current.

in the
represented
that of a current.
Another
as
same
drawing shows
way
this. The
the positive
lines of force are
directed from
force vector
to the negativepole. The
always lies on^
the
the tangent to the line of force and is longestnear
polesbecause the densityof the lines is greatest at these
points.The force vector represents the action of the

field of

bar

magnet

can

be

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

magnet

on

magnet

and

Our

last

137
In

positivemagnetic pole.

not

the current

is the

"

this

the

case

of the field.

source"

drawings should be carefully

compared.
In the first,
have
the magnetic field of a current
we
flowing through a solenoid; in the second, the field
of

bar

the

bar

two

and

ignore both the solenoid and

only the two outside fields. We
of exactly the same
that they are

Let

magnet.

observe

us

immediately notice
character; in each case
end

of the solenoid

The

field

would

be

between

bar

or

to

lead from

difficult to

the current
if this

were

one

the other.
first fruit !

representationyields its

rather

bar magnet

the lines offeree

see

similarity

strong

any

It

flowingthrough a solenoid and a

construction
not revealed by our

of the field.
The
more

concept

test.

severe

than

more

forces. We
the
sources
mean

of field

could

shall

We
a

reason:

unique

see

to

whether

for

assume,

all actions

way.

that if a solenoid

soon

put

representationof

new

field characterizes
in

be

now

can

This

and

it is anything
the

magnet

acting
that

moment,

determined

is only
bar

much

guess.
have

by

its

It would

the

same

138

THE

field,then

all their influences

It would

EVOLUTION

that

mean

OF

also be

must

the

same.

solenoids,carrying electric

two

like two

currents, behave

PHYSICS

bar

magnets, that they

attract

repeleach other, depending exactlyas in the case of

that
It would also mean
bars,on their relative positions.
and a bar attract
or
a solenoid
repeleach other in the
bars. Briefly
same
as two
speaking,it would mean
way
that all actions of a solenoid through which
current
a
the same,
flows and of a correspondingbar magnet
are
the
since the field alone is responsiblefor them, and
is of the same
character.
field in both cases
Experiment
fullyconfirms our guess !
or

How

be to find those facts without

difficult it would

the concept

of field ! The

expressionfor

force

acting

flows and
a
through which a current
magnetic pole is very complicated. In the case of two
the forces with
solenoids,we should have to investigate

between

which

two

wire

currents

act

upon

other.

each

this,with the help of the field,we

the character
the
of

of all those

bar magnet

We
much

have

the

more

than

field alone

is

the

at
a

solenoid

do

notice

when

the moment

and

did

we

to

at

first.The

be essential for

differences

in

source

field

that

something
propertiesof the
the description
of
do

as

not

concept of field reveals its importance by

The

we

seen.

right to regard the

appear

phenomena;

immediately

the field of

between
similarity

actions

if

But

matter.

leading

experimentalfacts.
The field proved a very helpful
concept. It began as
and the magnetic
something placedbetween the source

to

new

140

THE

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

the
charged test body brought near
positively
fact that
of the field,the charged sphere.The
source
and not a negativelycharged test
we
use
a
positively
tion
body is merely a convention, indicatingin which direca

small

the

on

arrows

the line of force should

be

drawn.

field
analogous to that of a gravitational
Coulomb's
(p. 130) because of the similaritybetween
the
The
Newton's.
law and
only difference between
is that the arrows
models
tions.
two
point in oppositedirechave
Indeed, we
positive
repulsion of two
However, the
charges and attraction of two masses.
tical
field of a sphere with a negative charge will be idenThe

is

model

field since
gravitational
testingcharge will be attracted by
with

the small
the

source

positive
of the

field.

If both
is

no

electric and

action

between

magnetic poles are at rest, there

them, neither attraction nor repulsion.

Expressingthe

same

fact in the field

language,

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

electrostatic field does

an

say:

can

we

and

magnetostaticone
field"
The

and

magnets

for

does

no

rest

near

forces

Electrostatic,
magnetostatic and

words

change

not

external

influence

not

The

versa.

charges would

eternityif

an

vice

field that

mean

14!
a

"static

with

time.

another

one

disturbed

them.

fields are
gravitational

all of different character.

They do not mix; each preserves

its individuality
of the others.
regardless
Let us return
until
to the electric sphere which
was,
that it begins to move
at rest, and
assume
owing
now,
external force. The
to the action of some
charged sphere
In the field language this sentence
reads: the
moves.
field of the electric charge changes with time. But the
of this charged sphere is,as we
motion
already know
Rowland's
from
experiment, equivalentto a current.
is accompanied by a magnetic
Further, every current
the chain

field. Thus
motion

of

of

argument

our

charge -" change

of

an

is :

electric field

I
current

-"

We, therefore, conclude

associated
The

magnetic

change of an

field.

electricfield

by
producedby the motion of a chargeis always accompanied
a

fold.
magnetic

it

covers

the

much

more.

association

with

As

is based

conclusion

Our

of

magnetic

long as

an

Oersted's

experiment,but
It contains
the recognitionthat
electric field,changing in time,
on

field is essential for

charge is at

rest

there

our

is

further

only

an

ment.
argu-

electro-

142

EVOLUTION

THE

static field. But

charge begins to

OF

PHYSICS

magnetic field

appears

We

move.

can

by the motion
charge is greater

field created

stronger if the
This

also is

Once

again

faster the

of the

of Rowland's
consequence
using the field language, we

be

faster.

moves

experiment.

electric field

the

netic
mag-

charge will

if it

and

The

more.

say

as

soon

as

say: the

can

changes, the stronger

the

companying
ac-

magnetic field.
We

tried here

have

the

language

old

mechanical

We

shall

of

later
new

TWO

THE

familiar

facts from

according to the
the new
language of fields.
clear, instructive,and far-

fluids,constructed
view, into

see

reaching our

translate

to

how

language is.
OF

PILLARS

THE

FIELD

THEORY

change of an electric field is accompanied by a

magnetic field." If we interchangethe words "magnetic"
reads: "The
and "electric",
sentence
our
change
of a magnetic field is accompanied by an electric field."
decide whether
this
not
or
Only an experiment can
But the idea of formulating this
is true.
statement
problem is suggestedby the use of the field language.
Just over a hundred
years ago, Faraday performed
duced
an
experiment which led to the great discoveryof in"The

currents.

solenoid

or

of the many

of
is

is very

demonstration

The

kept

an

at

some

other

simple.We

circuit,a

bar

need

magnet,

only
and

one

ence
types of apparatus for detectingthe existelectric current.
rest

near

To

begin with, a

solenoid

which

bar magnet

forms

closed

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

circuit.

No

current

through the wire, for no

is only the magnetostatic field
does not
change with time.

flows

source

is present. There

of the

bar

magnet

143

which

quickly change the positionof the magnet

either by removing it or
the
by bringing it nearer
solenoid,whichever we prefer.At this moment, a current
Now,

we

for

will appear

Whenever

the

short

very

positionof

reappears, and can

sensitive apparatus.
But
current

view

of the

field

electric field

theory
forcing the
"

through the wire. The

field,too, vanishes

time

and

vanish.

then

changed, the
be detected by a sufficiently
from the point of
current
is

the magnet

"

the

means

flow

of

current,

and

when

the

the

existence
electric

therefore

magnet

is

of

an

fluids

tric
the elec-

again

at

rest.

Imagine
unknown

for

and

the

moment

that

the

results of this

field

language

is

experiment have to
be described, qualitatively
in the
and
quantitatively,
language of old mechanical
concepts. Our experiment
then shows : by the motion
of a magnetic dipolea new
force was
created, moving the electric fluid in the wire.
The
does this
be: upon
what
next
question would
force depend? This would
be very difficult to answer.

EVOLUTION

THE

144

PHYSICS

OF

the dependence of the

investigate
of the magnet, upon
its shape,
the velocity
force upon
and upon
the shape of the circuit. Furthermore, this
in the old language,givesus
experiment,if interpreted

We

should

have

hint at all

no

excited

by

as

the

current, instead

to

to

whether

motion
of

by

an

induced

of another
motion

of

current

circuit

can

be

carrying a

bar magnet.

if we
the field
use
quite a different matter
that the action is
language and again trust our principle
determined
that a solenoid
by the field. We see at once
through which a current flows would serve as well as a
bar magnet. The
drawing shows two solenoids: one,
current
small, through which
a
flows, and the other,
the induced
is detected, larger.We
in which
current

It is

could
the

move

bar

the small

magnet,

larger solenoid.
small solenoid,we

solenoid,as

we

previouslymoved

creatingan induced
Furthermore, instead

current

of

in the

moving the
could create
and destroya magnetic
field by creatingand destroyingthe current, that is,
by opening and closingthe circuit. Once again, new
facts suggestedby the field theory are
confirmed
by
experiment !
Let us take a simplerexample. We
have a closed wire

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

without

any

vicinityis
whether
circuit

the

of this

source

Our

which

Somewhere

current.

magnetic field.

through

bar magnet.

of

source

an

drawing

the

magnetic lines of force.

for

145

It

nothing

means

magnetic

the

to

us

field is another

flows, or

electric current

shows

in

the closed circuit and

The

and quantiqualitative
tative
of the induction
description
phenomena is very
simple in terms of the field language. As marked
on
the drawing, some
lines of force go through the surface
bounded
by the wire. We have to consider the lines of
force cutting that part of the plane which
has the wire
rim.

No

electric current

is present

long as the
field does not change, no matter
how
great its strength.
But a current
begins to flow through the rim-wire as
of lines passingthrough the surface
soon
as the number
surrounded
is determined
current
by wire changes. The
by the change, however it may be caused, of the
number
of lines passingthe surface. This change in the
number

of lines of force is the

only

so

essential

concept

146

EVOLUTION

THE

for both

the

OF

and
qualitative

of the

induced

PHYSICS

tions
quantitativedescrip-

the

"The

current.

that the densityof

changes'5means
and this,we
that
remember, means
changes.
These

of lines

number
the lines
the

changes
strength

field

pointsin our chain of

rent-emotion
curreasoning: change of magnetic field -" induced
electric
of charge -" existence
of an
then

the

are

essential

field.
Therefore
an

changingmagnetic
fieldis accompaniedby

electric
field.
Thus

we

found

have

of support for the

field. The

needle

and

with

led

second

the

the

experiment
to

is accompanied
by
The

theory of

the

field.

It

deflection

of

magnetic
on

the

the conclusion:

arose
a

from

magnetic

changingelectricfield

magnetic
field.

connects

induced

current

Both

formed

experiment.

important pillars
electric and magnetic
the changing
between

most

firstis the connection

electric field and

Oersted's

the two

changing magnetic field

and
from
arose
Faraday's

the

basis

for

scriptio
quantitativede-

Again the electric field accompanying the changing

magnetic field appears as something real. We had to
the magnetic field of a current
imagine, previously,
existingwithout the testingpole. Similarly,we must
claim

here that the electric field exists without

testingthe presence of an induced

In fact,our
structure
two-pillar
only one, namely, to that based

the wire

current.

could
on

be reduced

Oersted's

to

experi-

148

EVOLUTION

THE

The

same

process
of view, that

PHYSICS

OF

be looked

can

from

at

different

appeared
magnetic field discreated. A spark represents
and a spark was
therefore so also must
the magnetic field. To
energy,
the field concept and its language consistently,
use
we
must
regard the magnetic field as a store of energy.
Only in this way shall we be able to describe the electric
and
with the law
magnetic phenomena in accordance

point

of conservation

led

to

us

field is

real.

more

new

helpfulmodel, the field

It helped us to understand
The

ones.

the field concept

in the

stressed

was

concepts of substances, so

point of view,

were

THE

The

THE

of these

form

FIELD

are

so

the laws

called Maxwell's

far led to the formulation

their

content

is much

able to indicate. Their

been

depth

revealed

of their wealth

they form

pattern for

characteristic

appearingin

all other

of content,
a

new

features

the

mechanical

simple
study.

only by careful
of these equations is the most
formulation
in physicssince Newton's
event
time, not

because

The

have

we

conceals

The

equations,but

and

more,

the

the

in which

of
description

in what

facts mentioned

equations.The
richer than

up

to

suppressed.

more

mathematical
quantitative,

of the field is summed

and

essential to

OF

REALITY

more

old facts and

development

more

and

more

became

of energy

attribution

step farther

one

of energy.

Startingas
and

of energy.

but

portant
im-

only

also because

type of law.
of Maxwell's

equationsof

modern

equations,
are
physics,

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

in

summarized

representingthe
Why do Maxwell's

laws

from

character

the

equationsare

Maxwell's

sentence.

one

149

of the field.

structure

equations differ

in

form

and

equations of classical mechanics?

equations describe the

is it possible
of the field? How
that, from the
structure
results of Oersted's and Faraday'sexperiments,we
can
form a new
type of law, which proves so important for
the further development of physics?
have
We
already seen, from Oersted's experiment,
how
a
a
changing
magnetic field coils itself around
electric field. We have seen, from Faraday's experiment,
electric field coils itself around
how
a
an
changing
does

What

say,

which

our

that

on

an

one

on

Faraday.

electric current

field. We

of the

some

theory, let

attention

of

these

outline

of Maxwell's

all

focus

that

mean

field. To

magnetic
features

it

We

us,

for the

of these

repeat

is induced

already know

characteristic

that

moment,

experiments,

the

drawing

in

changing magnetic

by

an

induced

current

EVOLUTION

THE

150
appears

OF

of lines of

if the number

PHYSICS

force,passingthe

face
sur-

changes. Then the current

if the magnetic field changes or the circuit
will appear
is deformed
moved
of magnetic lines
: if the number
or
how
passingthrough the surface is changed, no matter
To
take into account
all these
this change is caused.
discuss their particularinfluences,
various possibilities,
to
would
necessarilylead to a very complicated
theory. But can we not simplifyour problem? Let us
considerations
from
our
everything
try to eliminate
refers to the shape of the circuit,
which
to its length,
to the surface enclosed
by the wire. Let us imagine
smaller
that the circuit in our
last drawing becomes
and smaller,shrinkinggraduallyto a very small circuit
everything
enclosinga certain point in space. Then
concerning shape and size is quite irrelevant. In this
shrinks to a
limitingprocess where the closed curve
point, size and shape automaticallyvanish from our
considerations and we
obtain laws connectingchanges
of magnetic and electric field at an
arbitrarypoint in
instant.
space at an arbitrary
of the principalsteps leading to
Thus, this is one
Maxwell's
equations. It is againan idealized experiment
periment
performed in imagination by repeatingFaraday's exbounded

by

with
We
whole

should
one.

the wire,

circuit

shrinkingto

reallycall
So

far

our

it half

attention

Faraday'sexperiment. But
theory, based on Oersted's
and
justas carefully

point.

step rather than

has been focused

the other

pillarof

experiment,must
in

similar

manner.

a
on

the field
be

sidered
con-

In this

FIELD,

RELATIVITY

experiment the magnetic lines of force coil themselves

around the current.
By shrinkingthe circular magnetic
lines of force to a point, the second
is perhalf-step
formed
and the whole
between
step yieldsa connection
the changes of the magnetic and electric fields at an
arbitrarypoint in spacfc and at an arbitraryinstant.
But stillanother essential step is necessary. According
be a wire testing
to Faraday's experiment, there must
the existence of the electric field,
just as there must be
a
magnetic pole, or needle, testingthe existence of a
magnetic field in Oersted's experiment. But Maxwell's
theoretical idea goes beyond these experimental
new
facts. The
electric and magnetic field or, in short,the
field is,in Maxwell's
electromagnetic
theory,something
real. The

electric field is

produced by a changing
not
or
magnetic field,quite independently,whether
there is a wire to test its existence;a magnetic field is
produced by a changing electric field,whether or not
there is a magnetic pole to test its existence.
Thus
The

essential steps led to Maxwell's

two

first: in

consideringOersted's

the circular line of the

and

equations.

Rowland's

periments,
ex-

magnetic field coiling

itselfaround
the current
and the changing electric field
had to be shrunk
to a point; in consideringFaraday's
experiment,the circular line of the electric field coiling
itself around
the changing magnetic field had
to be
shrunk
to
a
point. The second step consists of the
realization of the field as something real; the electromagnetic
field once
created exists,acts, and changes
according to Maxwell's laws.

THi2

152

EVOLUTION

PHYSICS

OF

Maxwell's

equations describe
electromagneticfield. All space
laws

and

which
We

not,

matter

remember

charges are
it

how

of these

scene

laws, only points in

present.

By knowing

in mechanics.

was

of the

structure

is the

for mechanical

as
or

the

the

single
positionand velocityof a particleat one
instant,by knowing the acting forces,the whole future
path of the particlecould be foreseen. In Maxwell's
instant only, we
the field at one
theory,if we know
the
deduce
from the equationsof the theory how
can
Maxwell's
whole field will change in space and time.
equations enable us to follow the historyof the field,
just as the mechanical
equations enabled us to follow
the historyof material particles.
But

there

mechanical
of

is still

one

and

laws

difference

essential

Maxwell's

laws.

between

comparison

field
gravitationallaws and Maxwell's
laws will emphasize some
of the characteristic features
expressedby these equations.
the
laws we
deduce
With
the help of Newton's
can
of the earth from the force acting between
the
motion
Newton's

and

sun

earth

the earth. The

with

the sun,

the action

though

so

laws

of the far-off

far apart,

the motion

connect

are

sun.

both

The
actors

of the

earth
in the

and

play

of forces.
In

Maxwell's

theory there are no material actors.

mathematical
The
equationsof this theory express the
field. They do not,
laws governing the electromagnetic
in Newton's
two
as
laws, connect
widely separated
the happenings here with
events; they do not connect

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

the

the

on

field here and

there. The

conditions
field in

the

153

immediate

now

neighbourhoodat

depends
a

time

justpast. The equationsallow us to predictwhat will

happen a littlefarther in space and a littlelater in time,
know
what
if we
They allow
happens here and now.
to increase our
us
knowledge of the field by small steps.
deduce
what
We
can
happens here from that which
of these very
by the summation
happened far away
small steps. In Newton's
theory,on the contrary, only
The
big steps connecting distant events are permissible.
experiments of Oersted and Faraday can be regained
of
from Maxwell's
theory, but only by the summation
is governed by Maxwell's
small steps each of which
equations.
A more
thorough mathematical
study of Maxwell's
and reallyunexpected conclusions
equationsshows that new
be drawn
and the whole
can
theory submitted
to

test

on

much

higher level,because

the theoretical

and
character
quantitative
chain of logical
revealed by a whole
are
arguments.
Let us againimagine an idealized experiment.A small
ternal
exsphere with an electric charge is forced, by some
influence,to oscillate rapidlyand in a rhythmical
the knowledge we
already
way, like a pendulum. With
have of the changes of the field,
describe
how shall we
everythingthat is going on here, in the field language?
The
oscillation of the charge produces a changing
electric field. This is always accompanied by a changing
magnetic field. If a wire forming a closed circuit
is placed in the vicinity,then
again the changing
consequences

are

now

of

154

THE

OF

EVOLUTION

PHYSICS

magnetic field will be accompanied by an electric current

in the circuit. All this is merely a repetition
of known
facts,but the study of Maxwell's
equations gives a
much
deeper insightinto the problem of the oscillating
from
electric charge. By mathematical
deduction
well's
Maxdetect the character
of the
can
equations we
field surrounding an
oscillating
charge, its structure
and its change with time.
and far from the source
near
is the electromagnetic
of such deduction
The
outcome
the oscillating
wave.
Energy radiates from
charge
travellingwith a definite speed through space; but
a

transference

of

characteristic of all

energy,

the

motion

of

state, is

phenomena.
ered.
considDifferent types of waves
have already been
caused
There
the longitudinal
wave
was
by the
pulsatingsphere, where the changes of density were
There
the jellywas
propagated through the medium.
the transverse
in which
like medium
wave
spread. A
caused
of the jelly,
deformation
by the rotation of the
kind
What
of
through the medium.
sphere,moved
magnetic
spreadingin the case of an electrochanges are now
wave?
Just the changes of an electromagnetic
electric field produces a
field ! Every change of an
magnetic field; every change of this magnetic field
produces an electric field;every change of...,and so
wave

As field representsenergy,

all these

changes spreading
in space, with a definite velocity,produce a
out
electric and magnetic lines of force always
The
wave.
the theory,on
from
planes perpenlie,as deduced
dicular
of propagation. The
direction
the
to
wave
on.

156

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

PHYSICS

the

in
speed of lightis one of the greatest achievements
the historyof science.
the predictionof theory.
Experiment has confirmed
Fiftyyears ago, Hertz proved, for the first time, the
of

existence

that

is far

Hertz

and

velocityis equal to
millions of people demonstrate

their

complicated than

the

instead

sources

AND

the

The

fact that

their

is

velocities

between
relationship
phenomena.

and

we

the

wave

had

to

we

that
Their

by
of

thousands

waves

few

only a

transverse

are

the

yards.

one

same

opticaland

choose

theory,

of

that

used

velocityof lightin empty

close

When

of

that

perimentall
ex-

ETHER

electromagnetic wave

propagated with

of

presence

FIELD

The

received.

and

sent

are

more

detects

miles from

confirmed

their

light.Nowadays,
electromagnetic waves
apparatus

and

electromagneticwaves

between
decided

and

is

space.

suggests

electromagnetic
the
in

corpuscular

favour

of

the

theory.The diffraction of lightwas the strongest

influencingour decision. But we shall not
argument
contradict
any of the explanationsof the opticalfacts
by also assuming that the lightwave is an electromagneti
wave

one.

On

drawn.

the

If this is

connection
of matter
fact that

contrary, still other conclusions

can

be

reallyso, then there must exist some

the opticaland electrical properties
between
the theory.The
be deduced
from
that can
of this kind can
conclusions
reallybe drawn

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

and that

the test of

they stand
in

argument

157

favour

of the

experimentis an essential
electromagnetictheory of

light.
great result is due

This

apparently
by

the

unrelated

branches

theory. The

same

describe

both

it is

aim

theory. Two

of science

Maxwell's

same

electric induction

field

the

to

and

are

covered

equations

opticalrefraction.

If

everythingthat ever happened

or
happen with the help of one theory,then the
may
of opticsand
union
is,undoubtedly, a very
electricity
the physicalpoint of view,
From
great step forward.
the only difference between
an
ordinary electromagnetic
is the wave-length:this is
and a lightwave
wave
detected by the human
eye,
very small for lightwaves,
and great for ordinary electromagnetic
detected
waves,
by a radio receiver.
view
old mechanical
The
attempted to reduce all
in nature
material parto forces actingbetween
events
ticles.
based the first
view was
Upon this mechanical
naive
theory of the electric fluids. The field did not
of the early years of the nineteenth
exist for the physicist
century. For him only substance and its changes
our

were

real.

to

He

describe

tried to

describe

the

action

of two

tric
elec-

charges only by concepts referring

directlyto the
two
charges.
In the beginning,the field concept was
than
no
more
of facilitating
of phenomena
the understanding
a means
from

the

field
point of view. In the new
the
of the field between
description
the chargesthemselves,which
is
not

mechanical

language it is the
two
charges,and

158

THE

essential for

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

understandingof their action. The recognition

until substance
of the new
concepts grew steadily,
realized that
overshadowed
was
by the field. It was
something of great importance had happened in physics.
A new
created, a new
realitywas
concept for which
there was
no
description.
place in the mechanical
Slowly and by a strugglethe field concept established
for itself a leadingplace in physicsand has remained
of the basic physicalconcepts. The electromagnetic
one
real as the chair on
field is,for the modern
as
physicist,
which
But

he

an

sits.

it would

be

unjustto

consider

that the

new

field

theory of
electric fluids or
that the new
theory destroys the
of the old. The
achievements
new
theory shows the
merits as well as the limitations of the old theory and
old concepts from
allows us
to
a
regain our
higher
level. This is true
not
only for the theories of electric
fluids and field,but for all changes in physicaltheories,
however
In our
seem.
revolutionarythey may
case,
still find,for example, the concept of the electric
we
derstood
theory,though the charge is uncharge in Maxwell's
of the electric field. Coulomb's
only as a source

view

freed science from

law

is still valid

equationsfrom
many

which

consequences.

whenever

the

But

we

since all the known

its validity.

of the old

and

is contained

can

be deduced

can

stillapply the old

it

We

facts within

errors

the

in Maxwell's
as

one

of the

theory,
vestiga
region of its validityare inwell apply the new
theory,

may

as

facts

are

contained

in the realm

of

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

To
new

comparison, we could
theoryis not like destroyingan
use

uTits piarq,
a

mountain, gaining new

cuimeaions

its rich environment.

started

out

gained by

adventurous
It was,

way

that creating

say

old barn

^ltis rather

and

erect-

climEing
and wider views, discovering
and
b^twe^Trouf^IarnHg^point

But

still exists

smaller

appears

view

159

the

and

point
be

can

and

forms

the

mastery

like

which

from

of the

it

although

seen,

tiny part of

we

broad

our

obstacles

on

our

up.

indeed, a long time before

the full content

of

Maxwell's

theory was recognized.The field was at first

considered
preted
as
something which might later be intermechanically with the help of ether. By the
time

it

carried

was

that this programme

realized

out, the achievements

could

not

be

theory had

of the field

too
already become
strikingand important for it to be
exchanged for a mechanical dogma. On the other hand,
of ether
model
the problem of devisingthe mechanical
less and less interesting
and the result,
seemed
to become

in view

of the

forced

assumptions,more
Our
only way

and
out

the fact that space

much
stilluse

and
more
seems

has

the

discouraging.
to

be

to

take

for

meaning
the moment

times in the

many
it

no

granted
of transmitting

physicalproperty

bother

electromagneticwaves, and not to

about
the meaning of this statement.
the word
ether, but only to express

property of space. This

of the

artificial character

word

for

may

physical
changed its
some

ether has

development of

longer stands

We

too

science.

medium

At

built up

l6o

EVOLUTION

THE

of

Its story, by no
particles.
by the relativity
theory.

is continued
finished,

means

MECHANICAL

THE

PHYSICS

OF

SCAFFOLD

reachingthis stage of our story, we must

the beginning,to Galileo's law of inertia.

On
to
once

of rest, or
in its state
perseveres
rightline,unless it is compelled to

in

by

has

forces

more

that

change

impressedthereon.

the idea of inertia is understood,

Once
what

quote

of uniform

Every body
state

We

more

motion

back

turn

be said about

can

alreadybeen

one

wonders

Although this problem

thoroughlydiscussed,it is by no means
it.

exhausted.

Imagine
of inertia

believes that the law

serious scientist who

be

proved or disprovedby actual experiments.

He
pushes small spheres along a horizontal
table,tryingto eliminate friction so far as possible.He
can

notices that the motion

table and

the

works

becomes

uniform

more

the

as

spheresare made smoother. Just as he is

about
to proclaim the principleof inertia, someone
suddenly plays a practical
joke on him. Our physicist
in

room

windows

without

whatever

with

joker installs some

practical
him

to

cause

the

entire

the

room

to

has

outside

mechanism

passingthrough its centre.

begins,the physicisthas new
The
sphere which has

axis

and

rotate

As

and
been

soon

no

munication
com-

world.
which

enables

quickly on
as

The

an

the rotation

unexpected experiences.
moving uniformly

tries
the

to

get

walls

far away

as

of

the

force

strange

the

from

room

him

pushing

travellingfast round
rotating merry-go-round.
pieces.
of

physicist would

An

life in the

there, would
from

ours.

with

and

have

If, on

the

profound

The

law
so

destined

rotating room,

of

the

of mechanics

and

ascertain

even

Why

should
in

his

earth,

are

Since

the

time

earth

rotates

our

Even

this

untouched
this

how

would

take

rotating
of

the

the
also be

laws

unable

If
of
to

go

to

law
was

whole

all his

ments
experi-

differing
the

belief

for

the

room

in

the

apparent
that

assumption

so

interest

Simply

and

he

could

to

known

everyone,

of science.

being

and

accept

rotating observer
mechanics, w^- on our
our

do

so.

But

the rotation

server
obon

we,

that
the
was

But

the

position.

same

around

moves

clear

advance

have

we

in

because

in the

extent

Copernicus

question for the time

point of view.

much

so

certain

simple idea,

by

his

experiments

room?

its axis

on

the

enters

the

on

it rotates.

we

to

be

or

all his further

firm

mechanical

By

rotates.

room

results

mechanics

principlesof physics, his explanation

breakdown

train

spend

he

periences
ex-

of inertia

are

to

hand,

knowledge

He

more,

perform

to

laws

other

even

previous

changed,

observer

feels

wall.
in

to

near

discard, with

to

laws.
is

the

or

his

as

himself

anyone

curve,

have

if this
starting-point;

conclusions.

as

All

inertia, all mechanical

his

He

against

sensation

same

and

centre

possible.

as

car

Our

the

let

not
us

the
sun.

left
leave

Copernicus'

could

not

firm
con-

earth, should
of the

earth

is

162

THE

EVOLUTION

OF

comparativelyslow, so that
Nevertheless,there are
show

their

consistencycan

small

deviation

from

be

PHYSICS

the effect is not

tinct.
dis-

very

experimentswhich
many
the mechanical
laws, and

regarded

proof of

as

the

tion
rota-

of the earth.

Unfortunatelywe
the

and

the

ourselves

place

cannot

earth, to prove

there

between

the exact

validity
of the law of inertia and to get a view of the rotating
earth. This can
be done
only in imagination. All our
experimentsmust be performed on the earth on which
we
are
fact is often excompelled to live. The same
pressed
sun

the
scientifically:

more

earth is

co-ordinate

our

system.
To

show

the

mark

on

meaning of these words more

clearly,
let us take a simple example. We
can
predictthe position,
at any
time, of a stone thrown from a tower, and
confirm our
predictionby observation. If a measuringrod is placed beside the tower, we
foretell with
can
what
at

any

given
not

which

the
moment.

be

made

rod

the
The

falling
body
and

tower

of rubber

or

any

will coincide

scale

must,

other

viously,
ob-

material

would

undergo any change during the experiment.

In fact, the unchangeable scale, rigidlyconnected
with the earth, and
a
good clock are all we
for the experiment. If we have these,
need, in principle,
we
can
ignore not only the architecture of the tower,
its very presence.
The
foregoingassumptions are
all trivial and not usuallyspecifiedin descriptions
of

but

such

experiments.But this analysisshows

hidden assumptionsthere are in every one

how
of

our

many
state-

164

THE

All

EVOLUTION

PHYSICS

OF

physical statements
something.We took no notice

thus

our

be

must

the
describing

in

made

far

have

lacked

of the fact that all observatio

certain

of this c.s.,

of

Instead

c.s.

justignored its
existence. For example, when
wrote
we
a body moves
uniformly. ." we should reallyhave written, "a body
moves
Our
uniformly,relative to a chosen c.s
experiencewith the rotatingroom
taught us that the
structure

we

"

"

results of mechanical

experiments

the

may

depend

each

other,then the

on

chosen.

c.s.

If two
laws

of mechanics
of the water

the co-ordinate
the

takes

in

When

be valid in both.

which

in

water

form

similar

similar
to

swimming
who

anyone

to
mis

over

one

which

important point.We

did

not

state^for

the

whole

JborlHis reason,

arej^aiuL-

frame

it refers. Let

ditlicultyfor the
with

to

statement

is not

We

earth

valid. This

are

and

the

make

our

the

is done

statements

do

shall make

in every

laws

we

however,

us,

We

moment.

incorrect assumption that

slightly
connected

stirs his

of mechanics

lid-air since
know

pool

spoon.

they

c.s.

face
sur-

the principalclues
formulating

omitted

If the

swimming pool,forming one of

systems, is horizontal,then in the other

the curved

coffee with

to

respect

cannot

of the

surface

we

with

rotate

c.s.

of

in order
definite.

c.s.

fix the

Although

that the earth is a suitable frame

wholly correct, we shall accept it for

therefore,the existence of
assume,

not

pass

the

rigidly

classical
to

of

chanics
me-

c.s.
our

of reference
the present.
one

c.s.

for

which
one?
an

the laws

of mechanics

Suppose we have
aeroplane moving

laws

of

know

mechanics

in the

valid

tossed

in

begin

with

relative

to

storm
a
our

of

case
or

such

as

relative to

be

are

train

for

earth.

these

new

of mechanics

train

or

same

results

valid.

are

Will

the

c.s.?

We

always valid, as for

not

turning
a

For

curve,

ship

tail spin. Let

simple example. A c.s. moves

"good" c.s., that is,one

laws

only

train,a ship or

our

aeroplane in

an

Is this the

valid.

are

c.s.

that they
definitely

instance

165

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

us

uniformly,
in which

instance,

the
ideal

an

smoothness
along
ship sailingwith delightful
a
straightline and with a never-changing speed. We
know
from everyday experiencethat both systems will
be "good", that physicalexperiments performed in a
uniformly moving train or ship will give exactly the
a

accelerates

as

abruptly,
In

things happen.
luggage racks; on
about

and

the

of mechanics
"

bad"

or

the

the

But, if the train stops, or

if the sea
is rough, strange

train, the

ship,tables
become

passengers

physicalpoint of
are

the earth.

on

view

cannot

this

be

and

trunks

fall off the

chairs
seasick.

simply means
applied to these

are

thrown

From

the

that the laws

c.s., that they

c.s.

be

expressedby the so-called Galilean

: if the laws
relativity
principle
of mechanics are valid in one
valid in any other c.s. moving uniformly
c.s., then theyare
relativeto the first.
If we
have two
c.s.
moving non-uniformly,relative
to each
be
cannot
other, then the laws of mechanics
valid in both.
"Good"
co-ordinate
systems, that is,
This

result

can

l66

EVOLUTION

THE
.

for which

those

the

such

them.

initial one,

known
to

is also

picturescan
relative to

moving

confirmed

be

of accuracy,

of the

different

the

of two

c.s.

observations

example:
from
These

two

earth
But

are

observed

from

Each

would

in

the

"

pass from one

and both

infinite number

of

two

the

to

or

in

of mechanics

laws

The

the

degree
a
ship

same

train

or

on

some

arises
difficulty

begin

to

the

if the

discuss observations

point of

like to

view

translate

of

their

the other's

language. Again a simple

of a particleis observed
motion
earth and a train moving uniformly.

c.s.

one

of

c.s.

own

inertial. Is it sufficient to know

in order

to

what

what

find out

is

is observed

other,if the relative velocities and positions

at

c.s.

for
essential,

his

same

both

in the
of the two

systems

into

c.s.

if there

c.s.

earth.

event

the

an

experimentallywith

on

same

case

the

moving uniformly.
observers

But

in-

an

startingfrom a
relative
moving uniformly, one
known
velocity. One who prefers
safelythink of a ship or a train

the

the other, with

can

inertial

an

positionand

concrete

whether

to

moving uniformly, relative

c.s.

consider

us

there is

system, then

Every

Let

question as

valid, we

are

exists at all is stillunsettled.

ertial system
one

of mechanics

laws

call inertial systems.The

is

PHYSICS

OF

some

moment

of
description

are

known?

events,

another, since both

to

It is most

know

how

to

equivalent
of events
equallysuited for the description
in nature.
the
Indeed, it is quite enough to know
results obtained
c.s.
to know
by an observer in one
those obtained
by an observer in the other.
c.s.

to

c.s.

are

Let

consider

167

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

without
abstractly,
problem more
shall investigate
we
ship or train. To simplifymatters
only motion
along straightlines. We have, then, a
rigid bar with a scale and a good clock. The rigid
bar represents, in the simple case
of rectilinear motion,
did the scale on
in Galileo's
the tower
a
c.s. just as
experiment. It is always simplerand better to think of
and
of rectilinear motion
a rigidbar in the case
a c.s. as
and perpendicularrods
a rigidscaffold built of parallel
of arbitrary motion
in space, disregarding
in the case
have, in
towers, walls,streets, and the like. Suppose we
us

simplestcase,

our

draw

"upper"

c.s.

move

that

that

one

both

When

the

and

with

no

other

definite

are

and
c.s.

rigidrods; we
them
respectively

is,two
call

We

that the two

assume

velocityrelative

along the

other.

of infinite

time

flow

to

each

It is safe to

length

end-points. One

c.s., for the

two

c.s., that

"lower"

slides
rods

points but
the

two

above

one

the

so

the

clock

is the

and

have

other,
assume

initial

is sufficient for
same

for both.

of
starting-points
the two rods coincide. The positionof a material point
is characterized,at this moment,
in
number
by the same
material
both c.s. The
point coincides with a point on
mining
deterthe scale on
the rod, thus giving us a number
the positionof this material point. But, if the
rods move
uniformly,relative to each other,the numbers
corresponding to the positionswill be different after
Consider
some
a material
time, say, one second.
point
restingon the upper rod. The number
determining its
positionon the upper c.s. does not change with time.
we

begin

our

observation

the

l68

THE

But

the

EVOLUTION

OF

correspondingnumber

PHYSICS

for the lower

rod

will

change. Instead of "the number

correspondingto a
shall say briefly,
the copositionof the point", we
ordinate
of a point.Thus we see from our drawing that
"E

"

although the followingsentence

nevertheless
The

correct

co-ordinate

its co-ordinate

of

sounds

intricate,it is

and expresses
a

in the

somethingvery simple.
point in the lower c.s. is equal to
of
c.s. plus the co-ordinate
upper

the

origin of the upper c.s. relative to the lower c.s.

The
important thing is that we can
always calculate
the positionof a particlein one
if we
know
the
c.s.
have
positionin the other. For this purpose
to
we
know
the relative positionsof the two
co-ordinate
tems
sysin question at every moment.
Although all this
sounds
learned, it is, really,very simple and hardly
worth
such detailed discussion,except that we
shall
find it useful later.
It is worth

of

to

notice

the

difference

tween
be-

determiningthe positionof a point and the time

event.
rod which
Every observer has his own
his c.s., but there is only one
clock for them
all,
is something absolute"
which
flows in the same

an

forms

"

Time
way

while

our

for all observers

Now

another

of three

miles

in all

c.s.

example. A man
per hour along the

strolls with
deck

of

velocity
largeship.
a

This

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

69

is his

velocityrelative to the ship, or, in other

words, relative to a c.s. rigidlyconnected with the ship.
If the velocity
of the shipis thirty
miles per hour relative
if the uniform
velocities of man
and
to the shore, and
direction,then the velocity
ship both have the same
miles per hour relative
of the stroller will be thirty-three
to

an

observer

relative to

the shore,

on

the

ship.We

or

three

miles

this fact

formulate

can

per

hour
more

moving material point,

relative to the lower
c.s., is equal to that relative to
the upper
c.s.
plus or minus the velocityof the upper
whether
the
c.s. relative to the lower, depending upon
the same
velocities have
or
opposite directions. We
not
therefore,always transform
only positions,
can,

abstractly:the velocityof

but

also velocities from

one

c.s.

the realtive velocities of the two

to

another

if

know

we

The

or
positions,
co-ordinates,and velocities are examples of quantities
which
different in different c.s. bound
are
together by
laws.
in this case very simple,transformation
certain,
There exist quantities,
however, which are the same

in both

needed.

points
between

for which

and

c.s.

Take

as

an

the

upper

them.

This

on

co-ordinates

of the

no

example
rod

and

distance
two

c.s.

transformation
not

one,

consider
is the

points.To

but

laws
two

the

fixed

distance

the

difference
find

are

in the

positions

THE

I7O
of two

EVOLUTION

pointsrelative

transformation

laws.

of two

different

cancel

from

evident

of

But

each

have

we

due

contributions

other
We
the

between

to

constructingthe

in

drawing.

the

the distance
distance

different c.s.,

to

positionsthe

c.s.

PHYSICS

OF

and

use

ences
differthe

to

is

disappear,as

have

add

to

originsof

tract
sub-

and

two

The

c.s.

that is,
pointsis,therefore,invariant^

two

independent of the choice of the c.s.

The
next
example of a quantityindependent of the
is the change of velocity,
a
c.s.
concept familiar to us
from mechanics.
Again, a material point moving along
a
straightline is observed from two c.s. Its change of
velocityis,for the observer in each c.s., a difference
the contribution
and
due
between
two
to
velocities,
the uniform

relative

motion

of the

disappears
the difference is calculated. Therefore, the change
when
of velocityis an
invariant,though only, of course, on
the

relative

c.s.

condition

that

uniform.

Otherwise, the change of velocitywould

different

in each

brought

in

by

of the

motion

of the

the
two

two

motion

two

of

c.s., the

our

two

difference

c.s.

is
be

being

change of velocityof the relative

co-ordinate
rods, representingour

systems.

example ! We
with forces acting between
Now

the last

have
them

two

material

which

points,
depend only

172

ETHER

Galilean

The

MOTION

AND

relativity
principleis valid
The

phenomena.

laws

same

for mechanical

of mechanics

systems moving relative

inertial

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

each

to

apply

all

to

Is this

other.

principlealso valid for non-mechanical

phenomena,
the field concepts proved
for those for which
especially
around
so
very important? All problems concentrated
this questionimmediately bring us to the starting-point
of the relativity
theory.
We
remember
that the velocityof light in vacuo, or
in

other

and

that

through

lightis
the

ether, is 186,000

from

emitted

once

independent existence.
continue

the

For

believe that the ether

to

which

and

are

we

electromagnetic
waves,
though
propagated,even
difficultiesconnected

many

We

are

in
sitting

external

world

stilland

talk

that
we

creatingsound
with

source
no

and

air

or

has shown
in all
rest

no

waves,

other

the ear,

are,

the

we

closed
air

second

from

could

not

being, we shall
is a medium
through
thus also lightwaves,
of the
are
fullyaware
so
or

structure.

isolated from
escape.

If

the

we

sit

physicalpoint of view,
spread from their resting

the

in air.

sound

between

medium
detect

velocityof

c.s.

an

time

enter

which

material

leads

its source,

room

can

directions,if there is

in the chosen

per

with its mechanical

velocityof

that the

miles

spreading
electromagneticwave
The
electromagnetic field carries

an

ether.

which,

energy

in

words,

no

sound
wind

sound.

If there
the

mouth

Experiment

in air is the

and

were

same

the air is at

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

Let

us

through

that

imagine

now

space.

walls of the

inside.

of the inside observer

of sound

relative

again

his

relative to

is the

the

he

the

From

the

ments
measure-

the

deduce

can

connected

c.s.

which

to

through the glass

if you prefer),
everything

sees,

(ortrain
on

uniformly

moves

room

our

outside

man

moving room
is going

which

173

with

velocity
his

Here

moves.

room

roundings,
sur-

mining
discussed,problem of deter-

old, much

velocityin

if it is

c.s.

one

already known

in another.

The
sound

observer

is,for

The

spreading in

the

the

These

and

conclusions

carries

through

We

can

theory of

be

sound

outside
draw
sound

and

room

velocityof

velocityof sound,
determined

in my

It is greater than

in the direction

sound

in the

drawn

from

of the

oppositedirection.
the classical transformation

confirmed

it the

within

velocities of sound
inside and

the

smaller

are

can

which

in all directions.

room

and
room

claims

moving

same

the

in all directions.

same

velocityof

of the

claims:

room

observer

the standard
motion

the

the

me,

outside

c.s., is not

in

by experiment. The
material
medium, the air

propagated, and
will,therefore,be different for
waves

are

the
the

observer.
further

some

conclusions

from

the

terial
propagated through a maOne
the
medium.
though by no means
way,
of not hearing what
is saying,is to
someone
simplest,
with a velocitygreater than that of sound, relative
run,
to the air surrounding the
speaker. The sound
be able to reach our
waves
produced will then never
as

wave

174

EVOLUTION

THE

On

ears.

word

other

the

will

which

hand, if
be

never

and

wave

to

missed

we

repeated,we

that of sound

speed greater than

PHYSICS

OF

catch

the word.

to

important

an

must

with

run

reach

There

the

is

duced
pro-

nothing

examples except that in

with a speed of about
should have to run
both cases
we
four hundred
yards per second, and we can very well
imagine that further technical development will make
A bullet fired from a gun actually
such speedspossible.
irrational

with

moves

speed greater

placed on

man

sound

of these

either

in

such

would

bullet

that of sound

than

and

hear

never

the

of the shot.

ter
purelymechanical characformulate
the important questions
:
and we can
now
could we
repeat what has just been said of a sound
the Galilean
Do
of a lightwave?
in the case
wave,
principleand the classical transformation
relativity
and electrical phenomena as well as to
apply to optical
these questions
It would
be riskyto answer
mechanical?
deeply
by a simple"yes" or "no" without going more
into their meaning.
in the room
of the sound
In the case
wave
moving
All these

examplesare

uniformly,relative
intermediate

to

of

the outside

steps are

very

ing
observer, the followessential for

our

clusion
con-

carries
moving room
is propagated.
wave

The

The

velocities observed

relative to each

transformation.

the

in two

other,are

air in which

the sound

moving uniformly,
connected by the classical
c.s.

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

The

mulated
be forcorrespondingproblem for lightmust
littledifferently.
The observers in the room
a
or
longertalking,but are sending lightsignals,

no

are

in every

lightwaves
the

that

175

direction.

Let

further

us

emittingthe lightsignalsare
The
restingin the room.
light waves
through the ether just as the sound waves
through the air.
sources

Is the
Since

ether
have

we

carried
no

with

the

mechanical

obviouslyno

since

all

matter

everywhere.

No

in

sense

to

are

move

moved

air was?

in

closed

ether

in this way,

it and
to

it. There

with

move

thinkingof

is immersed
doors

the

as

nently
perma-

pictureof the ether,it is

this question.If the room

extremelydifficult to answer
is closed,the air inside is forced
is

room

assume

it penetrates

ether.

The

ing
"mov-

only a moving c.s. to which the

It is,however, not
of lightis rigidly
connected.
source
beyond us to imagine that the room
moving with its
carries the ether along with it just as the
lightsource
carried along in the closed
sound
and air were
source
But we
can
room.
equally well imagine the opposite:
that
travels through the ether as
the room
a
ship
smooth
carryingany part
through a perfectly
sea, not
of the medium
along but moving through it. In our
first picture,the room
moving with its light source
is
carries the ether. An
analogy with a sound wave
possibleand quite similar conclusions can be drawn.
In the second, the room
moving with its lightsource
room"

does
wave

not

is

now

carry

means

the

possibleand

ether.

No

analogy

the conclusions

with

drawn

sound

in the

case

176

THE

EVOLUTION

PHYSICS

OF

These
lightwave.
the two limitingpossibilities.
We could imagine the
are
stillmore
that the ether is only
complicatedpossibility
partiallycarried by the room
moving with its light

of

sound

wave

But

source.

do

there

hold

not

is

no

for

discuss

to

reason

the

more

complicated assumptions before finding out which of

the two
simplerlimitingcases experiment favours.
for
We shall begin with our
firstpictureand assume,
the present: the ether is carried along by the room
If we
moving with its rigidlyconnected
lightsource.
believe in the simple transformation
principlefor the
velocities of sound
clusions
we
now
can
apply our conwaves,
for
well. There
is no
to lightwaves
as
reason
law
transformation
doubting the simple mechanical
which
only states that the velocities have to be added
in certain

and

cases

subtracted

therefore,we
the ether

the

by

shall

with

its

For

the

both

assume

moving

room

in others.

the

ment,
mo-

carrying of
and

lightsource

the classical transformation.

If I turn

with

signalhas

the

on

my

lightand

room,

the well-known

its

is

nected
rigidlyconthen
the velocityof the light
experimentalvalue 186,000
source

miles

outside

the

and, therefore,that of the

source

But the
per second.
motion
of the room,
"

since

and,
must

be:

the

the

ether

is carried

velocityof lightin

is different in different directions.

standard

velocityof light in

of the
Our

room

conclusion

and

observer

smaller

is: if ether

the

will notice

along, his
my

clusion
con-

outside

c.s.

It is greater than

direction

in the

of the

the
tion
mo-

oppositedirection.

is carried

with

the

room

177

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

laws
and if the mechanical
moving with its lightsource
are
valid, then the velocityof lightmust
depend on
the velocityof the lightsource.
Light reaching our
would
have a greater
a
moving lightsource
eyes from
and smaller if it is
us
velocityif the motion is toward

from

away
If

speed

our

should
could

us.

be
see

able

of

the

from

on

would

carries

c.s.

analogy
there

conclusions.

between
is

On

no

from

along
laws

lightand
indication

the contrary,

the

the
are

as

happy ending.
assumption that

is
the

they are

valid.

to

the

like

appear

ether

sound

in

them

sent, and

they were

earth

all follow

conclusions

moving

But

catch

backward, beginning with

transformation
the

our

that

should

We

that in which

to

happenings

film shown

These

away

lightwaves.

order

train

run

occurrences

sent
reverse

to

of

light,we
from
a
lightsignal.We
the past by reaching previously

greater than

were

and

the

chanical
me-

If this is so,

perfect.
truth

of these

contradicted

by
all observations
made
with
the intention
of proving
is not the slightest
them. There
doubt as to the clarity
of this verdict, although it is obtained
through rather
indirect experimentsin view of the great technical difficulties
caused by the enormous
value of the velocityof
in all c.s.
light.The velocity
of lightis always the same
source
moves
or how
independent
of whether or not the emitting
,

it moves.
We

shall not

go into detailed

of the many
description
experimentsfrom which this important conclusion can
be drawn.
We
however, use some
simple
can,
very

178

THE

arguments

which, though they do

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

velocityof lightis independent

nevertheless

source,

In

the

around

move

this fact

make

of other

do not

We

sun.

planetarysystems

however,

very

two

moving

stars

many

and

to

other

derstandabl
un-

planets

of the existence

know

similar

double-star

around

convincingand

the earth

planetarysystem

our

prove that the

of the
of the motion
not

There

ours.

are,

of
systems, consisting

point,called

their centre

of

of these double
of the motion
gravity. Observation
law.
of Newton's
stars reveals the validity
gravitational
the
Now
that the speed of lightdepends on
suppose
velocityof the emittingbody. Then the message, that
is,the lightray from the star, will travel more
quickly
or
more
slowly,according to the velocityof the star at
the moment
motion
to

the ray

would

be

is emitted.

muddled

confirm, in the

case

and

In

this

case

it would

of distant

be

double

the whole

impossible
stars, the

rules over
law which
validityof the same
gravitational
our
planetarysystem.
Let us consider
another
a
experiment based upon
very simpleidea. Imagine a wheel rotating
very quickly.
According to our assumption, the ether is carried by
the motion
and takes a part in it. A lightwave
passing
the wheel
would
have
different speed when
near
a
the

wheel

is at

rest

velocityof light in
that in ether which
the
wave

than

ether
is

when
at

it is in
rest

should

motion.

The

differ from

being quicklydragged round by

of the wheel, justas the velocityof a sound
motion
and
calm
varies on
windy days. But no such

l8o

EVOLUTION

THE

What
principle.
and
not
only

is meant

that there

exists

nature

different from

are

observer

every

in motion
valid in
of

his

whether

the standard

of affairs from
motion

Also

is at

c.s.

of

that

rest

or

classical
is

c.s.

Here

is

different state

absolute

mechanics, where

form
uni-

of Galileo's

quite meaningless because

of inertia.

law

What

conclusions

in

drawn

be

can

field

phenomena

if motion

This

would

that there exists

mean

others, at

clear that
in

laws

by comparing the laws valid in it with those

which
the only one
has the absolute monopoly

servingas

all

Simply

of the

some

those in all others.

detect

can

exists?

motion

in which

c.s.

that absolute

the statement

by

relative uniform
one

PHYSICS

OF

some

rest

relative

through
to

of the laws

this c.s., otherwise

the

one

the

ether
c.s.

ether-sea.

of nature

must

of

domain
is assumed?

distinct from
It is
be

quite

different

through
phrase "motion
ether" would
be meaningless. If the Galilean relativity
is valid,then motion
through ether makes no
principle
these two
ideas.
at all. It is impossible
to reconcile
sense
If,however, there exists one
specialc.s. fixed by the
"absolute
ether,then to speak of "absolute motion"
or
rest" has a definite meaning.
We
tried to save
the
reallyhave no choice. We
Galilean
relativity
principleby assuming that systems
carry the ether along in their motion, but this led to a
with experiment.
contradiction
The
only way out is to
abandon
the Galilean
relativity
principleand try out
the assumption that all bodies move
through the calm
ether-sea.

the

The

step is

next

l8l

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

consider

to

conclusions

some

tradicting
con-

Galilean

the

principleand suprelativity
porting
the view of motion
through ether, and to put
them
to the test of an
experiment. Such experiments
are
easy enough to imagine, but very difficult to perform.
As we
concerned
here only with ideas,we
are
need

bother

not

Again we
observers, one

with

technical
to

return

our

inside

and

difficulties.

moving
one

the ether-sea.

It is the

c.s.,

The

that

Imagine
and

on

off

lightin

outside, can
ask

the

ether-sea.
value.

Light

ether-sea

all others and

The

what

would

answers

other

in this

lightbeam

or

the

at

of the

value.

rest

same

room

or

in

not

bodies

c.s.

velocity.
the

ether.

is flashed
room

results

they expect to
something like this :

and
we

tain,
ob-

is

designated by the
always has the standard

c.s.

whether

care

the

in

inside

observers,both

run

My

my

the

velocityof the light. If

the

observers

I need

lightor

value

the

outside observer:

The

standard

through

move

the centre

that

so

measure

two

their

in which

and, furthermore, that the walls of the

transparent

are

my

its observer

and

room

designatedby

c.s.
distinguished

velocityof lightalways has the same

All light sources,
whether
moving
calm
ether-sea,propagate lightwith

two

outside

The

outside.

will represent the standard

observer

with

room

or

not

the

source

of

moving, for they never

carry
with them.
My c.s. is distinguishedfrom
of lightmust
have itsstandard
the velocity
c.s., independent of the direction of the
are

the motion

inside observer:

My

of its source.
room

moves

through

the

l82

THE

ether-sea.
and

the

OF

EVOLUTION

One

of the walls

other

approaches

runs

lightemitted
reach

never

of

the

light.If

than

the

that

the

of

other. The

the

wall

reach

away

sent

wave

of the

one

room

of the

with

travelled

room

light
travelled,

then
velocityof light,

centre

running

light,then

would

room

from

the

the

from

away

it. If my

relative to the ether-sea,with

the

PHYSICS

the

with
a

would

room

velocity
velocitysmaller

from

the

walls

centre

of

the

before

would
lightwave
before the one
be reached
retreatingfrom the light
of lightis rigidly
wave.
Therefore, although the source
with
connected
G.S., the velocityof light will not
my
be the

as

it

runs

moving toward

in all directions.

same

direction
wall

wall

of the motion
away,

the wall

and

moves

the

It will be

smaller

relative to the ether-sea

greater in the
the

toward

wave

in the
as

the

oppositedirection
and

tries to

meet

sooner.

Thus, only

in the

one

c.s.

distinguishedby the ether-

of lightbe equal in all directions.

velocity
the ether-sea it
For other c.s. moving relatively
to
in which
should
the direction
we
are
depend on
measuring.
The
crucial experiment just considered
enables us
the theory of motion
test
to
through the ether-sea.
Nature, in fact,placesat our disposala system moving
with a fairly
tion
high velocity the earth in its yearly moIf our
around
the sun.
assumption is correct, then
the velocityof lightin the direction of the motion
of
the earth should differ from the velocityof lightin an
opposite direction. The differences can be calculated

sea

should

the

"

FIELD,

183

RELATIVITY

experimental test devised. In view of

the small time-differences
followingfrom the theory,
have to be
very ingeniousexperimental arrangements
thought out. This was done in the famous MichelsonMorley experiment.The result was a verdict of "death
ether-sea through which
all
to the theory of a calm
No
matter
moves.
dependence of the speed of light
Not
direction could be found.
only the speed
upon
of light,but also other field phenomena
would
show
a
dependence on the direction in the moving c.s., if
assumed.
the theory of the ether-sea were
periment
Every exhas given the same
negative result as the
pendence
derevealed
Michelson-Morley one, and never
any
and

suitable

"

the direction of the motion

upon

The

situation

grows

assumptionshave

been

more

and

more

tried. The

of the earth.
serious.

Two

moving
velocityof

first,that

ether

along.The fact that the

tradicts
conlightdoes not depend on the motion of the source
this assumption.The
second, that there exists
and that moving bodies do not
c.s.
one
distinguished
calm
ethercarry the ether but travel through an ever
If this is so, then the Galilean relativity
sea.
principle
be the same
is not valid and the speed of lightcannot
in every
c.s.
periment.
Again we are in contradiction with ex-

bodies

carry

More
that

artificial theories have

the

real truth

been

lies somewhere

tried out,
between

ing
assum-

these

carried
limitingcases : that the ether is only partially
by the moving bodies. But they all failed ! Every
attempt to explain the electromagneticphenomena in

two

184

THE

EVOLUTION

the

moving

c.s.

motion

through

help of
ether,

the

PHYSICS

the motion
both

or

of the
these

ether,

motions,

unsuccessful.

proved
Thus
the

with

OF

arose

of the

one

historyof

science.

dramatic

most

situations in

All

assumptions concerning
! The
ether led nowhere
ways
alexperimentalverdict was
the development
negative. Looking back over
of physicswe
that the ether, soon
after its birth,
see
became
the enfantterribleof the family of physicalsubstances.
of a simplemechanical
First,the construction
pictureof the ether proved to be impossibleand was
discarded.
This
down
caused, to a great extent, the breakof the mechanical

pointof view. Second, we had

to give up hope that through the presence
of the etherwould
be distinguishedand
lead to the
one
sea
c.s.
motion.
recognitionof absolute,and not only relative,
This

the

would

have

in which

waves,

existence.
It

All

revealed

absolute

been

the

only

ether

could

attempts

our

neither

motion.

to

way,
mark

make

construction

remained

of

of the ether except that for which

i.e. its

abilityto

attempts

to

transmit

discover

difficulties and

the

contradictions.

to

has

space
and

try

so

The

omit

to

never

the

to

mention

After

forgetthe

physicalproperty

the

omission

use

of

it was

of

word

word

of

such

perties
pro-

invented,
Our
led to

bad

ether

We

its name.

nor

all the

electromagneticwaves.
propertiesof the ether

this is the moment

and

and

carrying
justifyits

ether real failed.

its mechanical

Nothing

besides

experiences,
completely

shall say:

our

transmittingwaves,

we

have

from

our

decided

to

avoid.

vocabulary is,of

course,

profound
Let

us

Our

remedy.

no

be

to

solved

down

confirmed
sufficiently
any

about

more

troubles

the

indeed

are

in this way

write

now

185

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

much

!
facts

which

have

by experiment without
the "e

too

r"

1i ) The

been

ing
bother-

problem.
always has
space

its
velocityof lightin empty
standard
of the
value, independent of the motion
receiver of light.
or
source
(2) In two c.s. moving uniformly,relative to each other,
all laws of nature
are
exactly identical and there is
of distinguishing
no
absolute uniform
motion.
way

There

are

experiments

many

to

statements

and

them.

The

first statement

the

velocityof light,the

of

not

singleone

to

expresses

confirm
contradict

have

we

point is so

and

If the

so, relative to

be

different in another

to

the

first. This

seen

c.s.

follows

one

for mechanical

velocityof
c.s., then

from

the

character

words,

we

add

(3) Positions

of the
a

third

and

inertial system
transformation.

is in contradiction

to

another

it will

ship

are

transformed

according to

and

here ! But

to

velocity of light. Or,

principle:

velocities

terial
ma-

simple mechanical
immediately given

principles.
They are
intuition
by our
(man moving relative to
shore)and apparently nothing can be wrong
law

ter
charac-

moving uniformly, relative

transformation

this transformation

of

generalizes the

second

formulated
relativity
principle,
phenomena, to all happenings in nature.

mechanics,

two

either

the constant

Galilean

In

these

the
in

from

stant
con-

other

one

the classical

l86

THE

The

EVOLUTION

contradiction

is then

(i),(2),and
The

PHYSICS

OF

evident.

We

cannot

too

obvious

bine
com-

(3).

classical transformation

seems

and

simple for any attempt to change it. We have already

tried to change (i) and
to a disagree(2) and came
ment
with experiment. All theories concerning the
motion
of "e
r" required an
alteration
of (i) and
realize the
no
more
we
good. Once
(2). This was
serious

character

needed.

It is

of

difficulties. A

our

clue

new

is

sumptions
supplied by acceptingthe fundamental as(i) and (2), and, strange though it seems,
clue starts from
an
analysisof
givingup (3).The new
the most
and primitiveconcepts ; we
shall
fundamental
show
how
this analysisforces us
old
to change our

views

and

all

removes

TIME,
Our

our

difficulties.

RELATIVITY

DISTANCE,

assumptionsare :
(1) The velocity
of lightin vacuo
relativeto each
moving uniformly,
(2) All laws of nature are the same
new

', relativeto

The

is the

transformation

now

c.s.

other.
in all

formly
moving uni-

c.s.

each other.

relativity
theorybegins with
From

in all

same

on

because

we
we

shall not
know

these
use

two

the

tions.
assump-

classical

that it contradicts

our

assumptions.
It is essential

of

lead

to

here, as always in science,to rid

selves
our-

deep-rooted,often uncritically
repeated,prejudices.
Since we
have seen
that changes in (i)and (2)
contradiction
have
with experiment, we
must

l88

EVOLUTION

THE

is small

will nevertheless
which

with

compared

not

that

meet

to
perpendicular

are

PHYSICS

OF

light,the lightsignal
these two
opposite walls,
of

the direction

of the motion,

quite simultaneously.
two
observers,
predictionsof our
dicts
find a most
we
astonishingresult which flatlycontrathe apparently well-founded
concepts of classical
the two
physics.Two events, i.e.,
lightbeams reaching
the
for the observer
the two walls,are simultaneous
on
inside,but not for the observer on the outside. In
classical physics,we
had one
clock,one time flow, for

the

Comparing

all observers

in all

Time, and

c.s.

therefore

words

such

"

lute
"simultaneously", sooner", "later", had an absopening
meaning independent of any c.s. Two events haptime in one
at the same
c.s. happened necessarily
in all other c.s.
simultaneously
theory,
Assumptions (i) and (2),i.e. the relativity
as

force

us

events

give up this
happening at the
to

different times in another

this consequence,

"Two

sentence:

c.s., may
What

do

we

c.s."?

one

meaning
be

to

Let

us

What

c.s.

which

simultaneous

the

of this

But

sentence.

and

how

try

to

c.s., but

one

in another

seems
us

make

clock?

events

to

know

up

our

one

in

the
minds

as
give rigorousdefinitions,

dangerous it is to over-estimate
first answer
a simple question.
is

in

c.s."

simultaneous

let

at

of the

meaning

simultaneous

are

by "two

mean

in

two

task is to understand

Our

Intuitivelyeveryone

cautious

know

we

time

same

described

have

We

understand

to

events

be

not

view.

intuition.

The

189

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

primitivesubjectivefeelingof time
order

flow

enables

impressions,to judge that one event

another later. But to show that the
takes place earlier,
is 10 seconds,a clock
time interval between
two
events
comes
is needed.
By the use of a clock the time concept bebe
objective. Any physicalphenomenon may
be exactly repeated as
used as a clock, provided it can
times as desired. Taking the interval between
the
many
beginning and the end of such an event as one unit of
be measured
time, arbitrary time intervals may
by
of this physical
repetition
process. All clocks,from the
to

us

our

simple hour-glassto
based

on

the

this idea. With

is the interval the sand

the

lower

At

refined

most

the
takes

instruments,

unit of time

hour-glassthe
to

flow

from

are

the upper

to

peated
physicalprocess can be reby invertingthe glass.
distant points we
have
two
two
perfectclocks,

glass.The

same

should
time. This statement
showing exactlythe same
of the care
be true regardless
with which
we
verifyit.
make
But what
How
does it reallymean?
sure
we
can
time?
that distant clocks always show exactlythe same
One
television. It
be to use
would
possible method
that television is used only as an
should be understood
I could
example and is not essential to our argument.
stand

near

of the

one

pictureof the
they showed

other.

clocks

I could

and

then

look

judge

at

whether

televised
or

not

simultaneously.But this
be a good proof. The
would
televised pictureis
not
thus
and
transmitted
through electromagneticwaves
travels with the speed of light.Through television I
the

same

time

see

picturewhich

whereas

I must

avoided.

be

observe
are

sent

the

same

This

fore,
be-

short time
what

see

is

taking

easily

can
difficulty

the

picturesof

television

take

simultaneously,they

out

If two

instant.

good

of events

two

very

them

well suited for

from

the

always show

the

designatingthe

points.
only one clock.

used

we

at

me

distant

at two

In mechanics

will all reach

clocks observed

the distance between

time, then they are

not

very

mid-pointof
time

some

pointequallydistant from each of them and

them from this centre
point.Then, if the signals

clocks at

same

PHYSICS

real clock

the

on

sent

was

the present moment.

place at

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

convenient, because

had

we

to

But

this

was

take all measurements

vicinityof this one clock. Looking at the

clock from
we
a
distance,for example by television,
that what we
now
have always to remember
see
really
justas in viewing the settingsun we
happened earlier,
the event
note
eight minutes after it has taken place.
should have to make
We
corrections,according to our
in the

distance
It

the clock, in all

from

is,therefore,inconvenient
however,

Now,
two,

or

imagine
of them

as

run

many

will

at

rest

in the
clocks

help us

happening in

show

we

to

readings.
only one clock.
judge whether
time

same

way,

we

like in

can

neously
simultavery

given c.s.

the time

well
Each

of the events

The clocks are all

vicinity.
c.s. They are
"good" clocks and
that they show the same
means

its immediate

which
synchronized,
time simultaneously.
are

the

determine

to

relative to the

how

same
as

have

to

know

we

clocks

more,

and

as

time

our

is

There
the

igi

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

or
striking
nothingespecially
strange

of

arrangement

clocks. We

our

therefore,easilyjudge whether
events

simultaneous

are

synchronized
time

in

clocks

the instant the

at

of the distant

in

are

vicinityshow

the

happen. To

happens before

events

say

the other

is in agreement

contradiction

one

to

with
the

classical

same
one

has

now

the

help

meaning. All this can be judged by

of the synchronized clocks at rest in our
c.s.
This

if the

that

definite

can,

distant

given c.s. They

their
events

and

two

not

or

using

now

are

synchronized clocks instead of only one

many

about

and
physics,

classical transformation

not

has

yet appeared.
For

the

events, the clocks

definition of simultaneous

synchronized by the help of signals.It is essential

are

signalstravel with the

mental
the velocity
which playssuch a fundavelocityof light,
role in the theory of relativity.
wish to deal with the important problem
Since we
of two
c.s.
moving uniformly,relative to each other,
consider two
must
we
rods, each provided with clocks.
The observer in each of the two
c.s. moving relative to

in

arrangement

our

each

other

now

has

that

his

these

rod

own

with

his

own

set

of

clocks

rigidlyattached.
When
measurements
discussing

we

used

one

clock for all

c.s.

in classicalmechanics,
Here

we

have

many

clocks

unimportant. One clock

of
but nobody could object to the use
was
sufficient,
so
long as they behave as decent synchronized
many,

in each

c.s.

This

clocks should.

difference

is

EVOLUTION

THE

Now

we

point showing
contradicts the theory

essential

approaching the

are

PHYSICS

OF

the classical transformation

where

happens when two sets of clocks are

moving uniformly,relative to each other? The classical
Nothing; they still have the
physicistwould answer:
same
rhythm, and we can use moving as well as resting
clocks to indicate time.
According to classical physics,
of

What
relativity.

simultaneous

events

two

in any

But

other

this is not

in

taneous
simul-

will also be

c.s.

one

c.s.

the

We

only possibleanswer.
moving clock having

can

a different
equallywell imagine a
discuss this possibility
rhythm from one at rest. Let us now
whether
without
or
deciding, for the moment,
What
clocks reallychange their rhythm in motion.
not
is meant
that a moving clock changes
by the statement
its rhythm? Let us assume,
for the sake of simplicity,
and many
that we
have only one
clock in the upper
c.s.
in the lower.
All the clocks have the same
mechanism,

and

the lower

synchronized,that is,they show

the same
three
time
simultaneously. We have drawn
subsequent positionsof the two c.s. moving relative to
each

other.

hands

of the

the

In

are

the

upper

first

drawing

and

lower

because

same

clocks show
see

ones

the

the relative

of
positions

All the clocks in the lower

the clock in the upper

is

changed and
moving relative

the
to

c.s.

time

clocks

arranged

we

time.

same

the

In

them

the second

the two

c.s.

the

show

c.s.

positionsof
tion,
are, by conven-

is out

of

some

c.s.

time

later.

time, but

rhythm. The
In

All the

drawing, we

same

differs because

the lower

so.

the

the

the third

rhythm
clock

is

drawing

RELATIVITY

FIELD,
we

see

creased

the difference
with

in the

of
positions

the

hands

in

time.

An
a

observer

moving

clock

at

be

observer

rest

would

have

to

in the lower

c.s.

would

find that

changes its rhythm. Certainlythe

result could
at

rest

found
in

be

if the clock
the

many

upper
clocks

moved

c.s.; in
in the

relative
this
upper

same

to

an

there

case

c.s.

and

THE

in the lower.

only one

in both

same

In

EVOLUTION

OF

The

moving

c.s.

classical mechanics

laws

PHYSICS

of nature

other.

relative to each
it

be the

must

that a
tacitlyassumed
moving clock does not change its rhythm. This seemed
obvious
that it was
so
hardly worth mentioning. But
nothing should be too obvious ; if we wish to be really
careful,we should analyse the assumptions,so far taken
for granted,in physics.
An assumption should not be regarded as unreasonable
simply because it differs from that of classical
well imagine that a moving clock
physics.We can
changes its rhythm, so long as the law of this change is
the

for all inertial

same

Yet

was

c.s.

example. Take a yardstick;this means

that a stick is a yard in length as long as it is at rest in
Now
it moves
c.s.
a
uniformly,slidingalong the rod
representingthe c.s. Will its length still appear to be
how
beforehand
know
mine
deterto
one
yard? We must
its length. As long as the stick was
at rest, its ends
coincided
with markings one
yard apart on the c.s.
stick
this we
concluded
From
: the length of the resting
this stick during
is one
to measure
we
are
yard. How
follows. At a given momotion?
It could be done
ment
as
observers simultaneouslytake snapshots,one
two
another

originof
picturesare

of the
the

the stick and

the

taken

the marks

on

end of the

moving

its
note

c.s.

the other of the end.

we
simultaneously,

rod with

which

stick coincide.

length.There

of simultaneous

the

can

Since

compare

originand

In this way

must

be

two

observers

events

in

different

we

the

mine
deterto

take

parts of the

ig6

EVOLUTION

THE

PHYSICS

OF

length. If the
in all c.s., if the relativity
velocityof lightis the same
theory is valid,then we must sacrifice this assumption.
but
It is difficult to get rid of deep-rootedprejudices,
there is no
other way.
From
the point of view of the
relativity
arbitrary.Why
theory the old concepts seem
rods in motion

believe, as

and

we

at

did

have

rest

some

pages

the

same

ago,

in

absolute

time

for all observers in all c.s.?

flowing in the same
way
mined
Why believe in unchangeable distance? Time is deterby clocks, space co-ordinates by rods, and the
result of their determination
haviour
depend on the bemay
of these clocks
is

no

to

reason

should

we

and

rods

believe that

like them

when

they will behave

Observation

to.

through the phenomena

a
moving clock changes

in motion.

of

There

in the way

shows, indirectly,

electromagnetic field,that

rhythm, a rod its length,

whereas
the basis of mechanical
on
phenomena we did
think this happened. We
must
not
accept the concept
of relative time
of

out

for

c.s., because

difficulties. Further

our

from

new

in every

its

it is the best way

veloping
scientific advance, de-

that this
shows
theory of relativity,
aspect should not be regarded as a malum necessarium,
the merits of the theory are much
too marked.

So far

we

the

have

tried to show

what

led

to

the fundamental

assumptions of the relativity

theory, and how
the theory forced us to revise and to change the classical
transformation
by treating time and space in a new
Our aim is to indicate the ideas forming the basis
way.
of a new
view. These
ideas
physicaland philosophical
are
simple; but in the form in which they have been

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

here, they

formulated

197

insufficient for

arrivingat
but also quantitative
conclusions.
only qualitative,
of explaining
must
only
again use our old method
of the others without
principalideas and statingsome

not

We
the

are

proof.
To

clear

make

in the classical

believes

knows

I believe

in

the

the

in two

same

other,
with

our

or

in other

respect

uniformly,relative
But

0.

that the laws

dialogue

to

these

words, that

how

be

each

to

the

apply to
laws

same

of nature

c.s.

with respect

variant
in-

are

all events

of mechanics

in

c.s.

moving

other.

all laws

can

laws

to

the classical transformation.

must

to

of mechanics

moving uniformly relative

moving relative
equations,that is, Maxwell's
in

same

who

relativity
principlein

Galilean

c.s.

of nature

all laws

but

and

imagine

must
principle
relativity
Not only the
external world.

in

shall

But the

that of the

shall call

who

and

transformation,and

I know

mechanics, because
each

call

of

view

them.

between
0.

the

between

shall

we

whom
we
physicist,
the relativity
theory,we

modern

are

difference

whom
physicist,

old

the

the

to

each

possiblybe
other?

equations,are

The

the
field

variant
in-

not

the classical transformation.

This

shown
of light.
by the example of the velocity
clearly
According to the classical transformation,this velocity

is

should
each

M.

not

be

the

same

in two

c.s.

moving relative

to

other.

This
cannot

merely shows that

be applied,that

the classical transformation

the

connection

between

198

EVOLUTION

THE

two

co-ordinates

and

velocities
We

laws.
deduce

different;that

be

must

c.s.

have

from

them

satisfied that

and

be

We

shall call it

can

be

we

is done

as

this

of field,are

with

with

for

the

classical.

the

to

respect

classical transformation.

for

classical

transformation

time, because

time

variant
in-

are

laws

for space,

same

in all

the

was

the

were

moving uniformly,relative

c.s.

had

Lorentz

of mechanics

but the laws of mechanics

velocities,

We

law,

physics.We had
co-ordinates,transformation

in

was

laws

for two

other.

it

the

to

respect

transformation

same

the

the mathematical

about

it is different from

invariant

how

for

and

laws

new

transformation

new

transformation,just as the laws

laws

formation
trans-

It
brieflythe Lorentz transformation.
that Maxwell's
equations,that is, the

shown

Remember

these

assumptionsof

bother

not

us

in

substitute

to

connect

not

may

the fundamental

Let
theory of relativity.
expressionfor

laws

PHYSICS

OF

each

to

but

c.s.

not

Here,

however, in the relativity

theory, it is different. We
have

transformation

for space,
nature

time, and

must

relative

laws

to

be the

invariant, not,

in all

same

The

transformation, but

with

c.s.

from

one

c.s.

the

c.s.

same

to

another

are

is

classical
laws

of

moving uniformly,

to

must

the

to

respect

respect
laws

the

again

transformation,the so-called Lorentz

In all inertial

the

of nature

laws

before,with

as

from

velocity.But

other.

each

different

be

classical
of

type

new

transformation.

valid and

given by

the transition

the Lorentz

transformation.
0.

I take

your

word

for it,but

it would

interest

me

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

the difference between

to know

the classical and

Lorentz

transformations
.

Your

M.

questionis

Quote

way.

in the

best answered

following

of the characteristic features

some

classical transformation

and

shall

try

of the

explain

to

preserved in the Lorentz

transformation,and if not, how they are changed.
time
0. If somethinghappens at some
point at some
in another
in my
c.s.
moving
c.s., then the observer
uniformly,relative to mine, assignsa different number
in which
this event
to the position
occurs, but of course
whether

the

time.

same

they

not

or

We

it is immaterial

and

are

use

the

clock

same

whether

not

or

in all

the clock

c.s.

our

Is

moves.

for

this also true

you?
No, it is not. Every

equipped with
its own
clocks at rest, since motion changes the rhythm.
Two
observers in two different c.s. will assignnot only
but also different
different numbers
to the position,
this event
at which
numbers
to the time
happens.
variant
that the time is no
0. This means
longer an inIn the classical transformation it is always the
M.

same

time

changes and

in all

In the Lorentz

c.s.

behaves

somehow

old transformation.

must

c.s.

be

transformation

like the co-ordinate

I wonder

how

it is with

it

in the

distance?

a
rigidrod preserves
According to classical mechanics
Is this also true now?
its length in motion
at rest.
or
In fact,it follows from the Lorentz
It is not.
M.

transformation

that

direction of the motion

the

speed increases. The

moving
and

stick contracts

the contraction

faster

stick moves,

in the

increases if
the shorter

motion.
shrinks

approaching ca.
is

no

this

90

occurs

of

cent

per

velocity of light.

the

as

the

in

contraction, however,

to the motion,
perpendicular

I have

direction

tried to illustrate

drawing.

in my

0.

This

and

the

But

how?

M.

means

length of

The

increases.
that

PHYSICS

only in the direction of the

in my
You
see
drawing a moving rod which
with a velocity
it moves
to half its length,when
But

it appears.

There

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

20O

that
a

changes
It follows

stick would

the

moving
become

stick

more

from

shrink

rhythm

the
to

of

moving

depend
distinct

Lorentz

on

as

clock

the

speed.

the

speed

transformation

nothing if its speed were

1
l

to

FIELD,

RELATIVITY

2OI

light.Similarlythe rhythm of a moving

clock is slowed down, compared to the clocks it passes
to a stop if the clock
along the rod, and would come
that is,if the clock
with the speed of light,
to move
were
that of

reach

is

"good"
This

0.

compare

your

and

motion

to

seems

that

know

way,

one.

car
we

contradict

does
also know

all

our

become

not

that

the

experience.We
shorter

driver

can

always

"good" watch with those he passes on

finding that they agree fairlywell, contrary
his

in

when

the
to

statement.

But
these
mechanical
certainlytrue.
all very small compared to that of light,
velocities are
it is, therefore,ridiculous to apply relativity
and
to

M.

This

is

these

phenomena. Every car driver can safelyapply

if he increases his speed a hundred
classical physicseven
times. We
could
thousand
only expect disagreement
between
experiment and the classical transformation
with velocities approaching that of light.Only with very
the validityof the Lorentz
formation
transgreat velocities can
be tested.
0.

But

there

is yet another

difficulty.
According

to

imagine bodies with velocities even

greater than that of light. A body moving with the
with a
velocityof lightrelative to a floatingship moves
velocitygreater than that of lightrelative to the shore.
What
will happen to the stick which
shrank to nothing
when
that of light? We
its velocitywas
can
hardly
expect a negativelength if the velocityis greater than
that of light.
mechanics

can

2O2

M.

There

is really
no

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

for such

reason

! From

sarcasm

theory a material
relativity
have a velocitygreater than that of light.
ties
The
velocityof lightforms the upper limit of velocifor all material bodies.
If the speed of a body is
equal to that of lightrelative to a ship,then it will
also be equal to that of light relative to the shore.
The
law of adding and subtracting
simple mechanical
is only
velocities is no longer valid or, more
precisely,
for
but not
approximately valid for small velocities,
those near
the velocity
The number
of light.
expressing
the velocityof lightappears
in the Lorentz
explicitly
transformation,and plays the role of a limitingcase,
This
like the infinite velocityin classical mechanics.
more
general theory does not contradict the classical

the

point of
body cannot

transformation
we

of the

view

and

regainthe

the velocities

are

theory it

classical mechanics.
old concepts

small.

is clear

From
in which

as

the

On

the

limitingcase
point of view

trary,
con-

when
of the

classical

physics
its limitations lie. It would
is valid and wherein
be just
ridiculous to apply the theory of relativity
to the
as
motion
of cars, ships,and trains as to use
a calculating
machine
be sufficient.
where
table would
a
multiplication
new

RELATIVITY

The
and

relativity
theory arose
deep contradictions

there seemed
lies in

the

no

MECHANICS

AND

from serious
necessity,
the old theory from which
strengthof the new
theory
simplicitywith which it

from
in

escape. The

consistencyand

cases

2O4

EVOLUTION

THE

conclusions

which

OF

could

be

PHYSICS

proved

disproved by

or

experiment.
Let

along

us
a

body, having a
straightline,and acted
a

assume

force in the direction

definite mass,
upon

of the motion.

by
The

moving
external

an

force,as

we

proportionalto the change of velocity.Or, to

be more
it does not matter
whether
a
explicit,
given
body increases its velocityin one second from 100 to
miles and
feet per second, or from 100 miles to 100
101

know,

is

foot per

one

miles

and

one

second

particular
body
of velocity
in the
sentence

180,000 miles

second.

foot per

Is this

from

or

is always the

force

The

for the

same

180,000

to

acting upon
same
change

time.

same

from

true

point of

the

means

! This

law

it.

It is not

view

of the

is valid

only
for small velocities. What, according to the relativity
approaching that
theory, is the law for great velocities,
is great, extremelystrong forces
of light? If the velocity
relativity
theory? By

no

required to increase
thing to increase by one
are

of about
that

100

of

feet per

light.The

foot

second
nearer

difficult
light the more
velocityis equal to that

all the

second

same

velocity
a
velocityapproaching
velocityis to that of

per

or

at

it is to

increase.

When

of

light it is impossible to
it further. Thus, the changes brought about
increase
The velocity
theory are not surprising.
by the relativity
lightis the upper limit for all velocities. No finite
how
increase in
cause
an
force,no matter
great, can
speed beyond this limit. In place of the old mechanical
law
a
more
connecting force and change of velocity,
of

FIELD,

RELATIVITY

205

From
our
new
appears.
is simple because
mechanics

complicated one
classical

observations

we

deal with

point of view
in nearly all

velocities much

smaller

than

that of
A

We

light.
body at rest
know

has

from

definite mass,

mechanics

that

called the rest

every

body

mass.

resists

change in its motion; the greater the mass, the stronger

the resistance,
and the weaker
the mass, the weaker
the
resistance.

But

thing
relativity
theory,we have someNot only does a body resist a change more
more.
is greater, but also if its velocity
stronglyif the rest mass
is greater. Bodies with velocities approaching that of
offer a very strong resistance
to external
light would

forces.

classical mechanics

In

in the

the

resistance

of

given
by its

something unchangeable,characterized
alone. In the relativity
mass
theory it depends on both
The
resistance becomes
and velocity.
rest mass
infinitely
great as the velocityapproaches that of light.
The
results justquoted enable us to put the theory to
with
the test of experiment. Do projectiles
a
velocity
approaching that of lightresist the action of an external
force as predictedby the theory? Since the statements
of the relativity
theory have, in this respect, a quantitative
character,we could confirm or disprovethe theory
body

if we

was

could

realize

projectiles
having a speedapproaching

that of

light.
Indeed, we find
Atoms

act

as

in nature

of radioactive

batteries

velocities. Without

which

such velocities.

with
projectiles
matter,

fire

for instance,

radium

with
projectiles

going into

detail

we

can

enormous

quote only

2O6

EVOLUTION

THE

of the

one

very

OF

PHYSICS

important views

of modern

physics

and

in the universe
is made
chemistry. All matter
of only a few kinds. It is like
particles
up of elementary
construction
seeingin one town buildingsof different sizes,
and
architecture,but from shack to skyscraper
used, the
only very few different kinds of bricks were

in all the

same

material

our

uranium

bricks,that is,the
The
are

heaviest
unstable

are

"

same

are

and

which

built of the

kinds

elements,the

radioactive. Some

particlesof

to
lightest,

"

the heaviest

of

of

elements

buildings.So all known

world
from
hydrogen the
same

kinds

of

elementary particles.

complicatedbuildings,
they disintegrate
or, as we
say, are
of the bricks,that is,the elementary
the

sometimes

most

radioactive
thrown

out

atoms

with

are
a

very

structed,
con-

great

of an
velocity,approaching that of light. An atom
element, say radium, according to our present views,
confirmed
by numerous
experiments,is a complicated
of
radioactive
disintegrationis one
structure, and
those phenomena
the composition of atoms
in which
from
is
still simpler bricks,the elementary particles,
revealed.

By

very

ingeniousand

intricate

experiments we

can

resistthe action of an external

particles
force. The experiments show that the resistance offered
in the way
by these particles
depends on the velocity,
other
In many
foreseen by the theory of relativity.
the
the dependence of the resistance upon
cases, where
velocitycould be detected,there was complete agreement
between
once
see
theory and experiment. We
find out

how

the

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

2O7

the essential features of creative

more

work

in science

firmation
predictionof certain facts by theory and their conby experiment.
This result suggests a further important generalization.
A body at rest has mass
kinetic energy,
but no
that is,energy
of motion.
A moving body has both
and
It resists change of velocity
kinetic energy.
mass
more
as though
stronglythan the restingbody. It seems
of the moving body increases
its
the kinetic energy

resistance.
with

one
an

bodies

the

have

the greater kinetic energy

force

external

Imagine
as

If two

box

rest

same

the

mass,

resists the action

strongly.
containingballs,with

of

more

the balls at rest in

our

force

c.s.

To

the box

as

well

it,to increase

move

its

required. But will the same

force increase the velocityby the same
in the
amount
time with the balls moving about
same
quickly and in
all directions inside the box, like the molecules
of a gas,
velocity,some

with

an

greater
increased

average

force

is

speed approaching

will

be

now

kinetic energy

resistance of the box.

resists motion

in the

that

necessary

of the

of

because

light? A
of the

balls,strengtheningthe

Energy, at

any

rate

kinetic energy,

Is
ponderable masses.
this also true of all kinds of energy?
The
its fundamental
deduces, from
theory of relativity
to
assumption, a clear and convincing answer
this question,an answer
character:
again of a quantitative
resists change of motion; all energy
all energy
behaves like matter; a pieceof iron weighs more
when
red-hot than when
cool; radiation travelling
through
same

way

as

208

EVOLUTION

THE

and

space

the

from

emitted

therefore has mass;

the

PHYSICS

OF

contains

sun

and

sun

all

and

energy

radiatingstars lose
conclusion, quite

by emitting radiation. This

general in character, is an important achievement
the theory of relativity
which
and fits all facts upon
mass

has been

of
it

tested.

Classical

substances:
matter
two
physicsintroduced
and energy. The
first had weight, but the second was
tion
weightless.In classical physicswe had two conservalaws:

have

for

matter,

already asked

whether

this view
laws.
of

one

of two

The

and

of two

successful

and

mass

and

conservation

that of mass-energy.

one,

According

has

fruitful in

This
the

We

conservation

two

to

the

essential distinction

no

Energy

energy.

Instead

energy.

is

energy.

physicsstillholds

the

and

is: "No".

answer

for

other

modern

substances

there
relativity,

mass

the

new

mass

laws

we

theory

between

represents
have

only

view

further

proved very
development of

physics.
How

is it that

this fact of energy

having

mass

and

scured?
for so
remained
long obrepresentingenergy
Is the weight of a pieceof hot iron greater than
that of a cold piece?The
to this questionis now
answer
The
"No".
"Yes", but on p. 43 it was
pages between
these two
answers
are
certainlynot sufficient to cover
mass

this contradiction.

difficulty
confrontingus

The
as

by

we

have

the

cannot

met

before. The

here

variation

is of the

of

mass

is immeasurably
theory of relativity
be detected by direct weighing on even

same

kind

predicted
small

and

the most

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

sensitive scales. The

be

can

gained

proof that

in many

2OQ
is not

energy

weightless

conclusive, but

very

indirect,

ways.

The

small

very

for this lack of immediate

reason

rate

Compared
compared

of

exchange between
is like

evidence

matter

and

is the
energy.

depreciated
currency
of high value. An example will make
to one
this clear. The
quantityof heat able to convert
thirty
thousand
of water
into steam
would weigh about
tons
! Energy was
one
regarded as weightlessfor so
gram
which
it represents is so
long simply because the mass
to mass,

energy

small.
The

is the second
victim of the
energy-substance
the medium
The first was
theory of relativity.
through
which
were
lightwaves
propagated.
The
influence
of the theory of relativity
goes far
It removes
beyond the problem from which it arose.

old

difficulties and

the

it formulates

more

conservation

of the field

contradictions

general mechanical
laws

by

theory;

laws ; it replaces

it

changes our classical

is not restricted
concept of absolute time. Its validity
domain
of physics; it forms a general framework
to one
embracing all phenomena of nature.

two

THE

"The
of
an

French

time, one
be

TIME-SPACE

are

who

CONTINUUM

revolution

July 1789."
event

one;

began

In this sentence

stated.

Hearing

does not

know

taught:it is a cityon

our

in Paris
the

place and

this statement

what

"

on

Paris"

the

1/j.th

time

of

for the first

means

earth situated in

could

long.2"

2IO

THE

East

and

lat.

characterize

time, at

the

than

and

where

in

OF

North.

49"

which

more

because

EVOLUTION

the
history,

these

two

would

numbers

then

"i4th of July 1789" the

much
took place. In physics,

place,and

the event

an

The

PHYSICS

event

data

exact

takes
form

the

characterization of when

place

is very

basis for

important,
quantitative

description.
For

the

sake of

considered
we
previously
simplicity,
only motion along a straightline. A rigidrod with an
Let us keep this
c.s.
origin but no end-point was
our
restriction. Take
different points on
the rod; their
be characterized
can
positions
only,by
by one number
of
the co-ordinate
of the point.To say the co-ordinate
that its distance is 7*586 feet
a point is 7*586 feet means
from the originof the rod. If,on the contrary, someone
and a unit, I can
givesme any number
always find
We
a
point on the rod correspondingto this number.
the rod correspondsto
definite point on
state:
can
a
number, and a definite number
correspondsto
every
every point.This fact is expressedby mathematicians
all points on
in the followingsentence:
the rod form
exists a point arbitrarily
one-dimensional continuum.
There
a
near
point on the rod. We can connect
every
distant points on
the rod by steps as small as we
two
the arbitrarysmallness
of the steps conwish. Thus
necting
distant points is characteristic
of the continuum.

example. We have a plane, or, if you

angular
concrete, the surface of a rectprefersomething more
table. The
positionof a point on this table
Now

another

EVOLUTION

THE

212

correspondsto
by the sentence:
There

the

space.

three

every

Our
exist

Again

This

numbers.

space

is

points very

the

PHYSICS

OF

is

expressed

three-dimensional
near

every

arbitrary smallness

tinuum.
con-

point

of the

of

steps

connectingthe distant points,each of them represented

by three numbers, ischaracteristic of a three-dimensional
continuum.

But

all this is

To return
to physics,
scarcelyphysics.
of material
be considered.
the motion
particlesmust
To observe and predictevents in nature
must
we
sider
connot
only the place but also the time of physical
ample.
happenings. Let us again take a very simple ex-

small

stone, which

can

be

regarded as a particle,
Imagine the tower 256 feet

dropped from a tower.

been
have
able to
high. Since Galileo's time we
predict the co-ordinate of the stone at any arbitrary
instant after it was
dropped. Here is a "timetable"
of the stone after o, 1,2, 3, and
describingthe positions

is

4 seconds.

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

Five

events

registeredin

are

representedby
of the stone
second.
stone

the

The

The

event.

from

"timetable",

our

second

event

the

is the

ground

each
ordinates
co-

space

is the

first event

256 feet above

and

time

numbers, the

two

of each

213

dropping

at the

zero

of the

coincidence

rigidrod (thetower) at 240 feet above

ground. This happens after the first second. The

last

with

our

of the

coincidence

is the

event

the

with

stone

earth.
We

represent the knowledge gained from

could

"timetable"
five
on

in

pairsof

different way.

surface.

Let

us

will

correspondto
example :

100

We

then

draw

the

axis. We

can

space

be

plane.

foot and

represent the

could

timetable"
a

as

five

scale. One

another

to

points

segment
For

second.

J"c.

Ft.

perpendicular lines,callingthe

say, the time

one,

"

first establish

two

horizontal
space

in the

numbers

We

our

axis and

the vertical

immediately that our

representedby five pointsin our
see

one

table"
"timetime-

214

EVOLUTION

THE

PHYSICS

pointsfrom the space axis represent

co-ordinates
as
registeredin the first
"timetable", and the distances from the

distances of the

The

the
column
time

OF

time
of

our

co-ordinates.

axis their space

Feet

200

"100

Time

'Seconds

axis

Exactly the same

thing is expressedin two different
timetable5'
and by the points on
the
by the
ways:
plane. Each can be constructed from the other. The
choice between
these two
is merely a
representations
of taste, for they are, in fact,equivalent.
matter
Let us now
step farther. Imagine a better
go one
'timetable" givingthe positions
not for every second,
but for,say, every hundredth
thousandth
of a second.
or
"

We

shall then have

plane. Finally,if the

or,

as

pointson our time-space

positionis given for every instant

very

the mathematicians

many

say, if the space

co-ordinate

FIELD,

is

given

becomes

as

of

continuous

represents

function

not

RELATIVITY

215

time, then

line. Our

next

our

set

of

points

drawing therefore

justa fragment as before,but

complete

of the motion.

knowledge
Feet

Seconds

Time
The

axis

(the tower), the

motion
in a one-dimensional
space, is here represented
in a two-dimensional
as a curve
time-spacecontinuum.
To
there
point in our
time-space continuum
every
corresponds a pair of numbers, one of which denotes
the time, and the other the space, co-ordinate.
versely:
Conmotion

the

rigid rod

definite

sponds
point in our time-spaceplane correto every pairof numbers
event.
an
characterizing
adjacentpointsrepresent two events, two happenings,
different
different placesand at slightly
at slightly
a

Two

along

instants.
You

could

argue

against our

representationthus:

2l6

EVOLUTION

THE

representinga unit of
combining it mechanically with

in

the two-dimensional

forming

PHYSICS

in

there is little sense

segment,

OF

one-dimensional

But

you

would

by

the space,

the two

from

continuum

continua.

time

have

then

just as stronglyagainst all the graphs representing,

for example, the change of temperature
in
York
New
or
City during last summer,
againstthose
representingthe changes in the cost of livingduring
to

protest

the last few

in each

of these

the

In

cases.

one-dimensional
with

since the very

years,

is used

method

same

the temperature

graphs

continuum

is combined

temperature

one-dimensional

time

into

continuum

the

the

two-dimensional

temperature-timecontinuum.
to the particle
return
us
dropped from a 256-foot
Our
vention
graphic picture of motion is a useful consince it characterizes the positionof the particle
the particle
arbitrary instant. Knowing how
should like to pictureits motion
once
more.
we

Let
tower.

at

an

moves,

We

do this in two

can

We

its

the

remember

positionwith time
picturethe motion

We

one-dimensional

and

space,

space

using

different ways.

picture of
in
as

We

can

form

particlechanging

one-dimensional

sequence

continuum.

We

same

motion

space.

in the

of events
do

mix

not

dynamicpicturein which

changewith time.
But we
can
picturethe
way.

the

the

in

positions
a

different

staticpicture,
consideringthe

two-dimensional

time

curve

Now
time-space continuum.
is representedas something which
the motion
is,which
exists in the two-dimensional
tim^space continuum,

in

the

and

not

something which

as

these

and

the one-dimensional

exactlyequivalent,and preferring
of convention
is merely a matter

picturesare
the other

to

one

changes in

continuum.

space

Both

217

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

taste.

Nothing that has been said here about the two

to do
picturesof the motion has anything whatever
be
with the relativity
can
theory. Both representations
used with equal right,though classical physicsfavoured
motion
rather the dynamic picturedescribing
as happenings
in space and not as existingin time-space.But the
in
theory changes this view. It was distinctly
relativity
favour of the static pictureand found in this representation
of motion
as
something existingin time-spacea
and more
convenient
more
objectivepictureof reality.
the question: why are these two
We stillhave to answer
equivalentfrom the point of view of classical
pictures,
physics,not equivalentfrom
relativity
theory?
The

will be

answer

uniformly,relative

to

the

understood
each

point of

view

if two

c.s.

of the

moving

again taken

other, are

into

account.

According to classical physics,observers in two c.s.

moving uniformly,relative to each other, will assign
different

space
to

coincidence

co-ordinates, but
certain event.

of the

Thus

the

in

same
our

time

ordinate,
co-

example, the

ized
particlewith the earth is characterin our chosen c.s. by the time co-ordinate "4" and
by the space co-ordinate "o".
According to classical
mechanics, the stone will still reach the earth after

2l8
four seconds
to

for

the chosen

to

EVOLUTION

THE

his

co-ordinates

But

with

moving uniformly,relative

this observer

the

co-ordinate

time

PHYSICS

will refer the distance

will,in general,connect

and

c.s.

observer

an

c.s.

OF

of

event

will be the

different space

collision,
although the
for him

same

other observers
Classical

moving uniformly,relative to
physicsknows
only an "absolute"

for all observers.

continuum
tinua:

be

can

time

For

and

splitinto

the

c.s.

transition

of
from

classical transformation

must

flow

con-

the

"absolute"

the

"static"

has
"dynamic" picture of motion
meaning in classical physics.
But we have alreadyallowed ourselves to
the

time

two-dimensional

the

that

each other.

one-dimensional

two

Because

space.

of time, the

character

every

for all

and

not

to

objective

an

be convinced
be

used

in

a practical
point of view it is
physicsgenerally.From
but not for settling
mental
fundastillgood for small velocities,
physicalquestions.
According to the relativity
theory the time of the

collision of the
same

space

with

stone

for all observers.

co-ordinate

time

earth

be

the

and

the

c.s., and

the

will not

co-ordinate

will be different in two

quite distinct
if the relative velocity is close to that of light.The
be splitinto two
continuum
two-dimensional
cannot
continua
in classical physics.We
one-dimensional
as
consider space and time separatelyin determining
not
must
in another
the time-spaceco-ordinates
The
c.s.
of the two-dimensional
continuum
into two
splitting
one-dimensional
from
the point of view
ones
seems,
change in

the

The

the

time

co-ordinate

will

be

22O

THE

The

by

EVOLUTION

OF

of events

world

be

can

PHYSICS

described

dynamically

to the
on
picturechanging in time and thrown
But it can
background of the three-dimensional
space.
also be described by a static picturethrown
to the
on
tinuum.
background of a four-dimensional
time-space conFrom
the point of view of classical physicsthe
the dynamic and the static,
two
are
pictures,
equivalent.
But from the point of view of the relativity
theory the
convenient
and
the more
static picture is the more
objective.
still use
Even
in the relativity
the
theory we can
ber
rememdynamic picture if we preferit. But we must
a

division

this

that

since

objectivemeaning
shall stilluse

We

into

time

time

is

"dynamic"
followingpages,

and

has

space
"

longer

no

the

language in the

and

no

absolute".

the "static"

not

bearing

in

mind

its

limitations.

GENERAL

There

stillremains

the most

fundamental

yet: does

respect

to

validity for
relative to
know
In

interview

the

the

exist?

We

of nature,

laws

been

not

settled

have

their

invariance

moving

other.
to

be

which
more

classical

simplequestions:

We

have
to

aware

the

laws

as

learned

inertial

systems

of

One

transformation,and

each

to

system

cleared up.

the Lorentz

all

the frame

order

pointto be
questionshas

one

inertial

an

something about
with

RELATIVITY

their

uniformly,
but

do

not

refer them.
of this

physicistand

let
difficulty,

ask

him

some

us

"What
"

is

It is

body

in which

c.s.

inertial

an

which

on

system?5'

what

external

no

actingon

"It

forces

from
to

mean

valid.

acting moves

are

property thus enables

This
c.s.

are

other."

any

that

say

us

forces

no

are

body?"
that the

simply means

body

uniformly in

moves

inertial c.s."

an

Here
is

it

does

of mechanics

the laws

uniformlyin such a c.s.

inertial
to distinguish
an
"But

221

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

could

we

inertial c.s.?"

an

"Is

since there

But

from the above, let us try to

differing
information by changing the question:
concrete
with the earth an inertial
connected
c.s. rigidly

an

gain some

question:"What
taining
is littlehope of ob-

put the

more

once

answer

one?"

"No, because
valid

the

on

of the

with

it

due

the

; but

ously
rigorA

regarded

when

we

that

understand

be

cannot

be

can

c.s.

again

we

not

are

its rotation.

to

sun

inertial

problems as an
rotatingsun,

connected

of mechanics

earth,
with

rigidlyconnected
many

laws

the

regarded

as

c.s.

for

speak
a

c.s.

strictly

inertial."
"Then
how

is its state

"It
to

what, concretely,is

is

it.

"But
external

If I could

bodies
my

what

to

be chosen?"

useful fiction and

merely a

realize

material

of motion

and

c.s.

do

would
you

influences?"

free

I have

only get far

myself from

then
mean

inertial c.s., and

your

no

away

idea how
from

all external

all

fluence
in-

be inertial."

by

c.s.

free from

all

222

EVOLUTION

THE

"I

that the

mean

Once
Our

more

to, and

be built

to

classical

in
difficulty

grave

whole

our

initial question!

at our

laws, but do

have

refer them

back

reveals

interview

physics.We

is inertial."

c.s.

are

we

PHYSICS

OF

not

know

frame

what

physicalstructure

to

seems

sand.

on

from a different
difficulty
approach this same
point of view. Try to imagine that there is only one
body, forming our c.s., in the entire universe. This body
begins to rotate. According to classical mechanics, the
physicallaws for a rotating body are different from
those for a non-rotatingbody. If the inertial principle
We

can

is valid in

one

this sounds

case,

valid in the other.

it is not

But

all

to consider
suspicious.Is it permissible
the motion
of only one
body in the entire universe?
its change
By the motion of a body we always mean
in relation to a second body. It is,therefore,
of position

very

to

contrary

to

sense

common

speak

about

the motion

and
common
body. Classical mechanics
only one
sense
recipe
disagreeviolentlyon this point. Newton's
is valid,then the c.s. is either
is: if the inertial principle
of

rest

is

invalid,then

Thus,

or

not

or

body
of

all the

If the inertial

principle

is in non-uniform

motion

or

rest

physicallaws

are

motion.

depends upon
applicableto

given c.s.
Take

The

two

motion

described
or

the

verdict

our

whether

motion.

in uniform

at

the

sun.

bodies,the
we

sun

observe

and
is

the earth, for instance.

again

relative. It

can

be

by connecting the c.s. with either the earth

this point of view, Copernicus'great
From

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

achievement
the

to

lies in
But

sun.

reference

from

c.s.

is relative and

used, there

be

can

the
transferring
motion

as

223

be

to

seems

favouringone c.s. rather than the other.

Physicsagain intervenes and changes
sense
point of view. The c.s. connected
resembles

an

inertial system

more

frame

any
no

reason

of
for

common-

our

with

that

than

the earth

the

sun

connected

physicallaws should be applied to

Copernicus'c.s. rather than to Ptolemy's.The greatness
be appreciated
of Copernicus'discoverycan
only from
It illustrates the great
the physical point of view.
advantage of using a c.s. connected rigidlywith the sun
of planets.
for describingthe motion
No absolute uniform
motion
exists in classical physics.
If two
c.s.
are
moving uniformly,relative to each other,
with

the earth. The

then

there is no

the

other

is

in

sense

moving".

saying,"This

But

if two

c.s.

c.s.

is at rest and

are

moving

non-

uniformly,relative to each other, then there is very

for saying, "This
and
the
good reason
body moves
other is at rest (ormoves
uniformly)". Absolute motion
definite meaning. There
has here a very
is, at this
and classical
sense
point,a wide gulfbetween common
physics.The difficulties mentioned, that of an inertial
connected
strictly
system and that of absolute motion, are
with

each

the idea of

possibleonly by
the laws
It may

other.

of nature

are

Absolute
an

motion

is made

inertial system, for which

valid.

though there is no way out of these

avoid
difficulties,
as
though no physical theory can
them. Their root lies in the validity
of the laws of nature
seem

as

for

EVOLUTION

THE

224

OF

PHYSICS

specialclass of c.s. only,the inertial. The possibility

of solvingthese difficulties depends on
the answer
to
the followingquestion. Can
formulate
we
physical
valid for all c.s., not only those
laws so that they are
trarily,
moving uniformly,but also those moving quite arbirelative to each other?
If this can
be done,
a

difficulties will be

our

apply

the laws

We

over.

of nature

to

any

shall then
c.s.

The

able

be

to

struggle,so

the views
earlydays of science,between
ingless.
Ptolemy and Copernicus would then be quite meanEither c.s. could be used with equaljustification.

violent in the
of

The

two

moves",
would

uthe

sentences,
or

"the

sun

simply mean

two

different

Could

we

and

moves

two

is at

sun

different

rest

and

the earth

the
is at

conventions

earth

rest",

ing
concern-

c.s.

build

real relativistic physicsvalid in all

physics in which there would be no place for

This is indeed
motion?
absolute,but only for relative,
possible!
We have at least one
indication,though a very weak
to build the new
physics.Really relativistic
one, of how
physicsmust apply to all c.s. and, therefore,also to the
specialcase of the inertial c.s. We already know the
c.s.;

laws for this inertial

c.s.

all

specialcase

c.s.

reduce

must,
to

the

in the

old, known

The

new

generallaws

valid for

of the inertial system,

laws.

formulatingphysicallaws for every

solved
c.s.
was
theory
by the so-called generalrelativity
\
the previoustheory,applyingonly to inertial systems,
is called the specialrelativity
theory.The two theories
The

problem

of

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

of

cannot,

each

contradict

course,

225

other,

since

we

of the
the
laws
old
always include
special
relativitytheory in the general laws for an inertial
previously the
system. But just as the inertial c.s. was
only one for which physicallaws were formulated,so now
it will form
the speciallimitingcase, as all c.s. moving
relative to each other, are
arbitrarily,
permissible.
for the general theory of
This
is the programme
in which
it was
relativity.But in sketching the way
than
be even
have
we
accomplished we must
vaguer
far. New
been
difficulties arisingin the development
so
of science
force our
and
more
more
theory to become
still await
abstract.
But
us.
Unexpected adventures
final aim is always a better understanding of reality.
our
Links
added
of logicconnecting theory
to the chain
are
observation.
To clear the way
and
leading from theory
and artificial assumptions,
to experiment of unnecessary
ever-wider
embrace
to
must
an
region of facts, we
the chain
make
longer and longer. The simpler and
fundamental
more
our
assumptions become, the more
is our
tool of reasoning; the
mathematical
intricate
from
becomes
theory to observation
longer, more
way
more
subtle, and
complicated. Although it sounds
physics is simpler
paradoxical,we could say: Modern
difficult
than the old physicsand seems,
therefore,more
intricate. The
and
simpler our pictureof the external
must

world

and

stronglyit

the

facts

more

reflects in

our

it

minds

embraces,
the

the

harmony

more

of the

universe.
Our

new

idea

is

simple:

to

build

physics valid

for

226
all

Its fulfilment

c.s.

forces
so

EVOLUTION

THE

to

us

far

and

in

shall show

the fulfilment

between

complicationsand

tools different

physics.We

from

here

those

only the

of this programme

and geometry.
principalproblems : gravitation

two

OUTSIDE

The

PHYSICS

bringsformal

mathematical

use

employed

connection

OF

law

AND

of inertia

INSIDE

marks

THE

the

LIFT

first great

in

advance

physics;in fact,its real beginning. It was

gained by
the contemplation of an
idealized
experiment, a body
moving forever with no friction nor any other external
this example, and later from many
forces acting.From
others, we recognized the importance of the idealized
experiment created by thought. Here again,idealized
experiments will be discussed. Although these may
sound
they will,nevertheless,help us to
very fantastic,
about
is possibleby
understand
much
as
as
relativity
our
simple methods.
We
had previouslythe idealized experiments with a
Here, for a change, we shall
uniformly moving room.
have

lift.
falling
Imagine a great lift at the top of a skyscraper
much
Suddenly the cable
higher than any real one.
supporting the lift breaks, and the lift falls freely
the ground. Observers
toward
in the lift are
forming
perexperiments during the fall. In describing
a

them,

we

need

friction,for
our

idealized

handkerchief

we

not

may

bother

disregard their

conditions.
and

air

about

watch

One

from

resistance

existence

of the observers
his

pocket

and

or

under
takes

drops

228

THE

EVOLUTION

inside the lift. All bodies

behave

by the law of inertia. Our

with
c.s.

the
in

body

which

on

for

classical
The

respect. In

one

The

ever.

physicsis
of

case

forces

no

the

inertial

in

and

time.

moving body
destroyingthe
whole

will

in

uniform

"pocket
This

and

their

edition"

of

lift

c.s.

later

the

with

the

motion.

Sooner

the

of the

c.s.

time.

is limited

uniformly
of the lift,
later

or

the

earth, destroyingthe

real inertial

local character

moving

nor

wall

experiments.The
a

inertial

is, however,

of his

or

lift will collide with

observers

in space

our

character

collide

the

formly
uniacting will move
c.s.
as
representedin

limited

Sooner

from

inertial c.s.,

an

observer

The

space

differs

are

neither

expected

rigidlyconnected

c.s.

inertial

different.

in the way

new

freely fallinglift

only

PHYSICS

OF

is

c.s.

only

c.s.

is

quite essential.

If

from the North

Pole
to reach
imaginary lift were
to the Equator, with the handkerchief
placed over the
North
Pole and the watch
the Equator, then, for
over
the outside observer,the two bodies would
not have the
be at rest relative
same
not
acceleration; they would

our

to

each

other.

dimensions
of

Our

of the liftmust

acceleration

observer
With

may

this

character
a

another

of
be

would

argument
be limited

all bodies

fail ! The

that the

so

relative

to

the

takes

on

an

equality
outside

assumed.

the
restriction,

for the inside

c.s.

though

whole

in which

it is limited
c.s., another

c.s.

observer.

all the

We

physicallaws

in time

and

liftmoving

space.

least indicate

at

can

are

If

inertial

valid,even
we

imagine

uniformly,relative

to

RELATIVITY

FIELD,
the

then
falling
freely,

one

inertial.

All

laws

transition from

both

these

exactlythe

are

the other is

to

one

22Q

will be

c.s.

both.

in

same

locally
The

the Lorentz

given by

transformation.
Let
and

us

outside

lift and

of

with

agreement

him,

the

in

the lift.

the

of

motion

lift,and

the

finds

but

the

them

gravitationallaw.
uniform,

is not

action

observers, outside

place in

notices

Newton's

motion

of the

because

bodies

the

takes

observer

all

both

way

inside,describe what

The

in

in what

see

For

accelerated,

gravitationalfield of the

of the

earth.

However,

brought

They

up

in the

would

inertial

generation

themselves

and

inertial
It is

outside
claim

to

in their

their

assume

all laws

that
justification

specially
simpleform

for them

possessionof

in

refer

would

their lift,
statingwith
a

and
physicistsborn
reason
quite differently.

lift would

believe

system

of

c.s.

lift at

of nature

the laws

take

an

to
on

It would

be natural

and

c.s.

rest

their

the

one.

impossibleto
and

the

the

settle the

differences
Each

inside observers.

rightto

refer all events

to

his

the

between

of them
c.s.

could

Both

scripti
de-

equallyconsistent.
We see from this example that a consistent description
different c.s. is possible,
of physicalphenomena in two
if they are not moving uniformly, relative to each
even
of events

other.
account

which

could

be

made

take into
descriptionwe must
building,so to speak, the "bridge"
gravitation,

But

for such

effects

transition

from

one

c.s.

to

the

other.

The

EVOLUTION

THE

230

OF

field
gravitational

it does

PHYSICS

exists for the outside

for the inside observer.

not

observer;
motion

Accelerated

of the liftin the

field exists for the outside

gravitational
field for
observer,rest and absence of the gravitational
the inside observer. But the "bridge", the gravitational
in both c.s. possible,
rests
field,making the description
on
one
: the equivalenceof gravitational
very important pillar
and inertial mass.
Without
this clue,unnoticed
in classical mechanics, our
present argument would fail

completely.
for

Now

There
law

is,let

somewhat
us

of inertia

different

assume,

an

is valid.

idealized

experiment.

inertial c.s., in which

have

We

already

the

described

what
But
has

happens
we

constant

lift restingin such

change

now

fastened

in

rope

force,in

the

our

to

the

picture.
lift and

direction

an

inertial

Someone
is

c.s.

outside

pulling,with

indicated

in

our

draw-

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

It is immaterial

ing.

of mechanics
with

acceleration

motion.

Again we
phenomena going
and

outside
The
lift

inside

in the

on

the laws
liftmoves
of

direction

the

explanation of
given by both the

the

to

liftand

observers.

with
force

the

in

shall listen

outside observer:

moves

Since

this is done.

valid in this c.s., the whole

are

constant

how

23!

My

is

c.s.

inertial

an

The

one.

acceleration, because

constant

inside are
observers
acting. The
in absolute
the laws of mechanics
motion, for them
find that bodies, on
which
invalid. They do not
are
forces are
no
acting,are at rest. If a body is left free,
it soon
collides with
the floor of the lift,since the
floor moves
the body. This happens
upward toward
kerchief.
for a watch
and for a handexactlyin the same
way
constant

is

It

seems

inside

the

because

as

very

lift must
as

soon

he

to

strange

be

always

jumps

the

that

me

the

on

"floor",

floor will reach

the

server
ob-

him

again.
The insideobserver: I do not
that

my

liftis in absolute

rigidlyconnected
I do not
motion.

with

my

believe that it has

watch,

My

my

see

motion.

the

the action of
for

earth.
a

I agree

that

believing
c.s.,

my

but
reallyinertial,

anything to do with absolute

handkerchief, and all bodies

fallingbecause the whole

field. I notice exactly the same
on

for

is not
lift,

are

man

reason

any

lift is in

kinds

He

explainsthem
field. The
gravitational

gravitational

of motion
very
same

as

the

simply by
holds good

me.

These

two

one
descriptions,

by

the

outside,the other

THE

232

EVOLUTION

OF

by the inside,observer, are

quite consistent,and

is no

of decidingwhich
possibility

may

assume

either

or

of

and

rest

of them
for the

there

is right.We

descriptionof

in the lift:either non-uniform

phenomena
absence

of them

one

PHYSICS

motion

and

field with the outside observer,

gravitational
the presence
field with the
of a gravitational

inside observer.
The

outside

observer

"absolute"

is in

which

may

non-uniform

is

wiped out
gravitationalfield

by

the

cannot

that

assume

motion.

the

But

assumption of
be regarded as

an

lift

motion

acting
absolute

motion.
There
such

a
is,possibly,

way

out

of the

ambiguity of

two

different

and a decision in favour of

descriptions,
one
againstthe other could perhaps be made.
Imagine
that a lightray enters
the lifthorizontally
through a side
window
and reaches the oppositewall after a very short
time. Again let us see how
the path of the lightwould
be predictedby the two observers.
The
of

outside observer,
believingin accelerated

the

lift,would

window

and

line and

with

wall.
time

But

motion

The

the
light ray enters
moves
horizontally,along a straight
toward
the opposite
a constant
velocity,

the

in which

lift changes its

lift
the

argue:

moves

upward,

and

lighttravels toward
Therefore, the
position.

during
the
ray

wall

the
the

will meet

point not exactlyoppositeits point of entrance, but

little below.
The
difference will be very slight,
a
but
it exists nevertheless,
and the lightray travels,
relative
to the lift,
not
but along a slightly
along a straight,
at

FIELD,

curved

line. The

covered

by

233

RELATIVITY

difference

is due

the lift during the time

to

distance

the

the ray

is

crossing

the interior.

The

inside

all

field

acting on

is

accelerated

no

believes in the

who
observer,

objectsin

motion

of the

field.
gravitational
and, therefore,will not be

of the

field.

in

If sent

the wall

at

his

gravitational

would
lift,

but only the

lift,

beam

there

say:

action

of

lightis weightless
affected by the gravitational

horizontal

direction,it will

point exactlyoppositeto

meet

that at which

it

entered.
It

of
as

from

seems

this discussion that there is a

deciding between
the

possibility
oppositepoints of view

these two

phenomenon
If there is

would

be

different

for the

two

in either of the
nothing illogical
whole
explanationsjust quoted, then our
previous
is destroyed,and
all
describe
cannot
we
argument
phenomena in two consistent ways, with and without

observers.

gravitationalfield.

234

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

PHYSICS

fault in the

But there is,fortunately,

a grave
of the

observer,which

inside
He

said: "A

therefore,will
field." This
energy

and

not

beam
be

cannot

be

energy

has

saves

of

our

reasoning

clusion.
previous conweightlessand,

lightis
affected by the gravitational
of lightcarries
right! A beam
But

mass.

inertial

every

mass

field,as inertial and

by the gravitational
of light
masses
are
gravitational
equivalent.A beam
in a gravitational
will bend
field exactly as a body
would ifthrown
with a velocity
horizontally
equalto that
of light.If the inside observer had reasoned
correctly

is attracted

and

had

taken

into account

the

bending

of

lightrays

in

field,then his results would have been

gravitational
those of an outside observer.
as
exactlythe same
The
field of the earth is,of course,
too
gravitational
for the bending of lightrays in it to be proved
weak
directly,
by experiment. But the famous experiments
show, conclusively
performed during the solar eclipses
the influence of a gravitational
field
though indirectly,
the path of a lightray.
on
It follows from these examples that there is a wellfounded
hope of formulatinga relativistic physics.But
for this we
firsttackle the problem of gravitation.
must
We
from the example of the liftthe consistency
saw
of the two
motion
descriptions.Non-uniform
may,
a

or

may

motion

not, be assumed.
from

We

can

eliminate

"absolute"

examples by a gravitationalfield.
But then there is nothing absolute in the non-uniform
The
motion.
field is able to wipe it out
gravitational
completely.
our

236

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

PHYSICS

four dimensions.
know
a

what

They can deflect

circle is,but they are
this would

sphere,because

dimensional
able

are

We

screen.

deflect and

to

dimensional

unable

to

construct

forsakingtheir twoWe
in a similar position.
lines and surfaces,
but we
mean

are
curve

deflected

scarcely picture a

can

straightline; they

and

three-

curved

space.

By living,
thinking,and experimenting, our shadow
the knowledge of the
figurescould eventuallymaster
Euclidean
two-dimensional
geometry. Thus, they could
for example, that the sum
of the angles in a
prove,
is 180 degrees.
circles
two
triangle
They could construct
with a common
centre, one
very small, the other large.
of
They would find that the ratio of the circumferences
such circles is equal to the ratio of their radii,a
two
result again characteristic
of Euclidean
If
geometry.
the screen
were
infinitely
beings
great, these shadow
would
find that once
having started a journey straight
their point of
return
to
never
ahead, they would
departure.
Let

us

imagine

now

livingin changed
them
a

conditions.

the outside, the

from
from

the

screen

great radius.

very

relation

to

the whole

distant communication

they will
in

small

small

not

be

two-dimensional

these

aware

to

Let

"third
the

If these

of

surface

cannot

of any

common

one
some-

dimension", transfers

shadows

trianglesstill amounts

circles with

imagine that

us

are

surface,if they have

and

creatures

move

change. The
to
centre

180

sphere with
very
no

very

small
means

in
of

far,then
of

angles
degrees.Two
sum

still show

that the

FIELD,

RELATIVITY

ratio of their radii and

circumferences

journey along a straightline

the starting-point.
But

let these

develop their
them

find

them

to

shadow

337

never

beings,in

theoretical and

leads them

back

the

of

technical

of communication

means

equal.

are

course

to

time,
Let

knowledge.

which

will enable

large distances swiftly.

They will then
find that startingon
a journey straightahead, they
ultimatelyreturn to their pointof departure. Straight
ahead"
means
along the great circle of the sphere.
They will also find that the ratio of two circles with a
cover

"

centre

common

is not

equal to

of the radii is small

one

If

two-dimensional

our

they have

the

learned

past when
this

and

geometry

certainlymake

despitethe

creatures

Euclidean

evidence

of their

for tions
generafar and when

geometry
travel

not

facts

the

conservative,if

are

observed, they will

possibleeffort

every

radii,if

the other great.

they could
fitted

the ratio of the

hold

to

on

to

it,

They could
physicsbear the burden of these discreptry to make
ancies.
They could seek some
physical reasons, say
deforming the lines and causing
temperature differences,
deviation

from

later,they

Euclidean

must

find

out

measurements.

But,

geometry.
that

there

is

sooner

much

logicaland convincing way of describingthese

that
They will eventually understand
world

is

from

finite one,
those

that, in spite of
world

with

different

or
more
rences.
occur-

their

geometrical principles

they learned. They will understand

their inabilityto imagine it, their

is the two-dimensional

surface of

sphere.They

238
will

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

principlesof geometry, which

from the Euclidean
though differing
can, nevertheless,
in an
be formulated
equallyconsistent and logicalway
for their two-dimensional
world. For the new
generation
brought up with a knowledge of the geometry of the
will seem
more
sphere, the old Euclidean
geometry
complicatedand artificial since it does not fit the facts
learn

soon

new

observed.
Let

return

us

to

the three-dimensional

creatures

of

world.

our

What

is meant

dimensional

meaning

space

is that

Euclidean

by
all

has

the
a

that

statement

Euclidean

character?

logically
proved
also be

our

statements

threeThe
of the

confirmed

by actual
experiment. We can, with the help of rigidbodies or
light rays, construct
objects corresponding to the
The
idealized objectsof Euclidean
edge of
geometry.
ruler or a lightray correspondsto the line; the sum
a
of the anglesof a triangle
built of thin rigidrods is 180
degrees; the ratio of the radii of two circles with a
common

is

centre

equal to

this way,
of

geometry

can

constructed

from

thin

unbendable

wire

that of their circumference.

the

Euclidean

geometry

Interpretedin
becomes
a
chapter

physics,though a very simple one.

But we
can
imagine that discrepancieshave been
discovered:
for instance, that the sum
of the anglesof
from rods, which
for many
a largetriangleconstructed
is not 180 degrees.
had to be regarded as rigid,
reasons
Since we
are
already used to the idea of the concrete
representationof the objectsof Euclidean
geometry

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

239

physical
probably seek some
of
force as the cause
of such unexpectedmisbehaviour
of
rods. We
should try to find the physical
nature
our
this force and its influence on
other phenomena. To
should

by rigidbodies,we

the

save

Euclidean

objectsof
to

geometry,

being rigid,of

not

those of Euclidean

not

geometry.

should

we

the

accuse

exactlycorresponding
We

should

try

to

find

of bodies behaving in the way

representation
If, however, we
expected by Euclidean
geometry.
should not succeed in combining Euclidean
geometry
and physicsinto a simple and consistent picture,we
should
have
the idea of our
to give up
space being
Euclidean
and seek a more
convincingpictureof reality
under
more
general assumptionsabout the geometrical
a

better

of

character

our

space.

The

for this can

necessity
experiment showing that

be based

cannot

be illustrated
a

an

idealized

reallyrelativistic physics

Euclidean

upon

by

geometry.

Our

ment
argu-

already learned about inertial

the specialrelativity
c.s. and
theory.
Imagine a largedisc with two circles with a common
drawn
centre
on
it,one very small,the other very large.
The disc rotates quickly.The disc is rotatingrelative to
outside observer,and there is an inside observer on
an
will

imply

further

the disc. We
observer

draw,

is

results

an

assume

inertial

one.

in his inertial c.s., the

that the
The
same

c.s.

outside
two

of the outside
observer

may

small and
circles,

large,restingin his c.s. but coincidingwith the circles

the rotatingdisc. Euclidean
on
geometry is valid in his
that he will find the ratio of
since it is inertial,
c.s.
so

24O

EVOLUTION

THE

the circumferences

equal to

about

on

the observer

of classical

physicsand

his

forbidden

c.s.

forms
treat

is

for
the

the disc?
also the
But

one.

the

on

equal seriousness. We,

watching the inside observer
the

measurement,

rotating disc. He
used

The

from

the

at

rest

in

one
a

of two

c.s., then

the

observer

in his attempt

and
small

same

sticks

radii

outside

now

find,by
the

on

measuring

same"

by

to

means

the outside

having the

same

new

must

we

the outside, are

circumferences
uses

to find

intend

we

in any

that is,handed

same,

the inside,or,

when

if

by the outside observer. "The

reallythe
to

point of view
theory,
specialrelativity
the

From

disc and

with

how

that of the radii. But

physicallaws, valid
observer

PHYSICS

OF

stick

either
observer

length

c.s.

inside observer

on

the disc

begins measuring

the

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

radius and

circumference

be the

must

axis

on

Those

same

as

24!
circle.

of the small

the disc rotates

parts

of the

disc

through the

passes

the

near

The

centre.

have

centre

velocities. If the circle is small

small

result

observer.

that of the outside

which

His

very

enough, we can
ignore the special

and
safelyapply classical mechanics
that the stick has the same
relativity
theory.This means
length for the outside and inside observers, and the
result

of these

both.

them

radius
stick

two

Now

of the

for the

moves,

however,

length for
motion

is

the observer

does

not

both

and

the

be

different

on

the

motion

will

now

that

contraction

should
the

for the

his

much

it is not

length of

in

inner

into account.

same

of the

three

so

surements
mea-

radii

two

with

the

ference
large circum-

observers.

two

the
to

The

direction
the

of

outside

velocityis
circle,and this
If,therefore,

restingstick.

of the

be taken

the

contracted

appear
to

than

But

stick,

the

observers:

circumference

observer,compared
greater

have

stick. Thus

the

circumference.
! The

placed

will

for both

same

measurement

will

stick

and

contract

radius, the

Such

observer.

the

measures

the

on

for

same

observers,since the direction

the

the small

fourth

outside

perpendicularto
are

the disc

on

Placed

large circle.

the

will be

measurements

The

results of the

theory,
specialrelativity
here is : the length of the great circumconclusion
ference
our
be different if measured
must
by the two
observers.
Since only one
of the four lengthsmeasured
for them
by the two observers is not the same
both,
we

apply

the ratio of the two

radii cannot

be

equal to

the ratio of

EVOLUTION

THE

242
the two

disc cannot
in his

for the inside observer

circumferences

for the outside

This

one.

of
validity

Euclidean

it is

as

that the observer

means

the

confirm

PHYSICS

OF

the

on

geometry

c.s.

obtainingthis result,the

After

could say that he does not

wish

Euclidean

geometry

is not

Euclidean

geometry

is due

to

bad

and

fact that his

is

c.s.

observer
consider

to

valid. The

the disc

on

in which

c.s.

of the

breakdown

rotation,to the

absolute
forbidden

But, in

one.

idea of the
the principal
arguing in this way, he rejects
On
the other hand, if we
general theory of relativity.
and to keep up the idea
wish to rejectabsolute motion
all
then physicsmust
of the general theory of relativity,
be built on
the basis of a geometry more
general than
There

Euclidean.

the

if all

consequence

The

c.s.

is

no

this

from

of escape

way

permissible.

are

about

the

generalrelativity
be confined to space alone. In the special
theory cannot
theory we had clocks restingin every c.s.,
relativity
rhythm and synchronized,that is,
having the same
changes brought

showing
to

the

time

same

clock in

by

What
simultaneously.

non-inertial

c.s.? The

happens
idealized experiment

again be of use. The outside

clocks all having
observer has in his inertial c.s. perfect
the same
rhythm, all synchronized.The inside observer
clocks of the same
kind and places one
takes two
on
the small inner circle and the other on the large outer
with

circle. The

the

disc will

clock

on

the inner

velocity relative to the

therefore,safelyconclude

circle has

outside
that

its

observer.

rhythm

very

small

We

can,

will be

the

244

THE

keep

you

EVOLUTION

from

away

PHYSICS

OF

the

If your

disc?

of the

centre

rapidlyrotatingmerry-go-round, the
two
things which you observed would
certainlynot
have happened. You would not have noticed the force
pushing you toward the outside nor would you have
noticed that Euclidean
geometry is not applicablein
disc

not

were

c.s.

Are

that your

c.s.

your

not

these facts sufficient

is in absolute

convince

to

you

motion?

certainlynoticed the two facts you

field acting
mention, but I hold a strange gravitational
disc responsiblefor them
both. The
on
tional
gravitamy
field,being directed toward the outside of the
disc,deforms my rigidrods and changes the rhythm
of my
clocks. The
gravitationalfield,non-Euclidean
M.

Not

all ! I

at

geometry, clocks with

closelyconnected.
time

same

different

Accepting
the

assume

field
gravitational

with

rhythms

are, for me,

c.s., I must

any

of

existence

its influence

all

the

at

appropriate
rigid rods

an

upon

clocks.

and
0.

But

are

you

of the

aware

general relativity
theory?

your

difficulties caused
like to

I should

by

make

pointclear by takinga simplenon-physicalexample.

idealized
American
town
Imagine an
consistingof
running perpenparallelstreets with parallelavenues
dicular
my

to

them.

also between
these
the

the

The

distance
is

avenues

between

always

the
assumptions fulfilled,

same

size. In this way

positionof any block.

be impossiblewithout

But

can

such

Euclidean

blocks

the

the

and

streets
same.

are

of

With

exactly

easilycharacterize
a

construction

geometry.

the

would

Thus, for

instance,

cannot

we

ideal

great
convince
with

such

that

your

The

fact

about

the

"

streets

later,
on

get

your

that

clearly

into

difficulties

disc.

Your
on

curved

temperatures
with

temperature,
construction
Your

of

the

on

small

different
sticks

iron

carry
which

For

"gravitational

have

"

disc

of

course,

physical

more

heated

with

of

surface.

the
in

on

different
Can
with

length

parallel-perpendicular"

drawn
field"

impossible

impossible

expanding

the

out

or

sooner

rotating

where,
is

parts

is

it

your

surface,

irregularly

plane

will,

that

on

construction

you

find

surface.

field.

ences
circumfer-

and

such

enough

geometry

claim

theorem

Euclid's

carry

and

disc

You

radii

will

your

gravitational

construction

part

take

you

far

avenues

of

one

globe

cover

confirm

ratio
if

that

and

enough

example

not!

the

the

at

we

the

by
not

streets-and-avenues

great

you,

of

equality

with

construction".

town

could

you

look

could

deformed

are

that

resembles
the

American

rods

One

neither

earth

whole

our

town.

But

an

shows
of

cover

American

you.

245

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

below?

plays

the

Of

same

course

tricks

246

THE

your rods
iron sticks.
on

M.

the

as

OF

change

All this does not

construction
with

EVOLUTION

the

is needed

clock

of temperature

The

frightenme.
to

order

to

PHYSICS

the small

street-avenue

of points,
positions

determine
The

events.

on

need

town

not

be

American, it could just as well be ancient

Imagine

your

idealized

then deformed.
the streets

can

and

town

made

stillnumber
avenues,

European.
and
of plasticine

the blocks

though

these

are

and
no

nize
recog-

longer

our
straightand equidistant.Similarly,on
earth,
longitudeand latitude denote the positionsof points,
town"
construction.
although there is no "American
0. But I still see a difficulty.
forced to use
You
are
structure'5. I agree that you can
your "European town
order points,
or
events^ but this construction will muddle
all measurement
of distances. It will not give you the
of space as does my
metric properties
construction. Take
an
example. I know, in my American
town, that to

walk

ten

blocks

I have

to

cover

twice

the distance

of

FIELD,

five blocks.

Since

RELATIVITY

I know

that

immediatelydetermine

can

M.

That

is true.

In my

247

all blocks

are

equal, I

distances.
"

European town" structure,

I cannot
distances immediately by the number
measure
of deformed
blocks. I must
I
know
something more;
the geometricalpropertiesof my
know
must
surface.
knows
that from o" to 10" longitude
Just as everyone
the Equator is not the same
distance as from o" to
on
10" longitudenear
Pole. But every navigator
the North
knows
how
between
such
to judge the distance
two
points on our earth because he knows its geometrical
properties.He can either do it by calculations based on
knowledge of spherical
trigonometry,or he can do
it experimentally,
sailinghis ship through the two
distances at the same
speed. In your case the whole
because all the streets and avenues
are
problem is trivial,
the

the

same

distance

apart. In the

case

of

our

earth

it is

complicated;the two meridians o" and 10" meet

farthest apart on
the earth's poles and
the
at
are
in my "European town
structure",
Equator. Similarly,
know
than you in your "AmeriI must
can
something more
distances.
town
structure",in order to determine
more

gain this additional knowledge by studying the

continuum
in every
geometricalpropertiesof my
case.
particular
how
inconvenient
0. But all this only goes to show
of
and complicated it is to give up the simple structure
the Euclidean
geometry for the intricate scaffolding
Is this reallynecessary?
which
to use.
you are bound
I am
afraid it is,if we
M
want
to apply our
physics
I

can

248
to

THE

yours,

but

mysterious inertial

c.s.

I agree

complicated than
physicalassumptions are simpler and

mathematical

my

PHYSICS

OF

the

c.s., without

any

that

EVOLUTION

my

tool is

more

natural.

more

The

discussion
continua.

has

been

restricted

sional
two-dimen-

to

The

point at issue in the general

relativity
theoryis stillmore
complicated,since it is not
timethe two-dimensional, but
the four-dimensional
space

continuum.

sketched

But

ideas

the

in the two-dimensional

are

the

case.

We

those

as

same

cannot

use

in

the

theory the mechanical

generalrelativity
scaffolding
of parallel,
perpendicularrods and synchronizedclocks,
in the specialrelativity
as
theory. In an arbitraryc.s.
determine
the point and the instant at which
cannot
we
event
an
happens by the use of rigidrods, rhythmical
and
synchronized clocks, as in the inertial c.s. of the
specialrelativity
theory.We can still order the events
with

non-Euclidean

our

But

rhythm.
and

actual

rods

and

clocks

our

out

of

requiringrigidrods
synchronized clocks can be

measurements

perfectrhythmical and

performed only in the local inertial c.s. For this the

whole specialrelativity
theory is valid; but our "good"
c.s. is only local,its inertial character
being limited in
in our
time.
Even
can
arbitrary c.s. we
space and
foresee the results of
inertial

c.s.

character

of

But

measurements

for this

we

must

made
know

the

in the

local

geometrical

time-spacecontinuum.
Our
idealized experiments indicate only the general
character of the new
relativistic physics.
They show us
fundamental
that our
problem is that of gravitation.
our

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

They also show

leads

that

us

theory
general relativity

the

generalization of time

further

to

249

and

space

concepts.
GENERAL

AND

RELATIVITY

VERIFICATION

ITS

general theory of relativity

attempts

The

physical laws
of the theory

all

for

of

is that

the first serious

The

c.s.

to

formulate

fundamental

problem
theory makes

The
gravitation.

effort,since Newton's

late
time, to reformu-

gravitation.Is this really necessary?

We
have
of
already learned about the achievements
the
Newton's
theory, about
great development of
law.
Newton's
astronomy based upon his gravitational
the

But

basis of all astronomical

the

still remains

law

also learned

we

about

c.s.

the

The

valid in them.
their

upon

law

respect
does

distance

is not

with

the laws

law,

to

make

other words,

transformation.

is,as

must

depends

masses

The

connection

know,

we

classical transformation.
frame

of

invariant

with

We

try,

could

be

invariant
But

this

The
specialrelativity.
to

respect
did

the

Lorentz

successfully
of motion, to generalize the gravitational
it fit the specialrelativity
theory,or, in

to

respect

two

other.

each

distance

fit the

not

of mechanics

the laws

from

the

to

transformation.

with

and

some

force between

distance

force

between

with

that

condition

tions.
calcula-

to the
objections
is valid only in the inertia!
c.s.
defined,we remember,

law
theory. Newton's
of classical physics,
in

old

by

of

law

as

we

so

formulate it so that itwould

to

the
But

Lorentz
Newton's

and

not

to

be invariant
the

classical

gravitationallaw

op-

250

all
posed obstinately

of the

if

in

succeeded

efforts to

this, a further

the step from

necessary:

PHYSICS

simplifyand
theory.
specialrelativity

our

into the scheme

we

Otf

EVOLUTION

THE

special
general

of the

c.s.

Even

still be

step would

the inertial

fit it

relativity
theory to the arbitraryc.s. of the
relativity
theory. On the other hand, the idealized
experiments about the fallinglift show clearlythat
there is no chance
of formulatingthe generalrelativity
solving the problem of gravitation.
theory without
From
our
see
we
why the solution of the
argument
gravitational
problem will differ in classical physicsand
general relativity.
We
tried to indicate the way
have
leading to the
forcing us to
theory and the reasons
general relativity
Without
more.
change our old views once
going into
of the theory,we
shall characterize
the formal structure
features of the new
pared
some
gravitational
theory as comwith

the

the nature

grasp

old.

It should

not

of these differences

be

too

in view

difficult to
of all that

previouslybeen said.
tivity
equations of the general rela(1) The gravitational
theory can be applied to any c.s. It is merely a
of convenience
matter
to choose
any particularc.s. in
case.
a special
Theoreticallyall c.s. are permissible.By
back
ignoring the gravitation,we automaticallycome
to the inertial c.s. of the special
relativity
theory.
the motion
gravitationallaw connects
(2) Newton's

has

of
the

body

time

same

formed

here

and

now

with

the action

in the far distance. This

pattern for

our

whole

of

body

is the law

mechanical

at

which

view.

But

of the new
case
one.
limiting
are
comparativelyweak, the
out

to

be

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

252

If the

old Newtonian

good approximation

forces
gravitational

to

the

law

turns

of

laws

new

which
all observations
Thus
gravitation.
support the
classical theory also support
the general relativity
theory.We regain the old theory from the higher level
of the

new

if no

Even

favour

one.

additional

of the

justas good
the

the

as

quoted in
only
explanationwere

theory,if its
old one, given a
should

theories,we

two

of the

new

could

observation

have

be

free choice

between

decide

in favour

to

theory are,
equationsof the new
from the formal point of view, more
complicated,but
their assumptions are, from
the point of view of fundamental
much
simpler.The two frightening
principles,
ghosts, absolute time and an inertial system, have
tional
disappeared.The clue of the equivalence of gravitanew

one.

and

inertial
the

about

the

form

Some

new

consequences

will

If the

laws

old

be drawn

can

the

field,has

of the

contained
from

in

the

quoted.

field

Newton's

tional
gravita-

new

bending of lightrays

already been

in

Two

tational
gravi-

further

be mentioned.

now

follow

forces
gravitational

tion
assump-

their

great achievements

deductions, not
One,

No

dependence
The
gravitational
equationshave
laws, the form required of all

since the

law,
gravitational
laws.

overlooked.

forces and
gravitational

of structure

physicallaws
theory.

is not

mass

is needed.

distance

on

The

are

from

the

new

one

weak, the deviations

when
from

the
the

Newtonian

law

of

253

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

be

gravitationcan

expected only for

comparatively strong gravitationalforces. Take

solar system. The planets,our
earth among
them,
Mercury
along elliptical
paths around the sun.

our
move

is the

the sun
the sun.
The attraction between
planet nearest
and
the sun
and Mercury is stronger than that between
If there
any other planet,since the distance is smaller.
is any hope of findinga deviation from Newton's
law,
of Mercury.
It
the greatest chance
is in the case
follows,from classical theory,that the path described

by Mercury is of the
planet except that it

same

is

kind

as

the

nearer

that of any
sun.

other

According

to

be
should
theory, the motion
general relativity
Mercury travel
slightlydifferent. Not only should
which it describes should
the sun, but the ellipse
around

the

rotate

the

sun.

very

slowly,relative

This

effect of the

to

of the

the

c.s.

ellipse
expresses
theory.The new
generalrelativity
rotation

with

connected
the

new

theory

254

THE

EVOLUTION

PHYSICS

OF

predictsthe magnitude of this effect. Mercury's ellipse

would
perform a complete rotation in three million
how small the effect is,and how hopeless
see
years ! We
it would

be

removed

from

The
from

it in the

seek

to

the

deviation

case

of

planetsfarther

sun.

of the

motion

of the

planet Mercury

the

known
before the generalrelativity
was
ellipse
formulated, and no explanationcould be
theory was
found. On the other hand, general relativity
developed
without

any

attention to this

the conclusion

was

of

about

the

problem. Only later

special
in the
rotation of the ellipse

planetaround the sun drawn from the new

gravitational
equations. In the case of Mercury, theory
from
the deviation of the motion
explainedsuccessfully
motion

the Newtonian
But
from

law.

there is stillanother
the

conclusion

which

general relativity
theory and

was

drawn

compared with
a clock placed

experiment.We have already seen that

the large circle of a rotatingdisc has a different
on
rhythm from one placedon the smaller circle. Similarly,
it follows from
the theory of relativity
that a clock
placed on the sun would have a different rhythm from
one
placed on the earth, since the influence of the
field is much
gravitational
stronger on the sun than on
the earth.
We

remarked
emits

on

p.

103

that

sodium, when

homogeneous yellow lightof

descent,
incandefinite

wave-length. In this radiation the atom reveals one of

its rhythms; the atom
represents, so to speak, a clock
of itsrhythms. Accordand the emitted wave-lengthone

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

355

the wave-length
ing to the general theory of relativity,
of lightemitted by a sodium
atom, say, placed on the
should be very slightly
sun
greater than that of light
emitted by a sodium
earth.
atom
on
our
The

of the
problem of testingthe consequences
generalrelativity
theory by observation is an intricate
and
settled. As we
one
by no means
are
definitely
concerned
with principalideas,we
do not intend to go
deeper into this matter, and only state that the verdict
of experiment seems,
so
far,to confirm the conclusions
drawn
from the general relativity
theory.

FIELD

We

have

broke

view

how

seen

down.

AND

and
It

MATTER

why

the

mechanical

point of
explain all

impossibleto
tween
phenomena by assuming that simple forces act beunalterable
particles.Our first attempts to go
view
and
field
to introduce
beyond the mechanical
concepts proved

was

successful in the domain

most

phenomena.
electromagneticfield were
events

These

laws

since

they

very

near

to

fit the frame

are

transformation.

invariant
Later

The

laws

structure

formulated;

each
of the
with
the

other

tromagnet
of elec-

laws

in space

for the
ing
connect-

and

time.

specialrelativity
theory,
respect

to

the

Lorentz

general relativity
theory
formulated
the gravitationallaws.
Again they are
laws describing
the gravitational
structure
field between
material particles.
It was
also easy to generalizeMaxwell's
laws so that they could be appliedto any G.S., like
the gravitational
laws of the generalrelativity
theory.

256

EVOLUTION

THE

We

have

doubt

that

physicsbuilt
of

we

matter

and

cannot

the

upon

early nineteenth

the

moment

is no
There
field.
of
at present imagine the whole
the physias
cists
concept of matter

and

realities: matter

two
we

PHYSICS

OF

accept both

the concepts.

field

distinct and

two

as

Can

the

For

did.

century

think of

we

realities?

different

picturein a
that there is a definite surface of the particle
naive
way
it ceases
field apits gravitational
where
to exist and
pears.
In our
picture,the region in which the laws of
the region
valid is abruptly separated from
field are
in which
the physical
is present. But what
matter
are
criterions distinguishing
and field? Before we
matter
learned about the relativity
theory we could have tried
this question in the followingway:
matter
to answer
Given

has

small

whereas

mass,

energy,

particleof matter,

matter

that such

an

field

represents

matter

energy

Field

not.

But

mass.

the

represents

represents

vast

of the further

of energy

stores

in

cannot,

distinguishqualitativelybetween

matter

since

and

the

distinction

concentrated

between

By far

one.
qualitative

in matter;

the
but

mass

is where

field where

the

if this is the case,

then

that

this way,
and

field,
is not

energy

is

the field

surrounding the
parably
though in an incomcould

the concentration
concentration

and

greatest part of energy

particlealso represents energy,

smaller
quantity. We
Matter

know

theory we
relativity

We

matter.

represents

already know

we

is insufficient in view

answer

knowledge gained. From

that

has

could

we

therefore

of energy

of energy

the difference

is great,

is small.

between

say:

But

matter

RELATIVITY

FIELD,

field is

and

is

There

257

quantitativerather than

in

sense

no

regarding

qualitativeone.

and

matter

field

two

as

qualitiesquite different from each other. We cannot

field and
imagine a definite surface separatingdistinctly
matter.

The

difficultyarises

same

It

field.

criterion for

Our

break
as

or,

down

they

we

may

is

energy
We

be

valid

build

alone.

something

Could
a

in

even

pure

regions in
this way

created.

the

the

division

artificial

small

present.

are

so

that

regions where

basis of the

into

and

new

nature

everywhere.
a

space

We

space.

where

matter

matter-

and
mass

field
and

clearly defined.

not

the

could

regard

matter

as

field is

extremely strong.
philosophicalbackground could be

Its final aim

in

events

view,

of

sources

build
and
rejectthe concept of matter
field physics? What
senses
as
impresses our
is reallya great concentration
of energy
into a

comparatively
In

trations
concen-

equations

our

the

not

we

matter

the

and

great

is, after the recognition of the equivalence of

energy,

or

concentrated?

physics on

But

laws

matter,

or

everywhere,

enormously

cannot

concept

field

and

where

say,

slightlymodify

not

we

would

its

qualitative

matter

for very

field,that is electric charges

could

obvious

laws, that is, Maxwell's

structure

of energy

But

and

charge

field.

gravitationallaws,
the

the

impossibleto give an
between
distinguishing

seems

charge and

for

by

would
structure

thrown

stone

changing field,where

be

the

laws

explanation
valid

is, from
the states

of all

always and
this point of

of greatest field

258

EVOLUTION

THE

PHYSICS

OF

velocityof the
would
There
be no
stone.
physics,
place,in our new
for both field and matter, field being the only reality.
This new
view is suggested by the great achievements
the laws
of field physics,
in expressing
by our success
of electricity,
magnetism, gravitationin the form of
structure
laws, and finallyby the equivalenceof mass
be to modify
and energy.
Our ultimate problem would
break
that they would
field laws in such a way
not
our
is enormously
for regions in which
the energy
down
travel through
intensity

space

the

with

concentrated.
But

in

this
fulfilling
The decision,
convincinglyand consistently.
programme
it is possibleto carry it out, belongs to
to whether
as
we

the future.
actual

have

At

not

far succeeded

so

present

theoretical

we

must

constructions

in all

still assume
two

our

realities: field and

matter.

Fundamental
that

all matter

only.
particles

problems

are

is constructed

How

are

the

stillbefore
from
various

We

us.

few

know

kinds

of

of matter

forms

do these
elementary particles? How
interact with the field? By the
elementary particles
ideas have
search for an answer
to these questions
new
into physics,the ideas of the quantum
been introduced
theory.
built

from

these

SUMMARIZE:

WE
A

new

the'
concept appears in physics,

invention since Newton's

time:

the

to realize that
imagination
scientific

most

field.It
it is not

important

needed

the

great

charges

S"6o

EVOLUTION

THE

relativity

into

theory

OF

the

one,

PHYSICS

conservation

law

of

mass-

energy.

The

general

is
The

restricted

longer

no

attacks

theory

forces

laws

stand

slightly from

the

But

possible.

concept
a

pure

existence

theory
in

both:

of

of

But

field

we

For
and

have
the

not

matter.

in

geometry
the

regards

essential

as

wherever

theory

we

perimental
ex-

theory
Thy
is

comparison
lies

in

its

in
still

inner

tions.
assump-

of

importance

must

and

The

fundamental

succeeded

the
that

fact

mechanics.

yet

present

field.

classical

the

stresses

mulates
for-

and

mechanics.

its

theory

systems.

relativity

the

of

the

of

general

well

simplicity

of relativity

field physics.
of

those

strength

the

physics.

the

experiment

the

and

consistency

The

of

test

classical

of

by

equal,

are

in

as

consequences

differ only

It

lysis
ana-

gravitational

played

mass

deeper

gravitation

the

world.

inertial

accidental,

merely

of

role

still

co-ordinate

for

the

validity

inertial

problem

physical

and

gravitational
not

the

of

description

the

analyse

to

us

The

to

structure

new

It

relativity gives

continuum.

time-space

the

of

of

theory

the

field

formulating
assume

the

IV.

QUANTA

QUANTA

Continuity, discontinuity Elementary

electricityThe
of

matter

of light Light spectra

quanta

"

"

Probabilitywaves

"

of New

MAP

is

spread
be

can

in

reached

We

now

can

be

In

both

are

cases

from

separated
the

along

New

spot

in

York,
that

correspond
change
We
which

the
to

city.

In

the

the
can

discontinuous

distances
be
way.

and

the

second

reached
Those

our

the
are

roads.

of

each

by
of

263

New
train
the

car.

they

different

the

points

Our

next

these

from

points
certain

certain

numbers

These

numbers

map.

always finite,leaps and

from

every

first

rigorous,

on

map

the

they

case,

the

on

York,

In

be

first

points

by

of

the

map.

reached

distance
more

points

which

represent

the

map

the

New

points.

other

points

by irregular, but

say:

of

sets

these

lines

fact, be

in

this

on

ask:

starting from

in

or,

to

we

representing

is about

question
from

lines

waves

country

on

up

them

draw

can,

and

mark

If

each

railway stations,

looking

and

have

we

points

question

roads

roads

these

on

surrounding

which

we

by car?

all the

the

After

train?

our

reached

and

ask:

timetable,

change

representing
point

We

by

railway

City

us.

The

"

DISCONTINUITY

York

before

and

matter

reality

Physics and

"

CONTINUITY,
A

of

quanta

"

York

of

change
places

which

bounds.

the

places

only
can

in

be

264
reached
as

by

in the

not

output of

The

The

way.

tinuously.It
yesterday,the
3-783."
Asked
man

can

change by steps

mine
of

small

changes

in the

case

of

train.
can

in

change

ous
continu-

be decreased
produced can
small steps. But the
by arbitrarily
employed can change only discon-

be

would

coal

pure
of

number

about

the

give a

number

nonsense

employees
of money

amount

to

has

say:

increased

in his

containing only

"Since

two

by

pocket, a
decimals.

continuou
change only by jumps, in a disIn America
the smallest permissible
way.
change or, as we shall call it,the elementary quantum
is one
for American
The
cent.
elementary
money,
is one
for English money
farthing, worth
quantum
Here
elementary quantum.
only half the American
have an
we
example of two elementary quanta whose
be compared. The
ratio of their
mutual
values can
A

of money

as

The

continuous way.

of

amount

of miners

number

PHYSICS

small
arbitrarily

case

coal

increased

or

in

vary

be made

can

but

car,

OF

however, may

car,

wish,they can

we

in distance
a

EVOLUTION

THE

sum

can

"

values
twice

We
and
which

steps

has

definite

much

as
can

say

others
cannot
are

since

sense

' '

one

of them

is worth

the other.

as

can
change continuously
quantities
by steps
change only discontinuously,

: some

can

be

called

further
the

decreased.

elementary
quanta

These

indivisible

of the

particular

quantityto which they refer.

of sand and regard its
We can
weigh largequantities
even
mass
though its granular structure
as continuous

265

QUANTA
is evident.

and

the

But

if the sand

scales used

consider

the

multiple number
be
grain would

of
our

the

precious

very

should

we
sensitive,

very

fact that

to become

were

have

to

always changes by

mass

grain.The mass
elementary quantum.

one

of this
From

one

this

example we see how the discontinuous character of a

quantity,so far regarded as continuous, can be detected
by increasingthe precisionof our measurements.
If we
the principalidea of the
had to characterize
theory in one sentence, we could say: it must
quantum
be assumed
that some
so
physicalquantities
far regarded
as continuous are
composedof elementary
quanta.
The
region of facts covered by the quantum
theory is
tremendously great. These facts have been disclosed by
the highlydeveloped technique of modern
experiment.
As

show

neither

can

we

describe

nor

even

the

basic

experiments,we shall frequentlyhave to quote their

aim
is to explain the cipal
results dogmatically. Our
prinunderlyingideas only.

ELEMENTARY

QUANTA
AND

In

the

pictureof

all elements

are

OF

MATTER

ELECTRICITY

matter

drawn

by

built of molecules.

the

kinetic

Take

the

theory,
simplest

element, that is hydrogen. On p. 66

lightest
motions
led to the
how
the study of Brownian
we
saw
of the mass
of one
determination
hydrogen molecule.
case

of the

Its value

is :

0*000

ooo

ooo

ooo

ooo

ooo

ooo

0033

gram.

266
This

that

means

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

portion

of

number

of small

is discontinuous.

mass

hydrogen

is

steps each

of two

and

the atom
an

But chemical

one

composed

not

by two,

In

mass

whole

the

mass

show

up

into two

hydrogen

molecule

processes it is
plays the role of

chemical

the molecule

find the

we

that the

of

mass

processes

broken

be

can

atoms.

elementary quantum.

The

change only by
correspondingto

can

hydrogen molecule.
that the hydrogen molecule
parts, or, in other words,
of

PHYSICS

which

number

Dividing the above

of a hydrogen atom.

This

is

about
0*000

ooo

ooo

ooo

ooo

ooo

ooo

0017 gram.

quantity. But, of course, we

need not bother about this when
determiningweight.
the
sensitive scales are far from attaining
Even the most
in mass
degree of precisionby which the discontinuity
is

Mass

discontinuous

variation

could

Let

return

us

with

be detected.

the

flowing through
We

remember

to

well-known

source

the

wire

of

from

that many

fact. A

current.

higher

wire

The
to

is

nected
con-

is

current

lower

tial.
poten-

experimentalfacts

were

explainedby the simpletheory of electric fluids flowing

(p.82) that the
through the wire. We also remember
the positivefluid flows from
decision as to whether
the negative fluid flows
or
higher to lower potential,
lower to higherpotential,
from
of
was
merely a matter
For
the moment
convention.
we
disregard all the
further progress resulting
from the field concepts. Even
when
of electric fluids,
thinking in the simple terms

268
or

not

EVOLUTION

THE

OF

PHYSICS

it is composed of electric quanta.

Again

number

of

independent experimentsshow that there is no doubt

of an
of this
to the existence
as
elementary quantum
The
structed
negative electricity.
negative electric fluid is conof grains,just as the beach
is composed of
grainsof sand, or a house built of bricks. This result was
formulated

clearlyby J. J. Thomson, about forty

years ago. The elementary quanta of negativeelectricity
called electrons. Thus
are
every negativeelectric charge
is composed of a
of elementary charges
multitude
representedby electrons. The negative charge can, like
The elementaryelectric
mass, vary only discontinuously.
investigations
charge is,however, so small that in many
it is equally possibleand
sometimes
even
more
venient
conto regard it as a continuous
quantity.Thus the
atomic

most

electron

and

discontinuous

by jumps.
Imagine

theories

introduce

physicalquantitieswhich

into
can

science

vary

only

place from
One
all air has been extracted.
of the plateshas
which
the other a negative charge. A positive
test
a positive,
the two
charge brought between
plateswill be repelled
charged and attracted by the negaby the positively
tively
the lines of force of the
charged plate.Thus
electric field will be directed from the positively
to the
negativelycharged plate.A force actingon a negatively
charged test body would have the opposite direction.
If the plates are
sufficiently
large,the lines of force
will be equally dense
between
them
everywhere; it is
where the test body is placed,the force and,
immaterial
two

metal
parallel

platesin

some

269

QUANTA

therefore,the densityof
Electrons

same.

the

lines of force will be

between

brought somewhere

like

behave

of the

earth, moving parallelto each

many
a

known

shower

them

heated

wire

into

such

way.

One

between

the

same

wire

emits

electrons

field which

this

the

directs

simplestis to
charged plates.Such
of the

which

are

by the lines of force of the external

instance,radio tubes, familiar to everyone,
directed

from

are
positively
charged plate.There
experimental arrangements for bringing

of electrons

heated

other

the

all in the

bring a

plates

raindrops in the gravitationalfield

would

negativelyto

the

the

afterwards
field.
are

For

based

principle.
Many very ingenious experiments have been performed
of electrons. The
beam
on
a
changes of their
path in different electric and magnetic external fields
It has even
been
have been investigated.
possibleto
its elementary
isolate a singleelectron and to determine
charge and its mass, that is,its inertial resistance to the

on

27O

THE

of

action

EVOLUTION

the value

of the

be

two

about

hydrogen
of

electron.

of

it is,appears

the

"

From

within

mass

that

mass,

very

small

said before

that the

is,the whole

sphere,and
of any

atom

elementary quantum.
for a very long time.
longerbelieved ! Science has
the limitations of the old

energy,

away

of its
from

This

Now,
formed
one.

element

statement

is its
lieved
be-

was

however, it is
a

There

new

is

view

no

ing
show-

scarcelyany

firmly founded on facts than

physicsmore
of the atom.
First
about the complex structure
one
the realization that the electron,the elementary
in

statement

came

to

of

mass

of its field;the bulk

smallest

the

the

out

of the electron it is weak.

centre"

We

of

only quote

It turned

electron.

is the energy

electron

strengthis

shall

we

hydrogen atom,
great in comparison with the mass
the point of view of a consistent

theory,the whole

an

Here

an

the

Thus

atom.

as

field

of

mass

PHYSICS

thousand times smaller than

small
an

force.

external

an

OF

components

negative electric fluid,is also one of the

of the elementary bricks
of the atom, one

from

all matter

of the

quantum

which

example
of the

of

numerous

heated

is built. The
wire

previouslyquoted
emittingelectrons is only one

instances

of the

extraction

of these

from matter.
This result closely
connectingthe
particles
problem of the structure of matter with that of electricity,
follows,beyond any doubt, from very many independent
experimentalfacts.
from an atom
It is comparativelyeasy to extract
some
be
of the electrons from which it is composed. This can
done by heat, as in our
example of a heated wire, or in

QUANTA
a

different way,

such

as

271

by bombarding

with other

atoms

electrons.

Suppose a thin, red-hot, metal

rarefied hydrogen. The
wire will
directions.
a

Under

the

action

of

is inserted

emit

electrons

into
in all

foreignelectric

given velocitywill be imparted

increases

wire

to

An

them.

field

electron

velocityjust like a stone fallingin the

field. By this method
obtain
a
we
can
gravitational
beam
of electrons rushing along with a definite speed in
a definite direction.
Nowadays, we can reach velocities
comparable to that of lightby submitting electrons to
the action of very strong fields. What
happens, then,
when
of electrons of a definite velocity
a beam
impinges
the molecules
of rarefied hydrogen? The impact of a
on
sufficiently
speedy electron will not only disrupt the
into its two
but will also
atoms
hydrogen molecule
extract

Let

its

an

electron

from

of the atoms.

one

accept the fact that electrons

us

of matter.

Then,

been

out

torn

an

atom

cannot

be

from

which

constituents

are
an

electron

If it

neutral.
electrically

be so now,
previouslyneutral, then it cannot
by one elementary charge. That which
poorer
have
must
a
positive
charge. Furthermore,
mass

of

an

electron

lightestatom,

we

greater part of the

is
can
mass

smaller

than

safelyconclude

that

so

much

of the atom

is not

has
was

since it is
remains
since

the

that of the

by far the
represented
elementary

of the
by electrons but by the remainder
heavier than the electrons.
particleswhich are much
its nucleus.
We
call this heavy part of the atom
Modern
experimentalphysicshas developed methods

272
of

THE

EVOLUTION

breaking up
of

atoms

the

extractingfrom
of which
as

"nuclear

nucleus

element

one

PHYSICS

OF

of the

into

of

the

it is built. This

physics",to

changing

of another, and

those

the nucleus

of

atom,

heavy elementary particles

known
chapterof physics,
Rutherford

which

contributed

experimentalpoint of view, the

mental
most
interesting.But a theory,simple in its fundaideas and connecting the rich varietyof facts in
the domain
of nuclear physics,
is stilllacking. Since, in
these pages, we
interested only in generalphysical
are
ideas, we shall omit this chapter in spiteof its great
so

is,from

much,

importance in

the

modern

THE

Let

from

waves

wash
way

some

clear for the

decreases

in, say,
process.

and

we

year.

We

want

same

amount

We

shoot

at

the wall

well

can

the wall
sea

wave

acting. It

that

will be

which

we

picture a
mass

of the

cases.

will be

different
wall

decreased

the

same

reduction

But

from

the

easilydetect

the discontinuous

or

the

of the wall

imagine
could

we

us

away

previouslybut in a different
it at the placeswhere
and split

mass

in both

is achieved

let

now

diminish

to
as

bullets hit. The

we

But

is washed

much

how

ask

can

one

the

LIGHT

built

wall

the

away

OF

QUANTA

along the seashore. The

sea
continuallyimpinge on the wall,
of its surface,and retreat, leavingthe
of the wall
The
mass
incoming waves.

consider

us

physics.

whether

shower

in

by

way.

the
and
mass

appearance

of

the continuous

of bullets has been

in understandingthe phenohelpful,
mena
about
to
are
describe, to bear in

QUANTA

mind

the difference

between

273
sea

and

waves

of

shower

bullets.
We

said, previously,that
Here

electrons

shall introduce

we

from

heated
another

wire
way

emits
of

trons.
elec-

extracting

metal.

Homogeneous light,such as
violet light,which
is, as we know, lightof a definite
wave-length, is impinging on a metal surface. The
electrons from the metal. The
electrons
lightextracts
from the metal
of them
and a shower
torn
are
speeds
along with a certain velocity.From the point of view
of the energy
principlewe can say : the energy of light
of
kinetic
is partiallytransformed
into
the
energy
expelled electrons. Modern
experimental technique
enables us to register
these electron-bullets,
to determine
their velocity and
thus their energy.
This extraction
of electrons by lightfallingupon
metal
is called the
photoelectric
effect.
Our
the action of a homogeneous
was
starting-point
definite intensity.As in every
lightwave, with some
experiment, we
to

observed
Let

We

what

into

upon
answer

could

definite

any

influence

on

the

of the homogeneous
begin by changing the intensity
the metal
violet light fallingon
plate and

depends
find the

have

arrangements

our

effect.

us

to

change

now

this will

whether

see

note

must

extent

the

of the emitted

intensityof the light. Let

by reasoning instead

argue:

portionof

energy

the energy

in the

of radiation

of the

us

try

to

by experiment.

effect
photoelectric

the energy

of motion

of

electrons

electrons.

certain

is transformed
If

we

again

274
illuminate
but

EVOLUTION

THE

from

the emitted

PHYSICS

with

the metal
a

OF

lightof the same

powerful source, then

more

should

electrons

is richer in energy.

wave-length
the energy

of

be greater, since the radiation

should, therefore,expect

We

the

velocityof the emitted electrons to increase if the

of the lightincreases. But experiment again
intensity
contradicts our
that the
see
we
prediction.Once more
laws
We

of nature
have

are

come

contradictingour
which they were

not

as

we

should

like them

to

be.

of the

experiments which,
predictions,breaks the theory on

upon

based.

one

experimentalresult
is,from the pointof view of the wave
theory,astonishing.
The
electrons
all have
the same
observed
speed, the
the intensity
same
energy, which does not change when
of the lightis increased.
This experimentalresult could not be predictedby
the wave
theory. Here again a new
theory arises from
the conflict between
the old theory and experiment.
Let us be deliberately
unjust to the wave
theory of
its great achievements, its splendid
light,forgetting
explanationof the bending of lightaround very small
the photoobstacles. With
attention focused
our
on
electric
from
the theory an
effect,let us demand
adequate explanation of this effect. Obviously, we
deduce
from the wave
cannot
theory the independence
of the energy
of electrons from the intensityof lightby
which
they have been extracted from the metal plate.
We
shall,therefore,try another theory. We remember
that Newton's
corpusculartheory, explaining many
of the observed
phenomena of light,failed to account
The

actual

276
and

THE

OF

EVOLUTION

of very

consists here

matter

PHYSICS

many

singleprocesses

and tears
photon impinges on the atom
electron. These
singleprocesses are all alike and

in which
an

also understand

We

case.

of the

will have

electron

extracted

that

lightmeans, in our new

of fallingphotons.

number

of electrons

would

plate,but

the energy

of any

Thus

see

number

we

with

the

this

increasingthe intensity

language,increasingthe
In

be

this case,

thrown

out

different

of the metal

singleone would not change.

theory is in perfect agreement

this

will

happen

if

of

beam

homogeneous light

different colour, say, red instead

metal

surface?

Let

question.The
be

must

electrons
the

that

in every

energy

same

the

observation.

What
of

the

out

electron

smaller
violet

quanta

energy

measured

thrown

than

and
out

extracted
the

light.This

us

is different

violet,falls on

experiment to

of the

extracted

compared with the

by violet light.The
by red light turns

energy
means

leave

of

of the
that

electron

the

for different

energy

colours.

answer

electrons
energy

of

energy

of

out

to

extracted

be

by

of the
The

light
photons

belonging to the colour red have half the energy of

those belonging to the colour violet. Or, more
ously:
rigorof a light quantum
the energy
belonging to a
homogeneous colour decreases proportionallyas the
wave-length increases. There is an essential difference
between
of electricity.
and
of energy
quanta
quanta
Light quanta differ for every wave-length, whereas
If we
are
were
always the same.
quanta of electricity
of our
should compare
to use
we
one
previousanalogies,

QUANTA

lightquanta
in each
Let

and

the smallest

to

277

monetary

quanta, differing

country.
discard

the

that the structure

of

continue

us

to

theory of light

wave

lightis granular and

is formed
by lightquanta, that is, photons speeding
through space with the velocityof light.Thus, in our
new
picture,light is a shower of photons, and the
If,
photon is the elementary quantum of lightenergy.
however, the wave
theory is discarded,the concept of
a
wave-length disappears.What new
concept takes its
place? The energy of the lightquanta! Statements
theory can be
expressedin the terminologyof the wave
of the quantum
translated into statements
theory of
For example:
radiation.
assume

TERMINOLOGY
WAVE

light

of

the

has

wave-length.

wave-length

of the

red
is

spectrum

state

of affairs

The
end
twice

that of the violet end.

The

OF

QUANTUM

THEORY

Homogeneous
definite

TERMINOLOGY

THE

OF

Homogeneous
tains photons
energy.

The

photon

for

the

THE

THEORY

light
of

energy
the red

con-

definite
of
end

is half that
spectrum
the violet end.

can

be summarized

the
of
of

in the following

phenomena which can be explained

theory.
by the quantum theory but not by the wave
Photo-effect furnishes an example, though other phenomena
known.
of this kind
There
are
are
phenomena
which
be explainedby the wave
can
theory but not by
the quantum
theory. The
bending of light around
obstacles
is a typical example. Finally,there
are
way

there

are

278

EVOLUTION

THE

PHYSICS

OF

propagationof light,
be equally well explainedby the quantum
which
can
and the wave
theory of light.
of
But what is lightreally? Is it a wave
or
a shower
photons? Once before we put a similar questionwhen
of light corasked: is light a wave
shower
puscles?
we
or
a
phenomena,

such

At

as

that

the rectilinear

time

there

was

every

reason

for

discardingthe corpusculartheory of lightand accepting

the wave
theory,which covered all phenomena. Now,
more
however, the problem is much
complicated.
There
scriptio
likelihood of forming a consistent deseems
no
of the phenomena of lightby a choice of only
of the two
as
one
though
possiblelanguages. It seems
the one
sometimes
must
we
use
theory and sometimes
the other, while at times we
either. We
use
are
may
faced

with

stress

the

We
have
two
difficulty.
contradictorypictures of reality;separatelyneither
of them
fullyexplains the phenomena of light,but
togetherthey do !
How
is it possibleto combine
these two
pictures?
How
understand
these two
can
we
utterlydifferent
for this new
aspects of light? It is not easy to account
fundamental
faced with
are
a
difficulty.
Again we
problem.
For the moment
let us accept the photon theory of
the facts so
lightand try, by its help, to understand
far explainedby the wave
theory. In this way we shall

appear,
We

at

kind

new

of

difficulties which

make

the

two

theories

first sight,
irreconcilable.

remember

: a

beam

of

homogeneous

lightpassing

279

QUANTA

pinhole giveslightand dark rings(p. 118).

is it possible
this phenomenon by
How
to understand
the help of the quantum
theory of light,disregarding
the wave
theory? A photon passes through the hole.
We could expect the screen
to appear
lightifthe photon
Instead, we
passes through and dark if it does not.
through

for
rings.We could try to account
interaction between
it as follows : perhaps there is some
is responsible
the rim of the hole and the photon which
This sentence
of the diffraction rings.
for the appearance
hardly be regarded as an explanation.
can, of course,
for an
At best,it outlines a programme
explanation
find

dark

lightand

holding

out

at

least

of diffraction
and

some

by

hope

of

interaction

future
between

standing
undermatter

photons.

hope is dashed by our previous

Let us
discussion of another experimentalarrangement.
take two pinholes.Homogeneous lightpassingthrough
the two holes giveslightand dark stripes
the screen.
on
is this effect to be understood
How
from the point of
view of the quantum
theory of light?We could argue:
of the two pinholes.
a photon passes through either one
If a photon of homogeneous lightrepresents an elementary
we
can
lightparticle,
hardlyimagine itsdivision and
its passage through the two
holes. But then the effect
should
be exactly as in the first case, lightand dark
is it possible
rings and not lightand dark stripes.How
then that the presence
of another
pinhole completely
changes the effect? Apparently the hole through
which the photon does not pass, even
though it may be
But

even

this feeble

280

EVOLUTION

THE

at

the

OF

PHYSICS

fair

! If
distance,changes the rings into stripes
photon behaves like a corpusclein classical physics,

it must

through
phenomena

pass
the

case,

Science

forces

create

Their

aim

is to break

which

frequentlyblocks

down

the

the

for the

account

the

attempts

contradiction

when

instead

of

We

already know

few

are

kinds

that

at

Before

standing.
underof
to

try

we

physics to explain

that

dealing with
light.

LIGHT

dramatic

for the solution

and

the

wave

exactlythe

same

quantum

shall show

difficulty
appears
of quanta

the

in

attempts

our

of modern

between

aspects of light,we

of contradictions

born

were

again is a problem
principlesare needed.

new

theories.

of scientific progress.

Here

which

prehensible.
quite incom-

seem

wall

way

realityand

in this

But

ideas,new

new

All the essential ideas in science

conflict between

holes.

two

of diffraction

to

us

of the

one

quanta

of matter

SPECTRA

all matter

is built

of

only

of

Electrons were
tary
the first elemenparticles.
But electrons
to be discovered.
particlesof matter
also the elementary quanta of negativeelectricity.

We

learned

furthermore

that

phenomena

some

force

that

lightis composed of elementary light

quanta, differingfor different wave-lengths. Before
proceedingwe must discuss some
physicalphenomena in

us

to

which
The

assume

matter
sun

components

as

well

emits

by

as

radiation

radiation
a

which

prism. The

playsan
can

be

continuous

essential role.

splitinto

its

spectrum

of

28l

QUANTA

the

sun

thus

can

the

two

Let

mentioned

us

be

obtained.
of the

ends
take

another

that sodium

light,lightof

tween
Every wave-length beis represented.

visible spectrum

example.

when

It

incandescent

colour

was

previously
emits

geneous
homo-

wave-length.
is placed before the prism,we
If incandescent
sodium
see
only one yellow line. In general,if a radiatingbody
the prism, then
is placed before
the light it emits is
revealingthe spectrum
splitup into its components,
characteristic of the emittingbody.
The
in a tube containing gas
discharge of electricity
in the neon
of lightsuch
as
seen
produces a source
tubes used for luminous
advertisements.
Suppose such
is placed before a spectroscope. The
a tube
spectroscope
which acts like a prism,but with much
is an instrument
and sensitiveness;it splitslight into
greater accuracy
that is,it analyses it. Light from
its components,
the
seen
through a spectroscope, gives a continuous
sun,
spectrum; all wave-lengths are represented in it. If,
of lightis a gas through which
however, the source
a
of electricity
current
passes, the spectrum is of a different
Instead

character.

design of

the sun's

one

of the

or

one

continuous, multi-coloured

bright,separatedstripes
dark background. Every stripe,
appear on a continuous
if it is very narrow,
correspondsto a definite colour or,
in the language of the wave
length.
theory,to a definite wavevisible in the
For example, if twenty lines are
will be designatedby one
of
spectrum, each of them
length.
expressingthe corresponding wavetwenty numbers
The

vapours

spectrum,

of the

various

elements

possess

282

THE

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

different systems of lines,

and thus different combinations
of numbers

designatingthe wave-lengthscomposing the

emitted lightspectrum.
No two elements
have identical
systems of stripesin their characteristic spectra, just
As
identical finger-prints.
two
as no
persons have exactly
worked
a catalogueof these lines was
out by physicists,
the existence of laws gradually became
evident, and
it was
of the columns
of
possibleto replace some
the lengthof
seeminglydisconnected numbers
expressing
the various waves
formula.
by one simple mathematical
All that has justbeen said can
be translated into
now
the photon language.The stripes
correspondto certain
definite wave-lengthsor, in other words, to photons with
definite energy.

Luminous

do

gases

not, therefore,

possibleenergies,but only those

characteristic of the substance.
Reality again limits the
wealth of possibilities.
of a particular
Atoms
element, say, hydrogen, can
emit only photons with definite energies.Only the
all
emission
of definite energy
quanta is permissible,
plicity,
others being prohibited.Imagine, for the sake of simthat some
element
emits only one
line,that is,
is richer
photons of a quite definite energy. The atom
emit

in

photons

energy

From

before

the energy

level of

an

atom

afterwards, and
levels must
Thus

be

all

with

the

of

that

equal to

one

and

principleit must
is higher before

the fact that

radiation

emission

an

the

follow that the energy

emission

difference

of

between

certain

wave-lengthonly,that

lower

and

of the emitted

the energy
atom

afterwards.

poorer

the

photon.

element
is

two

emits

photons of

284

deeper

EVOLUTION

THE

and

characterize

the

It is our

mention
of

visible spectrum
for the

wave-length

aim

principalideas

doing so, we must

experimentalresult
Our

PHYSICS

general theory, called the

more

mechanics.

quantum

OF

the

red

or

in these last pages

of this

one

more

theory.

Before

theoretical

specialcharacter.
begins with a certain

to

and

more

violet colour

for

wave

and

colour.

ends

with

Or, in other

length
wave-

certain

words,

the

energiesof the photons in the visible spectrum are

always enclosed within the limits formed by the photon
energiesof the violet and red lights.This limitation is,
If the
of course,
only a property of the human
eye.

difference

in

energy

of

some

of

the

energy

levels is

sufficiently
great, then an ultraviolet photon will be sent
Its
out, giving a line beyond the visible spectrum.
be detected by the naked
cannot
graphic
presence
eye; a photoplatemust be used.
X-rays are also composed of photons of a much
than
those of visible light,or in other
greater energy
words, their wave-lengths are much
smaller, thousands
of times smaller in fact,than those of visible light.
But
is it possibleto determine
such
small
lengths
wavedifficult enough to do
experimentally? It was
had to have small obstacles or
We
so for ordinarylight.
small apertures. Two
to each
other,
pinholesvery near
would
have to be
showing diffraction for ordinarylight,
of times smaller and closer together to
thousands
many
show diffraction for X-rays.
then can
the wave-lengthsof these
How
we
measure
aid.
to our
rays? Nature herself comes

285

QUANTA

crystalis

conglomeration of

arranged at
other on
each
a
perfectly
very short distances from
regular plan. Our drawing shows a simple model of
of a crystal.Instead of minute
the structure
apertures,
there are extremelysmall obstacles formed by the atoms

of the

element, arranged

absolutelyregular
found

order.

atoms

very

close

The

distances

to

each

other

between

in
the

theory of the crystalstructure,

the
small that they might be expected to show
so
are
effect of diffraction for X-rays. Experiment proved that
it is,in fact,possibleto diffract the X-ray wave
by
of these closelypacked obstacles disposedin the
means
regular three-dimensional arrangement
occurring in a
crystal.
Suppose that a beam of X-rays falls upon a crystal
and, after passing through it,is recorded on a photo-

atoms,

as

from

the

286

THE

EVOLUTION

graphic plate.The
pattern. Various

here in

to

PHYSICS

plate then

methods

X-ray spectra,
from

OF

have

deduce

data

shows
been

the

used

would

words

to

study the

concerning the

the diffraction pattern. What

few

diffraction

length
wave-

has been

said

if all theoretical

fillvolumes

and

In Plate III
set forth.
experimentaldetails were
we
give only one diffraction pattern obtained by one
of the various methods.
We
again see the dark and light
ringsso characteristic of the wave
theory. In the centre
the non-diffracted

brought

between

is visible. If the

ray
the

X-rays

not
crystalwere
the photographic

and

be seen.
would
plate,only the lightspot in the centre
From
photographs of this kind the wave-lengthsof the
X-ray spectra can be calculated and, on the other hand,
if the wave-length is known, conclusions can
be drawn
about the structure
of the crystal.

THE

How

can

WAVES

understand

we

characteristic

OF

the

MATTER

fact that

wave-lengthsappear

only certain

in the spectra of the

elements?

happened in physics that an essential

achieved
advance
was
by carrying out a consistent
analogy between apparentlyunrelated phenomena. In
It has

often

these pages

we

have

often

seen

how

ideas created

and

afterwards
branch
of science
were
developed in one
successfully
applied to another. The development of
the mechanical
and field views gives many
examples
of this kind. The
association of solved problems with
those unsolved
throw new
lighton our difficulties
may

(Photographed

Spectral

(Photographed by
Diffraction

by A.

Shenslone)

lines

iMstowiecki

of

and

Gregor]

X-rays

(Photographedby
Diffraction

G".

of electronic

waves

Ijoria and

Klinger)

287

QUANTA

by suggestingnew ideas. It is easy to find a superficial

cover
analogy which reallyexpresses nothing. But to disessential

some

surface

this

on

theory, is important creative

successful

new

to form,
differences,

of external

beneath

features,hidden

common

basis,
work.

mechanics,
development of the so-called wave
begun by de Broglieand Schrodinger,less than fifteen
of a
years ago, is a typicalexample of the achievement
of a deep and
fortunate
successful theory by means
analogy.
Our
is a
classical example having
starting-point

The

do

nothing to

the end

hand
very

and

of

long flexible

very

long spring,and try

down, so that the end

in

take

physics.We

modern

with

rubber

our

tube, or

it

rhythmicallyup
have
oscillates. Then, as we

to

move

is created by the
examples,a wave
oscillation which spreadsthrough the tube with a certain
long tube, then the
velocity.If we imagine an infinitely
portionsof waves, once started,will pursue their endless

in many

seen

other

interference.

journey without
Now

another

fastened.

are

What

as

the

If

happens

the rubber
in the

other

The

case.

a
preferred,

if

now

tube

or

of the

tube.

of the

wave

but
We

it is
now

same

stringmay

is created

The

previousexample,
end

violin

wave

cord?

ends

two

at

one

tube

be used.
end

of

beginsits journey
soon

have

reflected
two

waves

by
:

288

oppositedirections

travel

in

other.

It would

of the two
from
The

OF

PHYSICS

the other by reflection;

by oscillation,
they

creation

one

EVOLUTION

THE

interfere with

be difficult to trace

not

and

waves

and

discover

the

the interference

one

it is called the
superposition;
words
"standing" and "wave"

each

other; their combination

the

by
justified

result of the

resulting
standingwave.

wave

their
two

each

to

seem

tradict
con-

is,nevertheless,

superpositionof

the

two

waves.

The

motion
down

simplestexample
of

motion,

the result of

with

cord

one

in

our

lying on

wave

the two

shown

as

of

standing wave
ends fixed,an
drawing. This

motion

the other when

the

is the

up-andis

two

in oppositedirections. The characteristic

travelling
feature of this motion
is : only the two
end-pointsare
called nodes. The
at rest. They are
stands,so to
wave
the two
speak, between
nodes, all points of the cord
of
minima
and
reaching simultaneouslythe maxima
are

their deviation.
But
There

this is only the

are

others.

simplestkind of a standingwave.
For example, a standing wave
can

have three nodes, one

at

each

end

and

one

in the centre.

have

We

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

2QO

discovered

thus

cord and the

oscillating
Strange as this analogy may

some

similaritybetween

atom

emitting radiation.

seem,

let

the

conclusions

it and

from

having

once

try

PHYSICS

to

chosen

with

proceed
it. The

draw

us

further
the

parison,
com-

of every

atoms

the
composed of elementary particles,
the nucleus, and
the lighter
heavier constituting
the
Such
electrons.
a
system of particlesbehaves like a
element

are

instrument

acoustical

small

in which

standingwaves

produced.
is the result of interference
Yet the standing wave
between
two
even
more
moving waves.
or, generally,
truth in our
If there is some
analogy, a still simpler
are

than

that of the

should

correspond
is the simplest
What
to a spreadingwave.
arrangement?
In our
be simplerthan an
material world, nothing can
which no forces are
an
on
electron,
elementaryparticle,
acting,that is,an electron at rest or in uniform motion.

arrangement

We

could

guess

further

atom

link

in

the

of

chain

analogy: electron moving uniformly-"

definite length.This was
de Broglie's
new

our

of

waves

and

geous
coura-

idea.
It

previouslyshown that there are phenomena in

which
lightreveals its wave-like character and others
in which lightreveals its corpuscularcharacter. After
was

becoming
found, to

used

to

our
.

the

idea

that

lightis

astonishment, that in

some

wave,

we

cases,

for

instance in the
shower
state

of

effect,it behaves like a

photoelectric
have
we
just the opposite
photons. Now

of affairs for electrons. We

accustomed

ourselves

QUANTA

the

idea

that

electrons

elementary
particles,
and matter.
Their charge and mass
quanta of electricity
If there is any truth in de Broglie's
were
investigated.
be some
idea, then there must
phenomena in which
to

reveals

matter

are

its wave-like

conclusion,reached

character.

by followingthe

At

acoustical

first,this

analogy,

strange and

incomprehensible.How can a moving

But this is
corpusclehave anything to do with a wave?
the first time we
have faced a difficulty
of this kind
not
in physics.We
of
the same
met
problem in the domain
lightphenomena.
Fundamental
ideas play the most
essential role in
forming a physicaltheory. Books on physics are full
of complicated mathematical
But
formulae.
thought
and ideas, not
formulae, are the beginning of every
later take the mathematical
physicaltheory. The ideas must
form of a quantitative
theory,to make possible
the comparison with experiment. This can
be explained
by the example of the problem with which we are now
principalguess is that the uniformly
dealing. The
phenomena, like a
moving electron will behave, in some
seems

that

Assume

wave.

provided they
uniformly.The

all have

electron
some

electron
is the
a

more

answer

way
or

electron

an

wave

mass,
are

the

or

charge, and
If

concept

with

electrons, our

next

of

electrons,

velocity,is moving
dividual
velocityof each in-

same

known.

shower

wish

we

to

associate in

uniformly moving
be: what
question must
a

wave-length?This is a quantitativequestionand
be built up to
less quantitative
theory must
or
it. This is indeed
The mathea simple matter.
IO-2

THE

EVOLUTION

OF

PHYSICS

matical

simplicityof de Broglie'swork, providing an

to this question,is most
astonishing.At the
his work
was
done, the mathematical
technique

answer

time

of other

physicaltheories

was

subtle and

very

cated,
compli-

ing
dealcomparativelyspeaking.The mathematics
with the problem of waves
of matter
is extremely
ideas are
simple and elementary but the fundamental
deep and far-reaching.
and photons,
Previously,in the case of lightwaves
it

shown

was

wave

of

that

formulated

statement

every

be translated
language can
The
photons or lightcorpuscles.

electronic

into

the

in the

language
is true

same

for

For

uniformlymoving electrons,the
But
corpuscular language is already known.
every
statement
expressed in the corpuscularlanguage can
be translated into the wave
language,justas in the case
of photons. Two
clues laid down
the rules of translation.
The
waves

analogy between lightwaves

photons and electrons is one

or

the

use

method

same

light.The
clue. The
to

waves.

two

laws of nature
and

clues

corresponding to
the theory that an
say,
can

the

clue.

not

must
to

be invariant

We

to

try
as

for

the other

with

respect
the classical transformation.

together determine
a

electronic

for matter

specialrelativity
theory furnished

the Lorentz

These

of translation

and

moving

electron.

the

wave-length

It follows from

electron

moving with a velocityof,

10,000 miles per second, has a wave-length which
be easilycalculated,
and which
turns
out
to lie in
same
region as the X-ray wave-lengths.Thus we

conclude

further that if the

wave

character

of matter

QUANTA

293

be

detected,it should be done experimentallyin an

analogous way to that of X-rays.
Imagine an electron beam
moving uniformly with
a
given velocity,or, to use the wave
terminology,a
that it falls
homogeneous electronic wave, and assume
thin crystal,
on
a very
playing the part of a diffraction
distances
between
stacles
the
grating. The
diffractingobin the crystalare
small
that diffraction for
so
X-rays can be produced. One might expect a similar
can

effect for

electronic

waves

with

the

same

order

of

this
wave-length. A photographic platewould register
diffraction of electronic waves
passingthrough the thin
layer of crystal.Indeed, the experiment produces what
is undoubtedly one
of the
of the great achievements
of diffraction for electronic
theory: the phenomenon
the diffraction of an
The
waves.
similaritybetween
that of an
and
electronic wave
X-ray is particularly
marked
from a comparison of the patterns in
as
seen
Plate III. We
know
that such picturesenable
to
us
holds
the wave-lengthsof X-rays. The same
determine
The
diffraction
good for electronic waves.
pattern
of matter
and the perfect
gives the length of a wave
between
theory and experiment
quantitative
agreement
the chain of our
confirms
splendidly.
argument
and
Our
ened
deepprevious difficultiesare broadened
clear by an example
by this result. This can be made
An
similar to the one
given for a lightwave.
electron shot at a very small hole will bend like a light
the photoon
graphic
wave.
Light and dark rings appear
hope of explaining
plate.There may be some

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

294

the electron
phenomenon by the interaction between
and the rim, though such an explanationdoes not
to be very
seem
promising. But what about the two
is it
instead of rings. How
pinholes? Stripesappear
possiblethat the presence of the other hole completely
changes the effect? The electron is indivisible and can,
of the two
holes.
it would
seem,
pass through only one
electron passing through a hole possibly
How
could
an

this

that another

know

hole has been

made

distance

some

away?
We

an

electron?

is light? Is it a shower

what
We

ask: what

now

of

is matter,

particleor a wave? The

moving in an
particlewhen

Is it

like

behaves

wave?

or

is

before

asked

puscles
cor-

what

electron

external

when
magnetic field. It behaves like a wave
the elementary quanta
of
diffracted by a crystal.With
electric

matter

with

or

we

in the

the

reconcile

wave.
once

It is

advance

of those fundamental

formulated,must
future

of the

lead, in

Physics has
must

by modern

most

decide

the

fundamental
is how

of matter

and

difficulties which,

long

run,

tried to solve this

whether

met

we

in science

contradictoryviews

two

one

progress.
The

recent

that
difficulty

same

One

lightquanta.

questionsraised by
to

the

across

came

the

to

tific
scien-

problem.

solution

physicsis enduring or temporary.

PROBABILITY

WAVES

know
If, according to classical mechanics, we
positionand velocityof a given material point and
what

external

gested
sug-

forces

are

acting,we

can

the
also

predict,from

QUANTA
the mechanical

laws, the whole

295
of its future

path. The
"The
material point has such-and-such
tion
posivelocityat such-and-such an instant,"has a
If this statement
meaning in classical mechanics.

sentence:

and
definite
were

to

lose its sense,

our

argument

(p.32) about

the future path would

fail.
foretelling
In the earlynineteenth
to
century, scientists wanted
reduce
all physicsto simple forces acting on
material
that have definite positions
and velocities at
particles
any

instant.

Let

recall

us

how

we

described

motion

the beginning of our

at
discussingmechanics
journey through the realm of physicalproblems. We
drew
points along a definite path showing the exact
positionsof the body at certain instants and then
showing the direction and magnitude
tangent vectors
both simple and convincing.
of the velocities. This was
be repeatedfor our
But it cannot
elementary quanta of

when

matter,

that is electrons,or

for quanta

of energy,

that

picturethe journey of a photon

electron in the way
we
imagined motion in classical
or
The example of the two pinholesshows this
mechanics.
to pass through the
clearly.Electron and photon seem
holes. It is thus impossibleto explainthe effect by
two
picturingthe path of an electron or a photon in the old
is

photons. We

cannot

classical way.
We

must,

of

assume

course,

actions, such

photons through the

as

the

holes. The

of elementary
presence
passing of electrons or
the

existence of

and energy
cannot
quanta of matter
cannot
the elementary laws certainly

elementary

be doubted.
be formulated

But

by

296

PHYSICS

OF

EVOLUTION

THE

and velocities at any instant in the

specifyingpositions
of classical mechanics.
simple manner
Let
us
us, therefore,try something different. Let
elementary processes. One
continually
repeat the same

other, the electrons

after the

are

in the direction of

sent

pinholes.The word "electron"

sake of definiteness;
our
argument
the

here for the

is used

valid

is also

for

photons.
The

experiment is repeated over

same

exactlythe same
velocityand move
in

way;

and

the electrons all have

in the direction

again

over

of the two

the

same

pinholes.

that this is an
idealized
hardly be mentioned
be carried out in realitybut
experiment which cannot
well be imagined. We
shoot
cannot
out
single
may
like bullets from
photons or electrons at given instants,

It need

gun.

The

repeatedexperimentsmust
lightringsfor one hole and dark

and

dark

for
stripes

the

of

outcome

of

case

result

But

two.
one

there is one

individual

again be
and light

essential difference.

In

electron,the experimental

stood
incomprehensible.It is more
easilyunderwhen
the experiment is repeatedmany
times. We
where many
electrons
can
now
say: lightstripes
appear
fall. The
the place where
darker
at
stripesbecome
electrons are
fewer
falling.A completely dark spot
means

course,

was

that

allowed

through

one

to

of the

are

no

assume

holes.

electrons.
that
If this

the

We

all the
were

difference whether
slightest
But we
covered.
already know

make

is

there

are

not,

of

electrons pass
so, it could

or

that

not

not

the other

covering the

2Q8

THE

the

trace

EVOLUTION

of every

motion

PHYSICS

OF

have

would

particleone

to

by finding the initial states, that is, the

Even
and velocities of all the particles.
initial positions
if this were
it would
than a human
take more
possible,
lifetime to set down
the result on
owing to the
paper,
number
of particles
which
would
have to be
enormous
If one
then tried to employ the known
considered.
of classical mechanics
for calculatingthe final
methods
be
the difficulties would
positionsof the particles,
In principle,
it is possibleto use
the
insurmountable.
method
appliedfor the motion of planets,but in practice
this is useless and must
give way to the method of
ledge
This
method
statistics.
dispenseswith any exact knowcommence

of initial states.

given

any

We
and

moment

its past

about

is of

different nature.
is the

speed of

But

may

ask:

we

between

nothing

and

1000

for

"How

is clear

that

method

of

there

uoo

less able

feet per

only
behave

foretell the
in

some

an

thing
any-

indifferent

What

be

second?"
seek

we

We

some

when

individual

determine

to

aggregation.It
point in a statistical

the system

in

tell
fore-

cannot

we
a

consists of

crowd.

We

that
chance, the probability,

particularmanner.

care

whole

of individuals.
largenumber
By applying the statistical method
of

say

at

gas

reasoningonly

the behaviour

to

become

We

typifyingthe
can

the system

Our problem
particles.
For example : we
do not ask,
particleat this moment?"
every
have a speed
particles
many

individuals.

values

average

less about

thus

future.

or

"What

are

the fate of the individual

to

are

know

If

our

can

it will

statistical

QUANTA

laws tell us

299

that one-third of the

have a speed
particles
between
feet per second, it means
that
and uoo
1000
we
by repeatingour observations for many
particles,
shall really
obtain this average, or in other words, that
the probability
of findinga particlewithin this limit is
equal to one-third.
the birth rate of a great comto know
munity
Similarly,
does not mean
knowing whether any particular
a knowledge of
familyis blessed with a child. It means
statisticalresults in which the contributing
personalities
play no role.
By observingthe registration
platesof a great many
we

cars

can

discover

divisible

are

the

whether

will have

only

soon

car

that

three.

by

which

But

will pass

big aggregations,but

to

we

not

to

next
can

bers
num-

foretell

cannot

in the

Statistical laws

this property.

of their

one-third

moment

be

applied

their individual

members.
We

can

now

return

to

our

quantum

problem.

physics are of a statistical

This means:
character.
not
one
they concern
single
system but an aggregation of identical systems; they
of one
be verified by measurement
cannot
individual,
but only by a series of repeated measurements.
is one
of the many
Radioactive
events
disintegration
for which
physicstries to formulate laws
quantum
The

laws

of quantum

from
governing the spontaneous transmutation
We
to another.
know, for example, that
gram
years half of one
We
half will remain.

of radium
can

will

foretell

one

in

ment
ele1600

and
disintegrate,

approximatelyhow

THE

3OO
atoms

many
but

we

will

cannot

EVOLUTION

PHYSICS

OF

disintegrate
duringthe
say,

even

in

our

next

half-hour,

theoretical

tions,
descrip-

doomed.
are
why just these particularatoms
have
no
According to our
present knowledge, we
condemned
to designatethe individual
atoms
to
power
The fate of an atom
does not depend on
disintegration.
its age. There is not the slightest
of a law governing
trace
their individual
behaviour.
Only statistical laws can
be formulated, laws governing large aggregationsof
atoms.

Take

another

example.

The

luminous

of

gas

some

placed before a spectroscope shows lines of

definite wave-length. The appearance
ous
of a discontinuset of definite wave-lengthsis characteristic of the
atomic
ary
phenomena in which the existence of elementelement

quanta
of this

is revealed.

problem.
others are
distinct,

Some

But

there

of the

fainter. A

is stillanother

spectrum

lines

distinct line

means

are

aspect
very

that

of photons belonging to
comparativelylarge number
this particularwave-length are
emitted; a faint line
of photons
that a comparativelysmall number
means
belonging to this wave-length are emitted. Theory
of a statistical nature
again givesus statements
only.
Every line correspondsto a transition from higher to
the
level. Theory tells us
lower
only about
energy
of each
of these possibletransitions,but
probability
nothing about the actual transition of an individual
The
all these
atom.
theory works splendidlybecause
phenomena involve large aggregationsand not single

individuals.

QUANTA

It

that

seems

somewhat
of

the

theory of matter,

statistical nature

But this is not

physics resembles

quantum

new

the kinetic

3OI

and

both

since both

refer to great aggregations.

! In this analogyan

so

are

understanding

only of the similarities but also of the differences

is most
between
the kinetic
important. The similarity
and quantum
theory of matter
physicslies chieflyin
not

their statistical character.

If
the

wish

we

of twenty

age

citizen

fill up

to

"female

"

''

age

we

form

result of

addresses
view

the

Provided

of

over

get every

headings "male",

every

answer

is correct,

segregatingthem,

The

are

must

women

individual
account.

no

names

and

Our

tical
statis-

is

gained by the knowledge of individual

Similarly,in the kinetic theory of matter, we

cases.

have

statistical laws

governing the aggregation,gained

the basis of individual

But

in quantum

different.

Here

The
of
have

city,we

the forms

on

and

men

under

statistical nature.

the differences?

are

obtain, by counting and

can

on

what

many

live in

' c

and

how

know

to

But

seen

physicsthe

photon
that

of affairs is entirely

state

the statistical laws

individual
a

laws.

or

laws
an

cannot

we

are

are

ately.
given immedi-

discarded.

electron
describe

and
the

In

the

ample
ex-

pinholeswe
possiblemotion

two

of

in space and time as we

did in
elementary particles
classical physics.Quantum physicsabandons
individual
laws of elementary particles
and states directly
the statistical
laws governing aggregations.It is impossible,
on
the

basis of quantum

velocities of

an

and
physics,to describe positions
elementary particleor to predict its

3O2

EVOLUTION

THE

future
deals

OF

PHYSICS

path as in classical physics. Quantum

its laws
and
only with aggregations,

crowds

and

It is hard

not

physics
for

are

for individuals.

or a desire for
speculation
novelty which forces us to change the old classical
view. The
difficulties of applying the old view
have
been outlined for one
instance only,that of diffraction
others, equally convincing,
phenomena. But many
could
be quoted. Changes of view
are
continually
forced upon
us
by our attempts to understand
reality.
But it always remains
for the future to decide whether
chose the onlypossible
not a
we
or
way out and whether

and
necessity

better solution of
We

have

had

forsake the

as

have

had

to

the

chief

introduce

laws of

have

been

of
description

objectivehappenings

cases

are

difficultiescould

our

to

not

characteristics

in

space

individual

and

time;

statisticalnature.
of

found.

modern

we

These

quantum

physics.
Previously,when introducingnew
physicalrealities,
such as the electromagneticand gravitationalfield,
we
tried to indicate in general terms
the characteristic
features of the equations through which
the ideas
have
been
shall now
We
mathematically formulated.
do the same
with quantum
referring
only very
physics,
brieflyto the work of Bohr, de Broglie,Schrodinger,
Heisenberg,Dirac and Born.
Let

us

may

consider

the

be under

the influence

case

of

one

of

electron.
an

The

tron
elec-

arbitraryforeign

field,or free from all external

electromagnetic
for instance,in the field of
It may
move,

influences.
an

atomic

QUANTA

nucleus

it may

or

physicsteaches
equations for
We

diffract
how

us

crystal. Quantum

on

formulate

to

of these

any

303

the mathematical

problems.

have

between
already recognized the similarity
of a drum, a wind
an
oscillating
cord, the membrane
the
instrument, or any other acoustical instrument
on
the other. There
one
is
hand, and a radiatingatom
on
also

between
similarity

some

governing the

the

mathematical

tions
equa-

acoustical

problem and those governing

the problem of quantum
physics.But again the
of the quantities
determined
in
physicalinterpretation
these two
is quite different. The physicalquancases
tities
the oscillating
cord and the radiating
describing
have
atom
quite a different meaning, despite some
formal likeness in the equations.In the case
of the cord,
ask about the deviation of an arbitrarypoint from
we
its normal
positionat an arbitrarymoment.
Knowing
the form of the oscillating
cord at a given instant,we
know
wish. The
deviation
the
from
everything we
normal

thus

can

from

the

cord.

The

be

calculated

mathematical
fact that

for any

equations for

other
the

oscillating

definite deviation

some

moment

from

normal
is

positioncorrespondsto every point of

expressed more
rigorouslyas follows: for
the deviation

of the co-ordinates
form

is

function

from

of the cord.

one-dimensional

to

be

cord.
oscillating

the normal

defined

All

value

calculated

this
from

the cord
any
a

pointsof

continuum, and
in

is

the

stant,
in-

function

the cord
deviation

one-dimensional
the

the

equations of

tinuum,
con-

the

THE

304

EVOLUTION

Analogously, in
function

is determined

any

moment.

wave.

In

to

the

of

case

for any

electron

an

point in

the

certain
and

space

shall call this function

We

for

probability

analogy the probabilitywave

corresponds
the deviation from the normal
tical
positionin the acousstant,
is,at a given inproblem. The probabilitywave
a

our

function

of

whereas, in the

case

given moment,

three-dimensional

function

will enable

us

to

was,

of the one-dimensional

probabilitywave
knowledge of the quantum
and

continuum,

of the cord the deviation

The

our

PHYSICS

OF

forms

the

at

tinuum.
con-

catalogue of
tion
considera-

system under

all sensible statistical

answer

questionsconcerning this system. It does not tell us

of the electron at any moment
the positionand velocity
such
because
in quantum
a
question has no sense
physics. But it will tell us the probabilityof meeting
the electron on a particular
spot, or where we have the
greatest chance of meeting an electron. The result does
refer to one, but to many
not
repeated measurements.
Thus
the
the equationsof quantum
physicsdetermine
wave
probability
justas Maxwell's
equationsdetermine
the electromagneticfield and
the gravitational
equations
the gravitational
determine
laws of
field. The
laws.
the
But
physics are again structure
quantum
meaning of physicalconcepts determined
by these
abstract
more
physicsis much
equations of quantum
of electromagneticand gravitational
than in the case
of
fields;they provide only the mathematical
means
answeringquestionsof a statistical nature.
So

far

we

have

considered

the

electron

in

some

ex-

306

THE

EVOLUTION

action.

Indeed, it

describe

in quantum

is not

OF

PHYSICS

difficult to guess

very

how

to

physicsa system composed of two

We
have to descend
interacting
particles.
one
floor,to
return

for

of two

material

All

as

in the

of

case

in

waves
a

continuum
one

floor,to quantum

one

classical physics.
The

and

not

point.If we
physics,we

six-dimensional

three-dimensional

continuum

three-dimensional

This

shows
abstract
field

clearly that
than

existingand

space. The
the

the

again ascend

now

shall have

continuum
as

and

in the

for three, four, and

particle.Similarly,
the probability
will be functions
waves
of nine, twelve, and more
dimensions.

more

position

is characterize
pointsin space, at any moment,
by six numbers, three for each of the points.
possiblepositionsof the two material pointsform a

six-dimensional
one

to

moment

in

in

not

of

case

more

ability
probone

particles
continuum

the

are
probabilitywaves
and gravitaelectromagnetic
tional
sional
spreading in our three-dimen-

continuum

of many

dimensions

forms

and
background for the probability
only
waves,
for one
of dimensions
particledoes the number
equal
that of physicalspace. The
only physicalsignificance
of the probability
is that it enables us to answer
wave
sensible statistical questionsin the case
of many
ticles
parwell as of one.
as
Thus, for instance,for one
electron we
could ask about the probability
of meeting
electron in some
an
particularspot. For two particles
our
questioncould be: what is the probabilityof meeting
the two
definite spots at a given
at two
particles
instant?

307

QUANTA

Our

first step away

from

classical

doning
physicswas abanthe description
of individual cases
as
objective
in space and time. We
forced to apply the
events
were
statistical method
provided by the probabilitywaves.
Once
having chosen this way, we are obliged to go
further toward
abstraction.
in many
Probabilitywaves
dimensions
corresponding to the many-particle problem

be introduced.

must

Let

us, for the

sake

of

call everythingexcept
briefness,

physics,classical physics. Classical and

physicsdiffer radically.Classical physicsaims
quantum
of objectsexistingin space, and the
at a description
formulation
of laws governing their changes in time.
But the phenomena
revealingthe particleand wave
of matter
and radiation,the apparentlystatistical
nature
such as radioactive discharacter
of elementary events
integrat
emission of spectral
diffraction,
lines,and
others,forced us to give up this view. Quantum
many
physics does not aim at the descriptionof individual
objectsin space and their changes in time. There is no
such as: "This
place in quantum
physicsfor statements
Instead
objectis so-and-so,has this-and-this property.'5
quantum

we

have

such

and

has

of this kind:

that
probability

quantum
time

statements

this-and-this

physics for

of the

individual

"There

is such-and-

the individual

objectis so-and-so
is no
There
place in
property.'5
laws governing the changes in
object. Instead, we have laws

governing the changes in time of the probability.

change, brought into physics
Only this fundamental
theory, made
possiblean adequate
by the quantum

308

THE

explanationof
character

EVOLUTION

the

of events

the

reveal

their existence.

have

still

been

not

only

in the realm

elementaryquanta

new,

PHYSICS

apparently discontinuous

which

Yet

OF

of matter

difficult

more

of

settled
definitely

tical
statis-

phenomena
and

problems
as

and

yet. We

in

radiation

arise which
shall

tion
men-

of these unsolved

problems. Science is
and will never
not
be a closed book.
Every important
advance
bringsnew
questions.Every development reveals,
in the long run, new
and deeper difficulties.
We
that in the simple case
of one
already know
or
rise from the classical to the
particleswe can
many
from the objectivedescription
of
quantum
description,
some

in space
remember
the
events

and

time

probabilitywaves.
all-importantfield concept in
to

But

we

classical

describe
interaction
between
physics. How
can
we
elementaryquanta of matter and field? If a probability
in thirtydimensions
is needed
wave
for the quantum
descriptionof ten particles,then a probabilitywave
with

an

for the
from

infinite number

quantum

of dimensions

descriptionof

would

be needed

field. The

transition

the

classical field concept to the corresponding

in quantum
problem of probabilitywaves
physicsis a
floor is here no
very difficult step. Ascending one
easy

task and

be

all

attempts

regarded

so

far made

to

solve the

problem

There
is also one
unsatisfactory.
other fundamental
problem. In all our arguments about
the transition from classical physicsto quantum
physics
used the old pre-relativistic
we
descriptionin which
If,however, we
space and time are treated differently.
must

as

QUANTA

309

begin from the classical descriptionas proposed

by the relativity
theory, then our ascent to the quantum
much
more
problem seems
complicated.This is
try

to

another

problem tackled by modern

physics,but still
far from a complete and satisfactory
is
solution. There
stilla further difficulty
in forming a consistent physics
for heavy particles,
the nuclei. In spiteof
constituting
the many
experimental data and the many
attempts to
throw lighton the nuclear problem, we
stillin the
are
dark

about

of the

some

most

questionsin

fundamental

this domain.

There

is

rich

very

doubt

no

varietyof facts,achieving,for

splendid agreement

between

The

physics removes

quantum

new

from

the

former

old

there is also

no

be

the

on

in this sense,

old

of

problem
even

Will
chosen
new

one

the
in

more

doubt
two

concepts:

further

quantum

nearer

often done

to

the

unlikely.But
physicsmust still

ever,

matter

and
not

the

field.

It

is,

bring our
field

cept
con-

realization.

development
physics,or is

in the

part,

still further
retreat

theory and does

reducing everythingto

step

most

observation.

and

dualistic

revolutionaryideas

so

than

the

us

that quantum

Will the road of advance

has

theory

view, and

mechanical

positionseems,

based

physicsexplaineda

that quantum

be

along the

line

likelythat
into physics?
will be introduced
again make a sharp turn, as it
past?
it

more

During the last few years all the difficultiesof quantum

few
around
a
physics have been concentrated
principalpoints. Physics awaits their solution impa-

3IO

THE

tiently.But
where

there

is

OF

no

way

are

from

the

when
foreseeing

and

difficulties will

be

about.

PHYSICS

What

of

PHYSICS

clarification of these

the

brought

EVOLUTION

the

AND

REALITY

general conclusions

which

be drawn

can

development of physicsindicated here in

outline representing
only the most fundamental

broad

ideas?
Science

is not

unrelated
with

its

theories

justa

facts.

It is

freelyinvented
try

form

to

its connection
Thus

the

is whether

form

such

creation
ideas

laws, a catalogueof
of the human
mind,

and

Physical

concepts.

pictureof realityand

with

structures

We

collection of

the

wide

world

for
only justification
and

in

what

way

of

lish
estab-

to
sense

our
our

pression
im-

mental

theories

link.

have

seen

realities created

new

by

the advance

of

be traced
physics. But this chain of creation can
far beyond the startingpoint of physics. One
back
of the most
primitiveconcepts is that of an object.
The
concepts of a tree, a horse,any material body, are
creations gained on the basis of experience,
though the
impressionsfrom which
they arise are primitive in
comparison with the world of physical phenomena.
A cat teasing
also creates, by thought,its own
a mouse
The fact that the cat reacts
in a similar
primitivereality.
way

toward

any

concepts and
own

world

of

mouse

it meets

theories which
sense

are

shows
its

impressions.

that

it forms

guide through

its

QUANTA
"

Three

trees"

trees".

Again

stones".

The

freed

from

creations

is

311

different

from

"two

is different

from

"two

something

"two

trees"

concepts of the pure

the

of

numbers

2, 3, 4,

objectsfrom which
they arose,
describe
which
thinking mind

the

are

the

realityof our world.

The psychological
subjective
feelingof time enables
to order
us
event
our
impressions,to state that one
precedes another. But to connect
every instant of time
with a number, by the use of a clock,to regard time as
a

one-dimensional

So

also

are

the

geometry,
dimensional

continuum, is already an
concepts of Euclidean
and

our

understood

space

dean
non-Euclia

three-

of

mass,

as

continuum.

Physics reallybegan with

force, and an inertial system.

the

free inventions.

the

mechanical

and

invention.

They
point of

led

to

These

difficulties connected

ether,induced

For

concepts

formulation

are

all

of the

the

physicistof the
outer
early nineteenth
century, the realityof our
world
consisted of particles
with simple forces acting
and depending only on the distance. He
them
between
tried to retain as long as possiblehis belief that he
succeed
in explaining all events
would
in nature
by
The
difficulties
these fundamental
concepts of reality.
connected
with the deflection of the magnetic needle,
the

view.

invention

with

the

structure

subtle

of

the

The
reality.
important invention of the electromagneticfield appears.
scientific imagination was
needed
A courageous
the behaviour
of bodies, but
to realize fullythat not
us

to

create

more

312

THE

EVOLUTION

the behaviour

field,may

PHYSICS

OF

of

something between them, that is,the

essential for ordering and understanding

be

events.

Later
and

developments

created

co-ordinate

new

theory.The
the

time
but

continuum, another

and

the

old

and

was

inertial

relativity
no
longer

three-dimensional

the four-dimensional

free

concepts

the

the

by

for all events

background

continuum,

time

abandoned

were

one-dimensional

space

destroyed

Absolute

ones.

system

both

invention,with

time-space
new

mation
transfor-

The inertial co-ordinate

properties.
system was
no
longer needed.
Every co-ordinate system is equally
in nature.
of events
suited for the description
The
and essential
theory again created new
quantum
features of our
tinuity.
reality.Discontinuityreplaced conInstead of laws governing individuals, probability
laws appeared.
The reality
created by modern
physicsis,indeed, far
removed

from

the

of the early days. But the

reality
of every physicaltheory still remains
the same.
With the help of physicaltheories we
try to find
of observed
facts,to order
through the maze
way
understand

the

world

of

aim

our

and

impressions.We
facts to follow logically
from
the observed
want
our
Without
the belief that it is possible
concept of reality.
with our
theoretical constructions,
to grasp the reality
without
the belief in the inner harmony of our
world,
there could

be

remain

fundamental

the

no

Throughout

our

science. This

all

motive
our

sense

belief is and

always will

for all scientific

efforts,in every

tion.
crea-

dramatic

INDEX

Absolute

180,

motion,

Aristotle, 6
Black,

39,

40,

Bohr,

283,

Born,

302

of

light,

of

X-rays,

Dipole

51

302

Dirac,

63"67

movement,

43

Change

in

Dispersion,

velocity,

Electric

18, 23-

10,

28

Classical

transformation,

Conductors,

motion,

one-dimensional,

210

two-dimensional,

three-dimensional,
four-dimensional,

current,

88

Co-ordinate

system,

212

68

163

100,

wave,

Electrons,

268

292

71
:

dipoles, 85

magnetic

particles, 206

86

79,

154

Electronic

Elementary
275

light, 157

Electroscope,

224

light, 99,

of

wave,

162,

161, 223,
of

experiments,

264

quantum,

44-45

of

Elements

Crystal, 285

Energy

163

battery,

49,

50

level, 282

88

mechanical,
de

Broglie, 287,

Diffraction

290,

potential,

302

Ether,

56

Democritus,

172,

of electronic

88

kinetic,

88

induced,

74

151

theory

1 1

point,

of

Current,

80-82

field,

219

Co-ordinate

Coulomb,

charge,

Electromagnetic

Copernicus,

216

substances,

49

Corpuscles

117

102,

picture of motion,

potential, 80-82

of the

Continuum

Crucial

171

74

Constant

G.S.,

85

302

Dynamic
Caloric,

9
286

magnetic,

Brownian

24,

1 1

electric, 84

63, 64

Brown,

(continued)

Diffraction

224

wave,

184

293

317

112,

175,

51

50

49,
115,

120,

176,

123-126,
179,

80-

3i8

INDEX

Faraday,
Field, 131

representation,
131

inertia,8, 160

of

motion, 31
in

Light, bending

of, 149, 152

gravitational

field,234, 252

Fizeau, 96
of reference, 1 63
Frame
Fresnel, 118
Force, u, 19, 24, 28

homogeneous,
quanta,

103

275

substance, 102-104
white, 101
Lorentz
transformation, 198-

lines,130

56

matter,

of

Leibnitz, 25

static,141
structure

gravitation,
30

of

Law

129, 142

202

165
relativity
principle,
Galileo, 5, 7, 8, 9, 39, 56, 94,

Galilean

95,96
Galvani, 88
Generalization, 20
General
36,
relativity,
Gravitational

230

electron, 270

of

hydrogen

one

atom,

hydrogen

one

266

molecule,

67, 265
Matter

energy,

54

field,256
Maxwell, 129

Heat, 38, 41, 42

capacity, 41

equations,148,

Maxwell's

50-55

energy,

208

energy,
of one

of

224

36,227,

mass,

Mass, 34

specific,
41

153

150,

substance, 42, 43

Mayer,

149,

51

Heisenberg, 302

Mechanical

Helmholtz, 58, 59
Hertz, 129, 156
in
Huygens, no,

Mechanical

equivalentof heat,

54

120,

view, 59, 87, 92,

124,

157

Mercury, 253
Induced

current,

142

36, 227, 230

system, 166, 220, 221
system, local,228, 229
Insulators,71, 74
Invariant, 170

Inertial mass,

Metric

246
properties,

Michelson, 97, 183

Molecules, 59

of, 66
Morley, 183
number

Newton,

Joule, 51,

52, 53

5,

8, 9, 25, 79, 92,

101

Nodes, 288
Kinetic

theory, 59-67

Nuclear

physics,272

100,

INDEX

Spectroscope,281
Spectrum, visible,
102, 284
Static pictureof motion, 216
Statistics,
298
Synchronized clocks,190, 191

Nucleus, 271

Oersted,go,

91

effect,
273

Photoelectric

319

Photons, 275

Temperature, 38-40
Test body, 130
Thomson, J.J.,268
Tourmaline
crystal,121
Transformation
laws, 169

284
ultraviolet,
Planck, 275
Pole,magnetic,83
1 1
Principia,
Probability,298
wave,

Two

304

Ptolemy,

Sciences 10, 94
,

New

223, 224

Uniform
Radioactive

disintegration,
299
Vectors, 12-19

matter, 206
Radium, 206
Rate

Velocity

of

exchange, 52
motion, 12
propagation of light,97,

99,

Reflection of

uniform

Rest

mass,

light,
97

vector,

21

Wave, 104
length,1 06, 117
108, 121
longitudinal,
plane, no

spherical,
109
288
standing,
theory of light,no

205

Roemer, 96
Rowland, 92
Rumford, 45, 47,
Rutherford, 272

155

116

motion, 180

186
Relativity,
general,36, 224
special,
224

electromagnetic

Volta, 88, 89
Voltaic battery,88

120

light,
99
Refraction,98, 99, 115,

of

wave,

of

Rectilinear

Relative

motion, 9

51

transverse, 108,

121

velocity,106

Weightless substances,
Schrodinger,287, 302
Sodium, 103
Solenoid,136
Specialrelativity,
224
Spectrallines,280

79

X-rays, 284-286

Young,

118

43,

CAMBRIDGE

W.

AT

THE

LEWIS,

UNIVERSITY

PRINTED

BY

M.A.

PRESS