11

Drive Mechanisms

CONTENTS
1 DEFINITION
2 NATURAL DRIVE MECHANISM TYPE
2.1 Depletion Drive Reservoirs
2.2 Water Drive
2.3 Compaction Drive
2.4 Gravity Drainage
2.5 Depletion Type Reservoirs
2.5.1 Solution Gas Drive
2.5.2 Gas Cap Drive
2.6 Water Drive Reservoirs
2.7 Combination Drives
3 RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT
DRIVE SYSTEMS
3.1 Solution Gas Drive
3.1.1 Solution Gas Drive, Oil Production
3.1.2 Solution Gas Drive, Gas / Oil Ratio
3.1.3 Pressure
3.1.4 Water Production, Well Behaviour, Expected
Oil Recovery and Well Location
3.2 Gas Cap Drive
3.2.1 Oil Production
3.2.2 Pressure
3.2.3 Gas / Oil Ratio
3.2.4 Water Production, Well Behaviour, Expected
Oil Recovery and Well Locations
3.3 Water Drive
3.3.1 Rate Sensitity
3.3.2 Water Production, Oil Recovery
3.3.3 History Matching Aquifer Characteristics
3.3.4 Well Locations
4 SUMMARY
4.1 Pressure and Recovery
4.2 Gas / Oil Ratio

1
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
Having worked through this chapter the Student will be able to:

Define reservoir drive mechanism.

Describe briefly with the aid of sketches a depletion drive reservoir.

Describe briefly with the aid of sketches a water drive reservoir.

Describe briefly with the aid a sketches a gravity drainage.

Describe briefly with the aid of sketches solution gas drive distinguishing
behaviour both above and below the bubble point.

Describe briefly with the aid of sketches gas cap drive .

Describe briefly with the aid of sketches the reservoir performance characteristics
of a solution gas drive reservoir.

Describe briefly with the aid of sketches the reservoir performance characteristics
of a gas drive reservoir.

Describe briefly with the aid of sketches the reservoir performance characteristics
of water drive reservoir.

Describe briefly with the aid of sketches the rate sensitivity aspect of water
drive reservoir.

Summarise the characteristics of solution gas drive, gas cap drive and water
drive reservoirs.

11

Drive Mechanisms

RESERVOIR DRIVE MECHANISMS

In the previous chapters we have considered the physical properties of the porous
media, the rock, within which the reservoir fluids are contained and the properties and
behaviour of the fluids. In this chapter we shall examine the various methods used to
calculate the performance of different reservoir types, we will introdunce the various
drive mechanisms responsible for production of fluids from a hydrocarbon reservoir.
In this qualitative description of the way in which reservoirs produce their fluids we
will see how the various basic concepts come together to give understanding to the
various driving forces responsible for fluid production. One of the main preoccupations of reservoir engineers is to determine the predominant drive mechanism, for
dependant on the drive mechanism different recoveries of oil can be achieved.
As well as presenting natural drive mechanisms we will also review various artificial
drive mechanisms.

1 DEFINITION
A reservoir drive mechanism is a source of energy for driving the fluids out through
the wellbore. It is not necessarily the energy lifting the fluids to the surface, although
in many cases, the same energy is capable of lifting the fluids to the surface.

2 NATURAL DRIVE MECHANISM TYPES

There are a number of drive mechanisms, but the two main drive mechanisms are
depletion drive and water drive. Other drive mechanisms to be considered are
compaction drive and gravity drive. These drive mechanisms are natural drive
energies and are not to be confused with artificial drive energies such as gas injection
and water injection.

2.1 Depletion Drive Reservoirs

A depletion type reservoir is a reservoir in which the hydrocarbons contained are NOT
in contact with a large body of permeable water bearing sand. In a depletion type
reservoir the reservoir is virtually totally enclosed by porous media and the only
energy comes from the reservoir system itself. Figures 1 and 2 illustrate the types of
accumulations which can give rise to depletion drive characteristics.
In figure 1 the hydrocarbons are enclosed in isolated sand lenses which have been
generated by a particular depositional environment. Over geological time the hydrocarbons have found their way into the porous media. The surrounding rocks may have
permeability but it is so low as to prevent energy transfer from other sources.
In figure 2 is illustrated another depletion type reservoir where a mature reservoir has
been subjected to faulting, resulting in the isolation of a part of the reservoir from the
rest of the accumulation. In a total field system, such a situation can give rise to parts
of the reservoir having different drive mechanism characteristics.
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Gas
Oil
Water

Gas
Oil
Water

Figure 1
Depletion reservoir:
No aquifer. Isolated sand
lenses

Figure 2
Depletion reservoir:
Aquifer limited by faults

11

Drive Mechanisms

2.2 Water Drive

Gas
Oil
Water

Figure 3
Water drive:
Active aquifer

A water drive reservoir is one in which the hydrocarbons are in contact with a large
volume of water bearing sand. There are two types of water drive reservoirs. There
are those where the driving energy comes primarily from the expansion of water as
the reservoir is produced, as shown in figure 3 The key issue here is the relative size
and mobility of the water of the supporting aquifer relative to the size of the
hydrocarbon accumulation.
Water drive may also be a result of artesian flow from an outcrop of the reservoir
formation, figure 4. In this situation either surface water or seawater feeds into the
outcrop and replenishes the water as it moves into the reservoir to replace the oil. The
key issues here are the mobility of the water in the aquifer and barriers to flow from
the outcrop to the reservoir. It is not often encountered, and the water drive arising
from the compressibility of an aquifer, figure 3, is the more common.

Outcrop
of sand

Oil well

Figure 4
Reservoir having artesian
water drive.

Water flow

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

1
2.3 Compaction Drive
Figure 5 illustrates another drive mechanism, compaction drive. Although not a
common drive energy, the characteristics of its occurance can be dramatic. Compaction
drive occurs when the hydrocarbon formation is compacted as a result of the increase
in the net overburden stress as the reservoir pore pressure is reduced during prodcution.
The nature of the rock or its degree of consolidation can give rise to the mechanism.
For example a shallow sand deposit which has not reached its minimum porosity level
due to consolidation can consolidate further as the net overburden stresses increase as
fluids are withdrawn. The impact of the further consolidation can give rise to
subsidence at the surface. This phenomena of compaction with increasing net
overburden stress is not restricted to unconsolidated sands, since chalk also demonstrates
this phenomena. One of the spectacular occurances of compaction drive is that
associated with the Ekofisk Field, in the Norwegan sector of the North Sea. This is a
very undersaturated chalk reservoir. The field was developed on the basis of using
depletion drive down to near the bubble point and then to inject sea water to maintain
pressure above the bubble point. During this period of considerable pressure decline,
the net overburden stress was increasing, causing the formation to compact to an
extent that subsidence occurred at the seabed. In an offshore environment such
uniform subsidence can go undetected, as was the case for Ekofisk. The magnitude of
the subsidence has been such that major jacking up of the structures has been required.

Old land
surface
New land
surface

Oil

Figure 5
Compaction drive

2.4 Gravity Drainage

Gravitational segregation or gravity drainage can be considered as a drive mechanism. Figure 6 illustrates a situation where the natural density segregation of the
phases can be responsible for moving the fluids to the well bore. Gravity drainage is
where the relative density forces associated with the fluids cause the fluids, the oil, to
drain down towards the production well. The tendency for the gas to migrate up and
the oil to drain down clearly will be influenced by the rate of flow of the fluids as
indicated by their relative permeabilities. Gravity drainage is generally associated
6

11

Drive Mechanisms

with the later stages of drive for reservoirs where other drive mechanisms have been
the more dominant energy in earlier years. Gravity drainage can be significant and
effective in steeply dipping reservoirs which are fractured.
Of the drive mechanisms mentioned the major drive mechanisms are depletion drive,
which are further classified into solution gas drive and gas cap drive and water drive.
Gravity Drive typically is active during the final stages of a depletion reservoir.
Closed in

1000

Initial
GOC
Present
GOC
WC
Gas
Oil
Water

Figure 6
Gravity drive

Inactive aquifer

2.5. Depletion Type Reservoirs

In depletion drive reservoirs the energy comes from the expansion of the fluids in the
reservoir and its associated pore space. There are two types of depletion drive
reservoirs, solution gas drive reservoirs and gas cap drive reservoirs. In solution gas
drive reservoirs there are two stages of drive mechanism where different energies are
responsible for fluid production.
2.5.1. Solution Gas Drive
In solution gas drive reservoirs the initial condition is where the reservoir is
undersaturated, i.e. above the bubble point. Production of fluids down to the bubble
point is as a result of the effective compressibility of the system. When considering
pressure volume phase behaviour, in the chapter on phase behaviour, we observed a
small increase in volume of the oil for large reductions in pressure, for oil in the
undersaturated state. Associated connate water also has a compressibility as has the
pore space within which the fluids are contained. This combined compressibility
provides the drive mechanism for depletion drive above the bubble point. Perhaps this
part of the depletion drive should be called compressibility drive. The low
compressibility causes rapid pressure decline in this period and resulting low
recovery. Of the three compressibilities, although it is the oil compressibility which
is the larger, the impact of the other compressibility components, the water and the
pores, should not be neglected.
As pressure is reduced, oil expands due to compressibility and eventually gas comes
out of solution from the oil as the bubble point pressure of the fluid is reached. The
expanding gas provides the force to drive the oil hence the term solution gas drive.
It is sometimes called dissolved gas drive (Figure 7). Gas has a high compressibility
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

1
compared to liquid and therefore the pressure decline is reduced. Solution gas drive
only occurs once the bubble point pressure has been reached.

Initially no gas cap

and Oil above Pb

Figure 7
Solution gas drive reservoir

2.5.2. Gas Cap Drive

Another kind of depletion type is where there is already free gas in the reservoir,
accumulated at the top of the reservoir in the form of a gas cap (Figure 8), as compared
to the undersaturated initial condition for the previous solution gas drive reservoir.
This gas cap drive reservoir, as it is termed, receives its energy from the high
compressibility of the gas cap. Since there is a gas cap then the bottom hole pressure
will not be too far away from the bubble point pressure and therefore solution gas drive
could also be occurring. The gas cap provides the major source of energy but there
is also the expansion of oil and its dissolved gas and the gas coming out of solution.
The oil expansion term is very low and is within the errors in calculating the two main
energy sources. The two significant sources of driving energy are ;
(1)

Gas cap expansion

(2)

Expansion of gas coming out of solution

Gas cap present initially
Oil at interface is at Pb

Gas cap

Oil

Oil may be above Pb

With production - Gas cap expansion
Solution gas liberation

Figure 8
Gas cap drive reservoir

11

Drive Mechanisms

2.6 Water Drive Reservoirs

Water drive reservoirs are also of two types. There is an edge water drive reservoir.
The reservoir is thin enough so that the water is in contact with the hydrocarbons at
the edge of the reservoir (Figure 9). The other type of water drive reservoir is the
bottom-water-drive reservoir; where the reservoir is so thick or the accumulation so
thin that the hydrocarbons are completely underlain by water (Figure 10).

Edge water

Figure 9
Edge water drive reservoir

Bottom water

Water coning

Figure 10
Bottom water drive
reservoir

2.7 Combination Drives

Pure types of reservoirs are those reservoirs where only one drive system operates,
for example, depletion drive only - no water drive or water drive only - no gas drive.
It is rare for reservoirs to fit conveniently into this simple characterisation. In many
of them a combination of drive mechanisms can be activate during the production of
fluids. Such reservoirs are called combination drives (Figure 11). In the case in figure
11, which is not unusual, we have a gas cap with the oil accumulation underlain by
water providing potential water drive. So both free gas and water are in contact with
the oil. In such a reservoir some of the energy will come from the expansion of the
gas and some from the energy within the massive supporting aquifer and its associated
compressibility.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

Gas Cap

Oil zone
Water

Original condition

Water

Gas Cap

Oil zone
Water

50 % Depleted

Water

Sometimes it may be only water drive in the above situations. If the hydrocarbons are
taken out at a rate such that for every volume of oil removed water readily moves in
to replace the oil, then the reservoir is driven completely by water. On the other hand
there may be only depletion drive. If the water does not move in to replace the oil, then
only the gas cap would expand to provide the drive.

3 RESERVOIR PERFORMANCE OF DIFFERENT DRIVE SYSTEMS

Having considered the basic aspects of the drive types we will now examine their
respective characteristics in relation to production, recovery and pressure decline
issues.
The performance of different types of reservoirs in relation to the daily production,
gas/oil ratio and water production can give some indication of the type of drive
mechanism operative in the reservoir.

3.1 Solution Gas Drive

In the first part of solution gas drive, in what we termed compressibility drive, within
the reservoir no production of gas occurs and the fluid moves as a result of
decompression of the three components oil, water and pore space. The pressure
reduction is rapid in relation to volumes produced. The gas to oil ratio produced at the
surface is constant since the reservoir at this stage is above its bubble point pressure.
Once the bubble point is reached gas comes out of solution. Initially the gas bubbles
are small and isolated. The size and number of the bubbles increase until they reach
a critical saturation when they form a continuous phase and become mobile. At this
stage the gas has relative permeability. The impact of the first bubbles of gas on the
oil is very significant. The relative permeability to the oil is reduced by the presence
of the non wetting gas. (See gas-oil relative permeabilties in chapter 7. Figure 44) As
the increase in saturation of gas increases at the expense of oil saturation, the relative
10

Figure 11
Combination water and gas
- cap drive

11

Drive Mechanisms

permeabilties move in the same directions giving rise to reduced well productivity to
oil and increased productivity to gas, figure 12. That is the oil relative permeability
decreases and the gas relative permeability increases. The gas although providing the
displacing medium is effectively leaking out of the system. Not only does the gas
progress to the wellbore, depending on vertical permeability characteristics it will
move vertically and may form a secondary gas cap. If this occurs it can contribute to
the drive energy. Well location and rate of production can be used to encourage gas
to migrate to form such a gas cap as against being lost through production from the
wellbore.
Vertical gas
migration

<

Rs Rsi

Figure 12
Schematic of solution gas
drive.

Gas relative permeability

<

Rs Rsi

<

Rs Rsi

Oil relative permeability

We will now review the various production profiles, specific to the drive mechanisms
but before doing so we will review the various phases of production.

Production

Plateau phase

Figure 13
Phases in production.

Decline phase
Production
build up
Abandonment

0
Time

Production Phases (figure 13)

The first phase, production build up, which may exist or not depending on the drilling
strategy is the increased production as wells are brought on stream. Clearly, as in some
cases, wells might be predrilled through a template and then all brought on stream
together when connected to production facilities, such a build up of production will,
therefore, not occur.
The next stage represents the period when the productivity of the production facility
is at its design capacity and the wells are throttled back to limit their productivity. This
period is called the plateau phase when production is maintained at the design
capacity of the facilities. Typical production rates for the plateau period cannot be
presented since it depends on the techno-economics of the field. Clearly for a field
with a very large front loaded capital investment there is an incentive to have a high
production rate during the plateau phase , say 20% of the STOIIP, whereas for a lower
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

11

1
cost onshore field 5% might be acceptable. Governments will also impose their
considerations on this aspect as well.
A time will come when the reservoir is no longer able to deliver fluids to match the
facilities capacity and the field goes into the decline phase. This phase can be delayed
by methods to increase production. Such methods could include artificial lift, where
the effort required to lift the fluids from the reservoir is carried out by a downhole
pump or by using gas lift to reduce the density of the fluid system in the well.
There comes a time when the productivity of the reservoir is no longer able to generate
revenues to cover the costs of running the field, This abandonment time again is
influenced by the size and nature of the operation. Clearly a single, stripper well,
carrying very little operational costs, can be allowed to produce down to very low
rates. A well, as part of a very high cost offshore environment however, could be
abandoned at a relatively high rate when perhaps the water proportion becomes too
high or the productivity in relation to all production is not sufficient to meet the
associated well and production costs.
We will now review the performance characteristics of the various mechanisms in
light of the forgoing production phases.

3.1.1 Solution Gas Drive, Oil Production ( Figure 14 )

After a well is drilled and production starts for a solution gas drive reservoir, the
pressure drops in the vicinity of the well. The initially pressure drop is rapid as flow
results from the low compressibility of the system above the bubble point. Pressure
continues to decline and solution gas drive becomes effective as gas comes out of
solution. Mobility of gas occurs and the reduced mobility to oil and resulting
decreasing oil relative permeabilty further causes the pressure to decline and productivity to oil flow decrease. Initially when all wells are on stream the oil production is
high but the production rapidly declines and there is a short plateau and decline phase
until an economic limit is reached.

Reservoir
Pressure

Oil
G.O.R Prod

Oil
Prod

G.O.R

Reservoir
Pressure

Time-Year

12

Figure 14
Production for solution gas
drive

11

Drive Mechanisms

A good analogy for this type of reservoir is the champagne bottle opened by a
champion to spray the contents over enthusiastic supporters - a short lived high
production senario followed by rapid decline!

3.1.2 Solution Gas Drive, Gas/Oil Ratio

The distinctive characteristic of the solution gas drive mechanism is related to the
producing gas to oil ratio. When the reservoir is first produced the GOR being
produced may be low corresponding to the RSi value of the reservoir liquid. If the
reservoir is highly undersaturated there will be a period when a constant producing
GOR occurs 1-2 in figure 15.
When the bubble point is reached in the near well vicinity, the initial gas which comes
out of solution is immobile and therefore oil entering the wellbore is short of the
previous level of solution gas. Theoretically at the surface the producing GOR level
is less than the original GOR 2-3 in figure 15.
As the pressure further reduces the released gas becomes mobile and moves at a
velocity greater than its associated oil due to the relative permeability effects. Oil
enters the well bore, with its below bubble point solution GOR value, but also gas
enters the well bore from oil which has not yet arrived. The net effect is that at the
surface the producing GOR increases rapidly as free gas within the reservoir, which
has come out of solution, moves ahead of the oil 3-4 in figure 15.

Figure 15
Producing GOR for
solution gas drive reservoir

Producing GOR.

As the pressure continues to decline the productivity of the well continues to decline
from the combined impact of reducing relative permeability and drop in bottom hole
pressure. The production GOR goes though a maximum as oil eventually is produced
into the well bore with a low solution GOR and the associated gas which has come out
of solution has progressed much faster to the well and contributed to earlier gas
production 4-5 in figure 15.

GOR constant
above bubble
point pressure

Rsi
1

Pb
Pressure

When the pressure drops below the bubble point throughout the reservoir a secondary
gas cap may be produced and some wells have the potential of becoming gas
producers.

3.1.3 Pressure
At first the pressure is high but as production continues the pressure makes a rapid
decline.
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

13

1
3.1.4 Water Production, Well Behaviour , Expected Oil Recovery and Well Location
Since by definition there is little water present in the reservoir there should be no water
production to speak of. Because of the rapid pressure drop artificial lift will be
required at an early stage in the life of the reservoir. The expected oil recovery from
these types of reservoirs is low and could be between 5 and 30% of the original oilin-place. Abandonment of the reservoir will depend on the level of the GOR and the
lack of reservoir pressure to enable production. Well locations for this drive mechanism are chosen to encourage vertical migration of the gas, therefore the wells
producing zones are located structurally low, but not too close to any water contact
which might generate water through water coning. Figure16
Secondary
gas cap

Oil water contact

Figure 16
Well location for solution
gas drive reservoir.

3.2 Gas Cap Drive

Whereas for a solution gas drive reservoir where we have a reservoir initially in an
undersaturated state, for a gas cap drive reservoir, figure 7, the initial condition is a
reservoir with a gas cap. Since the gas oil contact will be at the bubble point pressure
the pressures within the oil accumulation will not be higher than this only so far as
relates to the density gradient of the fluid. It is the gas cap, with its considerable
compressibility, which provides the drive energy for such fields, hence the name. To
get flow in the wells it is likely that gas will come out of solution in the near well bore
vicinity and therefore some degree of solution gas drive will also take place. A good
analogy for this type of reservoir is the plastic chemical dispenser fitted with a pump
to maintain gas pressure above the dispensed liquid.

Gas Cap

Water

Oil zone
Original condition

Water

Gas Cap

Oil zone
Water

14

50 % Depleted

Water

Figure 17
Gas-cap drive

11

Drive Mechanisms

3.2.1 Oil Production

The producing characteristics for a gas cap drive reservoir are illustrated in Figure 18.
Although the production may be high as in the solution gas drive, the oil production
still has a significant decline but not as rapid as for solution gas drive. This decline
in oil production is due to the reducing pressure in the reservoir but also from the
impact of solution gas drive on the relative permeability around the well bore. If the
well is allowed to produce at too fast a rate, the very favorable mobility characteristics
of the gas, arising from its low viscosity compared to the oil, are such that preferential
flow can cause gas breakthrough into the wells and the well is then lost to oil
production. Indeed it is this condition which will determine well abandonment.

3.2.2 Pressure

500

Pressure

G.O.R

Oil Prod (1000)

With an associated gas cap a loss of volume of fluids from the reservoir is associated
with a relatively low drop in pressure because of the high compressibility of the gas.
In solution gas drive much of the driving gas is produced, but with a gas cap the fluid
remains till later in the life of the reservoir. The pressure drop for a gas cap system
therefore declines slowly over the years. The decline will depend on the relative size
of the gas cap to the oil accumulation. A small gas cap would be 10% of the oil volume
whereas a large gas cap would be 50% of the volume.

5000

10
Gas Break
through

Pressure

Oil
Prod
Rate

250

2500

G.O.R

BSW %
20
10

Figure 18
Reservoir performance gas
- cap drive.

0
0

Time-Year

3.2.3 Gas/Oil Ratio

During the early stages of replacement of oil by gas a 100% replacement takes place.
Later on gas by-passes oil and a reduced displacement efficiency. In the early stages
the GOR remains relatively steady increasing slowly as the impact of solution gas
drive generates gas from oil still to reach the well bore. The increasing mobility of
the gas is such that there is an increasing GOR both from dissolved gas and by-pass
gas and eventually the well goes to gas as the gas cap breaks through.
Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

15

1
3.2.4 Water Production, Well Behaviour, Expected Oil Recovery and Well
Locations
Like solution gas drive there should be negligible water production. The life of the
reservoir is largely a function of the size of gas cap but it is likely to be a long flowing
life. The expected oil recovery for such a system is of the order of 20 to 40% of the
original oil-in-place. The well locations, similar to solution gas drive, are such that
the production interval for the wells should be situated away from the gas oil contact
but not too close to the water oil contact to risk water coning.

3.3 Water Drive

The majority of water drive reservoirs predominantly get their drive energy from the
compressibility of the aquifer system. The effectiveness of water drive depends on the
ability of the aquifer to replace the volume of the produced oil. The key issues with
a water drive reservoir are therefore the size of the aquifer and permeability. This is
because the only way for a low compressibility system to be effective is for its relative
size to the oil accumulation to be large, and the permeability of the aquifer to water
to enable flow though the aquifer and into the oil zone. These key issues set a
considerable challenge to the reservoir engineer since to predict water drive behaviour,
requires such information, which in pre production periods can only be obtained from
exploration activity to determine the extent and properties of the aquifer. It is difficult
to obtain justification to expend such exploration costs in determining the size of a
water accumulation!

3.3.1. Rate Sensitivity.

The characteristic features of natural water drive reservoirs are strongly influenced by
the rate sensitivity of these reservoirs. If oil production from the formation is greater
than the replacement flow of the aquifer then the reservoir pressure will drop and
another drive mechanism will contribute to flow, for example solution gas drive.
Three sketches below illustrate the various types of production profiles for different
aquifer types and the influence of rate sensitivity. In figure 19 we have the artesian
type aquifer where there is communication to surface water though an outcrop. In this
case if oil is produced at a rate less than the aquifer can move water into the oil zone,
then the reservoir pressure, as measured at the original oil water contact, remains
constant. The producing gas-oil ratio also remains constant since the reservoir is
undersaturated. These reservoirs will enable a plateau phase, however as in all water
drive reservoirs the decline of the reservoirs is not due to productivity loss through
pressure decline but the production of water. The encroaching aquifer with perhaps its
favourable mobility will preferentially move through the oil zone and if there are high
permeability layers will move through these. Eventually the water-cut, the proportion
of water to total production becomes too high and the well is abandoned to oil
production.

16

11

Drive Mechanisms

Outcrop
of sand

Oil well

Water flow

Reservoir pressure

Pi

Oil production rate

Production
GOR

Rsi

Water production

Figure 19
Producing characteristics
for artesian water drive.

Time

Figure 20 illustrates a more typical water drive reservoir where the drive energy comes
from the compressibility of the aquifer system. In this case if the oil withdrawal rate
is less then the rate of water encroachment from the aquifer then the reservoir pressure
will slowly decline, reflecting the decompression of the total system , the oil reservoir
and the aquifer. Clearly this pressure decline is related to the size of the aquifer. The
larger the aquifer the slower the pressure decline. As with all water drive reservoirs
productivity of the wells remains high resulting from the maintained pressure,
however the productivity of the well to oil reduces as water breakthrough occurs. So
a characteristic of water drive reservoirs is the increasing water production alongside
decreasing oil production.

Pi

Rsi

Figure 20
Producing characteristics
for water drive (confined
aquifer).

Oil production rate

Reservoir
pressure

Production
GOR

Water production
Time

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

17

1
Figure 21 illustrates the rate sensitive aspect of water drive reservoirs. If the oil
withdrawal rate is higher than the water influx rate from the aquifer then the oil
reservoir pressure will drop at a rate greater than would be the case with aquifer
support alone, as the compressibility of the oil reservoirs supports the flow. If this
pressure drops below the bubble point then solution gas drive will occur, as evidenced
by an increase in the gas-oil ratio. Cutting back oil production to a rate to less than the
water encroachment rate restores the system to water drive, with the gas-oil ratio going
back to its undersaturated level.
When two drive mechanisms function as above then we have what is termed
combination drive ( water drive and solution gas drive).
Water drive reservoirs have good pressure support. The decline in oil production is
related to increasing water production as against pressure decline.

2000 10000

BSW

GOR
500

50

250

Reservoir pressure

ratio

Oil production rate

Reservoir pressure
0

Oil pressure

GOR
25
Bsw

Water
0

69

70

71

72

73

74

75

Producing gas / oil

PROD

1000 5000

Water production

B/d

psi

Ps

3.3.2 Water Production, Oil Recovery

Because there is a large aquifer associated with the oil reservoir unlike depletion drive
systems, water production starts early and increases to appreciable amounts. This
water production is produced at the expense of oil and continues to increase until the
oil/water ratio is uneconomical. Total fluid production remains reasonably steady.
The expected oil recovery from a water drive reservoir is likely to be from 35 to 60%
of the original oil-in-place. Clearly these recovery factors depend on a range of related
aspects , including reservoir characteristics for example the heterogeneity as demonstrated by large permeabilitiy variations in the formation.

3.3.3. History Matching Aquifer Characteristics.

Predicting the behaviour of water drive reservoirs in particular the rate of water
encroachment is not straightforward. The topic is covered in a later chapter, but a
significant perspective as mentioned previously is that data is required of the aquifer
to carry out the calculations. In particular the size and geometry of the aquifer and its
permeability and compressibility characteristics. Since such information is generally
18

Figure 21
Reservoir performance Water drive.

11

Drive Mechanisms

not available during the exploration and development phase, the characteristics of the
aquifer are only determined once production has been operational and the support
from the aquifer can be calculated from production and pressure data. (History
Matching). Getting such information may require producing a significant proportion
of the formation say 5% of the STOIIP. RFT surveys have provided a very effective
way of determining the aquifer strength as well as the communicating layers of the
formation. Pressure depth surveys taken in an open hole development well after
production has started will give indications of pressure support in the formation
Because water drive, through pressure maintenance provides the most optimistic
recoveries, artificial water drive is often part of the development strategy because of
the uncertainties of the pressure support from the associated aquifer. In the North Sea
for example many reservoirs have associated aquifers. The risk of not knowing either
the extent or activity of the aquifers is such that many operators are using artificial
water drive systems to maintain pressure so that solution gas drive does not occur with
the consequent loss of oil production.

3.3.4. Well Locations

Well locations for water drive reservoirs are such that they should be located high in
the structure to delay water breakthrough.

4 SUMMARY
The following summaries and tables give the main features associated with the various
drive mechanisms.

4.1 Pressure and Recovery

Water-drive -pressure declines slowly and abandonment occurs when the water cut
is too-high at around 50% of recovery, but depends on local factors.
Gas-cap drive - the pressure shows a marked decline and economic pressures are
reached around 20% of the original pressure when about 30% of the oil is recovered.
Solution- gas drive - the pressure drops more sharply and at 10% of the pressure
reaches, an uneconomical level of recovery at about 10% of the oil-in-place.

4.2 Gas/Oil Ratio

Water drive - the curve for a water drive system shows a gas/oil ratio that remains
constant. Variations from this indicate support from solution gas drive or other drive
mechanisms
Gas-cap drive - for this drive the gas/oil ratio increases slowly and continuously.
Solution- gas drive - the curve for a solution gas drive reservoir shows that the gas/
oil ratio increases sharply at first then later declines.

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

19

1
SOLUTION GAS DRIVE RESERVOIRS
Characteristics
1. Reservoir Pressure
2. Gas/Oil Ratio
3. Production Rate
4. Water Production
5. Well Behaviour
6. Expected Oil Recovery

Trend
Declines rapidly and continuously
First low then rises to a maximum and then
drops
First high, then decreases rapidly and continues
to decline
None
Requires artificial lift at early stages
5-30% of original oil-in-place

GAS CAP DRIVE RESERVOIRS

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Characteristics

Trend

Reservoir Pressure
Gas/oil ratio
Production Rate
Water Production
Well Behaviour Cap
Expected Oil Recovery

Falls slowly and continuously

Rises continuously
First high, then declines gradually
Absent or negligible
Long flowing life depending on size of gas cap
20 to 40% of original oil-in-place

WATER DRIVE RESERVOIRS

Characteristics
1. Reservoir Pressure
2. Gas/Oil Ratio
3. Water Production
4. Well Behaviour
5. Expected Oil Recovery

Trend
Remains high
Remains steady
Starts early and increases to appreciable
amounts
Flow until water production gets excessive
up to 60% original oil-in-place.

Figures 22 and 23 give the pressure and gas-oil ratio trends for various drive
mechanism types

20

11

Drive Mechanisms

Reservoir pressure trends for reservoirs under various drives.

Reservoir pressure - percent of original

100

80
Water drive
60
Gas cap drive

40

20

Dissolved
gas drive
0

Figure 22

20
40
60
80
Oil produced - percent of original oil in place

100

Reservoir gas - oil ratio trends for reservoirs under various drives.
5

GOR MCF /BBL

4 Dissolved
gas drive

Gas cap drive

1
Water drive
0

Figure 23

20
40
60
80
Oil produced - percent of original oil in place

Department of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University

100

21