062375eo PDF

Towards universalization of
primary education i n Asia and the Pacific
ne
SOME CASE STUDIES

China
India
Peninsular Malaysia
Socialist Republic of Viet Nam
Sri Lanka
Thailand
UNESCO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EDUCATION IN ASIA

A N D THE PACIFIC
Bangkok, 1984
Unesco 1984
Published by the
Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia and the Pacific
P.O. Box 1425, General Post Office
Bangkok 10500, Thailand
Printed in Thailand
The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout

the publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on
the part of Unesco concerning the legal status of any country, territory, city
or area or of its authorities, or concerning its frontiers or boundaries.
BK R/84/OPE/230-800
PREFACE
The countries in the region in which universal primary education i s y e t t o be achieved have in recent years announced policies f o r
achieving full enrolment of a l l children of the primary age group.
One of the persistent problems which has h e l d back universalization of primary education i s the early dropping-out o f children
from the schools. This represents enormous wastage of resources and
contributes directly t o the numbers of illiterates.
The present publication brings together the experiences o f six
countries of the region in dealing with the problem of dropping-out:
Grateful acknowledgement i s made to the contributions o f the
authors of these studies and to M r s . Ellen Sattar for t h e regional
overview presented as an introduction.
CONTENTS
Page
Drop-out in primary education: a regional overview. by
Ellen Sattar
..................................
The nature o f t h e problem .......................
Some factors responsible f o r drop-out ..............
A c t i o n t o prevent drop-out ......................
Conclusions ..................................
Shaanxi Province. Peoples Republic of China ...........
Sampling analysis o f drop-out ....................
Measures taken t o reduce the drop-out rate ..........
Huxian Countys experience in universal primary education
........................................
A tentative plan for education in Huxian County ......
India. by K.N. Hiriyanniah and K. Ramachandran ........
3
12
17
25
29
33
38
45
53
55
Efforts towards equalization o f educational opportunities
57
Sample study o f wastage (repeaters and drop-outs) at

at t h e primary stage
67
Measures for preventing drop-outs a t the elementary

stage o f education
73
............................
.............................
Measures to remove o r lessen t h e drop-out problem ....
Pedagogical measures t o prevent drop-outs ...........
Measures f o r retrieving drop-outs ..................
Summary and conclusions .......................
Peninsular Malaysia, by Lee Meow F a t t.................
The drop-out problem. magnitude and trend .........
T h e genesis o f action projects .....................
74
93
105
116
118
125
131
Page
..................................
Intervention actions ............................
Conclusion ...................................
Intervention
.............................
Supplementary figures ..........................
Recommendations
136
140
149
150
.A
...........................
Bibliography ..................................
Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. by L e Nang A n ..........
Magnitude and causes of drop-out .................
Actions t o prevent drop-out ......................
Steps t'oward better organization and management ....
Steps t o enable drop-outs t o r e t u r n t o school .........
Supplementary tables ...........................
Sri Lanka. by S.M.D. Perera and R. Wijedasa ............
Magnitude and characteristics o f t h e drop-out problem . .
Actions t o prevent drop-outs .....................
Conclusion ...................................
Supplementary tables ...........................
Bibliography ..................................
Thailand. by Chinnapat Bhumirat ....................
T h e p r o b l e m ..................................
Supplementary tables
Projects t o prevent drop-out and increase educational

opportunity
..................................
......................
...........................
152
155
161
162
168
171
174
178
181
189
189
200
220
222
231
233
233
238
Actions t o prevent drop-out
242
Supplementary tables
246
DROP-OUT IN PRIMARY EDUCATION:

A REGIONAL OVERVIEW
by Ellen Sattar
Introduction
This introductory section draws mainly o n t h e country reports,
o f six countries supplemented by data f r o m others. Japan, and
t h e U n i o n o f Soviet Socialist Republics, Australia, N e w Zealand have
n o t been included in t h i s survey. T h e analysis concentrates, as
much as possible, o n those countries where drop-out i s highest.
Availability o f data in t h e region i s a problem, as has been noted
in t h e recent Unesco w o r l d survey o n drop-out. As drop-out constitutes a major source o f wastage at t h e primary level, lack o f data,
and therefore more pertinent analysis, i s an obstacle in seeking
efforts t o solve t h e problem.
Wastage, (drop-out and repetition), i s a problem in many o f
t h e school systems in t h e Region. I t s intensity varies f r o m country
t o country, but where it i s most prevalent, it i s usually associated
also w i t h non-enrolment, and a lower percentage o f girls than boys in
t h e school system. I t i s closely associated also with socio-economic
conditions. Where poverty i s greatest, wastage will b e highest.
T h e ideal situation towards which all countries are striving i s

100 per cent enrolment o f b o t h boys and girls, and 100 per cent
retention at least up t o t h e e n d o f t h e primary school stage o f education, usually a minimum o f five years. T h i s i s the presupposition
u p o n which i s based t h e drive f o r universal primary education
(UPE). Within that context, drop-out i s perhaps t h e most critical
f r o m o f wastage; that having enrolled a child in school, t h e school
fails t o retain t h e child.
Countries striving t o attain UPE have t o eliminate wastage and

in particular drop-out. W E i s n o t possible in an educational system
M r s Eiien Sattar i s the author of Universal Primary Education in Bangladesh.
Unesco, Wastage in Primary and General Secondary Education: A Statistical Study

of Trendsand Patterns in Repetition and Dropout. Paris, Unesco. 1980.
The drop-out problem in primury education
where drop-out exists. By i t s presence, i t proclaims that UPE has n o t

been attained.
T h e r e were 390 m i l l i o n primary school-aged children in

the region at the beginning o f the 1980s. O f these, some 60 m i l l i o n
(15.4 per cent) were out o f school. T h e average annual percentage
o f repeaters was approximately 10 p e r cent o f the t o t a l enrolment,
327 million. The total number o f drop-outs per year f r o m primary
education i s estimated t o b e 31.6 million.2
Drop-out represents a staggering loss. Although it i s f o u n d at
b o t h primary and secondary levels, it i s more crucial at the primary
level. An early school drop-out soon lapses t o illiteracy. Re-entry
t o t h e formal school system i s closed o f f in most cases. A secondary
school drop-out has at least acquired literacy and some other educational s k i l l s and knowledge. H e o r she may more easily resume
schooling, o r take up training outside t h e system. T h e primary
school drop-out will remain locked i n t o t h e closed w o r l d o f t h e
illiterate and thus have further restriction placed u p o n a background
o f poverty and ignorance.
Drop-out has been recognised as a particular problem by
Unesco f o r t h e last t w o decades. Member States have been aware
that it was an obstacle t o t h e achievement o f t h e targets set o u t by
the Karachi Plan in 1960. Reports published by Unesco since
then, have emphasised t h e continuing nature o f t h e problem. They
have delineated i t s causes, and have offered many suggestions t o
overcome it.4 In addition, individual Member States initiated actions
aimed at becoming aware o f the problem o f wastage. Several commissions, f o r example in I n d i a and in Malaysia, were set up t o examine
t h e dimensions o f t h e wastage problem. The resultant reports set
o u t clearly t h e reasons for wastage and make suggestions t o curb
b o t h repetition and drop-out.
These figures exclude Australia, Japan, New Zealand, and the USSR.
Source Unesco Office of Statistics Unesco paris
FOI
example, to quote oniy three:
Unesco Bulletin, Vol.1 No.2. The Iroblem of Eduartional Wastage Bangkok, 1967
M.A. Brimer and L. Pauli, Wastage in Education: A World hoblem Paris Geneva, IBE:
Unesco, 1971.
Unesco. Wastage in Primary and General Secondary Education: A statistical Study
of Trends and Patems in Repetition and Dropout. Paris, Unesco 1980.
A regional overtnew
I t i s instructive a t t h i s time, as so m a n y countries set goals
for UPE and for basic education for all, to look a t the extent o f the
drop-out p r o b l e m in t h e region in the 198Os, a t w h a t progress has
been made over t h e last two decades to overcome it, and at w h a t
further avenues need exploring in order to lessen or eliminate dropout and thereby improve the efficiency of the existing school
systems.
The nature of the problem

A drop-out can be defined as a child who enrols in school
but fails t o complete the relevant level of the educational cycle.
At the primary level t h i s means t h a t t h e drop-out fails to reach t h e
final grade, usually grade V or VI.
A repeater i s a child who has to repeat the same grade, due t o

examination failure, low attendance record, or for any other reason.
A repeater m a y or may not become a drop-out, but there i s a
high probability that h e or she will. The drop-out m a y or m a y not
re-enter the school a t a later date, but there i s m o r e probability that
h e or she will remain lost to t h e educational system. Both represent
wastage. Whereas the repeater m a y stay on and eventually repeat
the primary cycle, the drop-out i s very frequently lost t o t h e system
and m a y also f a i l t o retain even t h e vestiges of academic s k i l l s gained
earlier. Evidence from several countries shows that early drop-out
results in a lapse t o illiteracy. For example, a recent study in t h e
Philippines found that literacy was not retained i f there was drop-out
before grade I
II.
The extent of repetition

The extent of repetition in the region vanes considerably.
Several countries have rates from O to 2 per cent such as Malaysia,
the Republic of Korea a n d t h e Philippines.6 Countries with repetition rates of 7 t o 10 per cent include Indonesia, Singapore, Sri
Lanka, Thailand a n d Viet Nam (See Table 1). Bangladesh and B h u t a n
have repetition rates of 21 per cent.
MOM Dumko Valisno, The Accreditation and Equivalency Programme of the Philippines: Its Status and Possibilities. Manila, 1983. (mimeo.).
Unesco. Statistical Yearbook, 1982 III 160-163

Unesco. Wastage in Pnmary and General Secondary Education. op. cit. p. 21.
The drop-out problem in primary education
Table 1. Primary level repetition in selected countries

Countries
Total Repetition Rate
Afghanistan
29
Buma
21
India
21
Indonesia
Singapore
Sri Lanka
10
Thailand
10
Viet Nam
Source:
Unesco. Statistical Yearbook 1982, III 160-163
Data i s not readily available, and comparative data over one o r

t w o decades i s lacking, for many countries, thus making the estimation of trends difficult. For the Asia and Pacific Region as a whole',
it has been estimated that there has been a steady decline in the level
of repetition between 1965 and 1978.9 Although the percentage of
repeaters m a y have declined slightly, absolute numbers probably
have increased, in particular in the more populous countries with
high fertility levels.
Differences between repetition rates for boys and girls are
shown in Table 2 below.
Table 2. Repeaters by sex inselected countries (latest year available)

Country
Boys
Girls
Afghanistan
31.8
19.8
Bangiadesh
20.4
21 .O
Burma
20.1
20.8
India
20.5
21.4
Iran
10.5
6.5
Singapore
15.3
9.6
Thailand
11.0
9.3
Source:
Unesco. Wastage in Primaty and General Secondary Education op. cit. p. 34
T h i s includes Japan, the USSR, and the Pacific nations.
Unesco. Wastage in Primaty and General Secondary Education. op. ut. p. 28
A regional overvtew
For most countries, the differences between extents of repetition by sex are slight, except for Afghanistan where m o r e boys than
girls repeat the grades. T h i s i s probably due to the fact that f e w girls
enrol in school. T h i s m a y have some effect on t h e rate for I r a n too,
but this pattern i s different in Bangladesh, Burma and I n d i a where
fewer girls also enrol, a n d repetion rates for girls a n d boys are almost
similar. Singapore and Thailand show higher repetition rates for boys
and this pattern i s the same as t h a t found in the West European
countries.
Variation of repetition by grade i s found also, a n d details for a
f e w countries m a y b e seen in Table 3.
Table 3. Percentageof primary grade repeaters in selected countries

Grades
country
Year
zz
zzz
zv
Afghanistan
1978
36
27
27
32
26
24
Burma
1970
25
17
21
18
21
India
1970
26
20
18
17
16
Indonesia
1980
17
Singapore
1980
11
18
sri Lanka
1980
12
14
12
10
Thailand
1977
18
11
11
Viet Nam
1978
10
Source:
Unesco. Sfatistimi Yearbook 1982. III 160-163
The majority of countries for w h i c h data i s available show higher

,
gradually decreasing to grade 5 or 6.
levels of repetition in grade I
Two countries show rises in repetition in t h e higher grades, S r i L a n k a
and, to a marked degree, Singapore. The Singapore figures are due t o
policy changes such as those made about repetition. Automatic promotion w a s abolished in 1977.
The need to reduce wastage further, by reducing repetition, i s
recognised in most countries. As the V i e t Nam country report states:
as far as repetition i s concerned, t h e number of repeaters in primary
and secondary schools through the land, represents a major obstacle
to universalization.
T h i s i s because repeaters clog t h e grades
lo
See viet ~ a r report,
n
this m i m e
The dropout problem in primary education
making classes far larger than they need be. The child who repeats
the grade i s over-age f o r that grade and this, added to his feelings of
failure, will encourage dropout. As many children enter school when
they are older than 5 or 6 years, repeating a grade compounds the
age differentials. The high levels o f repeaters in the early grades
makes individualized instruction difficult and children will receive
l i t t l e help with their problems. The materials and textbooks for
grade Iare written f o r children who are 5 o r 6 years old and these
will have l i t t l e appeal t o a 9 or 10 year old child.
Just as there are wide variations in the level of repeaters between countries in the region, there are wide variations also within
countries. Under-developed regions will have higher rates of grade
repetition a3, f o r instance, in the mountainous regions o f Viet Nam.'
There will be differences too between rural and urban regions, with
the former usually having the higher repetition rates as shown in
Table 4 below. In India, rural repetition rates are high and t h e need
t o reduce wastage in the primary cycle by reducing repetition i s
widely recognized?
'
Table 4. Level of repetition in rural and urban schools in selected countries

Country
Percentage of enrolment
constituted by repeaters
Rural
Total
Urban
Afghanistan
31.1
27.5
30.0
Bangladesh
20.9
15.6
20.6
Indonesia
16.0
15.0
15.8
ran
11.5
10.5
10.9
Source:
Unesco. Wastage in primary and General Secondary Education op. cit. p.45.
Repetition i s closly tied to drop-out. Many repeaters eventuall y drop-out of school. One study in Thailand f o u n d that two-thirds
of drop-outs had been repeaters? Data f r o m Bangladesh shows dropouts to be several years over-age f o r t h e i r grade' 4andt h i s greater age
l1ibid.
l2See India report this volume
See Thailand report in this volume
l4Foundation for Research in Educational Planning and Development. m e Situation of
Children in Bangladesh, 1981 p. 86.
A regional overview
must be not only due to late entry but also t o repetition. The Bangladesh study found, for example, that the average age of a grade I
drop-out was almost 11 years. A grade I
Idrop-out averaged 1 2 years
I
Idrop-out w a s o n average 12% years old. The estimated
and a grade I
mean difference between current age o f drop-outs and of enrolled
This decreased slightly in the
children w a s over three years in grade I.
higher grades.
Percentage distribution between grades
An indirect indicator o f repetition i s t h e percentage distribut i o n in each grade. In a n ideal (five year) primary school system, it
w o u l d be around 20 per cent in each grade, if all age chorts were
enrolling a t the same time and moving smoothly through t h e grades.
(For a six year system the percentage would be about 17 per cent).
A system with 30 to 40 per cent enrolment in grade Iand I X o r 1 0
per cent enrolment in grade V i s a system with a high drop out rate
and a high repetition rate. Table 5 shows percentage distribution
rates, over the last decade, in some countries of the region. There i s
considerable variation. In Bangladesh the situation has worsened
since 1970, as grade Ihas a higher percentage of enrolment and grade
V a lower percentage than at t h e beginning o f the 1970s. In Burma
t h e situation remains practically unchanged, while countries such
as India, Indonesia, Sri Lanka and Thailand show improvement of
distribution between grades. I t may be s u r m i s e d that repetition in
these countries has been reduced, and that students are moving
through the grades more smoothly than previously.
The extent of dropout
As with repeaters, data o n drop-out i s not readily available
and a comparison with drop-out rates in the early 1960s i s possible
for o n l y a few countries. Table 6 gives wastage rates f o r the 1959
primary school cohort and represents both drop-out and repetition.
A comparision with Table 7, showing t h e cohort survival figures
calculated by Unesco for the late 1970s, aIthough not strictly comparable, illustrates the tremendous improvements in m a n y countries
over the past t w o decades. As the base years in Table 7 for calculating t h e cohort survival rates vary, comparisons between t h e m w o u l d
be inconclusive.
Many other factors have to be taken into account, such as the
percentage of the age-group actually enrolled in school. For example,
Sri Lanka enrols 90 per cent of i t s primary school age group, Bangladesh about 70 per cent. Several of the most populous countries
do n o t enrol all their primary age children in schools,and these
countries are the ones that have the highest drop-out rates.
Table 5. Percentage distributionrates at primary level
(Selected couniries between 1 9 7 w 981)
Grades
Country
Year
II
III
IV
VI
Per cent
Bangladesh
1970
1981
38
41
22
21
16
16
13
12
11
9
Burma
1970
1977
37
37
22
21
17
17
14
14
10
11
China
1980
25
21
20
18
16
India
1970
1978
36
31
22
23
17
19
14
15
11
12
Indonesia
1975
1980
27
23
21
23
17
18
14
14
11
12
Nepal
1915
1980
57
55
24
26
19
20
Pakistan
1970
1979
32
32
22
22
18
17
15
16
12
13
Philippines
1970
1980
23
21
19
18
17
17
15
18
14
14
12
12
Sri Lanka
1970
1980
25
17
22
17
21
17
18
19
15
16
14
Thailand
1970
1980
27
20
21
18
20
19
17
17
7
15
5*
12
Viet Nam
1979
27
21
19
17
16
* 4% in Grade VI1
Source: Unesco. Statistical Yearbook 1982. III 137-141.
9
10
A regional overview
Table 6. Wastage of 1959 primary school cohort
Wastage Ratios (%)
Countries
15-25
Korea, Malaysia
26-35
Singapore, Ceylon, Iran
36-55
Thailand, Philippines, Afghanistan
5 6-80
Viet Nam, India, Cambodia, Pakistan
over 80
Source:
Burma, Laos
Unesco. Bulletin 1 9 6 7 0 ~cit.

. p. 8
Table 7. Primary cohort survival, late 1970s

Country
Cohort
Year
Afghanistan
--
Number of
Grades
1976
.% survival to
% Drop-out
last grade
65
35
Bangladesh
1974
19
81
Bhutan
1977
11
89
Burma
1972
32
68
1969
41
59
Indonesia
1977
78
22
Korea, Republic of
1977
96
Malaysia
1978
95
Philippines
1975
69
31
Singapore
1977
91
Sri Lanka
1977
95
Source:
Unesco. Wastage at Primary and General Seconday Level. op. cit. Chart
4.1 adapted; drop-out calculated.
R a p i d expansion of the primary school system m a y b e p a r t l y

responsible for this. The 1967
Unesco survey found t h a t w h e n
countries expanded their education systems and enrolment increased
up t o 70 per cent of a n age cohort, t h e n there was a tendency for
wastage ratios to increase. T h i s was because they are drawing on a n
increasing number of children from the vulnerable sections. This
observation i s probably correct today for many countries. When
enrolment i s low, most students will come from middle a n d upper
class families who will b e motivated t o keep their children in school,
and the drop-out rate will b e low. Higher enrolment figures include
children f r o m lower social strata, disadvantaged groups, and girls.

These children are socially o r economically disadvantaged and the
motivation o f their families will b e lower than that o f t h e more
economically well o f f groups. T h i s will lead t o a higher drop-out
rate and helps t o account f o r the drop-out rate seen in many countries o f t h e region, even when enrolment i s around 70 per cent o r
more o f the age group. Unless other factors are present t o counteract
the drop-out tendency, i t will remain high.
Enrolment ratios between sexes, shown in Table 8, may b e
compared with t h e cohort survival figures o f Table 7. Low ratios o f
girls in school usually mean high drop-out rates. However, here too,
improvement over t h e last t w o decades i s noticeable. For example,
in Bangladesh t h e ratio improved f r o m 72:28 f o r boys:girls in 1960
t o 63:37 in 1980'51n Nepal t h e ratio of 84:16 in 1973 hadimproved
t o 72:28 by 1980!6 In b o t h these cases, sustained improvement in
sex ratios at t h e primary level can b e observed. At t h e same time,
girls' drop-out rates are slightly higher than those f o r boys in m u c h
o f the region. F o r example, in T a m i l Nadu State in India, a n average
o f 10 year drop-out rates at t h e primary level found that whereas
boys averaged 38 per cent drop-out over the 1 0 year span, t h e figure
f o r girls was 48 per ceni!.'Probably
this pattern may be found in
those countries with lower girls enrolment.
In Table 9 are presented drop-out figures f r o m some countries,
and t h e i r target year for achieving UPE. By 1982 Malaysia had
eliminated drop-out at the primary level. Viet-Nam had achieved a
remarkably l o w figure considering that in the late 1950s t h e wastage
ratio had been estimated over 65 per cent (see Table 6 above). T h e
rate f o r t h e Philippines was affected by the length of t h e primary
school cycle, six years but several rural schools had classes only up t o
grade IV. I f these schools were upgraded t o six-year schools t h e dropo u t w o u l d probably improve considerably. Thailand has a similar
problem related t o t h e length o f the primary cycle. Parents used t o
the pre-1966, 4-year cycle, prefer t o send their children t o school f o r
only four years though t h e primary cycle i s n o w six years.
l5E. Sattar. UniversaIfiimary Eduaation m Bangkzdesh. Dhaka. 1982. p. 32
l6Education Day Souvenir. National Education Committee. Kathmandu, 1983. p.19
l7K. Venkata Subramania. Wastage in Primary Education Department of Education,
University of York. 1977.p. 19-20.
10
A regional overua'ew
Table 8. Sex ratios at primary iewl in selected countries
Cbuntv
Year
14
Afghanistan
(2)
1979
84: 16
Bangladesh
1981
63:37
Boys: Girls
Enrolment Ratios %
13)
Burma
1977
52:48
chilla
1980
55:45
India
197b
62:38
Indoneh
1980
54:46
Nepal
1980
72:28
Pakistan
197:
73:27
Sri Lanka
1980
52:48
niailand
1977
52:48
Viet Nam
1979
52:48
source: Cois. 1 & 2 Unesco Statistical Yearbook 1982, op. cit. III 108411. Col. 3
girls percentage ibi& boys calculated.
Table 9. Primary level drop-out in selected counties

____
~~
______
~____
amtry
Gmdes
Year
Dropout
Rate per cent
Target Year
for W E Enrolment
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5 i
1981
70.0
90 per cent by 1987
1978
63.0
100 per cent by 1990
Malaysia
I-v
I-v
I-v
1982
O .O
Nepal
I-IV
1970
69.2
75 per cent by 1985
I-VI
Bangladesh
India
Philippines
Thailand
Viet Nam
achieved
1980
34 .O
IV-v
1977
42 .O
I-v
1978
7.7 North )
9.8 South )
Source:
Co1.5 APEID/Unesco. Univer~kieingprimmyEducation. Bangkok, 1983. p.9

Bangladesh: E. Sattar, op. cir., p. 41
India, Mslaysia, Thailand, Wet Nam: See reports in this Volume.
Nepal: Mogendra ali Singh, Educational Wastage in Nepal. Kathmandu,

office of National Education Committee, 1973. p. 28 (mimeo).
Philippines: MOMDumiao Valisno, op. cit
11
D a t a on actual grade-wise drop-out i s difficult to find. Table

10 presents data for three countries. No clear c u t pattern emerges,
but grade I
I
Ihad the highest drop-out in India, grade V in S r i Lanka,
grades Iand I V in Viet Nam. Probably grades with the highest repetition rates would also have t h e highest drop-out rates in many countries, but data i s lacking.
Table 10. Drop-out by grade in three countries

Grades
Country
Cohort
Year
II
III
IV
India
1971-2
12.7
15.9
17.0
14.7
N.A
sri Lanka
1978
1.3
1.2
3.4
4.3
4.9
Vied Nam
1975
5.3
2.7
2.3
4.9
2.9
Source:
See reports this volume
In Bangladesh, 60 per cent of drop-out occurs before grade 3?

T h i s proportion m a y be similar in other countries of t h e region with
s i m i l a r socio-economic characteristics, and is, ironically, a contribution of the education system to the pool of illiterates in these countries.
Differences in drop-out rate between grades, sexes, and countries are further complicated by differences in rural and urban locations. Just as literacy i s less in rural t h a n urban areas, so drop-out i s
highest in rural locations. T h i s m a y b e illustrated from the Republic
of Korea where, in 1967, rural drop-out rates were 2.7 per cent,
while those in the urban areas were only 0.8? Evidence from other
countries also emphasises that rural schools usually have higher
drop-out rates.
Some factors responsible for dropout

Reasons for drop-out m a y b e classified into those internal
and those external t o the educational system. Neither group
E. Sattar, op. cit., p. 41
l9Ran-Soo Kim. Universalization of Primary Education in Korea. APEID/UNESCO.

Bangkok, 1983.
2o See reports in t ~ volume.

s
12
A regional overview
should be treated in isolation. An educational system reflects the
values and priorities o f the society it serves. I t can rarely be more
advanced than t h e general cultural m a t r i x which supports it. Interact i o n between internal and external factors i s continual and, this interrelationship should be borne in mind when the various factors are
discussed in the following sections:
i)
Internal factors affecting drop-out. The primary school itself,
i t s facilities, and pedagogical methods, a l l affect t h e childs learning
experience and exert a n influence upon retention or drop-out. In
some countries, the facilities available are inadequate for t h e number
of students who attend t h e schools. There are not enough schools,
and within existing schools there are not enough benches, desks,
or chalkboards t o mention only t h e most basic equipment. This i s
particularly t r u e o f many schools in the poorer nations of t h e region.
In some countries, there appear t o be enough schools, f o r
example in I n d i a over 90 per cent o f her habitations have either t h e i r
own primary school or primary section, or have one located within
one kilometre.2 The problem i s that around one third are only one
teacher schools, and f e w have actually one teacher for each primary
grade, as Table 11illustrates.
Table 11. Teachers per school in India in 1987
~~~
Schools
Percentage*
One-teacher
35
Two-teacher
27
Three-teacher
15
Four-teacher
Five-teacher
Six or more
does not total 100 due to rounding
Source:
India report this volume
As some states h a d o n l y four primary grades, the actual provision of one teacher per grade i s slightly better than it appears. One
teacher schools m a y be very good, particularly in situations where
21 See India report in this volume.
13

there are f e w children and a wide variety of learning materials are
available, and the teachers have been adequately trained for the purpose. The school situation then resembles an ungraded classroom,
and the teacher becomes a resource person to all h i s or her pupils.
Unfortunately, the best conditions for one teacher schools are rarely
available and the need to change them has been recognized in I n d i a
and in other countries also. The upgrading of many of the single
teacher schools to accommodate a l l the primary school students
seems a necessary condition in helping to prevent drop-out. I f there
i s not even seating r o o m for the children there i s l i t t l e incentive f o r
the child t o attend. Provision o f sufficient basic facilities would be a
major factor in preventing drop-out.
Provision of basic physical facilities i s not enough. In addition,

a sufficient number o f trained teachers must also be provided. Member countries acknowledge that number and quality o f the teaching
force has a n effect u p o n retention or drop-out of students. Strenuous
efforts have been made t o overcome shortages, to provide in-service
training, and to improve pre-service training. All the country reports
in this volume stress the need for quality trained teachers to improve
educational standards and to retain students in the schools. In VietNam, for example, teachers are required to take in-service training in
a n effort to improve teacher quality. Table 12 shows most o f the
primary level teachers were untrained in 1979 to 1980, thus the
emphasis o n in-service training i s very practical.
Table 12. Number of Teachers and Percentage Trained in Vie Nam

11979 to 1980)
Level
Number
Percentage named
Primary
217,473
13.7
Secondary
125,672
32.0
30,492
73.0
~~
Senior High
Source:
Wet Nam report in t h i s volume
Apart from inadequate facilities and poorly trained teachers,

organizational practices within the school also have an impact o n
drop-out or retention. Many countries do n o t automatically promote
a child. In these countries, annual examinations are a w e l l established
feature and the child who fails the examination i s not promoted, but
14
A regional overview
has t o repeat t h e grade. T h i s practice o f repetition i s dubious b o t h
pedagogically and psychologically. Studies f r o m many countries
show that failure i s powerful inhibitor o f a childs educational
attainment. In one study f r o m Thailand, two-thirds o f drop-outs had
been repeaters2?Similar findings may be quoted f r o m other countries. Although the practice o f automatic progression through t h e
grades i s n o t free f r o m problems, i t poses far less than those which
result f r o m repetition and it appears t o b e a major factor in t h e
elimination o f drop-out. I t i s significant that the educational systems
of Malaysia and t h e Republic o f Korea have automatic p r o m o t i o n
and virtually n o drop-out at the primary level o f education.
T h e above three measures: provision o f sufficient schools and

leaminglteaching materials and equipment, o f enough teachers who
are adequately trained, and abolition o f repetition, are o f major
importance in increasing the holding power o f the school and in
preventing drop-out. Other measures used by many countries include
primary education free o f fees payment, provision o f free textbooks
and uniforms, and use o f the mother tongue as the medium o f
instruction. In addition, it i s recognised that pre-schooling f o r the
socially deprived c h i l d may be a necessity in t h e drive t o prevent
drop-out. T h e school situation and environment m a y b e so alien to
t h e young child that t h e child does n o t wish t o stay in it. Entering
school brings conformity t o external rules and conditions o f behaviour which may b e so wholly new that the c h i l d i s unable t o
adjust. A pre-school class o r kindergarten w o u l d help t o prepare t h e
child f o r t h e formal school experience in grade Iand help in t h e
adjustment t o the discipline and needs o f a school routine. I t w o u l d
also provide a headstart for t h e disadvantaged groups by improving
in particular, t h e childs language and other cognitive s k i l l s before
entering the first grade.
Exactly h o w far these measures affect retention o r drop-out i s
unclear, as several countries which do provide some o r all o f these
measures s t i l l experience high drop-out. There i s a range o f factors
external t o the educational system which also w o r k on the c h i l d and
these external factors must be considered now.
ii) External factors affecting drop-out. The external factors are

those within the childs socio-cultural milieu.Of these, the economic
~~
See ha il ami report in this volume
15
:it.? drop-out
problem in primary education
and social condition o f t h e family i s the single most crucial variable

affecting drop-out. AU t h e country reports in this volume bear o u t
this fact, that drop-out i s greatest, o f children f r o m p o o r and deprived sections o f society 2 ? Although many apparent external causes
may be cited, such as parental illiteracy, malnutrition, parents land
holding, rural o r urban residence and so on, a l l spring f r o m the one
main cause, t h e parental socio-economic condition. Many such
parents have l i t t l e understanding o f t h e need t o enrol and ensure
attendance o f their children, and such children become t h e f i r s t
drop-outs. Moreover, in a situation o f extreme poverty where t h e
family struggles at the margin o f survival, education has n o immediate significance. The contribution o f t h e childs labour t o t h e
family welfare i s t h e only reality.
T h e familys ethnic o r social status also influences drop-out.

M i n o r i t y groups o f l o w status have higher drop-out rates, as f o r
example t h e Scheduled groups in India, t h e Muslim minorities o f
Sri Lanka, and the ethnic minorities o f V i e t Nam! Even in countries
o f t h e region where t h e medium o f instruction in primary education
i s in t h e mother tongue, f o r linguistic minorities, the need t o master
a second language at a higher level may be a factor leading t o dropout.
T h e childs age and sex also affect drop-out. In societies where

less attention i s given t o women and girls, fewer girls enrol in school
and more girls than boys drop o u t o f school as has been shown
above. I f UPE were for boys only, it w o u l d b e a fairly easy achievement for countries o f South Asia. In many o f those countries, enrolm e n t of girls lags behing that o f boys. F o r instance, in Bangladesh,
t w o m i l l i o n less girls are enrolled at t h e primary level than boys:
Lower percentages o f girls enrolment may be cited f r o m Nepal,
Pakistan, India, and Afghanistan.
Many children o f the region enter school late. In grade I,child r e n may be 7 , 8, 9, or even lO years o f age. Inany grade, about 20 per
cent o f t h e children w i l l have ages higher or lower than t h e supposed
23 Studies from Nepal, Philippines and Bangladesh also come to the same conclusion,
that the main cause of drop-out i s paiental poverty.
24 See reports in the volume
25
E. Sattar, op. cit., p.35
16
A regional overw'ew
'
n o r m f o r the grade. T h i s i s not in i t s e l f particularly important,

especially in an ungraded school where each child progresses at h i s
o r her o w n rate. I t may be a factor in drop-out in many Asian schools
because girls may be withdrawn f r o m school at menarche and boys
when they are strong enough t o help in t h e male agricultural tasks.
A 12 year o l d who drops o u t o f grade I
I
Imay n o t have acquired
sufficient competencies t o stay literate. H a d h e entered school at six
years o l d h e might have been able t o complete t h e primary school
cycle before he had t o leave school. The importance o f enrolling t h e
child at the correct age in order t o begin t h e primary school cycle, i s
l i t t l e understood in most rural areas o f Asia.
Another major factor affecting b o t h enrolment and drop-out i s
geographical location. Mountainous areas experience higher drop-out
rates, as do deltaic regions. Provision o f primary school and o f
teachers in these regions can be very d i f f i c u l t and travelling t o school
poses a problem f o r many school attenders.
Health and general n u t r i t i o n o f t h e individual child m a y affect
drop-out also. I f a child i s in poor health, school attendance may be
affected, leading t o repetition o r eventually drop-out. Even if a c h i l d
attends regularly, the c h i l d may n o t be able t o give sufficient attent i o n t o t h e chssroom situation because o f physical o r mental fatigue
due t o hunger or undernourishment. Children f r o m p o o r homes d o
n o t receive t h e nourishment they require and malnutrition and
stunting o f development, leading t o fatigue and poor concentration,
probaby help t o determine eventual drop-out o f many p o o r chil-
dren.
All t h e above factors, internal and external, act u p o n t h e child,

u p o n enrolment and u p o n eventual completion o f t h e primary cycle
or dropping o u t f r o m it. Countries have evolved ways o f dealing with
t h e provision o f primary education taking i n t o account, as far as
possible, all t h e variables o f a given situation. The following reports
u p o n some o f t h e measures Member States have taken t o reduce
drop-out and u p o n several o f the methods being t r i e d out.
Action to prevent drop-out

Most measures taken to prevent drop-out are indirect and part
o f a wider scheme t o enhance attainment o f UPE. Practically n o data
exists t o indicate which measures w o r k best t o eliminate drop-out.
All have been initiated with t h e i n t e n t i o n o f enhancing the holding
17
power o f the school or o f persuading parents t o send and keep their

child in school. Five categories o f measures may b e distinguished (i)
organizational; (ii)
pedagogical; (iii)incentives; (iv) community
participation; and (v) non-formal approaches. These categories are
n o t exclusive. They act together and interact upon the child, t h e
school and society.
There i s also the possibility o f legal action. Compulsory attendance laws f o r the primary level o f education are in force in
several countries o f t h e region. Implementation o f t h e law i s n o t a
necessary pre-requisite f o r attaining UPE. Malaysia, f o r instance, has
attained UPE, but has n o compulsory law. India, which has compulsory attendance laws in 16 States, has n o t been able t o enforce
them2! The utility o f such a compulsory law probably lies in t h e
timing o f i t s passage i n t o law and the judiciousness o f i t s enforcement,
which can be assessed only by each individual country.
i)
Organizational measures. Automatic progression between
grades, o r continuous progression across the primary cycle, i s probably the single most important organizational action which may b e
taken t o prevent drop-out. Repetition makes classes far larger than
they need be, discourages children who f a i l t o be promoted,
exacerbates problems o f late entrants, and ensures that most dropouts quickly lapse t o illiteracy. Those Asian countries which have
attained WE already have i n s t i t u t e d automatic progression, as in the
Republic of Korea, Malaysia and Japan. Pedagogical measures t o help
children w i t h learning difficulties t o enable them t o be promoted
with the r e s t o f t h e class. are an essential concdmitant t o automatic
progression.
In the Philippines, special placement tests have been worked
o u t t o enable school drop-outs t o gain accreditation and return t o
t h e formal school system and this i s a practical way t o encourage
drop-outs t o complete their education? Easy re-entry o f drop-outs
t o t h e education system implies an open system at all levels. Placement tests f o r accreditation would b e useful at the primary level in
many countries.
26 See Indian report in this volume.
27
MO^ D
valisno,
O
op. cit.,
18
A regional overuiew
Re-organization o f the grades within t h e primary school may
also discourage drop-out, as shown by t h e I n d i a n experience w i t h t h e
ungraded school in several areas. Evaluations have indicated encouraging signs in terms o f reduction in drop-out rate, wastage and
stagnation2! In t h i s system, the children w o r k through learning
materials at their own pace. T h e quicker students can receive enrichment activities and t h e students with particular learning problems
may be given t h e individualized instruction they need. A variation o f
this re-organization i s being tried o u t in Thailand with alternate year
entrance, and thus t w o age-cohorts working together f o r t w o years in
a combined 1 + 2, 3 + 4, and 5 + 6 grade??This has t h e added advantage o f lessening t h e number o f teachers required in t h e school
although t h e classes may become rather large.
ii)
Pedagogicid measures. I t has long been recognized that a highly qualified and trained teacher i s t h e preferred teacher at a l l educational levels. All Member States in t h e region have been paying m u c h
attention t o in-service training t o upgrade qualifications, and t o preservice training t o ensure a more effective teaching force. Sex o f the
teacher may b e as important as training. Table 13 shows the female
percentage o f t h e teaching force in several countries. At t h e primary
level, female teachers are preferred in most countries, b o t h f o r t h e i r
gentle approach t o very young children and for t h e model they present t o girls. Several countries with far fewer female than male
teachers, do experience high drop-out, although n o clear connection
between t h e t w o has been established. N o r do trained teachers by
themselves guarantee either enrolment or retention. Levels o f trained
teachers may be high, but drop-out may be high also. F o r instance,
in Andhra Pradesh State o f India, 97 per cent o f t h e teachers are
trained, but t h e State i s classified as one o f t h e educationally backward states! Bangladesh has 70 per cent o f i t s teaching force
trained, but i t s drop-out rate i s equally high I The important factors
are probably t h e educational level o f t h e teacher, the quality of
pedagogical training imparted, and t h e working conditions in which
t h e teacher must teach.
29 See Thailand report in this volume in details.
30 See India report in this volume.
31 E. Sattar, op. cit.
19
A pedagogical measure o f significance i s t h e establishment of

pre-primary schools, in particular t o give deprived rural and urban
children a headstart t o t h e formal educational process. As a Malaysian report states, much of the verbal and intellectual development of the child u p o n which success depends, occurs during the
pre-school years. Poor and illiterate parents, and isolated r u r a l
environments, create an educational disadvantage prior t o school
entry%? Enrichment activities in these schools, particularly in the
area of language a r t s such as listening and speaking, will aid t h e
children when they make the transition t o the formal primary
grades. Such a school m a y be attached to the primary school itself, so that a five-year primary cycle becomes in fact six, by virtue
of the pre-school class. I t m a y b e a separate institution, or it m a y
b e organized in a non-formal manner and consist o f several small
pre-schools clustered around the primary school. Whether government, private, formal o r non-formal, these schools can provide a
valuable experience for the children. Viet Nam and China have a wide
and they are expanding,
network of these pre-primary
though mainly in urban centres, in all countries o f the region.
Teachers themselves have long recongnised the value o f such
pre-school classes. In many areas o f South Asia where grade Ienrolment i s very high, there i s a hidden pre-school class. Whenever possible, head masters o f large primary schools have designated one
teacher f o r the pre-school class, knowing full well that the younger
children were generally unable t o make t h e transition from home
environment to grade Isuccessfully. The f i r s t few months o f school
are probably crucial t o the childs perceptions.
T h o s e f i r s t months set the pattern. They establish either a desire
t o continue, or an aversion to the school. As the Indian report in this
volume states, children come for the first time and are faced with a
new environment. I f they are introduced t o a school situation earlier,
it will encourage them t o come t o the primary school. For this
purpose, efforts should be made t o open pre-primary schools, particularly in rural areas, and support such schools which are already in
existence.
32 See Malaysian report in t h i s volume.
33 See Viet Nam report in t h i s volume.

34 See India report in t h i s volume.
20
A regional overview
Table 13. Percentage of female teachers at primary level in selected countries
country
Year
Percentage
Afghanistan
1979
19
Bangladesh
1981
Burma
1977
48
China
1980
37
India
1978
27
Indonesia
1978
37
Republic o f Korea
1981
39
Malaysia
1981
46
Nepal
1980
10
Pakistan
1979
33
Philippines
1980
80
Sri Lanka
1978
60
Thailand
1977
46
Viet Nam
1979
64
Sowce:
Unesco. Statistical Yearbook 1982. op. cit. p.III 108-111
Annual examinations have long been used as a means of prom o t i o n in Asian schools. Abolishing the annual examination at the
primary level will remove much stress and strain f r o m the system,
both for the child and for the teacher. With a system of automatic
promotion, the annual examination i s superfluous. It i s preferable to
institute a system of continuous criterion-referenced evaluation,
so that learning problems and difficulties are detected early and t h e
child i s helped t o overcome these, rather than ignoring problems and
failing the child at the examination. The primary level o f education
should require mastery of skills, not competitive attainment in an
annual examination. Improvement of teaching methods a n d materials
i s a factor which also m a y have some bearing on drop-out. In the
Philippines, use of individualized learning modules in such experimental projects as Project Impact, has h a d a n appreciable success o n
enrolment and retention of children.
Incentives. As a means to encourage enrolment of children at
the primary level and to attain UPE, varying incentives have been
used in almost all countries of the region over the past t w o decades.
These have taken the f o r m of free education, provision of textbooks,
i)
21

provision of mid-day meals, clothes and scholarships? Bangladesh
abolished fees a t t h e primary level in the early 1970s, and in the
1980s, has introduced free textbooks and some uniforms to poor
girl students as incentives t o enrolment. More wealthy countries,
such as Malaysia, provide free medical and dental care.
There i s l i t t l e data available which show actual decline in dropout as a direct consequence of the introduction o f any o f these
measures. All, however, were introduced t o b e n e f i t t h e poorest and
most deprived sections o f society, and it i s assumed that they have
h a d an impact u p o n the increased enrolment and retention rates over
the past two decades. I t i s noteworthy that t h e Indian State of
Kerala provides over 90 per cent of primary school children with
textbooks, uniforms, and meals. The drop-out rate in Kerala i s only
6 p e r cent while in a l l other I n d i a n States it i s in excess of 50 per

cent '!On t h e other hand evidence from Tamil Nadu, a neighbouring
State, showed that t h e midday meal alone m a y n o t b e a sufficient
incentive. One study found that 64 per cent o f drop-outs had been
receiving a midday meal9'While there m a y b e other factors accounting f o r Kerala's success or for the lack o f success in Tamil
Nadu, the widespread provision of incentives i s assumed t o have
been significant, but t o what extent i s unknown.
Free or subsidised transportation facilities m a y be necessary t o
enable children t o attend school in sparsely populated areas, o r in
regions of difficult terrain. Where the primary level terminates at
grade I V in rural schools, transportation for the students to more
distant schools for grades V and V I m a y be necessary. Thailand has
initiated a project t o provide students with bicycles for j u s t t h i s
purpose 'B
iv)
Community participation. Involving t h e community in primary level education m a y be a means of enhancing enrolment and preventing drop-out. When parents are active in t h e educational process,
it i s more likely that their children will stay in school. Community
participation m a y range f r o m the establishment o f a parent-teacher
35 See reports in this volume
36 See India report in this volume
37 See K. Venkata Subramania op. cit. p.58

38 See Thaiiand report in this volume.
22
A regional overm'ew
association and school open days, t o actually building a school. In
China and in V i e t Nam, many communities donated a building or
provided land and labour t o build sch0ols.3~In t h e Meher W E project in Bangladesh4: and in t h e Pamong project in Indonesia4; any
village structure may be utilized f o r a school. In t h e former project,
also, the community built over one dozen schools.
In some cases, t h e community needs educating about t h e
importance o f education, especially o f girls. T h i s m a y b e done by t h e
mass media, by political parties, by district administration, f o l k
media, and by the teachers themselves. Involving t h e community
in primary education may enable governments t o share t h e costs
with t h e community. T h i s may b e particularly important in highly
populous countries where provision o f basic facilities might be prohibitively expensive i f t h e usual .formal model i s followed.
Non-formal measures. Many new models are being investigated

v)
at t h e primary level in t h e region, usually involving a non-formal
component, either o n a supplementary or a complementary basis.
In t h e formal model, non-formal programmes using community
resources are applied at one o r t w o grades o f t h e primary level and
t h e children are t h a n sent on t o t h e formal school. The non-formal
component supplements t h e formal school. T h i s has been successfully done o n a small scale in t h e models in Bangladesh and Indonesia
cited above. In India, many programmes use such non-formal components especially t o reach t h e deprived and disadvantaged groups.
T h e DACEP and CAPE projects discussed in t h e I n d i a report are
examples o f this. In Pakistan mosque schools are used t o supplement
the formal system in areas where schools are scarce. T h i s has been
considered a viable model and during 1978-1983,?28200 mosque
schools were in existence, taking in grades 1-111, and thus reducing
overcrowding in the existing primary schools f o r grades I V and V.43
39 See China and Viet Nam papers in this report.
40 E. Sattar, op. cif. chapter 9
41 The Pamong Primary School System in APEID, Universalizing Educafion: Linking
Formal and Non-Formal Programmes, Bangkok, UNESCO, 1919, p. 11-20.
42 Sixth Four Year Plan, 1983/84-1987/88, Planning Cornmussion, Government o f

Pakistan, (Part IV).
43 Government of Pakistan, Finance Division. Pakistan Economic Survey, 1982-83,
p. 181.
23
Other countries have used non-formal programmes t o impart

primary education. The Republic of Korea, China and Burma have
used primary level evening schools. Such aspects o f primary education usually h e l d outside the formal system, use non-professionals
as teachers, although teachers may be used also, as in the CAPE
project, either for direct teaching, or as supervisors. The CAPE
project has as one o f i t s objectives to develop a non-formal system
o f education as an alternative t o formal schooling. In this project
the aim i s t o give accreditation to the children so that they m a y
either enter the formal school system or continue on another training track using their accreditation f o r entrance.
Complementary programmes m a y utilize school premises o r
school teachers, but d o so in a manner which i s quite separate t o the
formal system. They aim t o give the child a primary school education
but in a manner which s u i t s h i s l i f e circumstances. In Madhya
Pradesh State in India, the primary school course has been condensed
i n t o two years, consisting of 18 graded uni,.s. The child can attend
the course at t h e non-formal education centre a n d d o h i s j o b at the
same time 4 ?
The UCEP scheme in Bangladesh i s similar, with a school day
consisting of t w o hour shifts, six days a week. These models have
simplified and condensed t h e primary school course and have provided
a flexible structure i n t o which t h e child can fit h i s time. They are
suitable for the older drop-out o f 9-11 years o r for t h e older child
w h o never enrolled. The older age level enables t h e child t o pass
rapidly through t h e primary learning sequence and quickly attain
the necessary skills. The shortened school day enables him t o give
time to the process o f earning his living at t h e same time.
These and other new ideas are b o u n d t o increase over t h e
next decade, particularly in the highly populated countries in t h e
region. Non-formal education a t the primary level will become
a viable and practical supplement t o t h e formal system. Such a
system m a y place stress in one o f several ways. As a supplement t o
the formal system, the non-formal approach w o u l d enhance t h e
efficiency o f the formal system and thereby help t o reduce drop-out.
As a complementary system, the non-formal system, usually in a
shortened learning cycle, would be concerned with minimum learning
44 See India reports in this volume
24
A regional overview
competencies rather than the complete primary curriculum. In
t h i s way the non-formal system w o u l d be helping to attain basic
education for all.
Conclusions. The Asian region presents a scene o f wide diversity

between countries, and even within countries, with respect to repetition and drop-out during the primary education cycle. Repetition and
drop-out are m a i n indices of wastage. While drop-out prevails in a
country, i t cannot reach UPE. There i s so m u c h variation between
countries and within countries, that general observations are
extremely difficult t o make. Added t o this i s t h e dearth o f comprehensive data o n drop-outs. What i s available comes usually f r o m
samples or case studies and l i t t l e up-to-date data i s available. The
country reports presented in t h i s volume serve t o point up the data
gaps for the rest of the region.
In general, countries with high drop-out rates have high repetition rates, inadequate school provision, low female enrolment, and
disparities of drop-out between urban and rural children. The issue
of girls enrolment and retention i s particularly crucial for UPE. The
low enrolment o f girls depresses t h e t o t a l enrolment rate. Girls
drop-out rates, usually slightly higher for girls, especially in South
and West Asia, further depletes the number of girls attending school,
with adverse consequences for female literacy rates, and f o r the recruitment of female teachers.
High repetition and high drop-out rates are usually in the early
grades of school. Patterns different from this are due t o exceptional
circumstances. I t i s clear that the war on drop-out will be lost o r won
in the lower grades, particularly grade I.
T h i s fact calls for careful attention t o the grade Ischool environment, the physical setting,
teachers, and learninglteaching materials. This underlines the need
for extensive pre-school classes especially for the rural p o o r and the
deprived and disadvantaged groups of children of a l l localities.
Utilising both community resources and non-formal education, consolidation of the present school system and improvement of
i t s efficiency i s possible, with consequent reduction in drop-out
rates. There i s need for continuous investigation in this area, to
explore newer pathways to solve the problem. Utilization o f community resources i s hardly tapped except in very f e w countries in
the region, but the potential i s great.
25

There i s n o one single o r simple answer t o the problem of
drop-out. There are many desirable measures which may be taken
t o enhance t h e holding power o f the school, but their effectiveness
and importance will vary according t o numerous socio-cultural
factors. B o t h t h e 196745and t h e 198046Unsco surveys f o u n d
l i t t l e correlation between wastage and selected socio-economic
indicators. T h e rather more complex 1980 analysis concluded that
while drop-out wos more closely related t o overall economic, educational and demographic factors, repetition seemed more related t o
fact ors within t h e educational system.
When t h e primary cycle i s over long or too short it can be

changed. F o r instance Thailand shortened i t s primary cycle fr2m
seven t o six years in 197g4?In India, some states count t h e f i r s t
five years as t h e primary cycle and some count only t h e f i r s t four,
leading n o t o n l y t o some overall statistical confusion about what
constitutes t h e primary level, but probably also contributing t o
the drop-out rate at grade IV4?In the Philippines also, rural schools
that end t h e primary level at grade I V probably account for part o f
the drop-out rate observed there? Lengthening the primary cycle
by one year may b e helpful t o upgrade t h e quality o f literacy retent i o n and o f primary education in general. Upgrading o f incomplete
schools must be done also. One o r two-teacher schools are mostly
inadequate f o r t h e attainment o f UPE and elimination o f drop-out.
In some cases, shortening t h e school day may b e useful in
preventing drop-out. In t h e large urban slums, a school day o f only
t w o t o three hours i s far more attractive t o working children than
one o f five or six hours. In some p i l o t projects, a two-hour school
day enables street children t o gain an education, while at t h e same
time n o t neglecting t o earn their o w n livelihood !
45 Unesco Bulletin Vol. 1. No.2. op. cit.
46 Unesco Wastage at Prnnav and General Secondas, Education, op. cit.
47 Ibid. p. 134-135.
48 See Thaiiand report in this volume.

MOMDumlao Valisno. op. cit., p. 43
51 For example, Underprivileged Childrens Educational Project (UCEP) in Bangladesh.

E. Sattar. op. cif., p.105-107.
26
A regional overziew
Shortening t h e school cycle from five t o two years for older
students m a y be a way o f imparting primary education t o them and
preventing drop-out. For the late entrant to the primary sthool, a
shortened primary cycle would b e more attractive than being placed
in the beginning grade with very m u c h younger children.
From very l i m i t e d data presented here, there appears to b e a

strong link between repetition and drop-out with repetition predisposing children towards eventual drop-out. As it would b e easier
t o improve internal conditions inducive of wastage than external
ones, i t seems that one way to prevent drop-out would be t o tackle
f i r s t the problem o f repetition. Measures taken to abolish repetition
and t o improve the holding power and attractiveness of t h e school
might be an indirect way of helping to reduce drop-out also. For
children of the poor and disadvantaged groups, t h e onus should
surely be o n the school t o help them stay in the system and complete
the primary cycle.
There are n o clear c u t answers. However, in the region as a
whole, m u c h progress has been made between 1960 and 1980 with
respect t o increased enrolment ratios, increased retention, decreased
drop-out rates and decreased rates of repetition. During t h i s time,
several countries have increased enrolment t o 95 per cent o r more of
the primary school age-group, and retention to the end of the primary cycle o f 100 per cent. These countries include Malaysia,
Singapore, and the Republic of Korea.
Another group o f countries enrol 90 to 100 per cent o f their
students but experience drop-out during the primary level. These
countries are the Philippines, S r i Lanka, Indonesia, Thailand, Burma
and Viet Nam.
The third group which comprises Afghanistan, Pakistan, India,
Nepal, Bhutan, and Bangladesh, enrol less than 90 per cent. o f their
age-group and they experience high drop-out rates usually in excess
o f 50 per cent. As compared with 1960 however, these countries
have also improved their position.
In t h e push for WE, the elimination o f drop-out i s possibly
the most vital factor. As H.M. Phillips stated, in h i s comprehensive
world survey, the greatest single quantitative contribution t o b e
I t the schools could retain
made would b e to eliminate drop-out:?
all those who enrol, the boost to the literacy rate would be significant
52 H.M. Phillips. Basic Education : A World Challenge. London, John Wiley, 1975.
p. 142.
27
and the efficiency of the school system greatly enhanced. Unfortunatele drop-out occurs, even in those countries with fairly high literacy
rates, while the problem in those with literacy rates less than 40 per
cent i s severe.
In general, factors affecting drop-out, both those internal
as w e l l as external t o the educational system are w e l l known. The
importance of these factors will vary between countries and between
regions within the countries. The use of more incentives needs consideration, and continued encouragement should be given to disadvantaged groups especially to the very poor and to girls. Involvement
of the community in the primary educational process has hardly begun, but several experimental models illustrate ways of community
participation. In the same way, non-formal structures and approaches
m a y b e extended to supplement the existing formal primary school
system.
Measures taken need not be costly. Structural reorganization i s
almost cost free and y e t can b e effective. Automatic promotion to
abolish repetition i s not a n expensive measure, particularly if skilled
community persons are used to help children overcome difficulties
and keep up with their grade level. Tapping community resources
m a y b e the most cost-effective measure and also the most educationally rewarding, particularly in provision of basic educational infrastructure. The measures are not simple, but given the political and
administrative will to eliminate drop-out in the drive for UPE, m u c h
can be accomplished to bring equality of opportunity t o every c h i l d
who enrols, as experiences of the countries reported here illustrate.
28
SHAANXI PROVINCE, PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

Introduction
During t h e period from July t o October 1983, the Shaanxi
Pedagogical I n s t i t u t e made an inquiry i n t o the question o f drop-out
in t h e primary schools in t h e rural areas o f Huxian County, Shaanxi
Province, w i t h a view t o studying t h e effect o f t h e policy, orientation
and measures adopted in primary education in t h e countryside.
The survey covered t h e population, natural resources, economic

development a n d educational facilities o f the H u x i a n County, and
attempted t o investigate t h e actual situation o f t h e schoolage
children and t h e 3 13 primary schools o f t h e whole county.
The findings show that, relying o n t h e superior socialist system

and under t h e leadership o f t h e County Committee o f t h e Communist
Party o f China, t h e vast number o f educators and t h e broad masses
o f t h e people o f Huxian County have achieved universal primary
education in the county after hard w o r k over a period o f more than
30 years, and especially in the recent five years.
The enrolment in t h e primary schools has reached 70,922,

which i s 15.1 per cent o f t h e t o t a l population. T h e average enrolment rate i s over 98 per cent in the past five years, t h e stable enrolment rate being maintained at 97 p e r cent. T h e rate o f drop-out has
been reduced t o 1.04 per cent and t h e rate o f graduation has reached
88.8 per cent.
The universalization o f primary education in H u x i a n County

shows that although t h e development o f education i s naturally governed by economic growth, it is, at t h e same time, affected by political
and other factors.
T h e survey covers the following aspects:
- A Brief View o f Huxian County

- Educational Development in Huxian County, a Historical
Review
- Sampling Analysis o f Drop-out in Huxian Primary Schools

29

-
Measures Taken t o Reduce Drop-out in Huxian County
- H u x i a n Countys Experience in Universal Primary Educa-
tion
- Thoughts o n the Countys Education in Future

A brief view of Huxian County
H u x i a n County i s situated in t h e middle o f Guanzhong Plain,
about 40 kilometres from t h e provincial capital, t h e ancient c i t y o f
Xian. I t has a t o t a l area o f ,255 square kilometres, including a
mountainous area o f 704 square kilometres. T h e whole county
consists o f twenty-three communes and towns, including t w o mountain communes, with a total population o f 469,550 in 94,944 households. T h e agricultural population i s 418,850, in 86,990 households.
Being endowed with favourable natural conditions, fertile
land, mild climate and r i c h resources, t h e county i s often known as
Silver Huxian.
Huxian County i s n o w one o f t h e grain and c o t t o n base areas
of Shaanxi Province. T h e main cereal crops are wheat, rice and
maize, while t h e industrial crops include cotton, rape, peanuts,
cayenne pepper and garlic. According t o t h e recent data there are
such mineral resources as gold, copper, iron, quartz, marble, limestone, graphite, asbestos, talcum, dolomite and red feldspar.
Since t h e Third Plenary Session o f t h e Eleventh Central Comm i t t e e o f t h e Communist Party o f China, t h e economic development
o f t h e county has been gaining impetus. In 1982, t h e gross industrial
and agricultural output value o f t h e county topped 200 million yuan,
surpassing all previous records.
As t h e economic situation improved, it has provided increased

material assurances for educational development. N o w t h e county
has 375 middle and primary schools, among which there are 13
senior middle schools and regular middle schools, 27 junior middle
schools, four agricultural schools, 258 regular primary schools (including 42 primary schools with j u n i o r middle school classes attached),, and 73 lower primary schools. There are also one teachers
training school and one kindergarten run by the county.
Approximately 1.Y8 Chinese Yuan ( y ) =One United States dollar.
30
China
T h e t o t a l enrolment o f t h e middle and primary schools i s
106,278, among which there are 7,173 senior middle school students,
27,668 j u n i o r middle school students, 515 agricultural school students
and 70,922 pupils. The number o f teaching and administrative staff
o f middle and primary schools i s 5,564, o f which 2,606 are in middle
schools and 2,929 in primary schools. The enrolment o f students has
increased by 5 1 per cent and t h e number o f teaching and administrative staff by 280 per cent, as compared with t h e respective figures
o f 1965. Since the restoration o f the college entrance examination in
1977, 4,954 new students have been sent t o institutions o f higher
education and specialized secondary schools, f r o m H u x i a n County.
Educational development in Huxian County: A historical review

In the Qing Dynasty, t h e literati pursued their studies in
academies o f classical learning o r o l d style private schools, and
scholars were selected f o r the officialdom through t h e imperial
examination system. Towards t h e end o f t h e Qing Dynasty, some
forms o f innovations in education were initiated, with t h e result
that t h e imperial examination system was abolished and Westernized
schools were set up. After t h e Revolution o f 1911, education in
such types o f schools spread gradually.
In t h e last years o f t h e Qing Dynasty, t h e academy o f classical
learning in Huxian County, i.e., Mingdao Academy, was closed, and a
higher primary school w a s set up in i t s place. Later, it was named
t h e First County Higher Primary School. This was t h e earliest new
type school founded in H u x i a n County.
Under t h e sponsorship o f the Chinese patriots, educational

undertakings made m u c h headway in Huxian County. By 1933,
there were already t e n higher primary schools and 235 lower p i mary schools in t h e county. Nevertheless, as t h e labouring people
were living in poverty, none o f them could a f f o r d t o send their
children t o school. I t was o n l y those f r o m t h e well-to-do families
who could get an education. Until 1949, t h e enrolment rate o f
school-aged children w a s s t i l l below 3 0 per cent.
After the founding o f t h e Peoples Republic o f China, t h e
Chinese Communist Party and t h e Peoples Government paid great
attention t o cultural emancipation o f t h e labouring people and
their childrens right t o receive an education. They n o t o n l y organized
numerous learn-to-read classes t o wipe o u t illiteracy among t h e
31
young m e n and women, but also exerted a l l efforts to make primary

education universal. By 1955, the enrolment rate of the primary
schools in H u x i a n County h a d already risen t o 70 per cent. In 1958,
the number o f pupils in the primary schools reached 45,333, a n
increase o f 15,792 over that of 1956, and the enrolment rate increased to 97 per cent. During the period o f the temporary difficulties
for three years (1960-1962), the enrolment rate dropped. F r o m the
Period o f Readjustment till 1965, the county set up 341 part-farming
and part-study schools, in addition t o the 94 regular primary schools
and 233 lower primary schools. The number of pupils rose again t o
59,354, and the enrolment rate returned to 97 per cent.
During t h e ten years of great disturbances, o f the Cultural

Revolution, the steadily developing national economy suffered serious
setbacks and the newly flourishing educational undertakings were
also affected. The state-paid teachers of the county were sent t o the
countryside t o do manual labour. The part-farming and part-study
schools were closed down, and the school-houses, furniture, books,
teaching apparatus and other facilities were neglected. Some classes
were given in mills o r o n stages. Earthen platforms and wooden
boards o f t e n served as tables o r benches. Some students brought
their own stools and did t h e writing sn t h e i r laps. School administrat i o n w a s chaotic. In 1972, the statistics showed that the enrolment
rate o f the school-age children of the whole county was only 88 per
cent, while the drop-out rate was around 10 per cent.
In 1976, the Bureau o f Education o f H u x i a n County spent
a year consolidating the 375 middle and primary schools in the
county. The Bureau appointed headmasters and deans f o r the 261
regular primary schools and sent senior teachers t o the 91 lower
primary schools. Teachers f r o m state-run schools were required t o
register anew, and their qualifications checked. Teachers in schools
run by local people were subjected t o a comprehensive examination
concerning their cultural level, teaching experience and state of
health. 480 unqualified teachers were dismissed. Files were established for teachers in schools run by local people, and the teachers were
issued certificates of appointment o r probation. T h i s has laid a good
foundation for universal primary education.
The Bureau also urged a l l the schools t o check school property
and accounts and established a rational system of administration.
The teachers and students were called upon t o mend school walls,
32
China
tidy up the school yards and repair the desks and benches. T h e
teachers were encouraged to take initiatives in teaching, and the
students, to study diligently. The state of disorder in the schools
w a s completely changed.
After t h e National Conference o n Educational Work h e l d in
1978, the Party Committee and the Peoples Government o f H u x i a n
County studied the documents of the conference in earnest, reviewed
the educational work, summed up their experience, drew lessons
from the past, and applied these to the current situation. They
speeded up the elimination of illiteracy andset about establishing
universal primary education. A f t e r five years of assiduous effort,
remarkable success has been achieved. Illiteracy has been wiped out
among most of the young m e n and women, and primary education
has been made nearly universal.
Sampling analysis of drop-out

Raising the stable enrolment rate and reducing the drop-out
rate i s the k e y t o universal primary education. The Bureau of Education o f H u x i a n County has made it a r u l e t o check t h e drop-out in
primary schools, analyse the causes, and adopt appropriate measures
at the beginning and the end of each school term. T h i s has been carried out every year with perseverance. An extensive inquiry about
drop-outs in the 3 13 primary schools of the whole county was made
inJuly 1983.
Table 1. Drop-out at the various grades m primary schools, HuxianCounty

1982-1983)
(School
Item
NO.
Grade
Total No.
of
Pupils
No. of Dropout
Total
Boys
Girls
Drop-out
Rate
(per cent)
Grade
13271
92
50
42
0.63
Grade
12783
66
27
39
0.52
Grade
iI1
14347
140
47
93
0.97
Grade
iV
16273
237
104
133
1.30
Grade
14248
207
91
116
1.45
70922
742
322
420
1.04
Total
33

Table 1 shows that the number of female drop-outs i s larger
than that of males, and the number for the higher grades exceeds
that for t h e lower grades. The reason i s that people do not p a y
m u c h attention to girls schooling owing to t h e influence o f the
remnant feudalistic ideology. This has i t s historical and social roots.
In Old China, the traditional concept was: Ignorance i s a virtue of
women. As girls were t o get married sooner o r later, very few o f
them went to school. Although more than 30 years have elapsed
since liberation, some people have not yet freed themselves from
the feudal ideological yoke o f regarding m e n as supeior t o women.
The different situations in the mountain area and the plains
district have also been examined.
Table 2 shows that the drop-out rate in the mountain area i s
higher than that in t h e plains district. According to statistics of recent years, t h e enrolment rate in the mountain area i s about 5 per
cent lower than that in the plains district. Statistics of drop-outs
f r o m t h e well-off suburb commune, the Shijing Commune, which
i s economically a l i t t l e below the average, and t h e relatively poor
Taping Commune in the Qinling Mountains, have also been analyzed.
The statistics in Table 3 show that the drop-out rate in the

well developed area i s relatively l o w compared to the others. T h e
economic conditions o f t h e three communes are shown in Table 4.
From the above figures t h e higher the pupils grade i s and the
older t h e pupils grow, the higher the drop-out rate becomes. T h i s
i s the consequence brought about by t h e traditional contempt for
education. This way o f thinking, comes f r o m the influence of t h e selfsufficient small scale peasant economy. China has had a long period
o f feudal society o f over 2,000 years, in which the self-sufficient
small scale peqsant economy occupied a dominant position. One of
t h e characteristics o f this economy i s reflected in the saying: Men
are to plough and women t o weave. People acquired the knowledge
they needed in their daily l i f e and production f r o m t h e simple
experience o f their fore-fathers, without resorting t o culture and
education. T h i s mode o f production and way o f living served to
m o u l d their views on knowledge and education. Such remnant influences can s t i l l b e observed today. Short-sighted parents l e t their
school children help in household and farm chores so as to add a
l i t t l e t o t h e family earnings, without thinking of the future.
34
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37
China
in Zu-an Commune, there are .35 pupil drop-outs (accounting

f o r 0.8 per cent of the t o t a l number of pupils o f the commune),
of whom 17 (49 per cent of the drop-outs) serve as family auxiliary
labourers. The situation i s more or less the same with Songcun
Commune and Pangguang Commune.
Table 5 gives i s an analysis of pupil drop-out in Zu-an Commune, Songcun Commune and Pangguang.
With regard t o sex, the number o f drop-out girls i s larger than

that of boys; as to locality difference, the drop-out rate in t h e mountain area i s higher than in t h e plains; so far as the economic condi.tions are concerned, the ra.te in underdeveloped areas exceeds that in
well-developed areas; and in respect of age and grade, the number in
the higher grades i s above that in the lower grades. Pupils leave
school more often because of financial difficulties or lack of labour
force in the family, than for other reasons.
Huxian County i s one o f the counties in Shaanxi Province and

in the Northwest, whose educational undertakings has developed fairl y rapidly, and hence the question o f pupil drop-out i s n o t very
serious. But ifpositive preventive measures are not taken, new illiterates will certainly appear. in view o f this, a t the beginning of the f a l l
term t h i s year, the County Bureau o f Education organized an inspect i o n team to find out how a l l the schools undertook t o get the
school-agers enrolled in the n e w term.
Measures taken to reduce the drop-out rate

a)
Developmenel motivation. A f t e r the Third Plenary Session of
the Eleventh Central Committee of the Communist Party o f China,
the economic system in the countryside in H u x i a n County changed a
great deal. The agricultural economy developed quickly with the
practice of various systems o f production. The economy thrived and
the peasnts grew rich. Presently, agriculture i s in a period o f transition from the traditional t o the m o d e m production practices. Peasants
have come to realize that the past experience in production, handed
d o w n from older generations, and the conventional farming methods
can hardly fit in with the needs of developing r u r a l agriculture. The
broad masses of the peasants earnestly demand better education,
the training o f qualified and talented persons, and scientific farming experiments.
38
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China
Cadres at the county level said that reports o n scientific

farming and diversified economy organized in t h e county were most
welcome. All t h e peasants w h o had some schooling were eager t o
consult this kind o f report, as w e l l as materials o n science and technology in agriculture. Statistics show that 1 6 training sessions o n
science and technology were organized by the departments concerned in t h e county in 1982, totalling more than 23,600 (person time). The above figures suggest that peasants have a b e t t e r understanding of the importance of intelligence investment. They were
n o t satisfied with t h e conditions o f t h e existent primary schools
where boys at earthen desks became dusty toys after class hours.
b)
improving school facilities. There was a great deal o f mass

support for improving education, b o t h by the collective and by
individuals. In four years time, the problem has been solved. Contributions have been made by the State, with t h e collective makingup o f remaining amount from t h e local school funds. Thus, classrooms, desks and other school facilities are now, by and large, sufficient. Necessary funds were guaranteed t o provide f o r universal
elementary education and help lower t h e rate o f dropouts.
During t h e four years f r o m 1979 t o 1982, t h e people o f
Huxian County invested over 6,380,000 yuan in increasing school
facilities, o u t of which a s u p i o f approximately 4,800,000 was from
collective capital, including t h e conversion o f labour power and
building materials. I t was about 75 per cent o f t h e t o t a l investment,
averaging 12 yuan per head o n t h e basis o f t h e local rural population.
They built 3,401 bays o f new classrooms, with a t o t a l floor space o f
33.3 per cent o f t h e figure p r i o r t o 1979. Most o f t h e new classroom
buildings are of b r i c k and timber construction. The length, width
and daylighting of these classrooms generally are in accordance with
t h e teaching requirements. They also repaired and rebuilt 2,6 16 bays
o f o l d classrooms. T h e floor space o f all t h e new classrooms and the
repaired o r rebuilt ones i s 47.per cent o f t h e t o t a l space. In t h e
meantime, they bought and repaired 33,236 sets o f desks and benches, o r 60 per cent o f t h e t o t a l number existent presently in the whole
county. Now, there i s n o building considered as dangerous in 90 per
cent o f t h e county schools; every class has i t s own classroom; 98 per
cent o f the pupils have wooden desks and benches; teachers have
office and bedroom in one, and w r i t i n g tables, chairs and beds t o
furnish their rooms; 85 per cent o f schools there have their school
signs, gates, walls, gardens *and sports ground; 70 per cent o f the
40
China
schools have small plots for agricultural production. This has improved the study conditions f o r t h e pupils remarkably. Whereas onefifth o f t h e pupils had t o have their classes in stock rooms or on
theatre stages and more than 50,000 pupils sat at earthen desks and
uneven stools in class before these improvements were made.
Pupils are at school t o learn h o w t o read and w r i t e and t o grow
healthily, and that t h e school should b e a childrens paradise. Yet,
in the past, there were only small playgrounds in most o f t h e primary
schools in Huxian County. The pupils did n o t have many outside
activities except running or playing among themselves. In 1982,
having generally solved the problem o f providing adequate school
buildings and furnishings, t h e Huxian Educational Bureau called on
t h e masses o f peasants, t h e school authorities and production brigades and teams t o give financial and material support, and gather
and make use o f waste materials f o r helping t h e schools w i t h sports
apparatus. They also adopted methods o f granting subsidies and
rewards by t h e Government. As a result, more than 5,200 items of
sports apparatus were turned out, which cost over 150,000 yuan.
T h e part subsidied and awarded b y t h e government was only 30,000
yuan. Now, 80 per cent of t h e primary schools have table tennis,
badminton, swings, teeter-totters (see-saws), slides and sandy areas
w i t h jumping facilities.
Some even have steel stands for basket ball games and a 60
metre track. Students have a great variety o f significant activities for
t h e i r Physical Training classes and after class activities. They are
no longer merely fooling around. T h e peasants said satisfactorily,
Now the school looks l i k e a school. Children ali love t o go t o
school. Some nearby pre-school aged children often beg their
grandparents earnestly t o take them there t o have fun, as i f t o
quench their t h i r s t .
Whats more, in t h e f i r s t half o f 1983, t h e county mobilized
t h e masses o f peasants t o contribute money f o r t h e purchase o f more
than 5,500 pieces o f teaching apparatus. T h i s was approximately
50,000 yuan worth, equivalent t o t h e three years t o t a l appropriation
by t h e Government.
T o improve school conditions i s an important factor among
others in the reduction o f the drop-out rate and in raising t h e rate o f
universal education.
41
c)
Removing bad influences. On t h e other hand, in order t o reduce t h e drop-out rate, i t i s also important t o eliminate bad influences frpm the o l d society and bring about changes in peoples
views. The correct way o f achieving t h e purpose i s by reasoning,
educating and giving systematic guidance. F o r example, at the meetings f o r cadres f r o m production brigades, communes, and the county
departments, and a t general membership meetings, t h e leading cadres
o f the county government emphasized t h e important role and status
o f culture and education, and o f women, in social l i f e and production, and the characteristics of t h e economic transition o f China. In
so doing, people were taught t o understand t h e significance o f cult u r e and education, and of sending girls t o school, as they would
boys. Practice shows that t h i s kind o f purposeful propaganda and
education have produced a significant effect. Now, o u t o f t h e 70,922
pupils, t h e t o t a l number presently at school, about 36,000 are boys
and about 34,000 are girls.
d)
Using flexible measures. T h e development in t h e economy and
culture i s different in different areas. Huxian County, though n o t
very large, has mountain areas and flatlands, and some production
teams and communes are wealthy, some comparatively poor. In
order t o reduce t h e drop-out rate, many flexible measures have been
t a k e n f o r different cases.
The rise o f t h e drop-out rate o f t h e whole county was mainly
due t o t h e increasing number o f drop-outs in mountain areas. T o
solve this problem, Huxian County adopted t h e following measures:
- Providing several teaching sites for one school - t h e locations of t h e teaching sites were related t o t h e specific
characteristics o f t h e mountainous region. F o r example,
L a o y u Commune set up four regular primary schools and
1 7 lower primary schools for 781 pupils in the whole
commune.
-
A d o p t i n g a variety o f forms in running schools: full-time

programmes, part-time programmes, morning and evening
classes; and pupils were given special permission t o bring
their younger brothers and sisters with them.
Helping t h e pupils t o overcome some particular difficulties

o n t h e i r way t o school. Wangxianping Primary School o f
Baimiao Peoples Commune i s situated o n a mountain top,
some thousand metres above sea level. The mountain paths
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China
were narrow and slippery o n snowy o r rainy days. Pupils
had t o give up the journey completely until t h e following
spring. One model teacher, convinced teachers t o repair
t h e paths. Furthermore, h e rebuilt a radio as a two-way
transmitter, so that, in p o o r weather the teacher could
teach at school, while t h e students listened and talked t o
him f r o m t h e i r home. The County Education Bureau
examined the good experience o f t h e school and t h e n provided every primary school in t h e mountain areas with a
two-way transmitter set.
- Providing the schools with teachers in mountain areas. The

schools there badly needed teachers, so t h e County Bureau
selected some senior middle school graduates f r o m plain
areas, assessed t h e i r proficiency, and t h e n sent t h e qualified ones t o teach in t h e mountain areas. T h e State paid
them regular salaries and gave them special subsidies t o
cover the expenses o f shoes and socks, heating and class
activities.
-
Making regular inspections o f mountain area schools by

t h e County Education Bureau. T h i s enabled the Bureau
members t o solve problems right o n t h e spot. The t w o
heads of t h e County Education Bureau visited every
mountain area school, b i g o r small.
The County Education Bureau stipulated that t h e school

authorities in any part o f the county should find ways t o help pupils
from p o o r families t o cover their t u i t i o n fees. Weibei Primary School
and Xingxing Village School carried out part w o r k and part study
programmes. They organized pupils in growing vegetables, in the
school yards and in gathering medicinal herbs. Thus the pupils did
not have t o pay f o r t h e i r books. T h e County Education Bureau
granted subsidies t o mountain areas which lacked funds for education. These subsidies were based o n the financial situations in different teams and brigades, and were given in t w o ways: either incidental grants or regular subsidies. As a result, some pupils from the
poorer families were able t o complete their elementary schooling.
e)
Quaiity of education. Reducing t h e drop-out r?te and increasing the regular attendance rate are b o t h closely related t o the quality
of the teaching staff. The quality of primary school education cannot
be guaranteed without a well-qualified teaching staff. That i s why
Huxian County has also devoted m u c h attention t o t h e training o f
43
teachers. Among 2,929 primary school teachers in the whole county,

2,109 (72 per cent) are n o t state-paid teachers but are f r o m schools
run by the local people. Some o f these local teachers did n o t have
m u c h schooling themselves, and sometimes even misled pupils in
their learning; some knew l i t t l e about teaching techniques and the
effects o f their teaching remained poor; some could n o t maintain
discipline among the pupils so the school spirit was n o t good; some
were n o t qualified teachers at all o r n o t fit f o r the teaching post.
Since 1978, the County Education Bureau has consolidated the
teaching staff three times, discharging more than 700 unqualified or
incompetent staff members. F o r t h e purpose of raising the working
efficiency o f t h e teachers in service, the county ran a special school
f o r teachers t o undertake advanced studies. All communes in the
county set up branch schools for teachers full time, o r short-term
programmes o f training for teachers. They organized teachers in
taking correspondence courses, carrying o u t research activities, and
learning by self-instruction. Through a variety o f channels, they
succeeded in raising the vocational competence o f teachers t o different levels. After reorganization and training, the political and
cultural quality o f the teachers was improved. According t o an
investigation, about 80 per cent o f t h e teachers are well qualified
and fit for their teaching jobs now. The number o f teachers f o r m
schools run by the local people tends t o remain stable. Many o f
them have become the backbone of the teaching staff.
T o popularize elementary education, i t i s n o t enough that
a l l the school-age children are at school; the quality o f education
should also be taken i n t o serious consideration, The primary schools
in Huxian County attach great importance t o t h e all-round implementation of t h e Partys educational policy and try by every
means possible t o improve t h e quality o f learning and teaching.
They pay great attention t o educating pupils in t h e light o f the
Four Insists, patriotism, communist morality and ideals. Besides
that, they earnestly put the Pupils Regulations i n t o effect and
actively carry o u t the Five Stresses and Four Points o f Beauty
and Be-Good-at-Three (keep fit, study hard and w o r k well) Movement according t o the students characteristics. N o w the school
spirit, discipline, and the learning environment have changed a great
deal. The pupils style o f study has changed completely. There were
6,733 three-good pupils in the whole county, about one-tenth o f
t h e t o t a l number. They made great efforts to teach all the pupils
undisparagingly and raise their basic knowledge. Also they cultivated
44
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their practical ability, and helped those students who were lagging
behind in their studies by giving them individual coaching. Gradually,
the learner achievements were m u c h improved. At the same time,
they insisted on having Physical training (PT) classes, morning
exercises and outside class activities and carried o u t The National
Physical Training Standards. Together with the health departments,
they took an active part in the prevention of diseases. They gave
special care to the training of PT, music and a r t s teachers. And the
students o f t e n h e l d sports games, and painting, handwriting and
singing contests. Through these activities, the educational quality was
raised and the drop-out rate reduced.
To prevent drop-outs, it i s necessary t o strengthen management. They believe a stable school attendance can-r only be achieved
through strengthened management and consistent w o r k in that
respect. This i s not a task which should be done j u s t once or twice,
and could not be accomplished in one or two years. Since 1980, they
have made it a rule that all the primary schools must register schoolaged children at the beginning of the school year. Teachers went
f r o m house t o house and village t o village to get the school-age
children to go to school. Every mid-year they h a d a general check-up
on t h e work. W o r d was given that any drop-out pupils could r e t u r n
to class whenever they wanted t o and no one should look d o w n upon
them. I f pupils h a d any difficulties, the school authorities were ready
to help; teachers were sent to help with make-up work for missed
classes; permission was given to allow them to bring their younger
brothers or sisters with them t o school or to study part time. To
raise the rate o f graduates they stipulated that schools should ask
the pupils under 15 years o f age who h a d done five years courses, but
were n o t up to the requirements, to repeat unsuccessful courses at
school. Any school with a high drop-out rate or repeater rate was not
fit t o be an advanced school.
Huxian Countys experience in universal primary education
H u x i a n County has achieved remarkable success in universaliz-
ing primary education. Their rich experience i s highly enlightening.

The following i s a brief summary of a f e w of the aspects.
a)
The study a n d understanding of policies and procedures. Early
in 1973, everything was n o t in i t s normal way o f development. The
leaders in H u x i a n County h e l d the view that they should not b e
condemned if they endeavoured to help children go to school. A f t e r
45
studying t h e relevant instructions o f Comrade Mao Ze Dong and

Comrade Z h o u En-lais directive, Universal primary education i s a
basic policy o f ours, they came t o a better understanding o f the
problem. During that year, they made special efforts in the work,
and the enrolment o f school-aged children noticeably increased.
In Ganhe Commune, which i s situated in the northwest o f
Huxian County in the Weihe River and t h e Ganhe River basin, the
peasants had fairly good education. They used new technology in
agricultural production and practiced scientific farming o n a large
scale q u i t e early. In the Xisongcun Production Brigade o f this commune, the average grain yield per mu* reached 1,166 jin* in 1982.
T w o hundred and thirty thousand jin o f No. 21 1 wheat, an improved
variety, were sent t o the seeds company o f the county. S i x t h per
cent o f the families got an income o f 1,000 yuan. O n t h e contrary,
in some other communes and production brigades very l i t t l e progress
in agricultural production was made due t o lacking adequate educat i o n and due t o using o l d methods o f cultivation. Practice and
reality taught the county leaders that it was impossible t o bring
about agricultural modernization in the countryside which i s full o f
illiterate and semi-illiterate peasants; that if t h e peasants had n o
education, they could n o t master modern agricultural technology,
and that if t h e broad masses o f t h e labouring people remained
uneducated, nothing could be mentioned o f t h e achievement o f
material civilization and moral virtues.
After the Third Plenary Session o f the Eleventh Central Comm i t t e e o f t h e Communist Party o f China, the Party Committee o f
Huxian County vigorously l e d the w o r k o f bringing order out o f
chaos and taking measures for thorough-going reform o n the educational front. As a result, negative influences were eliminated and the
enthusiasm of vast numbers o f teachers and educators was aroused.
The Twelfth National Congress o f the Party showed great foresight
by pointing o u t that education was one o f the important strategic
elements.
T h e Bureau o f Education o f Huxian County made a serious
study o f Comrade Deng Xiaopings exposition o n educational work
and o f the documents o f the T w e l f t h National Congress. They further
understood that in order t o realize t h e glorious goal o f making the
annual gross industrial and agricultural o u t p u t value four times as
See Table 4 for an explanationof these terms.
46
China
much as that o f the previous year by the end o f t h i s century, it was
n o t enough j u s t t o r e l y o n more investment, more equipment and
more manpower. T o strive f o r scientific and technological progress
and better management was also necessary, and education w a s the
foundation for training and bringing up qualified scientists and
technicians and raising t h e level o f science and technology and
management. Universal primary education was t h e cornerstone o f
t h i s foundation. They also realized that pupils today w o u l d shoulder
t h e task of building the country ten or twenty years later, and
whether or n o t they w o u l d be brought up as a new generation with
ideals, morality, culture and discipline w o u l d b e of vital importance
t o the f u t u r e o f t h e country and the people.
O n the other hand, they also saw that after the implementat i o n o f t h e system o f production responsibility in t h e countryside,
changes occurred in the system o f agricultural economic management, in t h e structure w i t h i n agriculture, and in the ways o f farming.
There emerged a vigorous mass campaign among the peasants, for
studying and using science. Since 1980, peasants technical schools
have been set up one after another, and have enjoyed great popularity. There are 437 families in Xisongcun Production Brigade o f Ganhe
Commune. They set up a central technical school for peasants with
affiliated agricultural and fruit-cultivating schools. They also formed
advisory groups t o give instructions o n cultivation, manuring, pestsprevention and farm machinery repairing. These appeared in t h e
brigade one hundred families with science and technology,
amounting t o 27 per cent o f t h e t o t a l households. Liangzhuang
Production Brigade ran a peasants technical school which planned t o
take in 30 students. But when the school started, 60 people came t o
at tend t h e c lasses.
Through practice and reality, the leaders o f t h e Party Committee, and the administration o f Huxian County, further realized the
position and role o f education in accomplishing modernization o f
agriculture. They went all out t o tap t h e potentialities f o r investment
in education. According t o the statistics, the t o t a l expenditure o f the
county in t h e period 1979-1982 was 47,198,000 yuan, o f which
13,414,000 yuan, i.e. 28 per cent o f the t o t a l was funds f o r education. T h i s figure has been rising yearly.
b)
The key step i s t o enhance management. As the leaders o f the

county and the comrades o f the educational and administrative
47
departments attached importance to education and gained a better

understanding of the problem, they quickly adopted effective
measures.
Twice they readjusted the distribution o f the schools.
The f i r s t time, they combined 85 scattered senior middle
schools and nine-year course schools i n t o 22 senior middle
schools (or complete middle schools). The second time,
they combined 22 senior middle schools and 88 eight-year
course schools i n t o 13 senior middle schools (or complete
schools) and 27 junior middle schools. The number of
primary schools with junior middle school classes attached
was reduced t o 41. In t h i s way, more money could b e
spared and more teachers provided for primary school.
They made every effort to enlist financial support t o improve the conditions needed for running schools.
They selected a number of persons with dedication and
professional skills t o be the heads o f the schools. At
present, all the headmasters and deans are selected and
assigned t o the primary schools by the Bureau of Education o f the county. Every year, they are subject to a proficiency assessment to guard against incompetent school
leadership.
They r e t u r n the power of recruitment, assignment and
transference of teachers to the Bureau of Education, thus
p u t t i n g an end t o teachers being asked freely t o do other
kinds of work. The assignment of graduates from normal
schools w a s also put under the jurisdiction of the Bureau.
They improved the system of management by dividing the
county into several educational inspection districts and
appointing a cadre t o b e in charge o f education in every
commune, thus ensuring the fulfilment of a l l the work
concerning education.
They persistently carried on regular supervision and inspect i o n of t h e educational work. The county head responsible
f o r education, the Director o f the Bureau of Education
and the cadres o f the communes in charge of education a l l
fulfilled their tasks. In 1981 a work team headed by the
leading comrades of the Standing Committee of the
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Countys Peoples Congress checked o n the educational
w o r k in Dawang Commune. Immediately afterwards, they
put forward t o t h e departments concerned proposals f o r
improving t h e conditions f o r running schools. The schools
of the commune soon t o o k o n a new look. T h e County
Bureau o f Education also organized inspection teams t o
check o n the w o r k o f the schools several t i m e s a year.
vii)
Education w a s placed o n the agenda o f t h e Party Committee and o f the Peoples Government o f H u x i a n County.
Discussions and studies o f t h e problems were undertaken
whenever i t was necessary. Education w a s always an important i t e m included in their summaries and w o r k plans.
Thanks to the above mentioned measures, t h i s county
has achieved marked progress in universal primary education. Practice has proved that, under t h e present conditions, unity o f thinking, better understanding, strengthened Partys leadership and improved management are the
key t o an early realization o f universal primary education
and reduction o f t h e rop-out rate.
Reliance on the masses and adherance to the policy of Wdking o n Two Legs are the main effective means. There i s great
enthusiasm among t h e masses for setting up and running schools. In
Huxian County, t h e people consider it not a burden, but something
f o r t h e i r own benefit, to bring up t h e young and t o set up and run
schools. They have already gained advantages f r o m t h e development
o f education. In songcun Commune, 70 per cent o f t h e drivers o f big
and small tractors are middle school graduates. A leading cadre f r o m
the factory said: These youngsters have n o t gone t o school f o r
nothing. They are intelligent and clever with their hands. They can
d o whatever they are taught. We depend o n them to riln the factory.
c)
Table 6. Level of education of teenage young and middle-aged agricuitural workers

UNIT: person
Semiinitemte
Lower Primary
School
Higher Rimry
Sch 001
Junior Middle
School
Senior Middle
School
11,814
22,153
34,486
45,128
21,604
141,599
15%
23.4%
30.8%
18.7
100%
12.1%
(in
Huxian County)
49
Total

Table 7. Level of education of young and middleaged people
UNIT: person
Desirouso f Learning
90
37%
With Special Skiiis
58
23.9%
1.2%
Semi-illiterate
Lower Primary School
13
5.3%
Higher Primary School
67
27.5%
Junior Middle School
113
46.5%
Senior Middle School
48
19.8%
Female
127
52.3%
Male
116
47.7%
Total
243
100%
(in Houjiamiao Production Brigade, Wuzhu Commune, Huxian County)
Table 8. Level of education of the peasant-families

Level of Education
Sub- total
Number of Households
Welktedo
Families
Ordinary
Families
Semi-iiiterate
Lower Primary School
Higher Primary School
23
20
Junior Middle School
44
16
28
Senior Middle School
26
17
96
28
68
Total
(Related to income level in the first production team of Mafang Brigade of Ganhe Commune, the fnst production team o f Zhandong Brigade, Yuxia Commune, and the second
production team of Houjiamiao Brigade o f Wuzhu Commune)
T h e above tables show t h a t the young and middle-aged people

in Huxians countryside have quite good education. The level of
education i s in direct ratio t o the level of income of the families.
These educated people indeed p l a y an important role on the forefront of production. There are 256 specialized technicians and 2,578
peasant-technicians, who are s t i l l engaged in production at the basic
50
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level, working at t h e four levels o f the agricultural science n e t w o r k in
the county. B o t h figures are slightly higher than those o f t h e present
level o f the whole country.
The reality has inspired t h e masses. In H u x i a n County, the

masses zeal f o r promoting education i s mainly shown in the following aspects:
i) They act o n their own initiative t o run schools. When t h e

poor conditions o f t h e schools are observed, many brigades send
representatives t o t h e County Bureau o f Education t o ask for the
approval o f their own plans and suggestions f o r renovations. In most
o f the cases, o l d party secretaries and old brigade leaders t a k e u p o n
themselves t o collect funds, organize manpower and arrange f o r
construction work. They regard helping in running schools as something desirable t o d o in their remaining years, f o r t h e children and
grandchildren o f their villages.
ii) They are always ready t o spend money o n schools. T h e
peasants k n o w that their country i s n o t very r i c h and it i s t h e i r duty
t o take o u t their o w n money f o r the use o f t h e school. Hence each
team, each village, tries t o do i t s best t o help run t h e schools with o r
without subsidies f r o m the State. Zhengzhuang Production Brigade,
Niudong Commune t o o k three years t o complete the construction
o f a primary school, which cost more than 55,000 yuan. Every
commune member contributed 34 yuan. Pang Zhongxiang, a commune member o f Zhangliangzhai Brigade, Qindu Commune, donated
2,000 yuan t o t h e building o f more classrooms f o r the primary
school. Many peasants have subscribed t o newspapers, magazines,
purchased alarm clocks and made desks and stools f o r their children
in order that they can devote themselves t o their studies and catch
up with the good pupils.
iii) They are concerned about the quality o f teaching and

learning. They dare to criticize t h e principals and teachers w h o lack
sense o f responsibility in their work. Some even ask the county
leaders t o have such people removed.
iv) They care f o r t h e l i f e o f the teachers and students. Some
teams send peasants to grow vegetables and raise pigs f o r t h e schools
to increase the school income and improve the quality of^ meals a t
school. The peasants also help in the provision o f electricity for the
schools and water, food and firewood for the teachers.
51
The leaders o f t h e Party and the administration o f Huxian

County have made the best use o f the situation t o encourage t h e
production teams and brigades and t h e commune members t o play
a positive role in universal primary education t o improve t h e conditions f o r running schools. According t o the countys financial
resources they would have needed at least 30 years t o fulfil t h e task
i f they had only relied o n t h e state appropriations for education.
Thanks t o t h e continuous boost in production in the county in
recent years, t h e production teams and brigades are fairly well-off
and can a f f o r d t o help run t h e schools. Over t h e four years, t h e
average contribution by t h e agricultural population i s 12 yuan per
capita, o r only three yuan per capita a year, which i s n o t at a l l a
burden for the peasants. The ratio o f contributions by the local
people and appropriations by t h e county and the state f o r improving
school conditions i s 1:9:30.
Reality has taught that adherance t o t h e policy o f walking
o n t w o legs and taking all efforts t o initiate educational undertakings i s n o t j u s t an expedient measure f o r t h e t i m e being, but a longt e r m policy that must be followed. In the present period o f national
economic readjustment, every endeavour must be made t o carry o u t
t h i s policy. Even with a well-developed national economy and more
funds for education in the future, t h i s policy will b e continued and
initiative o f all elements o f society w i l l be arcused t o set up and run
schools. In this way the road t o universal primary education will b e
widened. This i s in agreement w i t h the countrys situation and t h e
actuality o f Huxian County.
v) The orientation i s t o carry o u t t h e educational policies in
an all-round way t o raise t h e quality o f education.
Materialist dialectics maintain that t h e relation between
quality and quantity i s t h e unity o f opposites. There i s n o quality
without sufficient quantity. On the other hand, quantity without
quality i s but a false one. In universal primary education it i s
necessary, therefore, t o place t h e p r o m o t i o n o f the quality of educat i o n in an important position.
T h e leading comrades in Huxian County have attached great

importance t o quality o f education. They have grasped t h e key w o r k
of the schools and implemented the educational policies o f the Party
in a comprehensive way. The schools are required t o h o l d themselves responsible t o the students, t h e parents and t h e whole society.
52
China
Quantitative evaluation i s made o f t h e enrolment rate and t h e stable
attendance rate so that t h e school-aged children will n o t quit school
soon after they are admitted. Qualitative evaluation i s made of t h e
drop-out rate, the pass rate, and t h e graduation rate. Pupils behaviour after they enter junior middle school and t h e i r maturing at
home and in society are also observed. T h e criteria t o judge a school
i s n o t only the proportion o f pupils entering middle schools but an
all-round analysis. In 1983, 12;373 grade V pupils f r o m Huxian
County t o o k part in t h e unified examination f o r entrance t o middle
schools conducted by Xianyang Prefecture. The statistics show that
t h e average t o t a l mark for the three subjects, Chinese, mathematics
and natural science, the pupils got 191.5, and t h e graduation rate was
88.8 per cent. With t h e improved foundation in t h e primary schools,
t h e quality o f education in the middle schools has been raised. According t o statistics, the county has sent 4,954 students t o technical
schools, colleges and universities in the period 1977 t o 1983, averagi n g 700 per year. In 1983 alone, 606 students were sent t o universities f r o m this county. The local people have come t o see f r o m t h e i r
own experience that children o f well-to-do families usually have a
better cultural level. They have become more hopeful about the
future with the improved quality o f education and are more enthusiastic f o r setting up and running schools. N o w the parents whose
children have n o t gone t o school f e e l ashamed and t h e children themselves t e n d t o lower their heads in f r o n t o f t h e public. Some peasantfamilies that received n o education f o r generations think it a honour
t o send their children t o university. Relatives and friends will come
t o congratulate them, and neighbours and villagers will give the
children a warm send-off.
A Tentative plan for education in Huxian County

A f t e r the Twelfth National Congress o f t h e Communist Party
o f China, the Party Committee, the Peoples Government, and the
educational and administrative departments o f H u x i a n County
earnestly studied t h e documents o f the Congress and t h e speeches
by Comrade Hu Yao-bang and Comrade Deng Xiao-ping, and reviewed t h e documents, Some Provisions on Universal Primary
Education, issued by the Central Committee. They have further
realized the role universal primary education plays in gaining b o t h
spiritual virtues and material civilization. Meanwhile, they have seen
that the broad masses o f peasants are pressed by t h e increasing need
53
for education and technology. They are n o w determined t o consolidate the achievement in universal primary education and further
re-adjust t h e proportion and relationships within t h e educational
undertakings. Firstly, they are t o effectively run the t w o key primary
schools and 19 commune-run central primary schools and turn them
as quickly as possible i n t o model schools in carrying o u t t h e educational policies o f the Party in an all-round way, and i n t o centres f o r
reference books, materials, equipment and researches in primary
education. They are t o make more e f f o r t t o run t h e school o f
advanced studies f o r teachers and raise the level and proficiency o f
the teachers. By the end o f 1985, they are t o get all the primary
school teachers t o t h e level o f that above normal school graduates.
They w i l l firmly implement the policy o f walking o n t w o legs
and further improve the conditions for running schools. They are
t o quickly repair the school-houses damaged by t h e heavy rains
and make sure there will b e n o dangerous houses in the schools.
They are t o purchase more books, teaching apparatus and equipment f o r physical exercises. They are t o raise the quality o f educat i o n greatly and increase t h e graduation rate o f primary schools
considerably.
Today, more than 80 per cent of the children between 12
and 15 are at junior middle schools. Their plan i s t o make junior
middle school education universal by I 9 9 0 and achieve the 1 : l
ratio o f students at agricultural schools and at ordinary middle
schools. They are convinced that after assiduous efforts, all their
aspirations can certainly come true.
54
by K.N. Hiriyannzhh ;K. Ramachandran.

Educational structu re
I n d i a was declared a Republic in 1950, with the enactment of
i t s own Constitution. At that time, an Article (45), was introduced in
the Constitution, ensuring Free and Compulsory Education for a l l
children up t o the age of 14. Due to i t s geographical vastness and the
varying local conditions from region to region, it was l e f t t o the
states to administer education as a state subject, keeping in view the
broad framework provided in the Constitution. While each state
endeavoured to fulfil the constitutional directive, each differed in
i t s approach.
Of the 22 states and nine u n i o n territories and centrally administered areas, elementary education o f seven years at a stretch
exists only in two states, whereas in the remaining areas, it i s split
into t w o stages, primary and middle. In some states, the primary
stage i s of four years duration and in some others, it i s of five years.
T h e middle stage i s of three years duration in most of the stages,
while it i s o f two years duration in one state and four years in
another state. Even though the duration a t t h e middle stage i s three
years in most of the states, in states where primary classes constitute
j u s t four years, the middle stage begins with grade V, whereas in
states where primary stage i s o f five years duration, t h e middle stage
commences from grade VI. This heterogeneity has culminated in
considerable confusion in the assessment of drop-outs even at t h e
elementary stage (Figure 1).
The secondary level i s divided into two stages, secondary and
higher secondary. In some states, the latter stage i s also known as
intermediate, pre-university course or junior college. The secondary
stage i s normally o f two o r three years duration, thereby providing
a general education course of ten.years duration. In one state, the
higher secondary stage i s of three years duration, and in some states,
the two year secondary course, after an external examination, i s
followed by a years higher secondary course before the student
qualifies for entrance t o the university. In all other states, the
55
4
5
6
I
Preprimmy
6
7 8 -
PrimUY
9 -
10
11
12
Middle
13-
14
15-
Secondary
16
17 18
20
2s
23
Higher secondary/
vocational
Fust degree
1
Figure 1. Structure of education in India
secondary course i s followed by a two year higher secondary course in

general education prior t o the degree course. In l i e u o f this, there
are vocational courses which are either of two year duration o r more
than f o u r semesters. However, t h e vocational courses do n o t entitle
the student to enter degree courses in professional education directly.
The duration o f a degree course i s normally o f t h r e e years in
most o f the universities in the country, although there are universities where this i s of t w o year duration. In some universities, a three
year honours course i s also provided in different subjects. F o r professional courses, this duration varies depending upon the particular
requirements. Generally, the Masters degree in any discipline i s o f
two year duration after the f i r s t degree.
Even though the pattern o f general education differs in different states and u n i o n territaries, a t the national level, t h e general
56
India
pattern o f education followed i s eight year elementary, split i n t o
five year primary and three middle, t w o year secondary followed by
t w o year higher secondary, three year degree course and t w o year
post graduate course.
Efforts towards equalisation of educational opportunities

Ever since the Constitution was enacted in 1950, efforts were
made t o achieve rapid progress in the area o f education. T h e f i r s t
step was t o achieve universalisation o f elementary education o f children up t o t h e age o f 14, as envisaged under A r t i c l e 45 o f t h e Constitution. Towards t h i s end, many schools, b o t h at t h e primary and
middle stages, were opened particularly in rural areas. As a result,
by mid-1978 about 93 per cent o f t h e rural population had a primary
education facility either within t h e habitation o f residence or within
a distance o f one kilometre.
During t h e same period, around 79 per cent o f t h e rural
population had an educational facility at t h e middle stage either within
t h e habitation or w i t h i n a distance o f three kilometres.
In terms o f t h e number o f institutions and enrolment, it may
be observed that, as against 209,671 primary and 13,596 middle
schools during 1950-51 when t h e country was declared a Republic,
there were 474,636 primary and 112,404 middle schools respectively
during mid-1978. These did n o t include institutions with higher
stages which had educational facilities for these lower stages also.
With regard t o enrolment there were 19,154,457 children in grades

I-V and 3,119,958 in grades W - VI11 during 1950-51. In mid- 1978,
these figures had mounted t o 68,602,224 and 17,958,477 in t h e
respective grades. T h i s had been made possible n o t j u s t because o f
universal provision o f educational facilities alone, but also due t o
various incentive schemes or interventions l i k e mid-day meals,
free supply o f textbooks, free uniforms t o needy children, attendance
scholarships t o girls and scholarships t o children belonging t o weaker
sections of the society.
Each scheme was introduced in each state at varying points o f
time, and consequently t h e impact in each case has been in varying
degrees in various states. These interventions were introduced w i t h
the dual purpose o f universal enrolment and universal retention.
57
The states also revised the curricula according t o the chang-
ing situations. Suitable textbooks were prepared and made available

to students at low cost. This was undertaken by the state departments
o f education which nationalised the school textbooks for a l l stages
and set up their own machinery t o see that there was timely production and distribution of textbooks. To provide competent teachers,
a large number o f teacher training institutions were opened. To
enrich the knowledge o f teachers and t o orient them t o the techniques of teaching, extension activities were introduced. The inspection
and supervision machinery was strengthened. Reforms in examinations
were introduced. Mass media and the latest designs in educational
technology and visual aids have been used. Periodical review o f the
educational system in the country and research in the areas o f
education, particularly at the school stage, have been taking place
regularly. In some states, it i s observed that to overcome the endemic
problem of drop-outs, the ungraded school system has been introduced, and yet in some other states the annual p r o m o t i o n examinations
have been abolished up t o grade VI1 to enable pupils to overcome
repetition in the same class o r drop-out at the primary o r middle
stage. However, the pupils have t o maintain 75 per cent attendance
in the school in the latter case.
The measures enumerated in the preceding paragraphs are for
children in schools under the formal system o f education. However,
schemes were launched in October 1978, under a non-formal system,
t o provide education (i)
t o children who are in the age group 6 to 14
but have never attended school; and (ii)
children who are in the age
group 6 t o 14 but who prematurely withdrew f r o m the school
before they completed the stage. In either case, the main purpose i s
to develop literacy and numeracy. For this, suitable material i s
produced and supplied t o the children free of cost. The timings for
instructional purposes are suitably adjusted t o attract more children
t o the school. The teachers who teach under this system are oriented
accordingly. In some states, the course in t h e non-formal system i s
so designed that the participants can, after completion of the course,
appear in the examinations for pupils under the formal system, and
continue their studies further. Although the non-formal system was
in vogue earlier, it was n o t popular, and by mid-1978 there were
only 6,631 non-formal education centres in r u r a l areas although the
total number o f villages w a s 573,842. The number of pupils enrolled
in these centres was 194,173.
58
India
Drop-out. In India, drop-out i s construed as that component
where children w h o enrol themselves in schools and colleges withdraw
prematurely before they complete t h e stage. In a broad sense dropo u t in India i s t h e sum total o f drop-outs and repeaters.
Since the country i s committed t o free and compulsory education, a l l i t s efforts a t present are concentrated towards minimising
drop-out at t h e elementary stage ( f r o m grades I-VIII) generally
corresponding t o the age group o f 6 t o 14. Hence, this report will
be confined t o drop-outs at the elementary stage.
Elementary education at the national level comprises o f t w o

stages, the primary I-V and the middle VI-VIII, and because o f t h i s
demarcation, i t i s observed that a large proportion o f schools have
facilities for primary education and education at the middle stage,
separately. But t h e system o f education i s n o t u n i f o r m throughout
the country. Hence any statistics o n education at the primary stage
at the national level i s a combination o f a large number of primary
schools and part o f middle schools, and statistics o n education at the
middle stage i s a combination o f a large number o f middle schools
and part o f secondary schools. Apart from this, in several schools
complete classes constituting even that stage o f education are n o t
provided. During mid-1978, i t i s observed that 95,366 (20 p e r cent)
o f the 474,636 primary and 12,370 (11 per cent) o f the 112,404
middle schools did n o t have t h e complete classes covering each
respective stage. This phenomenon i s found more in rural than in
urban areas. During t h e same period, around 20 per cent o f the
primary schools in r u r a l areas were incomplete, as against 1 9 per cent
in urban areas. F o r t h e m i d d l e stage, the gap was even wider.
The scientific study o f drop-outs i s by the Cohort M e t h o d

wherein a particular batch o f students joining grade Iduring a
particular year are followed during the successive years in t h e n e x t
higher classes, till t h e end o f that stage. A major problem in such a
study i s the non-availability o f earlier records and the time involved
in the collection o f appropriate data. Further, the data should also
b e amenable t o analysis o n the basis o f variables which are directly
responsible for t h i s phenomenon such as rural/urban characteristics
and sex and, in a country l i k e India, information about children
belonging t o certain communities w h o have been largely responsible
f o r t h e large drop-out. Such details are n o t readily available in t h e
periodical statistics collected annually by official agencies. Collecting
59
Table 1. Enrolment of boys and girls in grades I-VI11during various years

(in millions)
II
III
IV
VI
VI1
wr
Note:
12.14
12.16
12.51
12.91
7.10
7.78
7.93
8.20
19.24
19.94
20.44
21.11
7.26
7.44
7.67
7.93
8.67
8.58
4.43
4.56
4.73
4.83
5.37
5.23
11.69
12.00
12.40
12.76
14.04
13.81
5.88
6.03
6.18
6.36
6.67
6.83
3.42
3.52
3.64
3.79
3.98
3.97
9.30
9.55
9.82
10.15
10.65
10.80
4.85
4.99
5.11
5.23
5.47
5.37
13.47
8.7 1
22.18
12.88
8.37
21.25
2.65
2.75
2.84
2.94
3.12
2.99
7.50
7.74
7.95
8.17
8.59
8.36
4.03
4.15
4.27
4.36
4.54
4.38
2.01
2.10
2.18
2.27
2.41
2.30
6.04
6.25
6.45
6.63
6.95
6.68
3.49
8.58
3.63
3.7 1
3.88
3.81
1.43
1.48
1.56
1.62
1.73
1.75
4.92
5.06
5.19
5.33
5.61
5.56
2.97
3.07
3.09
3.19
3.28
3.16
1.18
1.23
1.29
1.33
1.42
1.39
4.15
4.30
4.38
4.52
4.70
4.55
2.52
2.63
2.70
2.75
2.80
2.67
1.09
3.76
0.94
0.99
1.04
1.09
1.15
3.46
3.62
3.74
3.84
3.95
B - Boys
G - Girls
T - Total
Source: 1968-69, 1969-70, 1970-71, 1971-72, 1972-73, 1974-75, 1975-76, 1976-77,

& 1977-78. Education in India, Ministry o f Education & Social Welfare 1973-74 and 197879 Third and Fourth All India Educational Survey - NCERT
60
India
Table 1. (continued)
Year
Grade
II
III
IV
VI
VI1
VI11
Note:
I974
1975
197.51976
I 9 761977
19771978
I 9 781979
13.31
13.28
13.54
12.70
12.81
8.61
8.71
9.16
8.43
8.69
21.98
21.99
22.70
21.13
21.56
9.03
8.96
9.68
9.81
9.12
5.61
5.62
5.96
5.93
6.00
14.64
14.58
15.64
15.14
15.72
7.28
1.42
7.18
7.66
1.92
4.34
4.48
4.68
4.53
4.81
11.62
11.90
12.46
12.19
12.73
5.82
5.93
6.39
6.31
6.43
3.34
3.41
3.65
3.62
3.11
9.16
9.34
10.04
9.93
10.20
4.88
5.07
5.30
5.42
5.41
2.64
2.78
2.89
2.95
2.99
7.52
7.85
8.19
8.37
8.40
4.20
4.24
4.46
4.61
4.72
1.97
2.03
2.18
2.25
2.35
6.17
6.27
6.54
6.86
7.07
3.41
3.63
3.74
3.87
3.97
1.56
1.69
1.76
1.85
1.95
4.91
5.32
5.50
5.12
5.92
2.97
3.12
3.17
3.27
3.40
1.25
1.32
1.39
1.45
1.58
4.22
4.44
4.56
4.7 2
4.98
B -Boys
G - Girls
T - Total
Source: 1968-69, 1969-70, 1970-71, 1971-72, 197475, 1975-76, 1976-77, & 197778. Education in India, Ministry of Education & Social Weifare 1973-74 and 1978-79
Third and Fourth All India Educational Survey - NCERT

Table 2. Dropaut inVanous cohort years in different classes
(in thousands)
Drop-out
Cohort years
at the end
-----------------------------------------
of grade
1968-69
1969-70
1970-71
1971-72
1972-73
1973-74
4698
4496
45 88
4235
4894
385 3
2533
3053
3093
2841
3483
2766
7231
7549
7681
7082
8377
6619
B
G
T
1260
1303
1257
1840
1292
1612
927
939
854
1395
887
1123
2187
2242
2111
3235
2179
2735
II
III
95 3
898
1300
1013
1359
1029
697
668
992
634
926
828
1650
1565
2292
1647
2285
1857
967
686
1091
489
746
629
G
T
532
824
350
560
522
402
1218
1915
839
1306
1151
1369
7 32
174
637
609
1382
699
65 3
1385
321
495
610
1247
602
643
600
1211
2025
1299
Total Drop- B
8329
7962
8271
8443
9556
8160
outsin
5 342
5805
5899
6038
646 1
5719
grades
13671
13767
14170
14481
16017
13879
IV
IV
I-v
VI
398
569
504
595
189
287
27 1
323
581
856
775
918
296
462
5 69
47 1
244
302
370
277
540
7 64
939
748
TotalDrop- B
9023
8993
9344
9509
outsin
5775
6394
6540
6638
grades.
14798
15387
15884
16147
VI1
I-VI1
63
Inda
w w
$2
cr
U
cr
U
cr
U
cr
U
64
India
such data even o n a sample basis requires both money a n d time. T h e
only variable available in the official statistics i s the sex of the children.
I t i s observed that at the primary stage there i s a likelihood o f
more drop-outs at the end o f grade V since q u i t e a f e w students from
t h e states having grades I-IV m a y drop out since there m a y not be
facilities for education a t the middle stage in the neighbourhood.
Likewise, a t the middle stage since in some states t h i s stage comprises
grade V and VI o r VI1 to Vi11 after which many students might dropout for want of educational facilities for grade VI11 in the neighbourhood.
Before discussing the sample study, it i s worthwhile examining

t h e official statistics over a period of eleven years starting 1968-69
(Table I).
The eleven year classwise data, which i s the latest finalised
figure f o r t h e country, provides a complete cohort up t o grade VI1
for the base years 1968-69, 1969-70, 1970-71 and 1971-72, a n d
f o r another t w o years, f o r 1972-73 and 1973-74, up t o grade IV.
The figures in Table 2 indicate consistent increases in dropouts as the enrolment increased f r o m year t o year, although in proportion, the impact i s very l i t t l e particularly a t the end o f grade VII.
While the extent of drop-out for boys shows some improvement,
there i s a slight increase in drop-outs among g i r l s for t h e cohort
years 1969-70 and 1970-71 as base resulting in increases in drop-outs
during these years.
The rate of drop-out would have been considerably reduced if
there was more homogeneity in the structure of education. Drop-out
a t the end o f grade I V would not have occurred t o the same extent if
the primary stage was up t o grade V. Similarly, i f the terminal class
at the middle stage h a d been VIII instead of VI1 as in t h e case of quite
a few states and only up to V I in one, drop-out would also have been
less.
A r o u n d 50 per cent of the drop-outs a t primary stage occur
in grade I(Table 3). In almost all the yearsin all the classes, the prop o r t i o n o f drop-outs amongst girls i s more than that of boys. From
these figures i t i s not clear whether the p r o p o r t i o n of pupils repeating the same class i s m o r e or those who withdraw prematurely i s
more. However, if children enter the school and spend some time in
the school then the tendency to drop-out reduces.
65
At t h i s stage it would b e relevant t o discuss briefly t h e enrolment among girls and among children belonging t o scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes who contribute in a large measure towards
drop -out.
Enrolment of girls. During mid-1978 there were an estimated
63.79 m i l l i o n girls in t h e age group 6-14 in t h e country o f whom
only 43 per cent (including some 4 per cent in higher o r lower
classes), were studying in different stages o f school education.
Ifrural and urban figures are taken i n t o consideration i t i s

observed that only 3 9 p e r cent of the girls in the age group 6-14 in
rural areas are studying in schools as against 56 p e r cent o f the girls
in t h e age group in urban areas. Even this l o w enrolment among girls
i s further off set by huge drop-out amongst them. The l o w enrolment
among girls i s mainly due t o very poor enrolment among girls in n i n e
of the 22 states which have been declared as educationally backward.
Among these n i n e states, the enrolment o f girls i s less than 50 per
cent in the age group and ranges f r o m 19 t o 48 per cent.
Enrolment of scheduled caste children. The estimated child
population belonging t o t h e scheduled caste communities in the
age group 6-14 by mid-1978 was about 19.13 million. O u t o f this,
53 per cent of children in t h i s community were enrolled as against
56 per cent f o r all t h e communities. T h e bulk o f t h i s population
reside in rural areas. The l o w enrolment amongst girls in these communities i s related t o the most unsatisfactory enrolment amongst
t h e n i n e educationally backward states where it ranges between 23
and 68 p e r cent. O f this enrolment, a larger proportion i s in the age
group 6 t o 11.
Enrolment of scheduled t r i b e children. The estimated child
population in t h e age group 6-14 corresponding t o the same period
was 9.45 million, o f whom j u s t 43 per cent were enrolled in schools.
There i s n o scheduled tribe population in one o f the n i n e educationally backward states. The enrolment ranged between 20 and 50
p e r cent and i t i s again t h e poor enrolment in these eight states which
has reduced the overall enrolment picture. Almost all these tribes
are in rural areas and the proportion o f children enrolled in rural areas
i s more than those in urban areas. In these communities, proportionate enrolment in the lower age group 6-11 years i s much more than
in t h e age group 11-14.
66
India
Sample study of wastage (repeaters and drop-outs) at the primary

age
T h i s study w a s undertaken in January 1977 and completed by
April 1977, with a view. t o providing quick r e s u l t s t o the educational
planners a n d administrators t o enable them t o formulate policies and
f i x priorities. The study i s confined only t o the primary stage o n a
highly restricted sample. T h e study covered t h i r t e e n major states
among t h e twenty-two states in t h e country. Further, within each
state, rural areas were selected in d i f f e r e n t regions within the state.
In t h e case o f states with a population less than 20 million, each state
was divided i n t o three regions, whereas in t h e case o f states with
population more than 20 m i l l i o n t h e states were divided i n t o five
regions. In the case o f urban areas only one urban area was chosen in
each state, with a population o f n o t less than 20,000 according t o
1971 census. In urban areas, the sample size o f schools was restricted
t o five per cent primary schools, subject t o a minimum of t w o
schools within t h e municipality/corporation limits, giving representat i o n t o g i r l s schools, i f any. In r u r a l areas a l l the primary schools
located w i t h i n t h e revenue boundary were covered.
Analysis of data. T h e states were divided i n t o t w o groupsthose having grades I-IV as t h e primary stage, and others having
grade I-V as t h e primary stage. Any incomplete primary schools
which did n o t have all the primary classes conforming t o Che state
pattern were rejected.
Among t h e seven states with grades I-V at the primary stage,
in three states t h e population o f the scheduled tribes, which contributes in a large measure t o drop-out was more than five per cent.
In four o f six states with grades I-IV as t h e primary stage, the population o f the scheduled tribes was more than five per cent. With
regard t o scheduled castes in a l l t h e seven states w i t h primary
stage constituting primary grades I-V, the proportion o f population
of this community was more than 13 per cent, while only t w o of t h e
six states with primary grades I-IV had more than 13 per cent population in these communities.
Trends in drop-outs in states with primary grades I-IV. A very
significant feature here w a s that the rate o f repeaters was considerably more than those who l e f t the schools prematurely (Table 4). A
large proportion o f repeaters are in grade Iin comparison t o higher
67
Table 4. Repeatersand dropouts (in percentage) at primary

stage with grades I-IV
Grade II (I 9 72- 73)

Grade I (1 971- 72)
--------__---___-_-_------------
A M
42.5
41.3
422
29.6
36.1
17.3
18.2
17.7
15.2
25.4
7.5
12.7
9.5
13.8
23.1
15.8
9.8
13.6
16.6
30.2
26.5
28.3
27.3
42.3
32.4
18.8
21.6
20.0
18.7
36.4
18.4
17.1
17.8
21.3
39.7
14.1
18.4
15.9
29.9
0.0
U di R R
R
B
35.4
35.1
35.3
37.2
34.0
18.0
20.0
18.8
17.0
30.5
A
A D
Combined
12.3
14.9
13.4
18.3
32.4
15.0
14.4
14.8
23.6
16.1
R
U
R
A
L
c
U
R
B
A
N
R
Table 4 (continued)
Grade III (I 9 73- 74)
Grade I V (I 9 7 4 75)
---_--------------------------------
A M
R
U
R
A
SC
ST
16.3
9.4
13.8
7.7
32.4
12.4
11.8
12.2
11.6
22.6
9.2
13.6
10.8
27.3
11.8
20.3
19.0
19.8
23.5
29.9
29.4
17.9
25.1
22.1
16.4
20.3
29.1
25.4
18.3
14.5
16.9
15.3
30.7
21.3
15.0
19.0
18.7
37.5
16.1
15.1
15.7
20.8
L
U
R
B
A
25.7
46.9
N
R
U
U
R R
R & B
A
A D
68
India
Overall wastage up to grade iI1
~~
B
G
T
SC
ST
Rural
Urban
Total
49.7
52.0
50.6
25.2
71.3
30.5
44.1
36.3
55.0
64.0
41.2
48.1
44.0
47.0
67.2
Note:
B
G
T
SC
BOYS
Girls
Total
Scheduled castes
ST D R -
Scheduledtribes
Drop-outs
Repeaters
classes and it goes o n reducing f r o m class t o class. While there are

more repeaters in rural areas, t h e number o f school leavers i s higher
in urban areas. Generally, the rate o f repeaters and drop-outs i s
higher among scheduled tribe children whether in r u r a l or urban
areas. Consequently the proportion of overall drop-outs in all classes
in this community i s the highest. The rate o f repeaters among girls i s
less than those among boys. In the case o f overall wastage in education, repeaters and drop-outs combined, t h e wastage in rural areas i s
m u c h more than in urban areas, it i s more among girls than boys.
Children belonging t o weaker sections o f t h e society contribute in a
larger measure towards t h i s wastage. The large proportion o f repeaters
confirms that most of the children who enter t h e schools are f i r s t
generation learners who d o n o t get any academic help in their homes.
Trends in drop-outs in states with primary grades I-V. Even
amongst these states it i s observed that repeaters contribute in a
larger measure than drop-outs towards wastage, and rural areas contribute more in t h i s regard (Table 5). Again children belonging t o
scheduled tribes are in greater proportion in these categories, whether
in rural o r urban areas. A plausible reason f o r the larger proportion
o f drop-outs among these communities in urban areas i s that most
o f them drop-out t o w o r k inhouseholds, which solves their immediate
economic problems. In t h e case o f overall proportion o f wastage, it i s
observed that i t i s almost the same as in the previous case, wastage
being more in rural areas than urban, more among girls than bays and
more among the weaker sections o f the society (Table 6).
69

Table 5. Repeaters and dropouts (in percentage) at primary
stage with grades I-N
Grae I (1 971- 72)
Grade II (I 9 72- 73)
___-___------_-----_-----------
Area
SC
ST
SC
ST
U
R
37.1
38.8
35.0
30.8
16.7
22.5
32.5
25.7
25.0
29.0
A
L
11.4
12.8
13.0
22.0
33.3
15.6
18.3
16.5
24.4
3.2
27.6
19.6
24.0
13.2
5.0
12.7
12.6
12.7
10.6
0.0
13.7
12.8
13.3
36.3
55.0
17.6
12.8
15.5
16.8
87.5
U & R R
R
B
A
A D
L
N
29.9
27.4
289
23.2
12.9
17.2
19.3
18.0
19.0
23.1
12.6
12.8
12.7
28.2
40.3
16.7
14.6
15.9
21.2
20.5
B
A
N
R
Combined
Table 5 (continued)
Gmde Iff (1 9 73- 74)
Grade I V (I 97475)
-_____-____---___------------ ---
Area
SC
ST
12.3
20.5
14.8
29.7
3.3
18.0
14.4
16.3
15.0
7.8
46.7
9.6
8.0
8.9
12.4
B
A
N
17.4
19.0
18.1
10.7
11.4
16.2
18.3
SC
ST
12.3
16.4
20.2
37.9
9.7
19.0
11.9
12.5
31.0
0.0
9.7
3.9
7.1
13.8
0.0
22.5
0.0
19.2
12.3
16.2
14.7
25.0
11.0
21.0
3.0
13.1
6.0
10.4
16.8
33.3
17.0
15.2
42.4
15.1
14.0
14.7
13.6
27.3
U
R
A
L
U
~~
R
U
U & R R
R
A
L
B
A D
Combined
70
India
Overall wastage up to grade N
B
B
T
SC
ST
Rural
Urban
Total
43.3
65.6
52.0
61.6
21.4
32.2
22.3
27.8
34.2
85.0
37.4
39.9
38.4
49.8
41.9
Note:
B
G
T
SC
BOYS
Girls
Total
Scheduled castes
ST D R -
Scheduled tribes
Drop-out
Repeaters
Conclusions and suggestions

a)
Universal provision has been made reasonably adequate,
but s t i l l a large number o f schools are incomplete. Hence all incomplete schools should be provided with all classes constituting that
stage. Wherever necessary the existing school should b e upgraded.
b) The case study has revealed that t h e drop-outs are more in

grade 1. This i s because most o f the children coming t o t h e primary
schools are coming f o r t h e f i r s t time and faced with a new environment. They have t o adjust t o the new environment and develop a
l i k i n g f o r the schools. I f they are introduced t o a school situation
earlier, i t will encourage them t o come t o and remain in the primary
school. F o r t h i s purpose, efforts should b e made t o open pre-primary
schools, particularly in rural areas, and support such schools which
are already in existence.
c) F r o m the case study it i s observed that among drop-outs
there are a majority o f repeaters, which reflects t h e p o o r achievement o f children particularly in earlier classes. This calls for a review
of classroom teaching in earlier classes and suitable remedial measures.
d) I t i s f o u n d that a large number o f repeaters are f r o m rural

areas. T h i s i s due t o t h e fact that most o f them are f i r s t generation
learners who d o n o t have any academic guidance in their homes and
this calls for remedial teaching f o r academically weak children.
71
55
.-.
55
72
I-
a
2
IO
3
I
-
09
01
09
O!
m
v)
2
I-
9
4
v)
v)
2
W
d-2 0 2
0;s
-z
"'0,
0;5
XE 2 2
India
e) Girls contribute in a large proportion t o drop-outs. This i s
due t o non-availability o f separate schools f o r girls and also women
teachers. Wherever feasible, separate schools for girls should b e

opened and a large number o f women teachers should b e appointed
and posted in rural areas.
f) There are a large number of school leavers w h o are s t i l l in

the age group 6-14, but w o u l d n o t l i k e t o r e t u r n t o t h e school since
they have t o support their families. Hence, non-formal education
should be encouraged in a major way. This may include adjusting
the timing o f instruction, preparing suitable learning materials, and
providing these free o f cost t o the children.
Measures for preventing drop-outs at the elementary stage of

education
The provision o f universal elementary education has always
been a national goal o f education in India The Provincial Governments which came i n t o existence under t h e Government o f I n d i a
A c t (191 9) passed compulsory education legislation and increased
the facilities f o r elementary education. T h e compulsory education
legislation, however, did n o t bring about the desired results since t h e
laws could n o t b e enforced o n p o o r people whose children had t o
remain away f r o m schools mainly o n account o f poverty and p o o r
economic status.
During t h e post-independence period, t h e Government o f
India, therefore, accorded a high p r i o r i t y t o the programme o f
universalisation o f elementary education, especially after t h e enactment o f the Indian Constitution. Article 45 in the Directive Principles
o f the Constitution laid d o w n that the State shall endeavour t o
provide, within a period o f t e n years f r o m t h e commencement o f
t h i s constitution, for free and compulsory education f o r all children
until they complete the age o f fourteen. E f f o r t s have been made
t o implement t h i s directive through successive Five Year Plans
formulated by the Government o f India.
According t o Article 45 o f the Indian Constitution, t h e goal of
universalisation o f elementary education should have been attained
by the year 1960. The target date has t o be revised t o 1990, mainly
because o f the magnitude o f t h e problem in t e r m s o f ever increasing
population and the constraints o f financial and manpower resources.
73
Although it has-not been possible to attain the goal of universalisation of elementary education, the progress achieved so far has
indeed been impressive (Tables 6 and 7). The total enrolment in
grades I-V has risen from 19,155,000 (42.6 p e r cent) in 1950-51 to
70,943,000 (83.6 per cent) in 1979-80. T h e enrolment in grades VIVI1 had risen from 312,000 (5.34 per cent) in 1950-51, to 19,483,000
(65.28 per cent) in 1979-80. However, the enrolment of girls, both
at t h e primary and middle stages, in the successive base years of Plan
periods had been lower than that of boys.
Table 7. Enrolment (total and girls) at the elementary stage of education

(1950-1980) and targets (1980-1985)
Year &Plan
Enrolment in grades I-VIIIIAge

group 6-14 (In lakhs)
Percentage of children
enrolled in grades I - V I I I
to total population in
age group 6-I 4
Total
Girls
Total
Girls
1950-51
(1st Pian)
222.75
59.15
32.4
17.4
1955-56
(2nd Pian)
294.60
85.06
42.5
22.5
196061
(3rd Pian)
416.98
130.31
48.7
30.9
196869
(4th Pian)
669.04
237.58
82.5
45.5
1973-74
(5th plan)
752.05
274.06
61.6
46.4
1979-80
(6th Plan)
904.26
337.09
67.2
52.0
1984-85*
(6th Pian targets)
1084.68
433.86
78.8
64.8
The 1984-85 targets are o n the basis of population projectionsrelated t o 1971 census
Measures to remove or lessen the drop-out problem

While t h e position regarding the increase in enrolment at the
elementary stage during the periods of t h e successive Five Year Plans
has been satisfactory, the problem of drop-out and wastage has been
negating t h e progress achieved in relation to t h e enrolment o f children in grades I-VIII. D w i n g 1976-77, t h e percentage o f drop-outs at
the primary stage was 63 while at the middle stage it was 7 7 (Table 8).
74
India
Table 8. Percentage of dropouts at primary stage for consecutive five years
(1972-73 to 1976-77)
Si.
No.
Percentage of dropoutsot primary stage Clau Y

(On the basis of enrolment(ow yeurs eurlier)
Starelhion
Territory
I.
AndhaPradesh
2.
Assam
3.
4.
Bihar
Cujarnt
5.
6.
Haryana
HimachalRadeah
7.
Jammu& Kashmir
8.
9.
Knaia
Kaillataka
1972-73
I 9 73-74
I 9 74-75
197576
I97677
69.3
73.8
76.1
66.6
77.8
14.3
65.9
65.2
65.6
72J
73.7
71.4
72.7
38.7
71.1
66.8
39.4
66.1
40.9
65 5
42.9
64.9
41.3
63.7
41.6
34.8
55.1
33.9
54.8
30.8
52.6
68.9
20.6
68.2
59.1
81.5
76.6
67.9
6.1
75.7
56.1
81.5
75.6
67.7
70.2
59.3
71.6
39.7
37.7
56.6
71.1
33.9
65 3
60.0
82.3
56.1
70.0
31.1
64.1
58.0
80.6
68.9
29.8
62.9
58.0
81.9
76.0
69.9
70.7
70.1
70.7
II.
Madhya Radcsh
Maharashira
12.
Manipur
13.
Mcghniaya
14.
15.
Nagaland
orlgl
69.3
72.5
16.
17.
Panjab
38.5
37.8
39.2
38.6
45.3
Rajasthan
63.9
62.1
63.7
56.5
60.9
10.
18.
19.
TamilNadu
48.7
51.0
48.2
48.3
47.2
20.
Tripura
65.7
64.3
63.8
66.9
73.2
21.
Uttar Radesh
71.5
71.7
70.1
70.2
71 .O
22.
West Bengal
69.5
70.4
68.9
68.0
69.7
23.
A&Nls!ands
52.3
52.6
43.0
41.0
40.0
24.
Arunachal Fradesh
77.7
72.5
69.1
81.6
79.9
25,
Chandearh
22.0
22.6
23.5
26.6
20.5
26.
Dadra & Nagai HaveLi
86.5
86.4
84.2
81.4
85.1
27.
Delhi
23.3
27.1
14.0
14.1
17.5
28.
Cn. Dnnwn d Diu
56.5
63.5
55.7
53.4
49.1
29.
Lakshadwcep
46.3
39.2
35.6
47.6
21 .O
30.
Mizoram
62.2
61.9
64.4
63.2
62.8
63.1
Sikkim
For the country
64.9
The drop-out rates at the end of the primary stage in six

states and five union territories has been below 50 per cent, the
lowest being 6 per cent in Kerala. In a l l other states and union territories, the drop-out rates at the end of the primary stage have been
over 50 per cent, the highest among the states being 81 per cent in
Manipur and the highest among the union territories being 85 per
cent in Dadra and Nagar Haveli. At the end of the middle stage, the
drop-out rates in all the states have been more than 50 per cent,
the lowest being 50 per cent in Kerala and the highest being 86 per
75
Table 9. Percentage of dropouts at middle stages for consecutive fwe years

(1972-73 to 1976-77)
Si
No.
Peantage of&p+ulrat middle stage cbsr

VI11 (On the bash ofenrolmnl seven y w s earlier
smtelnion
Ternlory
1972.73
1973.74
I Y 74-75
1975-76
197677
1.
AndhmRndesh
87.7
86.4
86.7
85.9
85.9
2.
Aaeim
79.3
79.9
81.6
82.0
83.5
3.
Bib
86.0
85.8
85.3
84.8
86.5
4.
Gujant
78.5
79.4
78.3
76.7
75.6
5.
Haryana
58.0
HimnelulRadcah
54.4
61.0
lammuLKashmii
60.8
53.6
60.6
66.0
8.
Kanntlh
83.8
62.1
83.6
55.0
62.2
65.2
55.6
6.
7.
81.2
80.4
80.0
9.
Kada
55.6
62.2
53.1
49.2
10.
Madhya Radesh
79.2
78.6
79.3
77.7
50.5
74.1
11.
Miharashus
75.7
75.7
75.2
75.1
73.6
12.
Manipur
83.1
87.1
85.8
85.7
13.
Meghalaya
86.4
14.
NngaQnd
75.9
76.5
orirn
87.5
57.4
77.9
85.2
Payab
87.5
64.3
75.3
86.4
76.9
IS.
16.
58.5
57.9
59.2
17.
Rajasthan
82.2
80.5
80.1
75.3
73.9
18.
SiRkh
19.
20.
21.
22.
59.5
66.4
84.1
TamilNadu
74.1
76.8
76.4
14.2
77.7
82.5
82.4
82.6
WcstBe~I
78.6
81.2
77.9
74.5
77.1
83.0
71.4
Tripun
79.1
78.5
78.1
78.6
23.
24.
ALNllnds
hunachnl Radesh
69.0
87.0
68.7
71.3
83.9
60.1
81.5
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
Chandigarh
Dadri & Nngm Haw
22.3
22.0
89.9
21.1
66.8
87.4
89.9
21.6
69.4
74.3
92.6
33.0
63.9
90.9
34.5
65.1
UttnrPradesh
Dchi
col. Damin k Diu
78.3
27.7
26.3
92.2
34.5
68.3
72.7
92.8
31.0
69.9
62.6
84.1
73.8
Pondichern
71.1
70.7
64.6
63.7
55.7
FOI the counuy
79.0
79.2
78.7
77.6
77.1
Lakshdwecp
30.
Mimnm
31.
cent in Bihar. In the case of Union Territories, the highest drop-out

rate (93 per cent) has been Dadra and Nagar Havelo (Table 9).
During the past three decades, several measures aimed at

removing o r lessening the drop-out problem at the primary and
middle stages of education have been initiated by the Government
of India. Some of these measures or programmes have been taken
in order t o prevent drop-outs and to retain all children at least up
t o the end of grade VIII, while the others have been directed at
76
India
retrieving the drop-outs back i n t o the educational system, b o t h
formal and non-formal.
Non-pedagogical measures to prevent drop-out

Prominent among t h e non-pedagogical measures taken t o prevent drop-outs at the elementary stage are (a) legislations for free and
compulsory primary education; (b) provision o f schooling facilities
w i t h i n easy walking distance f r o m t h e homes of children; ( c ) creation
o f necessary infrastructure o f facilities in schools; (d) incentive
schemes f o r students; and (e) introduction o f no detention policy
at the primary stage.
a)
Free and compulsory education. In a l l t h e States and U n i o n
Territories education in grades I-VI11in all t h e schools managed by
Government and local bodies, and a sizeable proportion o f schools
aided by the Government, i s free. The only exception i s the State o f
U t t a r Pradesh where education of boys in grades VI-VI11i s y e t t o b e
made free.
Legislation f o r compulsory primary education i s available in

16 states and three u n i o n territories (Figure 2). However, only t h e
Compulsory Education Acts o f Himachal Pradesh covers the entire
elementary stage o f education for children in t h e age group 6-14.
In the remaining states and union territories, t h e Compulsory Educat i o n A c t (s) cover only t h e primary stage o f education f o r children in
the age group o f 6-11.
Figure 2. Stateswnion Territories which have Legislations/Acts for

Compulsory Primary Education
S I.
No.
Statelunion
Territory
Name of the Compulsory Education

Act applicable to the Statefunion
Territory
1.
3.
2.
1.
Andhra Pradesh
Andhra Pradesh Primary Education

Act, 1961.
2.
Assam
Assam Elementary (Provincialisation)

Act, 1974.
3.
Gujarat
Gujarat Compulsory Primary Education Act, 1961.
77
Figure 2. (continued)
sI.
No.
Statelunion
Temetory
1.
Name of the Compulsory Education

Act applicable to the StatelUnion
Territory
3.
2.
4.
Haryana
The Panjab P r i m w Education Act,

1960. Act No. 39.
5.
Himachal Pradesh
Himachal Pradesh Compulsory Primary Education Act 1953 (Act No. 7

of 1954) and Panjab Primary Education Act, 1960 (Act No 39 of 1969)
6.
Jammu & Kashmir
7.
Karnataka
Karnataka State Compulsory Primary

Education Act and Rules, 1961.
8.
Kerala
Kerala Education Act, 1958 (Act 6

of 1959)
9.
Madhya Pradesh
Madhya Pradesh Primary Education

Act, 1961.
10.
Maharashtra
Bombay Primary Education Act,

1947.
Hyderabad
Comulsory
Primary
Education Act, 1952.
Madhya Pradesh Primary Education
Act, 1956
The City of Bombay Primary Education (Bombay Act No. XIV of 1920
in Great Bombay).
11.
Orissa
No Compulsory Education Act as

such has been enacted. However,
under Section 4 (1) of the Orissa
Basic Education Act 1951, the
State Govt. may declare any area for
introducing compulsory education.
12.
Panjab
Panjab Primary Education Act, 1960.

(Act No. 39)
13.
Rajasthan
The Rajasthan Primary Education

Act, 1964.
14.
TamilNadu
The Tamil Nadu Elementary Education Act, 1920.
15.
Uttar Pradesh
United Province Primary Education

Act 1919 & 1926.
78
India
Figure 2. (continued)
S 1.
No.
Stcrtelnion
Territory
Name of the Cornpulsov Educrrtion

Act appliazble to the StatelUnion
Territory
1.
16.
3.
2.
West Bengal
Bengal (Rural) Primary Education

Act, 1930.
West Bengal Urban Primary Education Act, 1963.
17.
Andaman &Nicobar
Islands
Andaman 8c Nicobar Islands primary

Education Regulation, 1959, No. 3
of 1953.
18.
Chandigarh
Panjab Primary Education Act 1960

(Act No. 39).
19.
Delhi
Delhi Primary Education Act, 1960.

Delhi Schools Education Act, 1973.
Only the Compulsory Education Acts of Himachal Pradesh covers the entire
Note:
elementary stage of education for children in the age group 6 to 14. In the remaining States
and Union Territories, the Compulsory Education Act (s) cover only the primary stage of
eduation for children in the age group of 6 to 11.
I t has n o t been possible t o enforce the penal provision in the

legialations f o r compulsory education because o f the socio-economic
factor involved, and i t has n o t been possible t o achieve t h e goal o f
universal enrolment and universal retention o f children in t h e age
group 6-14. Another reason for t h i s i s t h e fact that t h e legislations
d o n o t enforce compulsion in the case o f disabled children who
require special education services which are available only in a few
mostly urban localities.
b)
Provision of schooling facilities. There has been substantial
progress in the provision o f schooling facilities during t h e postindependence period. E f f o r t s have been made t o provide primary
schooling facilities within easy walking distance f r o m the home o f
every child.
Eighty per cent o f rural habitations in 1978, varying in size
f r o m 100-500 persons, h a d primary schools or sections in t h e habitat i o n or in t h e neighbourhood within a distance o f one kilometre o f
79
the remainder.
13 per cent h a d primary schools o r sections up t o

kilo-
two kilometres distance, and the rest h a d facilities over two
metres.
I f habitations o f 300 persons or more are considered, t h e

percentage having access to primary education, either within the
habitation or up to one kilometre distance, increases up to 93 per
cent. However, the habitations o f scheduled castes and scheduled
t r i b e s exceeding 300 persons had access t o primary schools o r
sections at 67 and 78 per cent respectively, either within the habitat i o n o r at a distance o f one kilometre.
At that time also, 79 per cent o f the rural population was
served by middle schools or sections located either in the habitation
o r in the neighbourhood up t o a distance of three kilometres. (Tables
10-13).
In order t o provide schooling facilities within easy walking
distance f r o m the home of every child, efforts are being made by the
Central and State Governments t o cover a l l the habitations which d o
n o t have primary schools and which have viable populations of about
300, with the provision o f primary schools at a m a x i m u m distance of
one kilometre. Similarly e f f o r t s are also made to cover the schoolless habitations with the provision o f middle schools at a maximum
distance of three kilometres from the residence o f children, during
the Sixth Five Year Plan period.
Table 10. Percentage of m a l populationwith primary schools/

sections (As on September 30,1978)
SL
1.
2.
Percentage of population served by

firnary SchoolslSectwns
Distance at which
Primary School/
Section isavailable
No.
~~
Within the habitation
18.53
Up t o 0.5 km but not
6.60
within habitation
0.6 t o 1.0 km
7.69
1.1 t o 1.5 km
2.20
1.6 t o 2.0 km
2.83
More than 2 km
2.15
80
India
Table 11. Habitations with population of 300 or more sewed by
primary schools/sections (As on September 30,1978)
SI. S p e of habitations
No.
Number of habitations
with populition of
300 or more
Percentage of habitations served by Primary FchoolslSections

Within the
habitation
1.
AU habitations
2.
3.
Up to
1 km
466,101
11.31
93.05
Habitations predominantly
populated by schcduled
castes
24.198
66.94
90.65
populated by scheduled
tribes
41,550
11.78
90.48
Table 12. Percentage of rural population with middle schools/ sections

(As on September 30,1978)
~
SI.
No.
Distance at which
middle school/
section i s
availoble
Percentage of
population served
by middle schools1
sections
1.
Within the habitation
33.41
2.
U p to 1.0 km
13.10
3.
1.1 to 2.0 km
11.18
4.
2.1 to 3.0 km
14.48
5.
3.1 to 4.0 km
1.90
6.
4.1 to 5.0 km
5.31
I.
More than 5 km
1.90
Table 13. Habitations with population of 500 or more served by

middie schools/sections (As on September 30,1978)
SI.
No.
S p e of habitations
Number of habitations
with population of
500 or more
Percentage of habb
rations served by
schoolslsections
Within the
habitation
Up to
3 kmr
305,002
28.42
18.42
1.
AU habitations '
2.
Habitations predominmtly
populatcd by r l i d u l c d
castes
13.159
13.41
75.21
3.
populated by scheduled
tribes
11,848
21.41
64.1 1
81
Table 14. Primary schools with unsatisfactory buildings/structures

s 1.
No.
Statelunion
Tewftory
1.
2.
Total
number of
primay
schools
Airnary schools with

unsvltisfnctory
buildingslshuctures
Percentage of schools
with unsatisfactory
buildings/structures
Andrah Pradesh
39,696
19,895
47.60
Assam
21,603
14,726
68.1 6
60.06
3.
Bihar
50,934
30,594
4.
Gujarat
10,958
2,222
20.28
5.
Haryana
5,384
453
8.50
6.
Himachai Radesh
4,416
3,195
72.35
7.
Jammu & Kashmir
6,709
4,097
61.08
8:
Karnataka
22,528
4,113
21.18
9.
KeIala
24 1
6,033
3.99
Madhya Pradesh
53,572
20,566
38.38
11.
Maharashtra
33,794
8,473
25.01
12.
Manipur
3,437
3,066
89.20
13.
Meghalaya
3,575
2,197
68.23
14.
Nagaland
10.
969
885
91.33
32,103
17,096
53.23
15.
Orissa
16.
Panjab
13,410
5,082
37.89
17.
Rajasthan
20,822
5,094
24.46
18.
Sikkim
299
98
32.77
21,588
5,318
19.49
1,573
1,425
90.5 9
21.O0
19.
T a r d Nadu
20.
Tripura
21.
Uttar Pradesh
68,122
14,284
22.
West Bengal
42,659
25,360
59.44
31.25
23.
A & N Islands
160
50
24.
h a c h a 1 Radesh
735
65 1
88.57
39
7.69
134
70
52.23
1,620
195
12.03
25.
Chandigarh
26.
Dadra & Nagar Haveli
27.
Delhi
28.
Goa, Daman & Diu
95 1
57
6.00
17
17.64
29,
akshadweep
30.
Mizoram
516
427
82.75
31.
Pondicherry
280
96
34.28
4 74,6 36
190,357
40.1 1
TOTAL
82
India
c)
Creation o f necessary infrastructural facilities. One o f t h e
factors which has been contributing t o t h e l o w attracting and retaini n g power o f schools and the high rate o f drop-out at the elementary
stage o f education, has been t h e lack o f adequate infrastructure of
facilities, such as satisfactory school buildings and services o f trained
and competent teachers. A large number o f primary and middle
schools in the country are housed in unsatisfactory structures, comprising thatched huts, tents and even open spaces. In 1978 it was
found that 40 per cent o f the primary schools were housed in unsatisfactory structures (Table 14). Among t h e states, Nagaland had
the highest percentage (91 per cent) o f primary schools housed in
unsatisfactory structures, followed by Assam (68 per cent), Bihar
(60 per cent). Himachal Pradesh (72 per cent), Jammu and Kashmir
(61 per cent), Manipur (89 per cent), Meghalaya (68 per cent),
Orissa (53 per cent), Tripura (90 per cent) and West Bengal (59 per
cent).
At t h e same t h e 14 per cent o f t h e middle schools were

housed in unsatisfactory structures (Table 15). Among t h e states,
Manipur had t h e highest percentage (80 per cent) o f middle schools
housed in unsatisfactory structures, followed by Himachal Pradesh
(59 per cent), Nagaland (70 per cent and Tripura (64 per cent).
The unsatisfactory primary and middle school buildings/
structures have been posing a formidable problem in t h e programme
o f universalisation o f elementary education in the country. I t has
been estimated that the cost for converting the existing unsatisfactory
primary and middle school structures i n t o economical but durable
school buildings w o u l d be about Rs. 19,200 m i l l i o n (US$1,920 million). Since the plan resources alone w o u l d n o t be able t o take care
o f the programme o f construction o f such a large number o f school
buildings efforts are also being made t o find alternate sources of
finance.
Attempts have been made t o achieve economy in construction
cost, among other things, by increasing t h e use o f locally available
building materials and functionally suitable designs. Efforts have also
been made, at various levels, t o mobilise community resources for
improving the physical facilities o f t h e schools and t o involve t h e
village communities in the execution o f the programmes f o r construct i o n and maintenance o f school buildings, provision o f f u r n i t u r e and
equipment. Simultaneously, efforts are also made t o optimise the
83
The dropout problem h primary education
Table 15. Middle schools with unsatisfactory buildings/structures

S 1.
No.
Statelunion
Ternlory
Total
number of
primary
schools
Primary schools with

unsatisfactory
buildingdstructures
Percentage of schools
with unsatisfactory
buildingslstructures
1. Andrah Pradesh
4,382
665
15.18
2. Assam
3,653
1,631
44.65
10,643
1,932
18.15
12,500
340
2.12
801
26
3.25
3.
Bihar
4. Gujarat
5. Haryana
6.
Himachai Pradesh
981
580
59.12
7.
Jammu & Kashmir
1,990
793
39.85
11,913
822
6.90
3,686
77
2.09
9,082
943
10.38
8. Karnataka
9. Kerala
10. Madhya Pradesh
16,348
1,267
1.15
12. Manipur
378
306
80.95
13. Meghaiaya
374
160
42.18
14. Nagaland
330
232
70.30
15. Orissa
6,507
2,042
31.38
16. Panjab
1,576
341
22.02
17. Rajasthan
5,121
11. Maharashtra
18. Sikkim
19. TamilNadu
20.
Tripura
21.
Uttar Pradesh
22. West Bengal

23. A & N Islands
156
3.05
40
5,700
527
9.25
292
181
64.04
12,049
1,866
15.49
3,082
717
23.26
35
105
55
52.38
18.1 8
24.
Arunachal Pradesh
25.
Chandigarh
22
26.
Dadra & Nagar Haveii
23
27.
Defi
322
45
13.98
28.
Goa, Daman & Diu
137
2.19
29.
Lakshadweep
3
-
245
194
79.18
82
17
20.13
112,404
15,934
14.18
30. Mizoram
31. Pondicherry
TOTAL
84
India
utilisation of the existing physical facilities, by adjusting the schooling hours, reducing instructional hours at t h e primary stage and introducing double s h i f t s at the elementary stage.
The Fourth All-India Educational Survey h a d also indicated
that 34 per cent of the primary schools were single-teacher schools;
27 per cent were two-teacher schools; 15 per cent were three-teacher
schools; 8 per cent were four-teacher schools and only 5 per cent
were five-teacher schools. Eight per cent o f the schools had more
than five teachers. (Table 16).
Among the states, Jammu and Kashmir h a d the highest percentage (78 per cent) o f single-teacher schools followed by Andhra
Pradesh (54 per cent), Gujarat (56 per cent), Karnataka (72 per
cent), Maharashtra (52 per cent), Meghalaya (64 per cent) and
Rajasthan (57 p e r cent).
As a measure for reducing the drop-out rates due to the nonavailability o f an adequate number o f teachers in the single-teacher
schools, efforts are being made to convert the single-teacher schools,
wherever possible, i n t o two-teacher schools or t o provide an additional teacher as a leave reserve, in a cluster o f three or f o u r singleteacher schools. In certain cases, attempts are made to make t h e
single teacher schools part o f a complex o f neighbouring primary or
middle schools. Other steps being taken to optimise the utilisation
of teachers include recruitment o f teachers on the basis o f actual
attendance, and increasing the teacher-pupil ratio a t t h e primary
stage wherever it i s less than 1:40, and deployment of surplus teachers
existing in any school t o either the existing single-teacher schools o r
to new schools.
d)
Incentive schemes for students. Socio-economic conditions in

families, particularly in rural areas and among the weaker sections o f
the society, have been contributing to the high rate of drop-out at
the elementary stage of education. In order t o reduce drop-out and
eliminate wastage, the Central and State Governments have focussed
attention o n overcoming the social and economic barriers which
prevent children from continuing their education at least up t o the
end of the elementary stage. The introduction o f incentive schemes
in primary and middle schools are among the programmes designed
to prevent drop-out as w e l l as to increase t h e enrolment of children
at t h e elementary stage. Prominent among the incentive schemes in
85
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- c o w
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r(
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m m m
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m
d
---
m o o r m N d
m
m
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m
v
I - m
-"
r o m m m
I - * I - m
O
\O
3 3
- --
m
m
SI
\O
hl
I-
fi
I-
,O
a2
B
v)
m v)
w.! m
3
?
i
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s
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F-
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$
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5
A
ai
r-:
Indh
t h e primary and middle schools are (i)

provision f o r mid-day meals,
(ii)
supply o f free uniform/clothes, (iii)
supply o f free textbooks and
stationery, and (iv) attendance scholarships f o r girls.
i) Mid-day mealprogramme. At t h e time o f the F o u r t h AllI n d i a Education Survey a mid-day meal programme was available in
126,780 primary schools. The percentage of primary schools covered
w a s 26 per cent (Table 17). The percentage o f primary schools in
r u r a l and urban areas which had the mid-day meal programme was
26 per cent and 27 per cent respectively. Among t h e states, in Kerala
and T a m i l Nadu more than 90 per cent o f t h e primary schools were
covered by the mid-day meal programme in 1978. Andhra Pradesh
(25 per cent), Gujarat (29 per cent), Haryana (3 7 p e r cent), Karnataka
(28 per cent), Orissa (46 per cent), Rajasthan (33 per cent), Sikkim
(36 per cent) and West Bengal (70 per cent), were t h e states where
more than 25 p e r cent o f primary schools were covered by t h e programme.
At that t i m e also, 19,610 middle schools (17 per cent) had
provision f o r free mid-day meals t o students f r o m economically
poorer families, 16 per cent o f middle schools in r u r a l areas and 22
per cent o f middle schools in urban areas were covered by the midday meal programme.
The programme in primary schools has been largely rural

based, except in the states o f Kerala and Tamil Nadu where a large
proportion o f schools in urban areas was also covered under t h e
programme.
ii) Provision of free unzjComzs and clothes. Economic causes,

l i k e inability o f t h e parents t o provide their children with adequate
clothes, also contribute a great deal towards children dropping o u t
f r o m schools. As a measure t o prevent drop-out at the elementary
stage o f education, t h e central and state governments, therefore,
have initiated schemes for supplying uniforrns/clothes t o children belonging t o t h e disadvantaged sections o f t h e society.
In 1978, provisions for supply o f free uniforms/clothes t o
students were available in 59,960 primary schools and 10,563 middle
schools, 54,476 primary schools in rural areas and 4,484 primary
schools in urban areas were covered by the scheme. In t h e case o f
middle schools which had the facility, 8,739 were in rural areas
while 1,804 were in urban areas. The percentage o f primary and
88
India
Table 17. Percenage of schools with midday meals programme for students
(As on September, 30,1978)
~~
SI. Statelunion
No. Temetory
Middle
primas,
i
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
3 1.
Andlua Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu&Kashmir
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Nagaland
Orissa
Panjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
TamilNadu
Tripura
UttarPradesh
West Bengal
A&NIslands
Arunachal Pradesh
Chandigarh
Delhi
Goa, Daman & Diu
iakshadweep
Mizoram
Pondicheny
TOTAL
Source:
~~
Percentage of schools with midday meals

programme
Rural
Urban
Total
Rural
Urban
Total
iv.
U.
Vi
vii
viii
26.42
3.58
1.11
32.54
40.42
10.62
0.72
26.87
96.74
15.06
4.67
0.00
0.37
0.00
47.74
17.41
37.21
76.29
97.70
0.00
7.58
73.91
94.23
29.60
100.00
99.25
0.00
34.32
100.00
0.00
97.13
18.91
1.55
2.63
2.19
2.13
15.48
0.82
44.1 O
96.31
4.05
14.17
0.00
2.82
0.00
16.23
4.35
6.61
75.00
91.22
0.00
12.80
48.39
100.00
8.33
92.85
-
26.61
56.2
0.06
1.35
12.95
0.13
7.85
0.89
39.04
77.11
29.63
0.00
1.25
6.49
5.08
0.00
0.33
36.83
85.82
50.37
0.05
1.33
11.91
0.50
7.65
0.80
38.55
78.02
12.10
5.13
0.00
0.30
0.00
0.81
0.21
1.16
88.57
94.74
0.00
1.17
0.27
96.55
11.65
100.00
95.65
0.00
0.00
100.00
0.00
90.57
2.90
25.15
0.00
2.33
0.00
3.28
2.24
4.24
80.00
87.55
0.00
5.39
1.O2
100.00
0.00
100.00
0.00
85.92
25.86
3.49
1.17
29.25
37.41
10.71
0.7 3
28.27
96.72
14.29
5.83
0.00
0.42
0.00
46.32
16.38
33.99
76.25
96.53
0.00
8.08
70.06
94.3 8
29.25
94.87
99.25
5.12
8.73
100.00
0.00
94.29
0.00
65.52
10.43
8.24
0.00
0.53
0.00
0.95
0.38
1.70
87.5
92.58
0.00
1.83
0.39
97.14
11.43
100.00
95.65
4.66
10.95
100.00
0.00
81.71
27.75
26.71
16.42
22.73
17.45
6.49
16.50
Fourth All India EducationalSurvey - NCERT, New Delhi
89
5.49
88.24
-
Table 18. Percentageof schools with the scheme of free uniforms to

students (As on September, 30,1978)
SI. Statelunion
No. Temto?y
Percentage of schools with the scheme of free

uniforms to students
Rural
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
AndhraPradesh
Assam
Bihar
Cujarat
Haryana
HimachalPradesh
Jammu&Kashmir
kMhka
Kerala
MadhyaPradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Nagaland
Orissa
Panjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
TamilNadu
Tripura
Uttarhdesh
WestBengal
A&NI&nds
Arunachal Pradesh
Chandigarh
Delhi
Goa, Daman & Diu
Lakhdweep
Mizoram
Pondicherry
TOTAL
14.93
0.00
0.00
22.01
7.44
14.59
26.21
5.81
94.36
0.12
2.41
0.00
0.09
0.00
15.37
0.17
4.46
o.O0
22.84
100.00
0.12
66.84
82.05
0.69
27.27
97.76
48.25
7.90
0.00
7.66
31.10
12.62
primary
Urban
Total
0.00
30.99
14.20
0.05
0.00
20.28
7.58
14.72
25.85
6.1 3
94.36
0.17
2.80
0.00
0.1 1
0.00
15.01
0.22
4.23
0.00
23.04
100.00
0.17
58.86
81.88
0.68
48.72
97.76
50.49
8.62
0.00
6.78
31.07
10.42
12.42
5.20
1.22
0.00
5.98
9.22
21.43
21.15
9.76
94.3 8
0.75
5.54
0.00
1.41
0.00
7.39
0.85
2.35
0.00
23.98
100.00
0.57
13.92
75.00
0.00
57.14
51.10
14.56
Rural
Total
19.42
2.76
0.00
9.50
4.18
21.03
25.81
8.51
91.87
0.18
2.45
0.00
1.81
0.33
10.68
0.07
1.68
0.00
25.27
100.00
0.25
0.00
93.10
0.97
71.43
95.65
77.55
13.33
0.00
0.00
30.19
6.34
1.75
0.00
2.23
8.41
0.08
21.93
10.33
94.59
0.85
3.74
0.00
9.30
0.00
17.21
7.46
3.23
0.00
28.93
100.00
1.32
0.00
100.00
0.00
46.67
-
0.00
20.69
16.54
2.68
0.00
8.34
4.49
20.69
25.23
8.91
92.16
0.30
2.65
0.00
2.67
0.30
11.05
0.70
1.95
0.00
26.37
100.00
0.41
0.00
94.29
0.95
54.55
95.65
74.22
i6.06
0.00
0.00
26.83
9.28
9.90
9.40
Source: Fourth AU India Educational Survey - NCERT, New Dehi
90
Middle
Urban
73.63
35.29
India
middle schools which had provisions for supply o f free uniforms/

clothes t o students were 12.42 and 9.40 respectively (Table 18).
Among the states, Kerala and Tripura had more than 90 per cent o f
t h e primary schools covered by the programme.
iii) Provision of free textbooks. Another incentive scheme,

which i s designed t o prevent drop-out and reduce wastage at the
primary and middle stages o f education, i s t h e scheme for free
supply o f textbooks t o needy students.
The percentage o f primary schools which had the scheme for
supply o f free textbooks in 1978was 37 per cent in t h e rural areas
and 34 per cent in t h e urban areas. Among t h e states, in Bihar,
Kerala, Tamil N a d u and Tripura more than 90 per cent o f t h e primary
schools had free supply o f textbooks. In Himachal Pradesh and
Orissa more than 50 per cent o f the primary schools were covered
by the scheme. A large proportion o f the primary schools was covered by the scheme in the union territories.
Thirty-four per cent o f t h e middle schools in the country had
provision for free supply o f textbooks t o students. The percentages
of middle schools in rural and urban areas which had the scheme
were 34 and 38 p e r cent respectively. In Bihar and Tripura, more
than 90 per cent of middle schools were covered by the scheme.
Other states in which a large proportion of middle schools had been
covered by the scheme were Andhra Pradesh (54 per cent), Himachal
Pradesh (55 per cent), Kerala (83 per cent), Tamil Nadu (89 per
cent) (Table 19).
iv) Attendance scholarships for girls. Since a large proportion
o f drop-outs at the elementary stage has been girls, t h e Government
o f I n d i a has initiated special measures for promoting education o f
girls. Prominent among them i s the scheme o f attendance scholarships for girls f r o m t h e weaker sections o f t h e society, including
scheduled castes and scheduled tribes.
In 1978 there were 62,438 primary schools and 18,262
middle schools which had provision f o r attendance scholarships for

girls. The provision for scholarships f o r girls were 13 p e r cent and
16 per cent f o r primary and middle schools respectively. The scheme
existed more in r u r a l schools than in urban schools; 59,277 primary
schools (14 per cent) in rural areas and 3,161 (7 per cent) in urban
areas, had provision f o r attendance scholarships for girls. Among
91

Table 19. Percentage of schools with the scheme of free textbooks to
students (As on September 30,1978)
Si. Statelunion
No. Territory
Percentage of schools with the scheme of free

textbooks to the students
Middle
primns,
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
AndhraPradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachai Pradesh
Jammu&Kashmir
Karnataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Nagaland1
Orissa
Panjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
TamlNadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
WestBengal
A&NIsiands
h M C h a 1 Pradesh
ChandWh
Delhi
Goa, Daman & Diu
Lakshadweep
Mizoram
Pondicheny
TOTAL
Source:
Rural
Urban
44.75
3.87
100.00
30.17
20.76
53.74
25.39
37.65
93.18
10.95
29.28
0.00
1.31
31.08
74.43
21.88
19.95
0.00
94.66
100.00
13.61
0.00
94.87
100.00
100.00
100.00
100.00
18.87
94.12
28.45
31.58
44.3 3
39.09
3.77
1.66
100.00 100.00
8.59
27.83
13.95
20.23
53.46
39.29
26.28
25.46
36.53
37.56
94.54
93.32
3.79
10.45
34.14
29.86
0.00
0.00
1.40
5.63
30.34
0.00
67.13
74.1O
21.64
18.81
24.76
20.47
0.00
0.00
91.46
94.08
100.00 100.00
13.37
11.07
0.00
0.00
94.38
75.00
83.33
99.73
74.36
64.29
100.00
94.6 3
93.19
20.08
30.1O
94.12
40.68
29.84
19.23
28.93
37.91
34.11
Total
37.56
Rural
Urban
59.42
4.22
92.47
15.77
18.46
55.75
21.49
48.26
83.26
11.49
30.66
0.00
5.74
18.89
22.83
37.24
20.22
0.00
89.02
95.57
19.71
0.00
100.00
99.03
100.00
95.65
83.67
26.67
100.00
21.08
37.74
37.21
54.54
1.75
4.02
93.92
92.65
12.40
15.22
20.34
18.60
55.56
48.00
21.56
21.93
35.30
45.40
83.48
85.30
5.44
10.38
61.53
35.45
0.00
0.00
4.65
5.61
0.00
17.58
26.23
23.02
23.13
36.04
26.09
21.25
0.00
0.00
91.23
89.68
95.24
95.55
18.70
19.55
0.00
0.00
100.00 100.00
99.05
100.00
53.33
68.18
95.65
74.72
76.09
35.29
27.14
100.00
41.46
24.49
41.38
39.02
34.19
Fourth All India Educational Survey - NCERT, New Dehi
92
38.75
Total
34.93
India
middle schools, 15,972 (17 per cent) in rural areas and 2,290 (13
per cent) in urban areas were covered by t h e scheme in 1978. In
the states o f Andhra Pradesh (38 per cent), Himachal Pradesh (44
per cent), Karnataka (36 per cent), Tripura (100 per cent) and West
Bengal (72 per cent) and in t h e u n i o n territory o f Chandigarh
(76 per cent), the scheme o f attendance scholarships f o r girls were
available in more than 35 per cent of the primary schools. The states
and u n i o n territories where a large proportion o f middle schools
which h a d provision f o r attendance scholarships f o r girls were
Andhra Pradesh (50 per cent), Himachal Pradesh (68 per cent),
Karnataka (55 per cent), Kerala (54 per cent), Orissa (53 per cent),
Tripura (95 per cent) and Chandigarh (72 per cent) (Table 20).
No detention policy at the primary stage. As a measuree)
f o r combating the drop-out problem, i t has been suggested t o states
and u n i o n territories, t o introduce no detention policy at the primary stage o f education, so that every child enrolled at t h e primary
stage i s promoted t o t h e n e x t higher class till he/she completes grade
V, but with adequate safeguards for maintaining standards by way
o f periodical assessment and evaluation o n a continuing basis. This
policy has already been introduced in a few states l i k e Andhra
Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. In Kerala, n o detention
policy was introduced in grades 1-111and minimum detention i s made
in the subsequent higher classes. Actions t o introduce no detention
policy at the primary stage are being initiated in other states and
u n i o n territories. I t i s expected that the introduction o f t h i s p o l i c y
w o u l d bring d o w n considerably t h e drop-out rates and wastage at t h e
primary stage.
Pedagogical measures t o prevent drop-outs

Studies conducted o n the problems o f drop-out and wastage at
the elementary stage o f education have revealed that one o f the m a i n
causes o f drop-out and wastage has been the p o o r quality o f education. Therefore, as part o f t h e efforts t o prevent drop-outs and
eliminate wastage, several measures aimed at bringing about qualitative improvement in education and overcoming the problems related
t o certain pedagogical aspects o f the drop-out problem, were initiated
during the past few years. Prominent among these measures were:
(a) programmes/projects for evolving new curriculum approaches
and improving the quality o f textbooks and other learning materials;
(b) experimental/operational projects o n ungraded school systems;
93
Table 20. Percentage of schools having attendance scholarships

schemes (As on September ,30,1978)
Percentage of schools having attendnnce
scholarship scheme
SI. Statelnion
No. Tematory
Middle
-
Primary
i
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25,
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
Rural
Ur6an
Ri.
iv.
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
B h
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachai Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Ka~nataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashka
Manipur
Meghalaya
Naand
Orissa
Panjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
TamilNadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
A & N Islands
Arunachal Pradesh
Chandigarh
Dadra Nagar Haveli
Delhi
Goa, Daman & Diu
Kakshadweep
Mizoram
Pondicerry
38.46
3.55
0.00
21.19
0.04
44.94
0.00
36.77
5.27
0.02
0.25
0.00
0.00
0.00
1.27
0.01
0.07
0.00
0.18
100.00
0.63
82.90
0.00
0.00
100.00
0.00
0.00
3.1 8
11.76
0.00
0.96
34.12
1.20
0.00
1.26
0.24
35.71
0.00
37.58
5.30
0.42
1.40
1.55
0.00
0.00
2.07
0.19
1.60
0.00
0.40
100.00
0.66
16.56
0.00
0.00
67.86
-
TOTAL
13.73
ii
Total
V.
Rural
Urban
Total
Vi.
vii.
viii.
53.86
3.1 8
0.00
9.14
0.00
68.41
0.00
59.36
54.43
2.85
0.55
0.00
0.60
0.98
53.67
1.46
11.43
0.00
0.30
95.57
1.87
20.19
0.00
0.00
100.00
0.00
0.00
9.17
20.00
0.00
9.43
36.49
1.75
0.00
1.39
3.39
56.00
0.00
43.31
59.79
O .42
0.99
1O .O0
0.00
0.00
51.90
1.49
14.16
0.00
0.76
95.24
3.33
11.61
0.00
0.00
0.60
-
0.00
0.00
38.1 3
3.46
0.00
19.03
0.06
44.77
0.00
36.84
5.27
0.05
0.39
0.08
0.00
0.00
1.31
0.02
0.24
0.00
0.01
100.00
0.64
72.89
0.00
0.00
76.92
0.00
0.62
3.36
11.76
0.00
0.71
O .O0
3.45
50.04
3.07
0.00
7.89
0.25
68.09
0.00
55.81
54.99
2.41
0.62
1.O6
0.53
0.91
53.57
1.46
11.91
0.00
0.44
95.55
2.1 O
18.82
0.00
0.00
72.13
0.00
0.62
10.95
20.00
0.00
7.32
7.35
13.15
16.96
12.57
16.25
0.78
4.86
Source: Fourth AU India Educational Survey, NCERT, New Delhi
94
0.73
23.53
-
and (c) in-service and pre-service programmes f o r enhancing t h e

competence o f teachers.
a)
Improvement of curricula and learning materials. Because
o f the geographical, economic, social and cultural variations, t h e
needs o f t h e learners have been diverse and, therefore, the conventional curricula, learning materials and instructional strategies have
n o t been always relevant t o t h e basic needs and l i f e situations o f t h e
children. An important area o f challenge, which has been engaging
the attention o f the educational planners and workers at all levels
in t h e country has been t o evolve new curricula or curriculum
approaches that would provide an effective programme of education,
especially at the elementary stage, through t h e improved use o f
limited resources available in the country.
Many Commissions and Committees, appointed during t h e last
t w o decades by the Government o f I n d i a in order t o evolve a suitable
and effective system o f education in t h e country, have made u s e f u l
recommendations and suggestions f o r improvement o f t h e quality
o f education. These include t h e report o f the Education Commission
(1964-66), the report o f t h e Expert Group o f 1973 The Curriculum
f o r t h e Ten-Year School: A Framework, and the Review Committee
o f 1977.
Today in India, the guidelines provided in The Curriculum
f o r t h e Ten-Year School - A Framework and t h e Report of t h e
Review Committee o n the Curriculum f o r t h e Ten-Year School
f o r m the basis f o r t h e development o f the curriculum f o r school educat i o n at different levels in the states and u n i o n territories in t h e
country.
T h e basic characteristics and objectives of the curriculum f o r

school education have also been spelt o u t in the policy frame o f t h e
S i x t h Five Year Plan. According t o it the curriculum w o u l d b e
developed with t h e goal o f imparting necessary levels o f literacy,
numeracy, comprehension and functional skills related to local
socio-economic factors and environment needs. I t w o u l d s u i t flexible
models, with provision o f diversification and dextrous balance between common basic goals and varying methodology. T h e basic
objectives w o u l d stresss the curriculum as an instrument for inculcating humanistic values, capacity f o r tolerance, p r o m o t i o n of national
integration, scientific attitude and temper and individual capability
f o r learning f r o m the s u r r o w d i n g world.
95
In recent years, a number o f projects o f national importance

o n development or renewal o f primary education curricula and
improvement o f textbooks and learning materials have been undertaken in I n d i a with the primary objective o f evolving new educationa l programmes which could meet t h e educational needs o f children
from different sections o f t h e society, particularly those belonging
t o the disadvantaged sections o f t h e society. Prominent among t h e
on-going projects for improvement o f curricula and learning materials
and are being implemented at the national level are t h e projects o n
(i)
Primary Education Curriculum Renewal; and (ii)
Nutrition/Health
Education and Environmental Sanitation.
i) Project on Primary Education Curriculum Renewal. The

project Primary Education Curriculum Renewal was launched in
1976. T h e major objectives o f the project are t o develop new curricula and learning materials relevant t o the basic needs and l i f e
situations o f t h e children, particularly those belonging t o the disadvantaged sections o f t h e society, and t o increase the meaningfulness
o f t h e existing primary education through gradual infusion i n t o t h e
primary school curriculum o f new ideas tested in the experimental
education programmes. T h e project also a i m s at creating within the
states o r u n i o n territories in t h e country, the necessary competencies
among educational planners and workers at different levels, for
developing and implementing the curricula, which by i t s content
and methodology would reflect the major socio-economic, geographical and cultural environments.
I n i t i a l l y the project was implemented in ten primary schools in
each o f the three selected districts in 15 states and u n i o n territories.
Thus, the p i l o t phase of the project, which was completed in 1980,
covered 450 primary schools in the country.
The new curriculum for grades I-V and instructional materials
were developed through the involvement o f t h e teachers o f the project schools, teacher educators of Teacher Training I n s t i t u t e s and
other experts in t h e state/union territory, under t h e supervision of
the respective State I n s t i t u t e s o f Education and the State Council o f
Educational Research and Training (SIF/SCERT). The instructional
materials include textbooks, guidance materials f o r teachers, general
reading materials and workbooks. The guides developed for the
teachers play an important part in helping the teachers t o utilise the
local environmental resources f o r t h e effective education o f the
96
children. By the e n d of 1980, about 380 titles, serving approximately

170,000 children were published in 15 states and u n i o n territories.
Under the project a Minimum Learning Continuum (MLC),
indicating the competencies expected t o b e attained by a learner at
the end of t h e primary stage o f education, has also been developed.
T h e terminal competencies expected t o be attained by t h e e n d o f
grade V are in relation t o Language, Mathematics, Environmental
Studies, Healthy Living, Socially Useful Productive W o r k and Creative
Expression, which are the broad areas o f t h e primary education curriculum. The M L C provides a broad common competency oriented
framework which allows ample scope f o r flexibility for adopting
local specific learning situations in t h e curriculum.
In 1981, in order t o increase the impact of t h e project in the
15 states and u n i o n territories already participating in t h e project, it
was decided t o introduce the project more widely. At the same time
i t was also proposed t o extend the project t o the remaining 16 states
and u n i o n territories. As a result, t h e project i s n o w being implemented in about 2,355 primary schools in the country.
An elaborate programme of training o f personnel involved in

the project at different levels, has been an important component in
the implementation o f the project. Under t h e project, a three-tier
training strategy i s followed. The National Council o f Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) at the national level organises
training programmes f o r key persons f r o m t h e SIEs/SCERTs in states
and u n i o n territories. I t also provides learning opportunities through
mutual exchange o f experience in t h e regional and national level
meetings and workshops. At the state/union territory level, t h e SIE/
SCERT organises a series o f training programmes f o r teacher educators o f elementary teacher training institutions o f t h e project schools
and supervisory staff associated with the schools. At t h e district level,
each elementary teacher training i n s t i t u t e organises training and
orientation programmes for the teachers of t h e project schools. The
T T I s also closely supervise the implementation of the project in t h e
schools.
T h e project, assisted by UNICEF, i s at present being implemented in 22 states and eight u n i o n territories in t h e country. F o r
smooth implementation o f the project, a Primary Curriculum D e velopment Cell (PCDC) has been set up at the National Council
o f Educational Research and Training (NCERT), which i s entrusted
97
with the responsibility for the planning a n d execution of the project.

The PCDC continues to act as the central technical, co-ordinating
and monitoring agency, and undertakes the research and developm e n t that i s necessary for continued curriculum renewal in primary
education.
ii) Project on NutritionlHealth Education and Environmental

Sanitation. T h e problems of health a n d nutrition among children
have been among t h e causes of drop-outa n d wastage a t the elementary
stage of education in India. Therefore, the Government of India,
being concerned with the problems of health a n d nutrition, especially those related to malnutrition and infectious deseases, has initiated
a series of actions t o eradicate these problems. I t has been realised
that one of the causes of malnutrition has been ignorance of good
nutrition and hygienic habits among the children.
As p a r t of the measures to combat the problem, the Governm e n t of I n d i a launched a pilot project on Nutrition/Health Education
and Environmental Sanitation at the primary stage in the year 1976.
The main objectives of the project i s to help the primary school
teachers t o understand and practise the technique of integrating
n u t r i t i o n h e a l t h concepts into their teaching of the coniponent
subjects of the primary school curriculum. The activities under the
project include the preparation, testing and development of packages
of instructional material on nutrition and health education and
environmental sanitation which are suited to the primary school
stage; the preparation, testing and development of instructional
material for the training of teachers, teacher educators and teacher
trainees in elementary teacher training institutes; and the testing
and devising of means by w h i c h n u t r i t i o n h e a l t h education c o u l d
b e concurrently imparted to the out-of-school population, especially
to women a n d girls in underprivileged groups such as scheduled
castes and scheduled tribes.
Under the project, five regional centres were established in five
states. Following a detailed survey of local conditions and existing
nutritional health and sanitation habits, a curriculum package for
primary school pupils and teachers was developed. About 7,500
teachers from 2,650 primary schools were trained under the project,
which covered approximately 3 00,000 children. Since desirable
nutrition, health a n d sanitation practices cannot be developed in isolation from the commuity in w h i c h the children live, a supplementary
98
Indk
programme t o reach t h e community through teachers, children and
parents was also developed.
Evaluation o f t h e project has indicated that it has had an
impact o n t h e health and nutritional status o f t h e children studyi n g in the schools in which t h e scheme was implemented. Therefore,
t h e project i s n o w being expanded by setting up n u t r i t i o n education
centres in 12 additional states and t w o u n i o n territories covering
about 1,400 primary schools.
The project, assisted by UNICEF, i s implemented by t h e

National Council o f Educational Research and Training (NCERT),
which acts as t h e co-ordinating and monitoring agency. At the state
level, the Education Department o f the state government o r a designated agency l i k e SIE/SCERT i s responsible f o r monitoring and
co-ordinating the scheme.
b)
Experimental projects o n t h e ungraded school system.
Frustrations due t o failure in examinations and t h e detention o f
children in various classes at t h e primary and middle stages have been
contributing t o drop-out and wastage at the elementary stage o f
education. The problem o f drop-out due t o these are being tackled
through the i n t r o d u c t i o n o f t h e ungraded school system, particularly
at the primary stage. At present, experimental projects o n t h e
ungraded school system are being carried o u t in some o f t h e states
and union territories. The m a i n objectives o f these projects are t o
evolve suitable techniques f o r retaining all t h e children enrolled in
t h e primary schools and t o alleviate t h e alarming rate o f drop-out,
wastage and stagnation.
In t h e case o f the experiments o n the ungraded school system,
Ior grades Iand I
I
Io r even grades It o I V
normally grades Iand I
are fused i n t o one class and the c h i l d i s allowed t o progress according
t o his/her own ability and speed. The learners aze given self-learning
materials f o r study. After a lesson i s mastered, another lesson i s given
for study immediately in order to maintain continuity in learning.
Gifted children and fast fcarners are allowed t o progress according t o
their speed o f achievement, and they are provided with enrichment
material to broaden their learning, while slow learners are given
special attention and encouragement t o overcome their deficiencies
in learning.
In the ungraded school system, there are n o annualexaminations
99
and detentions. A child i s allowed t o continue studies irrespective

of h i s h e r performance. Thus, the children experience neither any
fear o f examinations n o r frustration due t o failures and detention.
However, there i s provision for continuous self-evaluation by the
pupils themselves. After learning a lesson, pupils evaluate their
own performances and are made to correct their own mistakes. The
teacher assists the pupils as and when assistance i s required by the
pupils.
The learning materials f o r use o f the pupils are developed by
teachers and experts. Generally, the course of study for a year i s
divided i n t o convenient u n i t s of 30 t o 40 self-learning lessons. The
lessons are presented sequentially and opportunity i s given t o repeat
the lessons, if necessary.
The evaluation of the experimental projects o n the ungraded
school system has indicated encouraging signs in terms of reduction
in drop-out rate, wastage and stagnation. The experiment, therefore,
i s being introduced o n a wider scale in many of the states and u n i o n
territories in the country.
c)
Programmes foi: enhancing the competence of teachers.
There has been a growing recognition o f the fact that one of the
causes of drop-out and wastage at the elementary stage of education
has been the poor quality o f teaching, which has been too knowledge
oriented, bookish and uninteresting. Therefore, as part of the efforts
t o improve the quality of elementary education, several measures
aimed at enhancing the competence o f teachers and f o r the updating
and extensive use of educational techniques for higher efficiency and
greater effectiveness o f teaching, have been initiated during the past
f e w years. Prominent among these measures are (i)training programmes for in-service teachers; (ii)a n experimental project for
evolving n e w techniques to train in-service teachers o n a mass scale,
and (iii)
the revision o f the elementary teacher education curriculum.
i) Training programmes for in-service teachers. In 1978,

among the primary school teachers 13 per cent of teachers were
untrained (Table 21). Meghalaya had the highest percentage (81) o f
untrained teachers, and Assam (34 per cent), Manipur (50 per cent),
Nagaland (61 per cent), S i k k i m (34 per cent) and Mizoram (39 per
cent) h a d a substantial backlog o f untrained primary school teachers.
In the case of teachers at the middle stage, 13 per cent of teachers
100
India
Table 21. Percentage of trained teachers at the primary and middle
stages (As on September 30,1978)
Primary State
SI. Stagefnion
No. Tenitory
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
2 1.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
3 1.
Andhra Pradesh
Assam
Bihar
Gujarat
Haryana
Himachal Pradesh
Jammu & Kashmir
Kamataka
Kerala
Madhya Pradesh
Maharashtra
Manipur
Meghalaya
Nagaland
Orissa
Panjab
Rajasthan
Sikkim
Tamil Nadu
Tripura
Uttar Pradesh
West Bengal
A & N Islands
Arunachal Pradesh
Chandigarh
Dadra & Nagar Haveii
Delhi
Goa, Daman & Diu
Lakshadweep
Mizoram
Pondicherry
AU India
Source:
Middle State
-------- ----------------------Number of
Teachers
Percentage
of Trained
Teachers
98,136
49,218
137,605
63,145
30,168
14,334
16,768
66,492
62,114
122,823
156,799
11,658
6,136
4,665
76,419
49,723
43,840
1,517
144,972
6,342
247,339
158,343
1,057
1,524
1,068
24 9
18,893
3,620
159
1,945
2,111
1,599,182
Number of
Teachers
Percentage
of Trained
Teachers
97.46
64.93
92.1 7
96.54
98.88
97.88
82.1 5
81.27
91.41
84.56
87.70
4 9.24
38.56
38.33
75.50
97.65
91.97
64.53
99.78
67.75
95.17
51.10
92.34
55.97
96.54
92.37
98.79
75.33
88.05
60.67
94.60
35,072
22,570
48,581
57,892
13,633
8,866
10,176
42,415
58,547
50,151
97,010
2,396
1,945
2,490
22,254
25,013
4 1,864
3 90
61,509
2,716
85,673
36,283
451
5 26
704
99
11,234
1,906
138
1,386
1,028
94.88
30.48
93.75
97.20
98.80
96.58
83.67
88.53
85.78
84.96
92.76
20.74
18.20
30.28
54.66
97.72
89.81
46.41
98.02
67.12
90.67
59.38
91.80
56.84
96.88
91.92
97.38
71.83
90.58
36.22
95.53
86.27
744,918
86.67
Fourth All India Educational Survey - NCERT, New Delhi
1O 1
in the country were untrained. In Assam, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Sikkim, and Mizoram, more than 50 p e r cent o f the teachers at
the middle stage were untrained.
In addition t o the large number o f untrained teachers in primary and middle schools, there are also a sizeable number o f
underqualified teachers who need upgrading o f their academic
qualifications. The minimum qualifications prescribed f o r the primary school teacher i s the matriculation or t h e Secondary School
Leaving Certificate which i s awarded after ten years o f schooling.
In 1973, several steps were initiated for upgrading their
academic qualifications. Prominent among them were correspondencecum-contact courses for in-service teachers and deputation o f
untrained in-service teachers t o undergo full-time institutionalised
teacher training courses offered by the recognised elementary
teacher training institutes. These have helped in reducing t h e number o f untrained and underqualified teachers in primary and middle
schools.
A l o n g with t h e efforts aimed at clearing the backlog o f t h e
untrained and underqualified teachers, a variety o f short-term
training programmes have also been conducted t o update t h e knowledge of t h e in-service primary teachers. The main objective o f these
training courses i s t o orient the in-service teacher t o the current developments in content and methodology o f teaching. The duration o f
these courses vary f r o m three days t o four weeks, depending u p o n
the objectives o f t h e training programme. These programmes have
enabled a large number o f in-service teachers t o keep themselves
abreast with the recent developments in the content o f studies in
primary and middle schools and t o cope with t h e challenge o f the
changing curricula and teaching methodology.
In addition t o this, a large number o f teachers were also trained
under t h e UNICEF-assisted Science Education Programme implemented at the national level by t h e National Council o f Educational
Research and Training (NCERT) in collaboration w i t h the State
I n s t i t u t e o f Education/State I n s t i t u t e o f Science Education/State
Council o f Educational Research and Training in the states and u n i o n
territories. T h e Science Education Programme was started in 1967
f o r the reorganization and expansion o f t h e teaching o f science in
primary and middle schools. By 1975, almost all the states and u n i o n
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I n d ziz
territories in the country h a d implemented the programme in t h e i r

schools under pilot, wider introduction o r universalisation phases.
The programme involved science curriculum renewal, development of
instructional materials, upgrading of elementary teacher training
institutes in order t o improve pre-service and in-service training in
science of teachers, in-service training of teachers and other functionaries and u s e o f the environment and local resources f o r the
purpose of teaching science a t the elementary stage. The major
achievements of this programme were the experience that it provided
in curriculum development and implementation and a change of
attitude towards teaching at the primary level. I t has now been widely accepted that teaching at the primary level can be made m o r e interesting and effective if it i s environment based and centred on the
child.
Several agencies in the country are engaged in the organization
and implementation of in-service training courses for primary and
middle school teachers. At the national level, the National Council
of Educational Research and Training (NCERT) organizes training
courses f o r k e y personnel and resource persons engaged in training
of in-service teachers at the elementary stage. At the regional level,
training courses for resource persons and k e y persons a t the state/
u n i o n territory level are also organised by the four Regional Colleges
of Education which are run by the N C E R T and located in the states
of Kamataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan. These colleges
cater t o the needs of the four regions - Southern, Western, Eastern
and Northern regions. They organise training courses f o r k e y persons,
teacher educators or teachers on a regional basis or for a particular
state in their jurisdiction on specific demands. They also assist
N C E R T in organizing courses for resource persons engaged in training o f in-service primary and middle school teachers.
ii) Alternative strategy for in-service teacher training. I t has

been recognised that under the present system of training teachers
through short-term training courses organized every year in each
of the states and the union territories in the country, it would take
m a n y years before the entire population of primary and middle
school teachers in the country could be trained and retrained.
Therefore, attempts have been made to develop a n alternative
strategy by making use of the mass media for in-service teacher training courses. The in-service teacher training course in science for
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primary school teachers, by using a multi-media package developed

by t h e Centre f o r Educational Technology, National Council o f
Educational Research and Training (NCERT), represents a major
attempt in this direction. The package offered a 12-day teacher
training programme simultaneously t o 24,OO O primaryschool teachers
spread over 2,400 villages in the states o f Andhra Pradesh, Bihar,
Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa and Rajasthan covered by the
Satellite Instructional Television Experiment (SITE) in the year
1975-76. A b o u t 48,000 teachers (about 2.8 p e r cent o f t h e t o t a l
number o f primary school teachers in t h e country in 1975) were
trained by using the multi-media package during 1975-76.
The use o f mass media, especially radio, f o r training of in-service

teachers at t h e primary and middle stage has also been made in
the states o f Gujarat and Kerala. In Gujarat a series t i t l e d Teach
English, i s offered by the Ahmedabad station o f the All India
Radio.
The different components o f t h e Multi-media package were
television programme (22% minutes); radio programme (20 minutes);
activities ( t w o hours); study o f enrichment materials (30 minutes);
and pre- and post-telecast/broadcast discussions guided by t h e
teacher m o n i t o r (one hour). The television programmes were telecast
by utilising t h e facilities provided by t h e SITE. These programmes
were designed t o demonstrate the new approaches t o science teaching. I t also provided opportunities f o r upgrading the teachers knowledge and understanding o f t h e subject matter. The telecast was
preceded by an introductory talk by the teacher monitor, and followed by a general discussion o n the content of the programme. The
radio programmes were designed t o motivate the teachers and t o
provide enrichment o f t h e content. The programme i s broadcast
every Saturday between 16.30 hours and 17.00 hours. T h e series
covers a l l the f o u r s k i l l s o f the language, i.e., listening, speaking,
reading and writing, in addition t o vocabulary. T h e series consists
of 5 2 radio lessons, in addition t o t h e support materials which are
given t o t h e teachers in advance.
In Kerala, a radio-cum-correspondence course i s used f o r
training in-service teachers at t h e elementary stage covering the
subjects o f science and regional language (Malayalam). The course
has been offered f o r the last six years. The programme i s confined
t o only those schools which have listening facilities and the teachers
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India
are enrolled on a voluntary basis. The radio broadcasts and correspondence course lessons are supported by the contact programmes
conducted a t the elementary teacher training institutes. Teachers
are evaluated o n the basis of their performance o n the post tests
included in the correspondence course lessons, and tests and quizzes
conducted during the contact programmes. The successful teachers
are given certificates.
iii) Revision of the elementary teacher education curriculum.

In India, the programme of professional education of teachers a t a l l
levels i s under a process of revision in the light of the recommendations made by the National Council f o r Teacher Education (NCTE),
which was constituted by the Government of India t o advise on
matters relating t o teacher education in the country. The framework
o f the teacher education curriculum approved by the NCTE, recommended significant changes in the existing teacher education programmes. I t highlights the need for flexibility and relevance in the
courses in order t o relate them t o the local needs and conditions.
The recommendations o f the NCTE have been followed by
attempts to introduce changes in the existing courses of teacher
education, both in terms o f organization and structure. Thirteen
states and three union territories have already revised the curriculum
of elementary teacher education. The changes introduced into the
elementary teacher education curriculum are expected t o make
teacher training programmes in tune with t h e emerging needs o f the
society, competence-based and task oriented and to improve the
quality of teaching in primary and middle schools in the country.
This w o u l d lead, ultimately, to the qualitative improvement of
elementary education resulting in reduction o f drop-out rates a t the
elementary stage of education.
Measures for retrieving drop-outs

The existing system of education a t the elementary stage c o u l d
be regarded as a single point entry, sequential and full-time system of
institutional instruction by full-time and professional teachers. This
system favours only those who can complete the elementary stage
successfully and harms the interests of the bulk of children who
drop-out a t the early stage o f elementary education. I t i s felt that i f
elementary education i s to be made universal, the existing elementary
education system should be radically m o d i f i e d by introducing certain
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structural changes t o make due provision f o r the education of out-ofschool children, including t h e drop-outs.
In 1974, t h e Central Advisory Board o f Education (CABE)
which i s the highest b o d y responsible for decision making and
policy making in the field o f education in t h e country recommended
the adoption o f large scale programmes o f part-time education f o r
those children who for various socio-economic constraints failed t o
take advantage o f the schooling facilities.
In recent years, several programmes aimed at meeting the
educational needs o f t h e out-of-school children have been initiated
in India. Prominent among them are (a) programmes f o r non-formal
and part-time education; and (b) experimental/operational projects
f o r developing alternative approaches t o non-formal and part-time
education o f out-of-school children.
a)
Programmes f o r non-formal and part-time education. The-basic
strategy f o r the universalisation o f elementary education in all t h e
states and u n i o n territories consists o f expansion and improvement
of formal schooling, with provision o f schools covering a l l the haditations in t h e country, and the provision of a massive programme o f
non-formal education covering the needs o f the out-of-school children
and t h e educationally backward areas in the states and u n i o n territories.
The programme o f non-formal education covers, in most

cases, o n l y children in t h e age group o f 9-14. The age group six t o
eight years i s n o t included in these programmes mainly because
children below n i n e years o f age are n o t considered t o b e mature
enough t o benefit f r o m t h e programmes of non-formal education and
also because o f t h e fact that inclusion o f this group could indirectly
have an adverse effect o n the efforts f o r universal enrolment o f children in t h e formal schools.
There are three m a i n categories o f children covered under t h e
non-formal and part-time education programme. The f i r s t category
includes children o f t h e weaker sections o f the society l i k e t h e
scheduled castes, scheduled tribes, those in hilly areas, tribal areas,
urban slums and other economically backward rural areas. There are
a large number o f children among these sections in the age groups
who have dropped o u t at a very early stage o f primary education or
who have never entered the formal schools. These children are
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India
handicapped mainly in terms o f the unsuitability o f school timings.
as they are required t o help their family in a variety o f work. The
non-formal education programmes f o r these groups o f children are
t o be offered t o them at a time and place convenient t o them. The
curriculum also has t o b e relevant t o their needs.
A suitable pattern o f non-formal education f o r these groups

o f children i s t h e one followed in the state o f Madhya Pradesh.
Under t h i s pattern, the entire curriculum o f five years o f primary
stage i s condensed i n t o a two-year curriculum based o n 18 graded
u n i t s . The timing o f the non-formal education centres, teaching
methods, building requirements and admission rules have been
made simpler and more flexible. This enables the c h i l d t o learn, and
y e t simultaneously earn h i s living o r help h i s parents in their jobs.
A f t e r passing the examination o f grade V t h e child w o u l d enter t h e
formal school in grade VI.
The second category o f children proposed t o b e covered under
the non-formal education programmes include g i r l s in the age group
6-14 who are n o t attracted by the existing programme o f education
being offered by the formal elementary school. F o r these girls it
i s proposed t o offer either the courses s i m i l a r t o the one designed f o r
the f i r s t category, or more functional courses which w o u l d help them
t o cope with t h e i r l i f e situations with a sense o f responsibilityand
awareness o f t h e jobs they have t o handle.
T h e third category includes children who are engaged in
traditional professions l i k e carpet weaving, pottery, etc. These children need t o b e provided with part-time education which w o u l d
focus o n literacy, numeracy, and citizenship training, along with
instruction about t h e crafts in which they are engaged in, and in
intrepreneurship and marketing o f products, so that such children
acquire n o t only literacy but also economic and social understanding of the craft in which they are engaged.
Most o f the non-formal education programmes being implemented in the country are experimental in nature. Prominent
among the experimental projects f o r non-formal education o f outof-school children are (i)
Experimental Projects - f o r Non-formal
Education f o r Children o f 9-14 Age Group f o r Universalization of
Elementary Education sponsored by the Ministry o f Education,
Government o f India; and () Experimental Non-formal Education
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Programme being implemented by the National Council o f Educational Research and Training (NCERT).
i) Experimental non-formal education projects for children

of 9-14 years. The main objectives o f t h e experimental projects for
non-formal education are: t o help t h e educationally backward
states, viz., Bihar, Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Jammu and Kashmir,
Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal
in developing and implementing programmes o f non-formal education
f o r children in the age group 9-14 so as t o enable them t o cover the
huge size of non-enrolled and non-attending children under the
school system; t o help these states in developing institutional structure a t various levels, n o t only f o r quantitative expansion, but also
f o r the improvement o f the quality o f education; t o help the states
in developing group-specific and local-specific curricula and instructional materials so that education at the elementary level i s more
meaningful and relevant t o the l i f e situations and needs o f the
children; and t o help the states in improving the competence of
teachers at t h e elementary level even in the remotest areas o f t h e
country.
The projects were started in the last quarter o f 1979-80.
Under t h e project, during the period 1980-85 i t i s proposed t o
set up a t o t a l of 120,905 non-formal education centres in the educationally backward states. The t o t a l number o f non-formal education
centres set up till 1981-82 were 51,712, covering about 1,150,000
o f children in t h e age group 9-14. The proposed coverage o f children
during t h e period 1980-85 i s 3,480,000.
The non-formal education centres are located mostly in the

primary o r middle schools, or local panchayat office, o r any accommodation provided by the community. T h e expenditure towards
remuneration o f teachers and some equipment l i k e blackboard,
maps, charts, lighting facilities, etc., are provided by the states. In
order to implement t h e programme o f non-formal education smoothly
in the states, funds are also provided t o strengthen the State Directorates of Education, State I n s t i t u t e s o f Education, State Councils
o f Education Research and Training Teacher Training I n s t i t u t e s and
supervisory machinery a t t h e district and block levels. The entire
w o r k f o r b o t h the formal and non-formal channels i s carried o u t
through t h e same administrative structure since t h e programmes are
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complementary and in the long run expected t o support, strengthen
and enrich each other.

The academic aspects o f non-formal education programme f o r
the n i n e educationally backward states consist o f preparation o f
prototype and groupspecific leaming/instructional materials and
training o f personnel at various levels including teacher educators,
supervisors, and teachers o f non-formal education centres.
In addition t o the non-formal education programmes being
implemented in nine educationally backward states, programmes o f
non-formal education f o r children in the age group 9-14 are also
implemented in several other states and union territories.
In the non-formal educational programme, the association o f

voluntary agencies has been considered desirable. Therefore, under
the main centrally sponsored schemes, t w o sub-schemes have been
formulated and put i n t o operation. These sub-schemes are assistance
t o voluntary agencies in t h e nine educationally backward states f o r
running non-formal education centres according t o t h e state government pattern; and assistance t o t h e academic institutions, b o t h
governmental and private in any state/union territory of t h e country,
f o r undertaking n e w and experimental projects on non-formal
education, with potential f o r replicability.
In addition t o t h e experimental projects on non-formal education of children in the age group 9-14, the Government o f I n d i a i s
providing assistance in t e r m s o f p r i n t i n g paper t o t h e states arid
union territories f o r production o f textbooks and other literature f o r
non-formal education programmes.
ii)NCERT experimental programme. The National Council o f

Educational Research and Training (NCERT) has also been organizing non-formal education programmes o n an experimental basis,
through i t s constituent u n i t s , a l l over the country. Under the programme, NCERT i s running 228 non-formal education centres in 15
states.
The curriculum f o r t h e non-formal education programme i s
built around six major areas o f study: health, vocation, physical and
social environment, social awareness, literacy and numeracy. T h e
curriculum i s designed in such a way that it w o u l d enable the children
t o attain in about t w o years the competencies attained by a c h i l d in
the formal primary school after five years o f education.
1O9
b)
Alternative approaches in non-formal education. Prominent
among the new projects being implemented at the national level are
t h e UNICEF-assisted projects t i t l e d Developmental Activities in
Community Education and Participation (DACEP) and Comprehensive Access t o Primary Education (CAPE). Another new project
in t h e f i e l d of non-formal education i s t h e Action Research Project
o n Non-formal Education f o r Out-of-School Rural Children, being
implemented by the Indian I n s t i t u t e of Education, Pune.
i) Developmental Activitks
Community Education and

Participation (DACEP). In recent years there has been a growing
realization among educational planners and workers at different
levels, that one of t h e approaches t o extending the opportunity f o r
education t o t h e d r o p o u t s and other out-of-school children and
youth, i s a system based o n and sustained and supported by t h e
community. The UNICEF-assisted project Developmental Activities in Community Education and Participation i s an attempt t o
develop such a system o f non-formal education.
T h e specific objectives o f the project are t o develop and test

new t y p e s o f educational activities as feasible means of meeting the
minimum educational needs o f large groups that are partially o r
totally deprived o f any f o r m o f education, t o increase the participat i o n o f the community in formal and non-formal education and t o
raise t h e general level o f literacy, especially among women and girls.
The approach followed under t h e project, i s based o n t h e premise
that childrens education t o b e meaningful, has t o proceed concurrently with gradual changes and modifications o f their socio-economic
environment. The objectives o f t h e project are expected t o be
attained through developing suitable educational programmes t o
cater to t h e specific needs o f pre-school and drop-outs and out-ofschool children, young girls and women in selected communities;
imparting u s e f u l and relevant skills t o members o f the community
outside t h e formal system o f education; enabling t h e schools t o play
a more effective role in promoting social change w i t h i n the community by removing the dichotomy between the primary school
and t h e community; and making use, for educational purposes, o f
the resources o f various agencies existing with t h e communities.
The project w a s initially implemented in 13 states and t w o
union territories during t h e year 1976 on an experimental basis. In
1976, t w o community education centres were established in each
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of the states and u n i o n territories participating in the project. In

order t o develop need-based educational activities and programmes
f o r the various age groups in the selected communities, a survey of
t h e socio-economic conditions w a s made. T h e development o f
instructional materials was decentralized, and was carried o u t with
the active participation o f the local community and teachers.
The project supports t h e countrys programme o f universalisat i o n o f elementary education. Under t h e project, t h e drop-outs
and other out-of-school children are helped through non-formal
education t o re-enter the formal education system.
ii) Comprehensive Access to Primary Education (CAPE). The

UNICEF-assisted Project Comprehensive Access t o Primary Educat i o n (CAPE) i s a part o f the e f f o r t t o meet the minimum educational needs of a large number of children hitherto unreached, and t o
achieve the target o f enrolling out-of-school children in the age
group 6-14 in part-time non-formal education.
T h e specific objectives o f the project are:
-
t o develop a non-formal system o f education as an alternative t o formal schooling and t o increase the number
o f children, particularly those belonging t o t h e disadvantaged sections o f the society, participating in non-formal
education activities; and
t o evolve flexible, work-based decentralised curricula and

learning materials relevant t o the needs and l i f e situations
o f diverse groups o f children n o t o n l y f o r non-formal, but
also f o r formal channels o f education.
These objectives wiil be achieved by t h e following means:
- Developing and t r y i n g o u t relevance-based, problemcentred learning materials (learning episodes) in sufficient

quantity and variety to cater to t h e needs o f children in
the age group 9-14.
- Introducing i n t o the curriculum of elementary teacher

training institutes o r i n t o the in-service education programme o f primary school teachers, a training-cumproduction mode for providing experience o f developing
curriculum materials and generating a source o f learning
materials (learning episodes) for the education o f out-ofschool children. ,
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-
Developing non-formal learning centres which will provide

accredited education t o those children in the target group.
- Developing evaluation centres and accreditation services

f o r the evaluation and certification of learners enrolled in
non-formallearning centres.
Under the Project, a l i s t o f critical competencies and learning
continua, derived f r o m the learning episodes, which themselves are
derived from significant real-life local specific problems and issues,
will be developed. This would act as a rational basis for accreditation
of learners in terms o f the minimum competencies to be acquired at
the mastery level by learners at different stages of elementary education. The l i s t of critical competencies w o u l d also provide guidelines
f o r the development o f additional learning episodes.
Associated with the development of the l i s t o f critical competencies, i s the development of a b a n k of test items and evaluation
centres which w o u l d be established at the State/UT level to begin
with, and later o n decentralised t o the district and the b l o c k levels.
These w o u l d become the bases for decentralised accreditation services
leading to the development of an open learning system.
Project CAPE supports the efforts t o improve the quality of
elementary teacher education programme, since a t the level of the
elementary teacher training institutions, the implementation of the
project i s related to some of the significant reforms proposed to be
introduced in elementary teacher education. The development o f
learning episodes, particularly for the out-of-school children by the
teacher trainees, through the introduction of a training-cumproduction mode at the elementary teacher education institutions,
would form the basis o f a functional and task-oriented elementary
teacher education. Under the training-cum-production mode the
teacher trainees are required t o v i s i t localities o f disadvantaged
populations to identify real-life problems and develop and try-out
learning episodes for use by children in the age group o f 9-14.
The training-cum-production mode would make the training
processes in elementary teacher training institutions more practical
and responsive t o t h e needs and problems o f different groups o f
learners. I t w o u l d establish radical and permanent changes in the
training processes in elementary teacher training institutions and
would lend itself to the implementation, throughout India, of the
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India
reforms in elementary teacher education as recommended by the
National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) and elaborated in
i t s document Teacher Education Curriculum - A Framework
which envisaged teacher education t o b e functional and task oriented
and the teacher as a n agent o f social change.
The expected outcomes of the project are as follows:
a large number of tried-out locally relevant learning

materials (learning episodes) ;
establishment of a designed infrastructure for decentralised
curriculum development for non-formal education of
children;
A l i s t of critical competencies and learning continua; .
- Establishment of a designed n e t w o r k o f non-formal

learning centres for education o f out-of-school children in
the age group o f 9-14, with data available o n the planning,
development, management and other aspects o f s u c h centres;
- A direct contribution to the efforts aimed a t achieving the

goal of universal elementary education through enrolment
of learners from disadvantaged populations in the learning
centres attached t o the elementary teacher instituteslinservice teacher training centres in the country;
- Improvement of the quality and relevance of elementary

educatipn by making available a large number of teacher
educators of TTIs and teachers at the elementary education
level trained in the development of relevance-based learning materials and trained to use environmental resources in
developing appropriate teaching strategies f o r a variety of
learners;
- Establishment o f a n e t w o r k o f evaluation/accreditation
centres for evaluation and accreditation oflearners enrolled
in non-formal learning centres, leading to t h e development
of an Open Learning System;
- Establishment of a n e t w o r k of Decentralised Resource

Centres with data available on management and other
aspects of setting up and running such centres;
- Availability of a large number of district a n d b l o c k

level Education Officers trained in the planning a n d
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management aspects of elementary education with special

reference t o the implementation o f the programmes f o r
universalisation of elementary education;
-
Establishment o f mechanisms f o r interaction between

educational agencies and developmental agencies a t the
state, district, b l o c k and village level by establishing
linkages between educational programmes and programmes
o f developmental agencies involved in work related t o
health, agriculture, small scale industries, etc., and
Establishment o f a designed mechanisms for continuous

and comprehensive monitoring and evaluation o f nonformal education programmes in t h e country.
The project was initiated in 1979 and i s implemented in 22

states and seven u n i o n territories in t h e country. A b o u t 984 elementary Teacher Training Institutes (TTIs)/In-service Teacher
Training Centres (ITTCs) in t h e country are involved in t h e implementation. In all t h e states and u n i o n territories, t h e activities related
t o t h e f i r s t phase o f t h e project have been in progress. Under the
project, a series o f training programme f o r training the staff o f
SIEs/SCERTs and f o r training teacher educators and Education Officers have been conducted during t h e past t w o years. Up t o December 1981, 839 Principals o f TTIs/ITTCs were oriented t o t h e academ i c and administrative aspects o f t h e project. 4,727 teacher educators/
teachers were trained o n t h e methodology o f developing learning
episodes, while 1,483 teacher educators were trained o n t h e
methodology o f processing o f learning episodes. Under t h e project,
14 states and three union territories have revised the elementary
teacher education curriculum as recommended by the National
Council f o r Teacher Education (NCTE) and 13 states and seven
u n i o n territories have introduced t h e training-cum-production mode
in =Is
for development o f learning episodes. By December 1981,
about 1,600 education officers were oriented t o the planning and
management aspects o f t h e project. A b o u t 13,000 draft learning
episodes (in t h e f o r m o f modules and capsules) were developed by
teacher educators and teacher trainees o f TTIs/ITTCs and teachers
up t o December 1981. Out o f these 4,000 modules have been screene d and selected for further processing and about 300 modules have
already been processed f o r publication.
in addition to t h e training of teacher educators and Education
Officers, about 130 project team members based a t the SIEs/SCERTs
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India
were trained on the different aspects o f the project. About 45 resource persons were also trained for organizing training courses for
Education Officers a t the district and b l o c k levels in the states and
u n i o n territories participating in the project.
iii) Non-formal Education for Out-ofSchool Rural Children.

Another n e w project being implemented for developing appropriate
non-formal education strategy for out-of-school children i s a n Action
Research Project on Non-formal Education for Out-of-School Rural
Children undertaken by the Indian Institute of Education, Pune, in
the State of Maharashtra. This project initiated in the year 1979,
seeks t o enroll out-of-school children in t h e age group 9-14 in parttime evening classes. The major activities initiated under t h e project
include development of curricula suited to the culture, circumstances,
environment a n d needs of the learners and the community, developm e n t o f effective low cost teaching materials which c o u l d give scope
f o r individual as well as group learning in ungraded classes; and development of appropriate strategies for training of teachers for nonformal a n d formal primary education, and training o f supervisors.
The core curriculum developed under the project covers literacy, numeracy and general information (covering historical, geographical, scientific and cultural information) meaningfully related to
the peoples environment a n d future growth as skillful and knowledgeable citizens. In addition, songs, stories and games form part
o f total learning. The learners are also encouraged to engage in
traditional activities such as drawing and handicrafts in their leisure
time.
The part-time classes under the project are organised in such
a w a y that, i f needed, i t i s possible to close d o w n for a while during
the rainy season or seasons with important agricultural operation.
Roughly, a class i s expected t o meet for about 300 days in a year
and about two hours a day. The curriculum i s designed in such a way
that learning up t o t h e level of grade I V c o d c l b e completed in about
two years.
A t present, t h e action research project has restricted itself to

the education o f illiterate children in the age group 9-14. The total
project covers five different areas of Pune District, selected with
a view to replication or adaptation of the project experience in
s i m i l a r areas in t h e State o f Maharashtra and elsewhere. T h e population of each area i s about 30,000. The number of villages in t h e five
115
areas taken together i s 100. it i s expected that, in all 400 evening

classes, staggered in four batches during t h e year 1980, 1981, 1982
and 1983 will be required f o r a coverage o f 9-14 age group in these
areas. The project i s supported by UNICEF, Ministry o f Education,
Government of India, and t h e State Government o f Maharashtra.
Community involvement consists of provision o f accommodation f o r
the classes and certain equipment.
Summary and conclusions

The major causes o f t h e problem o f drop-out and wastage at
t h e elementary stage o f education in India have been socio-economic
and educational. Socio-economic causes are being tackled by i n t r o ducing multiple-point e n t r y in t h e formal system, and starting nonformal and part-time education f o r those who cannot take advantage
o f t h e f o r m a l system o f education. The socio-economic causes are
also tackled by providing incentives l i k e free mid-day meals, free
textbooks, free stationery and free uniforms t o t h e children. The
educational causes are tackled by bringing about qualitative improvement in education through renewal o f curricula, reduction o f
instructional hours, introduction o f Socially U s e f u l Productive
Work, improvement of textbooks and other teaching and learning
materials, teacher improvement, introduction o f play-way techniques
and ungraded system particularly in grades 1-11,provision o f adequate
equipment and suitable buildings for schools, especially w i t h t h e
support o f t h e community as well as by designing inexpensive and
functional school buildings, and improvement o f supervision including the adoption o f school complexes and school communities at the
village level.
However, in spite o f these efforts, the problem o f drop-out and
wastage continues t o plague t h e education system in India. The
enrolment o f drop-outs under the non-formal and part-time educat i o n programmes meant f o r children in the age group 9-14 has n o t
b e e n adequate in terms o f t h e targets envisaged. The participation o f
girls in these programmes also has n o t been satisfactory. Therefore,
it i s necessary t o enlarge t h e efforts f o r retrieving t h e drop-outs,
especially girls back i n t o t h e education system, b o t h formal and nonformal.
At p r e s e n t there i s a great emphasis o n t h e coverage o f the age

group 9-11 years under the programmes o f non-formal and parttime education While making efforts t o expand the facilities f o r
116
India
non-formal education for children in the age group 9-11, i t i s also
necessary to enlarge the scope of these programmes to cover children
in the age group 11-14 which comprises the large p r o p o r t i o n o f dropouts at the elementary stage.
The limitations o f available resources have compelled the
educational planners t o restrict expenditure o n programmes aimed
a t preventing drop-outs at the primary and middle stages and retrieving the drop-outs back into the education system. This has
often resulted in limitations with regard t o the success and achievement o f these programmes. Therefore, it i s necessary t o increase t h e
allocation of funds for these programmes, and, i f necessary, alternative sources o f resources need t o be explored.
117
PENINSULAR MALAYSIA
by Lee Meow Fatt
The structure of formal education
Basic education i s universal, but n o t compulsory in Peninsular
Malaysia. In the 1950s, while t h e enrolment ratio at t h e primary level
(grades It o VI) had been high at 90 per cent, only about 35 per cent
of grade V I pupils were selected f o r admission i n t o fully assisted
secondary schools. A smaller number o f t h e grade V I pupils enrolled
at private secondary schools, and t h e rest dropped o u t o f t h e educat i o n system. Primary education in all national primary schools
(Bahasa Malaysia medium) had been free. In 1962, free primary
education w a s extended t o a l l pupils in fully assisted primary schools
which were conducted in four media, namely; Bahasa Malaysia,
English' , Chinese and Tamil in accordance w i t h the recommendations o f t h e Rah.man Talib Report 1960.
Since 1962, a certain number o f grade V I pupils were also
selected for admission i n t o t h e Secondary Continuation School
System (SCSS). An education committee was appointed in April
1963 t o review t h e SCSS and t h e Malayan Secondary School Entrance
Examination (MSSEE). T h e recommendations o f t h e Education
Committee 1963 t o abolish t h e MSSEE and t o integrate pupils o f
t h e SCSS i n t o t h e regular secondary school system, were approved
by t h e Malaysian Cabinet o n March 1964. Thus since 1965, there
has been universal basic education for n i n e years, comprising six
years of primary education and three years o f secondary comprehensive education, in fully assisted schools. Figure Ishows t h e
education structure in Peninsular Malaysia.
Besides fully assisted primary and secondary schools in Peninsular Malaysia, there are also a small number o f private primary and
secondary schools. T h e courses o f study and curricula in such
schools are similar t o those offered in fully assisted schools, but for
several reasons they have preferred t o decline government assistance
Since 1970, the English medium stream had been systematically and progressively
absorbed into the national stream, where Bahasa Malaysia i s the main mediumof instruction.
118
Peninsular Malaysia
Expected ages
asat I n. January
HIGHER DECREES
.S. Ph.D..M.A..M&.
FIRST DECREES
M...S...A.. We..
ISCED
LEVEL4
(FORM s i x )
ISCED
LEVEL3
(UWER
SECONDAYI
ISCED
LEVEL1
(LOVER
SECONDARYI
ISCED
LEVEL I
ISCED (InInnaiional Sundud C L a f l o t i o n of Education)
Figure 1. Structure of formai education
119
in order t o maintain their independent o r private status. They cater

t o o n l y a small percentage o f t h e school-going children w i t h i n t h e
age group 6+ t o 14+ years. For example, in 1967, only 0.5% (8,334)
o f children between 6+ t o 11+ years were enrolled in private primary
schools and 3.9% (25,698) o f children between 12+ t o 14+ years
were enrolled in private lower secondary schools. Their share in
t h e t o t a l enrolment o r participation i s n o w practically negligible. For
t h e purpose o f t h i s report, only data from fully assisted schools are
analysed, and primary and secondary schools refer t o those in fully
assisted schools.
Despite t h e fact that primary education i s free and there i s

provision f o r a place in fully assisted schools f o r every child between
6+ t o 14+ years o f age, there has been a significant number o f school
drop-outs. Drop-out in this report refers t o t h e problem o f children,
within t h e age-group o f 6+ t o 14+ years o f age, withdrawing f r o m
school before completing t h e nine years basic cycle o f schooling.
Drop-out i s a common feature o f education systems in developing
countries, and represents one o f t h e major causes o f their inefficiency.
I t i s n o t entirely an educational problem, but a manifestation o f a
number o f factors operating in a complex socio-cultural, economic
and political context. As such, it i s n o t static but dynamic, and
changes b o t h in magnitude and character, as situations vary. The
conception o f t h e problem and t h e measures taken t o overcome
it, reflect t h e attitudes o f the Government and t h e people and the
degree o f their commitment t o solving it. T h e drop-out problem in
Peninsular Malaysia can o n l y be fully appreciated in that context.
Thus, it i s necessary t o take i n t o consideration t h e thinking and t h e
underlying rationale f o r educational development as an integral
component o f national developmental efforts in Peninsular Malaysia.
Educational development. The administration o f education in
Peninsular Malaysia during the pre-independence period i s an example
o f t h e colonial policy o f divide and rule. As a consequence o f this
policy, education w a s provided in four language media, namely:
English, Malay, Chinese and Tamil in four somewhat parallel school
systems although serving different purposes. Except f o r the Malay
schools which were indigenous,. t h e others were actually foreign
models transplanted i n t o t h e country. Education in t h e English
medium schools produced t h e lower echelon personnel for the
colonial administrative service and t h e private sector. Malay primary
education laid stress o n gardening, arts and crafts, besides t h e basic
120
Peninsular Malaysia
3Rs. Chinese and T a m i l education had an alien orientation, but

served t h e needs o f a transient immigrant population who had n o
stake in t h e country.
The most succinct statement o f colonial policy t o native
education w a s given by Sir George Maxwell:2
The aim o f the government i s n o t t o turn o u t a few
well-educated youths, nor y e t numbers o f less welleducated boys; rather i t i s t o improve t h e bulk o f the
people and t o make the son o f t h e fisherman o r peasant
a more intelligent fisherman o r peasant than h i s father
had been, and a man whose education w i l l enable him t o
understand h o w h i s own l o t o f l i f e f i t s in with t h e
scheme o f l i f e around him.
Post war political developments in t h e Region and the emergence o f nationalism brought i n t o focus the complexity of problems
concerning education. Educational reconstruction during t h i s period
was chiefly aimed at unifying t h e main community groups through a
national system o f education in preparation f o r nationhood and independence which was achieved o n 31st August, 1957. T h e task
went through several stages and culminated in t h e appointment o f an
Education Committee in 1956, with the following terms o f reference:
a) T o examine t h e present education p o l i c y of t h e Federat i o n o f Malaya and t o recommend any alterations o r adaptations that
are necessary with a view t o establishing a national system o f educat i o n acceptable t o the people o f the Federation as a whole, which
w i l l satisfy their needs and promote their cultural, social, economic
and political development as nation, having regard to t h e intention t o
make Malay t h e national language o f t h e country whilst preserving
and sustaining t h e growth o f t h e language and culture o f other communities living in the country;
b) F o r t h i s purpose, t o examine t h e educational structure of

t h e country including such provisions of the Education Ordinance,
1952, as m a y require alterations or adaptations and t h e measures f o r
i t s implementation contained in Council Paper o n Education No. 67
of 1954.
Official Reports on Education in Straits Settlements and the Federated Malay States
1870 - 1939.
Francis H.K. Wong & Gwee Yee Hean Pan Pacific Book Distributors(S) Pte. Ltd. p.2.
121

The Report o f t h e Education Committee 1956, commonly
referred t o as t h e Razak Report, made a t o t a l o f 17 recommendations whilst taking i n t o consideration that the ultimate objective was
t o establish a national system o f education for a l l using t h e national
language as t h e m a i n medium o f instruction.
Among t h e more important proposals were:
a) Establishment o f t w o kinds o f schools only - independent
or assisted primary schools and independent or direct grant secondary schools.
b) Conversion o f existing primary schools t o Standard

Schools (Malay Medium) and Standard-Type Schools (Chinese, Tamil
o r English medium).
c) Malay and English t o b e compulsory subjects for ali
primary and secondary schools.
d) Establishment o f one type o f National Secondary School

open t o a l l races by competitive selection and with a common
syllabus, a flexible curriculum permitting t h e study o f all Malayan
languages and cultures and r o o m f o r diversity in t h e media o f instruction.
e) Orientation o f all schools t o a Malayan o u t l o o k by t h e
introduction o f common content syllabuses and timetables for
schools.
f) Measures f o r fostering t h e development o f the national

language and promoting a better knowledge o f it among all who
live in the Federation.
T h e underlying principles and proposals o f this report, which
were duly enacted as t h e Education Ordinance 1957, l a i d t h e foundations o f t h e National Education Policy.
The implementation of t h e national education policy was
reviewed in 1960 by another Education Committee, commonly
referred t o as the Rahman Talib Committee, which confirmed t h e
soundness o f t h e policy and i t s general acceptance by t h e various
community groups. The Education A c t 196 1, incorporated t h e spirit
and t h e underlying principles o f the t w o Education Committee
Reports and t h e existing national education policy formally came
i n t o being.
122
Peninsular Malaysb
While t h e recommendations o f t h e Education Committee 1956
set t h e pattern and structure o f t h e national education system, t h e
recommendations o f t h e Education Review Committee 1960 h a d an
important bearing o n educational development in t h e 1960s. Among
t h e more important were t h e following:
a)
Universal free primary education up t o grade VI;
b) Automatic p r o m o t i o n up t o grade IX;

c)
Common content syllabuses f o r all schools;
d) Common assessment examination at grade V;

e) Improvement o f Vernacular Primary Schools;
f) Enhancement o f technical and vocational education;

g) Control o f primary education;
h) Setting up o f t h e Federal Inspectorate;

i) I n t r o d u c t i o n o f Bahasa Malaysia as t h e main medium o f
instruction in secondary schools;
j) Official language medium f o r public examinations;

k) Expansion o f teacher training programmes; and
1) Provision o f religious and moral instruction.
Besides the above provisions, secondary education was also
made comprehensive by t h e introduction o f pre-vocational studies.
T h i s change was made in t h e light o f developments in educational
thinking, which emphasized t h e need t o provide a f o r m o f education
that w o u l d enable t h e pupils t o discover their attitudes and later
develop their real interests and s k i l l s as preparation f o r productive
and gainful participation in society.
T h e proclamation o f Rukunegara as t h e National Ideology,

and o f t h e New Economic Policy in 1970 was another important
milestone in t h e history o f educational development in Malaysia.
While t h e national education p o l i c y laid t h e foundations f o r national
unity and nation-building, t h e invidious effects o f past colonial
practices necessitated the introduction o f a more positive strategy,
taking i n t o consideration t h e social, economic and political realities.
T h e important aims underlying the Rukunegara are:
a)
u n i t e d nation o f a plural society;
b) a democratic society through a constitutionally elected

123

parliament;
c) a j u s t society of equal opportunities f o r all;
d) a liberal society o f diverse cultural traditions; and

e) a progressive society oriented towards science and m o d e m
technology.
The N e w Economic Policy (NEP) i s the strategy towards
achieving the desired goals of Rukunegara. I t seeks t o eradicate
poverty among a l l Malaysians, irrespective o f racial origins, and to
restructure Malaysian society so that the identification of race with
economic function and geographical location i s reduced, and eventually
eliminated. The N E P and the systematic implementation o f the
national language policy, besides other considerations, have been the
m a i n guiding principles of educational planning and development in
the 1970s.
The last twenty years has been a period of intense and rapid
educational development in Peninsular Malaysia in both quantitative
and qualitative terms. Many problems have emerged t o beset the development process. Among them i s educational wastage or drop-out
at the f i r s t and second levels o f education, which tends to undermine
the efficiency of t h e system. Despite these problems, educational
development advanced unabated. Enrolments at the different levels
have registered manifold increases, and qualitative improvements
have been pervasive. These include curriculum development, teacher
education, planning and management, besides the provision of additional support services and the introduction of numerous educational
innovations. These advances, besides indicating indirectly h o w problems have been tackled and solved as they arose, also reflect the
degree o f commitment of b o t h the Government and the people t o
solving them.
Educational development i s a continuous effort and the appointment of the Cabinet Committee (1974) to review the implementation of the education policy was another example of the
Governments effort to improve the quality of education. The
Cabinet Committees t e r m s o f reference were to review t o what
extent t h e implementation of the policy has fostered national unity
and m e t national manpower needs. The Committee recommended
a t o t a l of 173 proposals which are aimed at rendering education
more relevant, suitable and effective t o meet social and national
aspirations. These proposals, in the areas of curriculum, schooling
124
Peninsular Malaysia
system, teacher education, supporting services, evaluation, facilities,
and technical as well as vocational education, together with t h e
New Economic Policy, will f o r m the main thrust o f educational
development in the 1980s.
The drop-out problem, magnitude and trend

Enrolment and percentage participation. In 1967 t h e enrolment in primary schools totalled 1,315,590 o u t o f a projected
population o f 1,450,543, thus giving an overall participation rate
o f 90.6 per cent. T h i s participation rate or enrolment ratio steadily
increased t o 95.9 per cent by 1979. There was a temporary reversal
in the general trend o f increase in 1970 when there was a slight
temporary reaction t o the declaration o f t h e systematic implementat i o n o f t h e Bahasa Malaysia Policy 1967, which made provision f o r
t h e progressive replacement of English as a medium o f instruction by
Bahasa Malaysia in English medium primary schools. T h i s caused
some parents who normally w o u l d have sent their children t o fully
assisted primary schools, t o send them t o private primary schools
where t h e medium o f instruction was s t i l l in English.
While t h e overall participation rate i s generally high, there i s
a discrepancy in participation between sexes. In 1967, t h e participat i o n rate f o r primary schools boys was 94.9 per cent while o n l y
87.2 per cent o f girls within t h e same age-cohort were enrolled,
giving a difference o f 6.8 per cent. Since then, t h e gap has been
gradually narrowed, until by 1975, it was only 2.3 per cent.
Although there i s n o published data o n participation rates by sexes
after 1975, indications tend t o suggest that t h e gap i s gradually
reducing. Table 1shows t h e enrolment ratio/percentage participation
o f children (6+ t o 11+)in primary schools f r o m 1967 to 1980.
W i t h i n t h e same period, t h e percentage participation o f
children between 12+ t o 14+ years in t h e lower secondary schools
programme, has shown a greater percentage increase. ln 1967,
344,364 o r 51.7 per cent o f children within this age cohort were
enrolled. T h i s rose t o 85.0 per cent in 1980, making an increase o f
33.3 percentage points, compared t o an increase o f 3.6 percentage
points for t h e primary enrolment within t h e same period. This,
in part, i s mainly due t o the high participation rates of children in
t h e primary schools in the past, and the restrictive selection p o l i c y
f o r secondary education enforced before 1965. There was also a
125
Table 1. Enrolment ratio or percentage participation of children in

primary schools - Peninsular Malaysia
Year
Male &Female
(1)
Male
(2)
Female
(3)
%Difference
(2 3)
1967
90.6
94.0
87.2
6.8
1968
91.7
94.7
88.7
6 .O
1970
88.2
91.6
84.8
6.8
1972
91.6
94.0
89.1
4.9
1974
93.7
95.1
92.3
2.8
1975
95.6
97.2
94.9
2.3
1976
97.0
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
1978
97.3
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
1980
94.2
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Source:
Adapted from Educational Statistics of Malaysia 1937 to 1980.
Table 2. Enrolment ratio or percentageparticipation of children in

bwer secondary schools - Peninsular Malaysia
_ _ ~
Year
Male & Female
Male
Female
%Difference
51.7
6 1.5
41.7
19.8
19.2
1967
1968
53.8
63.3
44.1
1970
52.2
60.6
43.6
17.0
1972
60.8
69.4
51.9
17.5
1974
63.5
69.5
57.3
12.2
1975
66.8
12.3
61.0
11.3
1976
70.9
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
1978
78.4
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
1980
85 .O
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
Source:
Adapted from Educational Statistics of Malaysia 1967 to 1980.
temporary reversal in the upward trend o f the percentage participat i o n in 1970 for reasons explained above. Table 2 shows the enrolment ratio or percentage participation of children (12+ to 14+) in
lower secondary schools f r o m 1967 t o 1980.
126
Peninsular Ma lay&
The greater percentage increase o f lower secondary school

enrolment vis-a-vis the primary school enrolment, i s also characterized
by a greater percentage gain by females. In 1967, 61.5 per cent males
and 41.7 per cent females o f 12+ t o 14+ years were enrolled in lower
secondary schools. In 1975, t h e corresponding percentage participation were 72.3 per cent and 61.0 per cent. While t h e males gained
10.8 percentage points, or 17.6 per cent increase, the females gained
19.3 percentage points o r a massive 46.3 per cent overall increase
within the same period. T h u s the gap in percentage participation between sexes f o r lower secondary schools i s being gradually and progressively narrowed.
While Tables 1 and 2 show satisfactory gains in percentage
Pa1ticipation, especially for enrolment in lower secondary level and
for female children, there are indications o f significant wastage or
drop-out between the primary and the secondary levels of education.
Although the percentage participation in the lower secondary level
has improved tremendously f r o m a low 51.7 per cent in 1967 t o
around 85.0 per cent in 1980, there i s s t i l l a considerable difference
between percentage participation for the two levels of education.
T h i s difference represents the drop-out during the transition between
the primary and the secondary levels of education.
Continuation rates. Another indicator of the drop-out proble-m
i s the continuation rate. Table 3 shows the continuation rates for
primary school children as they advanced from grades Ito V I for
1969 t o 1980. While the drop-out rate i s generally small, a marginally
greater number of pupils appear to drop o u t a t grades V to V I
especially for 1969 t o 1971. A probable reason m a y b e because a
national test o n achievement i s conducted for grade V pupils. Those
who have performed poorly in t h i s test m a y b e expected t o b e m o r e
inclined towards withdrawing prematurely from school.
The average drop-out rate ranged from 3.7 per cent per annum in 1969 to 0.6 per cent per annum in 1980. T h e data shows
that the problem o f drop-out a t the primary level i s not very serious
and conditions are improving. It also means t h a t about 83 per cent
of children (6+) enrolled at grade Ifor the years 1967, 1968 a n d
1969 were s t i l l in school in the sixth year a n d 17 per cent had
dropped out before the age of twelve. Translated into absolute
figures, the number i s significantly large. For example, in 1967,
248,444 children (6+) were enrolled at grade I.In 1972, 214,279
127
The drop-out problem i n primary education

were s t i l l enrolled at grade VI. Thus 34,165 children (11+years) had
dropped out o f the school system.
Table 3. Continuation rates in the primary schools of children
(6+ to 11+) from grades I
Ito VI - Peninsular Malaysia
1969 to 1980
Year
Grade
Grade
Grade
Grade
Gmde
Average
I-II
II-III
III4v
IV-v
v-VT
(gmdes
I-vo
~~
1969
98.5
98.1
96.6
95.9
92.4
96.3
1971
99.2
97.6
97.9
96.8
95.2
97.3
1973
98.2
98.4
98.7
98.5
97.5
98.3
1975
100.0
99.4
99.1
99.1
98.6
99.2
1977
99.1
99.6
99.3
98.9
98.3
99.0
1979
99.1
99.4
98.8
99.0
99.8
99.2
1980
100.0
100.0
99.3
99.4
98.5
99.4
Source:
Adapted from Educational Statistics o f Malaysia 1937 to 1980
Table 4. Transition and continuation rates in the secondary schools of

children (12+ to 14+) from grades MI to M - Peninsular Maiaysia.
Year
Primary to
Lower Secondary
(1)
Grade VU-VIII
(2)
Grade
VTII-IX
(3)
Average
(4)
1969
62.1
91.6
92.4
92.0
1971
65.3
94.6
95.8
95.2
1973
13.0
95.5
96.2
95.6
1975
81.6
96.5
97.0
96.7
1977
78.9
95.6
97.5
96.6
1979
83.1
95.8
96.9
96.8
1980
81.3
95.1
96.7
95.9
Table 4 shows t h e continuation rates for children (12+ to 14+

years) in t h e lower secondary schools from 1969 to 1980. T h e dropout raies at t h e lower secondary level, although small, are significantl y higher than t h e drop-out rates at t h e primary level. They ranged
from a high 8.0 per cent
- per annum in 1969 to 3.2 per cent in 1979.
128
Peninsular Ma h y s h
As at the primary level, the situation has improved considerably and

the drop-out rate n o w hovers around 3 per cent per annum.
A more serious problem exists during the transition between

the primary and the secondary levels of education. Only 62.1 per
cent o f children enrolled at Grade V I in 1 9 6 8 were enrolled a t grade
VI1 in 1969. This represents a drop-out rate o f 37.9 per cent f o r
years f o r that year, T h i s adverse situation, as in particichildren Il+
pation and continuation rates, has also improved, so that the transition rate between the primary and the secondary levels o f education
in 1979 was 83.1 per cent. Even then, a drop-out rate o f 16.9 per
cent at this stage o f the children's education represents a significant
amount of wastage as well as inefficiency because lower secondary
education in 1979 w a s not only universal but free.
I t i s generally held that in developing countries, the percentage
participation of girls compared t o boys w o u l d b e lower. Conversely
their drop-out rate would also b e higher. Among the more important
factors o f t e n cited are social, cultural and economic values which
often discriminate t h e girls f r o m the boys. Tables 1 and 2 appear t o
support the view that proportionately more boys are enrolled in
schools. While the difference i s small in the primary school, a n average
of 4.8 per cent difference between 1967 to 1975, i t i s more serious
at the lower secondary level, where the average difference i s 16.4 per
cent f o r the same period. T h i s difference in percentage participation
i s gradually being narrowed, especially at the lower secondary level,
which h a d decreased f r o m 19.8 per cent in 1967 t o 11.3 per cent in
1975.
'
Tables 5 and 6 show the average continuation rates o f children

by sex in t h e primary and lower secondary schools f r o m 1967 to
1975. While it i s generally true that proportionately more girls
drop-out of the primary school, the difference i s very small and i s
also gradually diminishing. For example, the mean difference f o r the
period 1967 t o 1975 i s only 1.3 per cent and in 1974 it was o n l y
0.1 per cent.
At t h e lower secondary level the picture i s a l i t t l e more complex. During t h e transition between the primary and t h e lower
secondary levels of education, more girls tended to drop-out. The
difference between the average continuation rate during the transit i o n for the same period i s 9.8 per cent. I t i s pertinent to note that
l i k e percentage participation, the gap appears t o b e narrowing, but
129

Table 5. Average continuation rates by sex of children in the
primary schools from 1968 to 1975 - Peninsular Malaysia
Year
Boys
Average per year from Gmdes I to v7

Girls
Difference
1968
97.7
96.0
1.7
1969
97.3
95.2
2.1
1970
98.2
94.6
3.6
1971
97.4
97.2
0.2
1972
98.7
97.1
1.6
1973
98.2
98.0
0.2
1974
98.5
98.4
o. 1
1975
99.6
98.9
0.7
98.2
96.9
1.3
Table 6. Average continuation rates by sex of children in the lower

secondary schools from 1968 to 1975 - Peninsular Malaysia
hnsition from
Primry to Secondary
Year
Average per year Grades

W I to x
Boys
Girls
Difference
10.4
91.5
93.7
2.7
56.3
10.7
91.1
93.4
2.3
73.0
59.2
13.8
89.5
89.5
0.0
1971
69.3
60.5
8.8
94.3
96.4
2.1
1972
74.1
63.5
10.6
95.4
96.5
1.1
1973
76.9
68.4
8.5
94.8
97.4
2.6
1974
77.3
69.7
7.6
95.0
98.7
3.7
1975
85.2
77.6.
7.6
96.2
97.5
1.3
MEan
74.2
64.4
9.8
93.5
95.4
1.9
Boys
Girls
Difference
1968
70.0
59.6
1969
67.0
1970
slowly. I t i s also interesting t o note that for girls who were enrolled
in t h e lower secondary schools during t h e same period, their continuation rates were consistently higher, although marginally, than
130
Peninsular Ma lay&
that o f t h e boys. F o r example, there i s a difference o f 1.9 percentage

points in favour o f t h e girls between the average continuation rates
f o r t h e period.
The genesis of action projects

The problem o f drop-out amongst primary school children has
always been small as evidenced by t h e high enrolment ratios and
continuation rates even in the immediate post war years. Prior t o
1961, only about 35 per cent o f grade V I children were selected f o r
admission i n t o fully aided lower secondary schools. Since abolishing
the Malayan Secondary School Entrance Examination in 1964 and
t h e introduction o f nine-year universal basic education in 1965,
lower secondary enrolment has steadily increased. The drop-out rate
among lower secondary children is. also small, although substantially
higher than that in t h e primary school. What i s more serious i s the
drop-out rate during t h e transition between the primary and the
lower secondary levels o f education.
The prevalence and persistence o f t h e drop-out problem,

especially among t h e rural poor, did n o t go unnoticed. T h e Federal
Inspectorates Report 1968 highlighted t h e gross inadequacies o f
rural Malay Primary Schools in Peninsular Malaysia. Among t h e
factors singled o u t f o r discussion were:
a) under-enrolment and uneconomic sized schools;
b) children attending those schools were f r o m poor families;

c)
poor quality school administrators and teachers;
d) high incidence o f multiple class teaching;

e)
poor physical facilities and teaching aids;
f) poor supporting services in supervision and inadequate

inputs o f expert professional advice and guidance; and
g) t h e l o w morale o f t h e teaching staff.
T h e preliminary survey o f 243 primary schools carried o u t in

1971 by t h e Educational Planning and Research Division (EPRD),
Ministry o f Education, reported that more than 70 per cent of
vernacular3 primary schools had enrolments o f less than 400 pupils.
In terms o f physical facilities, teacher quality, teaching aids and per
capita pupil expenditure incurred by schools t o enhance teaching
Vernacular primary schools refer to Malay, Chinese and Tamil Medium schools.
131

programmes, the urban and larger schools appeared t o enjoy considerable advantages over the rural and small vernacular schools.
In July 1971, t h e EPRD was directed by t h e Minister o f
Education t o carry o u t a comprehensive study o f t h e extent and
causes o f educational wastage. T h e intention was t o obtain relevant
data and information for policy decisions directed towards t h e
reduction o f wastage especially among t h e rural poor. Special attent i o n was t o b e given t o institutional or other modifiable factors
which might improve t h e educational chances (retention and attainment) o f this sector o f t h e population which was especially disadvantaged. The study was carried o u t involving 22,447 (5 per cent)
youths b o r n in 1956 and 1960 and living in Peninsular Malaysia in
1970. These sample youths were drawn f r o m 450 strata - fairly
small regions i n t o which the population had been divided'and which
were internally homogeneous w i t h respect t o t h e size o f t h e localities, land utilization, and p r o x i m i t y t o a secondary school.
The 1973 drop-out study. The following l i s t consists o f brief

statements o f selected major findings and recommendations f r o m t h e
Report o f t h e Committee o n t h e study o f School and Society (Dropout Study) 1973. Much factual detail and reasoning behind t h e
recommendations are ~ m i t t e d : ~
a) In mid-1972, 89 per cent o f age 11+ youths and 46 per
cent o f age 15+ youths were enrolled in school.
b) About one fifth o f an age-group drops o u t at the e n d o f

primary school.
c) There i s a strong relationship between poverty and school
leaving: about one-tenth o f t h e poorest children as contrasted with
nine-tenths o f the most prosperous are enrolled in school at age 15+.
d) Adults who have n o schooling are least likely t o have jobs.

T h e more schooling one has, t h e more likely one i s t o be employed.
Among employed adults, each increase in educational qualification,
sharply improves t h e likelihood o f having a skilled rather than an
unskilled occupation.
e) Only eight per cent o f the heads o f households o f youths in
t h e sample had any secondary schooling; 70 per cent o f youths b o r n
- Abstract, Report of the Committee on the Study o f School and Society (DropOut Study) 1973 p. 68-14.
132
Peninsular Malaysia
in 1956 entered secondary school. The rapid expansion o f education
in West Malaysia in one generation created a situation where large
numbers o f school children do n o t receive t h e informal pre-school
training which literate parents typically provide.
f) T o t a l enrolment rates among Malay and Chinese youths

were virtually t h e same; drop-out rates are higher among Indian
youths.
g) In urban areas, a far higher proportion o f Malays enrolled
in school than either Chinese or Indians; among t h e r u r a l poor a
slightly higher proportion of Chinese are enrolled.
h) Malay youths are, o n the average, more highly motivated

t o succeed in school than either Chinese o r Indian youths. Chinese
youths, o n t h e average, enjoy higher socio-economic status and urban
residence, which are conducive t o school retention. T h e higher
motivation o f the Malays off-sets t h e more favoured backgrounds o f
t h e Chinese, resulting in comparable t o t a l rates o f enrolment for the
t w o communities. Indian youths are less motivated than Malays and
t h e poorest of t h e three communities. Their rate o f enrolment i s
lowest.
i) Youths who have unfavourable attitudes towards science,

secular education and innovation, and youths who have l i t t l e interest
in national and w o r l d affairs, are most likely t o drop-out o f school.
These attitudes are most common among t h e poor o f each o f t h e
three communities. These attitudes are among t h e reasons explaining
why the poor are more likely t o drop-out o f school than t h e well-todo.
j) State expenditures o n education favour t h e well-to-do:

i) I t i s disproportionately t h e children f r o m prosperous
families w h o continue their education through upper
secondary and post-secondary levels.
ii) T h e higher levels o f education are more costly t o the

State than the lower levels. The State subsidy o f a
University student i s twenty times t h e subsidy o f a
primary school pupil.
iii) Pupils who complete secondary school o r t h e University, will earn a far higher income than those with o n l y
133

primary school education. Secondary school graduates
earn four times as m u c h as persons with only primary
school qualification. University graduates earn eight
times as much.
iv)
Primary school pupils w o u l d n o t be economically

productive if they were n o t in school. Most upper
secondary and university pupils would b e employed
if they were n o t in school. This i s a cost t o society, o f
higher levels o f education.
v)
T h e unschooled are, by far, the least likely t o have

jobs during their adulthood, due t o their withdrawal
f r o m the labour force. Primary education i s t h e most
important level increasing t h e likelihood o f life-time
productivity.
k) Over three-fourths o f Malaysian children enrol in a vernacular primary school. 83 per cent o f Malays, 75 per cent o f Chinese,
and 5 1 per cent o f Indians enrol in vernacular primary schools.
1) Most o f t h e children o f the poor attend vernacular schools.

The well-to-do o f each community, particularly in urban areas, are
more likely t o send their children t o English medium schools.
m) Larger educational investments are made in t h e English
medium than t h e vernacular media primary schools. On t h e average,
as contrasted with all three vernacular media primary schools,
English medium schools are larger; have more o f every type o f
educational facility, e.g. libraries, audio-visual equipment, craft
rooms; have more qualified and younger teachers who have higher
morale; and make higher non-teaching expenditures p e r pupil per
year (three times as high as Malay and T a m i l media schools).
n) In mid-1972, among age 11+ youths, the enrolment rate
in English medium primary schools was 97 p e r cent, in Malay medium
it w a s 88 per cent, in Chinese medium it was 87 per cent, and in
Tamil medium it was 66 per cent. Within t h e English medium primary schools, slightly more Malays than Chinese, and more Chinese
than Indians, were s t i l l enrolled.
O ) Six per cent o f children completing English medium primary schools, f a i l t o enter secondary school. Over one-fourth o f t h e
children completing vernacular primary schools terminate their
134
Peninsular Malaysia
schooling at that p o i n t while 91 per cent o f t e children who s t a r t

Standard Iin an English medium primary school enter secondary
school. Fifty-eight per cent of those who start in a vernacular pri?
mary school enter secondary school.
p) Among youths who do enrol in a secondary school, by age

15+ in English medium secondary schools, 73 per cent are s t i l l
enrolled; in Malay medium secondary schools 60 per cent are s t i l l
enrolled; in Chinese medium secondary schools 5 0 per cent are s t i l l
enrolled.
q) Academic achievement levels and average daily attendance

are higher in English medium than vernacular media primary schools.
Truancy i s lower in English medium schools.
r)
Children f r o m the more prosperous families o f each com-
munity, enjoying the greatest i n i t i a l familial advantages, ,are receiving

t h e best education. More i s spent per pupil per year in t h e English
medium schools attended disproportionately by t h e well-to-do
urban population, and they have t h e most qualified teachers. The
outputs o f these better endowed schools - attendance, achievement,
as well as continuation rates - are accordingly better.
s) Much o f t h e verbal and intellectual development o f the
child u p o n which school success depends, occurs during pre-school
years. Poor and illiterate parents, and isolated r u r a l environments,
create an educational disadvantage p r i o r t o school entry.
t) National examinations focus public attention o n t h e pupils
who are successful in the mastery o f t h e curriculum specified f o r the
grade level examined. This emphasis leads t o the neglect o f the pupils
whose achievement i s below grade level.
U) Schools attended exclusively o r predominantly by economically and educationally disadvantaged pupils have d i f f i c u l t y attracting and retaining qualified teachers; have depressed academic
standards; reinforce the values and attitudes which are prevalent
among t h e r u r a l p o o r and which are not conducive t o educational attainment; and fail t o offer the stimulation which children f r o m
diverse backgrounds provide t o one another and which more capable
pupils provide f o r those who are more disadvantaged.
v) Ninety-five per cent o f t h e population lives w i t h i n t e n

miles o f a secondary school.
135
w) Ninety-five per cent of fifteen-year-olds report that they

can travel to a secondary school f r o m their home in fifteen minutes
o r less using currently available transportation.
x) Per pupil administrative and fixed costs decline with

increased school size up to enrolment; of about 1,000 pupils.
y) Per pupil costs of many educational facilities and services

- libraries, audio-visual devices, athletic equipment - decline with
increased school size.
z) Large educational complexes provide teachers with a
substantial number o f professional colleagues, reducing the occupational and personal isolation which teachers in small rural schools
experience.
Intervention:
The Malaysian Cabinet at a meeting held on 8th M a y 1973 agpointed a Committee o f Officials to examine and submit i t s views on
the recommendations o f the Drop-out Report and implications for
implementation. The Officials Committee translated the five general
recommendations of the Drop-out Report into numerous action
guidelines and grouped them into f o u r categories as follows:
a)
Reallocation o f educational resources;
b) Compensatory educational services;

c)
The role o f examinations; and
d) Educational complexes for small towns and rural areas.

The Committee also recommended that a special unit be set up
in the Ministry of Education with the main function o f monitoring
and co-ordinating the implementation of the action guidelines
embodied in the Report. A summary of the details of the recommended action sequences are as follows:
a)
Reallocation of educational resources
i) The Committee accepts the Drop-out Reports emphasis

upon increasing Governmental investment in primary
education, but n o t by diversion of funds from upper
secondary o r tertiary levels of education.
ii) More physical facilities b e provided to primary schools,

especially those in t h e rural areas.
136
Peninsular Malaysia
iii) A larger number o f qualified and experienced teachers

be sent t o rural areas.
iv)
Medical attention and other health programmes such as

health education, school feeding programmes and other
health services, b e stepped up through Government sponsorship.
v)
Library facilities f o r most schools should be further

improved and provisions must b e made for special rooms
which could b e utilized as libraries.
vi)
Existing aid in t h e f o r m o f textbooks and other financial

aids have t o b e further extended.
vii) As regards the allocation o f teachers t o schools, a new

overall formula should b e worked out.
b)
viii)
Highest educational p r i o r i t y should b e given t o t h e upgrading o f educational services which are t o b e provided
t o t h e disadvantaged, especially those who are in t h e r u r a l
areas.
ix)
A study be made t o set up national building criteria f o r

maintaining t h e standards and designs o f school buildings
and physical educational amenities.
Accommodation, commensurate with t h e status o f teachers,

must be provided f o r those teachers serving in t h e rural
areas.
Compensatory educational services
i) The Ministry o f Education, possibly in collaboration with

local universities, conduct local research and experimentations t o identify t h e areas f o r providing stimulating formal
and non-formal educational environment f o r t h e disadvantaged children.
ii) The Ministry o f Education, in conjunction w i t h other Ministries, review t h e objectives, teaching content, methods,
forms and strategies o f pre-school and primary education
in order to provide all children, particularly t h e r u r a l
children, w i t h full possibilities o f overall development.
137
iii) The conditions o f sub-standard primary schools, b o t h in

terms o f the physical facilities and educational programmes, are t o b e improved. These programmes must b e
suited t o t h e special needs o f children f r o m unfavourable
environments.
iv)
T h e common-content, common-approach and commonemphasis curriculum, particularly at t h e primary level, i s

in need o f review and re-definition.
v)
Health education and rural school health services b e

increased and intensified as part o f compensatory education.
vi)
An integrated plan b e formulated with the objectives, t o

increase the competencies o f primary school teachers; t o
improve t h e primary curriculum and t h e present organisat i o n f o r teaching and learning in schools; and t o ensure
that pre-school and primary education i s placed o n sound
philosophical and psychological principles.
vii)
Appropriate parent and community educational programmes be devised t o develop an out-of-school environment which will b e supportive f o r t h e childrens formal
education in schools.
viii)
Special consideration be given t o t h e allocation o f teachers

for compensatory educational programmes and services,
such as remedial teaching, school guidance and library services.
ix)
Supervision and professional assistance t o r u r a l teachers be

intensified.
An annual library grant, over and above t h e per capita

grant, be given.
xi)
School guidance services should b e extended t o all secondary and primary schools.
xii)
School welfare officers are t o be appointed, who will

assist school guidance teachers and have concern f o r t h e
child outside school hours, undertaking all responsibilities
that will enable the child t o realise h i s maximum potential
in school.
138
Peninsular Malaysia
c)
T h e role of examinations
i) Teachers undergoing pre-service training b e given a course

in examination techniques.
ii) Teachers are to be given pre-service a n d in-service training

in remedial work.
iii) There should b e a monthly assessment of pupils progress.
d)
iv)
The Standard Three Diagnostic Examination should b e

used solely, and at a l l times, for diagnostic purposes.
v)
All weak pupils should b e assisted through remedial programmes.
vi)
Teachers should concern themselves with detecting t h e

weaknesses of pupils, and taking the necessary steps to
remedy these weaknesses.
Educational complexes for small towns a n d rural areas
i) The establishment of school complexes embodying a number of schools accessible to children within specified
areas.
ii) Specially trained of ficers b e appointed as development

officers for attachment t o State Education Offices.
iii) Posting of m o r e trained teachers t o r u r a l schools.

iv)
Increased financial allocations for schools serving small

towns and surrounding r u r a l areas.
v)
Establishment of hostels where the proposed school

complexes comprise a number of p r i m a r y schools. An
Ibu Asrama (Hostel Mother) b e appointed for each
hostel to serve as guardian t o t h e young hostel boarders.
vi)
Amalgamation of primary and lower secondary schools

when necessary, in small towns and sparsely populated
villages.
vi;)
Provision of special facilities within each school complex,

such as reading rooms, libraries, medical services, hat
meal schemes, pre-school units.
139
viii)
Better supervision by the State Education Office and more

frequent inspection by the Inspectorate.
ix)
A pupil-centred curriculum b e developed f o r use in schools

in the proposed school complexes.
e)
x)
A more liberal provision f o r free textbooks and financial

aids for needy pupils in such schools.
xi)
The physical facilities for those disadvantaged schools

which cannot possibly b e amalgamated, should b e improved.
xii)
The Ministry of Education should establish standards to

ensure t h a t school canteens sell nutritious food, under
hygienic conditions, at reasonable prices, and carry out
regular checks on the canteens.
Conclusion
A Special Unit be set up in the Ministry o f Education for

the m a i n function of monitoring and co-ordinating the implementation of the recommendations embodied in the Report.
Intervention actions
Intervention measures, both pedagogical and non-pedagogical,
t o check t h e drop-out rates amongst the primary and lower secondary school children in Peninsular Malaysia preceeded the recommendations of both the Drop-out Report and the Report of the
Committee of Officials. As problems arose in the teaching and
learning processes, they were identified, and the different implementing Divisions of the Ministry concerned would then conceptualize the problem and draw up remedial projects to overcome
them. Most of the projects were generally related to the problem
o f both quantitative and qualitative development, while a number
of t h e m have a more direct bearing on the drop-out problem. Among
the more important of the latter group of action projects and their
implementation agencies were the following:
a)
Curriculum Development Centre
i) Language Project
ii) Mathematics and Science Project

140
'
Peninsular Malaysia
iii) Prototype Production Project

iv)
b)
Compensatory Education Project
v)
Integrated Primary Curriculum Project
vi)
Social Science Project
Schools Division
i) Hostels In D a y Schools Project
ii) Fully Residential School Project

iii) Supplementary Feeding Programme
iv)
C)
Library Project
Scholarship and Training Division
i) Federal Minor Scholarships

ii) State Minor Scholarships
iii) F o o d Subsidy for Hostelites
d)
Educational Media Service Division
i) Educational Television Programme

ii) Audio-visual Aids
iii) Schools Radio Broadcasts
Intervention measures before t h e Drop-out Report and t h e
Report o f t h e Officials were many and varied. They were generally
ad hoc in nature, and represent efforts o f t h e different implementat i o n Divisions t o solve implementation problems and other educational issues high on t h e p r i o r i t y l i s t . While many o f t h e action
projects were related t o ameliorating the problem o f educational
wastage, including drop-out, they were generally n o t directed specifically towards overcoming it. The Drop-out Report 1973 focussed
public attention o n the seriousness of the problem, and consequently, b o t h social and political pressures were brought t o bear u p o n it.
The appointment o f t h e Committee o f Officials t o review and
examine the implications o f implementing t h e incorporation o f t h e
recommended action guidelines of that Committee i n t o t h e successive Five Year Educational Development Plans, indicate the degree o f
resolve and commitment o f t h e Government and people, t o overcoming the problem.
141
In accordance with the recommendations of the Committee of

Officials, a special unit was set up at the Educational Planning and
Research Division (EPRD), to co-ordinate implementation of the
action guidelines. As the action guidelines covered broad areas; v i z
reallocation of educational resources, compensatory educational
services, the r o l e of examinations and educational complexes for
small towns and r u r a l areas, implementation of action projects, involved practically a l l the Divisions of the Ministry of Education, the
organization and structure of w h i c h i s shown in Supplementary
Three working groups or sub-units were set up to examine
Figures I.
the action guidelines recommended by the Committee of Officials,
and to draw up immediate, intermediate, and long-term action plans
for implementation. The members of each sub-unit were comprised
of representatives from implementing agencies and headed by a
Director. The three sub-units, their areas of concern and their respective chairmen were as follows:
i) Sub-Unit A
Chairman
ii) Sub-Unit B
Chairman
:
:
School facilities,
Finance,
Health Programmes
Director of Schools
Teachers,
School Guidance
State Director of Education,
Trengganu
iii) Sub-Unit C
Chairman
:
:
Curriculum and Textbooks

Director o f Curriculum Development
The action plans of the three sub-units were co-ordinated a n d

integrated before being presented t o the Education Planning Committee (EPC), the highest decision making body in the Ministry of
Education, w h i c h gave approval for subsequent implementation of
projects. The special unit a t the E P R D functioned as a co-ordinating
body in the whole planning and implementation process. Besides
monitoring and co-ordinating activities, carried out by the different
implementing agencies, it also carried out evaluation and provided
feedback information to the EPC, for relevant and immediate decision making a t the highest level. The operational m o d e l for planning
and implementing intervention action proposals through the EPC are
Iand III.
as in Supplementary Figures I
142
Peninsular Malaysia
The Drop-out Report and the Report of the Committee of Officials, made i t possible for the Ministry o f Education to view t h e
problem systematically. A systems approach was used to structure
integrated plans to be carried out o n an immediate, intermediate,
and long t e r m basis. N o t a l l the action plans were new. M a n y of the
intervention measures carried out o n a n ad h o c basis before the
advent of the Drop-out and Officials Reports, were incorporated.
They were systematised in an overall integrated programme in a
concerted effort to overcome the problem o f drop-out.
All the action programmes implemented f a l l under the ambit

of preventive measures, for they are directed towards improving
school retention rates, and to enhance l i f e chances, especially for
the rural poor. There i s also provision for a n educational second
chance for drop-outs through Further Education Classes (FEC),
conducted in regular schools after school hours. The Lower Certificate
of Education (LCE) Examinations i s a selective examination conducted.at the end of grade IX. At present about 60 per cent of
students a t the end of grade I X are selected t o continue in upper
secondary schools. As the FEC prepares students o u t o f school for
public examinations l i k e the Lower Certificate of Education (grade
IX), the Malaysian Certificate of Education (grade XI) and the
Higher School Certificate (grade XII), it lies outside the scope of
this report.
As stated earlier, educational development in the last t w e n t y
years in Peninsular Malaysia i s characterized by both quantitative
and qualitative development. Activities oriented towards qualitative
development are wide ranging and include the following areas :
i) Improvement o f physical facilities and allocation of

other resources;
ii) Curriculum and textbook development;
iii) Teacher education and supervision;

iv)
Planning, research and evaluation;
v)
Subsidies and student welfare; and
vi)
Supporting services.
These activities include both pedagogical and non-pedagogical

strategies. They are s t r u c t u r e d t o upgrade quality education and invarying degrees, especially after 1973, are directed towards improving
143

retention rates as well as to enhance l i f e chances, especially among
the p o o r from the rural areas.
I t i s impossible in t h i s report t o describe a l l the activities
directed towards overcoming the problem o f drop-out in schools
which have been carried o u t in Peninsular Malaysia. The action
guidelines l i s t e d above attest to the large number of activities carried
out in phases since 1973. Among a l l these activities, three m a y b e
considered to have a more important direct bearing towards overcoming the drop-out problem in schools, and are singled out for
discussion. They are:
i) The Supplementary Feeding Scheme;

ii) The Textbook L o a n Scheme; and
iii) School Hostels.
T h e Supplementary Feeding Scheme (SFS). Studies carried
o u t by the EPRD and Malaysian I n s t i t u t e of Medical Research in t h e
early 1960s had f o u n d that:
a) between 15-20 per cent of school children go t o school
without breakfast (morning session) o r l u n c h (afternoon session),
and 15- 35 per cent suffered f r o m disguised hunger;
b) more than 35 per cent o f school children showed signs

o f malnutrition; and
c) malnutrition and i t s effects, together with infection of
diseases, gave rise t o problems with respect t o physical growth,
learning and adaptive behaviour.
In t h e 1960s, there was a limited supplementary feeding programme carried out by voluntary organisations like the Malaysian
Council for Child Welfare, the Central Welfare Council and the
Catholic Welfare service, Malaysia. These services involved 98,9 1O
children in 468 schools in 1972 when they were discontinued. In
1974, Selangor State, in conjunction with the Applied F o o d and
Nutrition Programme (AFNP), initiated a pilot SFS. In 1976 the
SFS was adopted by the National AFNP Committee, chaired by the
Prime Minister, as an integral component of the National AFNP.
Since then, the SFS has been extended to cover practically a l l
districts in Malaysia.
The aim of t h e SFS i s to provide supplementary f o o d to
144
Peninsular Malay sEa

primary school children, especially those f r o m l o w income families,
in order t o improve their general health and normal physical growth,
in iim w i t h t h e objectives o f the NEP. The objectives o f SFS are
as follows :
~
a) t o provide needy primary school children w i t h additional

nutritious f o o d t o improve t h e k physical g r o w t h qnd enhance their
physical well-being;
b) t o put i n t o practice, directly and indirectly, health educat i o n and nutrition;

c) to support t h e Applied F o o d and N u t r i t i o n Programme
and activities and projects through active participation.
The SFS, which started o f f as a j b i n t project o f t h e Ministry of

Education and t h e Prime Ministers Department has, since 1979, been
completely taken over by the Ministry of Education. T h e Schools
Division implements t h e scheme, w i t h t h e co-operation o f t h e
various State Education Departments in selected schools. Supplementary food, based o n approved menus, are prepared in various
ways, according t o situations and practicability. They are prepared
through either appointed teachers o f the school concerned; or appointed non-teaching staff o f t h e school; or parents and teachers; or
volunteer organisations; o r hired cooks; o r f o o d contractors.
Table 7 shows the number of schools, children and financial
allocation involved in t h e SFS f r o m 1976 t o 1981.
Table 7. Supplementary Feeding Scheme (SFS)

Malaysia, 1976 - 1981
1976
1977
I978
1979
- Peninsdar
1980
I981
. 1. No. of Schools
474
1,630
2,188
2000
4,328
4,352
2. No. of C%dren
involved
49.727
132,380
300,000
421,875
545.800
502,200
60
140
200
160
150
150
298.362
2,779,980
12,000,000
13,500,000
16,374,000
18,832,000
3. No. of Doys
4. Total Ailocation
(M.hy&n
S)
Feedback information from schools involved in the programme indicated that generally, school attendance
and achievement by participant pupils have improved.
145

Textbook L o a n Scheme (TBLS). The Malaysian Cabinet at a
meeting in October 1973, supported a declaration made earlier by t h e
Prime Minister that in view o f inflation, lower income groups in the
public sector b e granted financial aid, while those in t h e private
sector b e given aid in kind. One o f the aids in kind i s t h e Textbook
L o a n Scheme, (TBLS) which provides free textbooks or subsidized
textbooks t o lighten the financial burden o f poor parents with
school-going children. A n i n i t i a l allocation o f M$40 millions was
set aside for t h e project.
An inter-ministerial Technical Committee for Implementation

was set up o n 6 t h February 1974, t o study t h e financial and other
implications o f the TBLS, and t o formulate implementation policies
and procedures. A series o f consultative meetings were convened,
where State Directors o f Education and other agencies connected
with the implementation were invited t o give their opinions and
views. A t t h e same time, relevant information concerning the number
o f children according t o levels who require aid in textbook, was
gathered. O n 24th September, 1974 the implementation plan for
TBLS was presented t o the Cabinet which gave i t s approval and
blessing. O n 9 t h October 1974, the financial allocation was raised t o
M $ 6 2 million.
The TBLS was launched in 1975 with t h e aims o f providing
free textbooks, o n loan, t o needy children, especially those f r o m
rural and depressed areas, in order t o upgrade quality education and
t o provide equal educational opportunities; and reducing t h e financial burden o f poor parents who have school-going children.
The TBLS i s implemented by the Textbook Bureau of t h e

Ministry o f Education, with the assistance o f the State Directors o f
Education and the schools. T h e organisational set up for implementing the scheme and t h e agencies involved are shown in Figure 2.
Table 8 shows t h e number o f children benefiting from the
TBLS and t h e financial expenditures involved in t h e TBLS f r o m
1975 t o 1981.
School hostels. Hostel facilities are provided in t w o types o f
schools, viz ordinary primary and secondary day schools, and fully
residential secondary schools (FRSS). FRSS may be considered t o b e
special schools, and cater to promising students, the majority o f
w h o m are f r o m rural areas and low-income families. The criteria f o r
146
Peninsular Malaysia
Technical Advisory
Committee
I
Publishers
Textbook Bureau
I
Distributors
Development &
Supplies Division
Computer
Services
Finance &
Accounts Division
State Education
Departments
Figure 2. Organizational set-up implementing the textbook loan scheme Peninsular Malaysia
Table 8. Textbook loan scheme Malaysia- 1975-1980

Year '
Number of School Children
Expenditure in $(hi)
1975
2,011,005
59,176,610
1976
2,111,877
18,374,423
1977
2,128,465
15,694,877
1978
2,172,085
26,982,873
1979
2,209,550
51,847,397
1980
2,354,528
24,737,572
Total
196,809,754
selection i n t o FRSS i s based o n gcademic excellence, family financial

burden and location of residence. T h e m a i n a i m of the FRSS programme, i s t o provide a conducive atmosphere in terms of school
effects and living environment, to realize better t h e potentials of
promising students f r o m p o o r families in the r u r a l areas. Hostels in
ordinary schools also have the same general aim, but cater t o children
who live far away from schools regardless of their academic
147
performance. As high performance students are less inclined t o dropo u t o f schools prematurely, only hostels in ordinary day schools will
be discussed.
School hostels which aim at providing a more equal educational opportunity f o r all have as their objectives, the provision o f
subsidized f o o d and accommodation t o school children f r o m poor
families living far away f r o m schools; and t h e provision o f a more
conducive learning and living environment, t o school children f r o m
poor families in the rural areas.
As primary schools are f o u n d even in a remote rural areas,

while secondary schools are generally located in more accessible and
urban areas, most o f the .hostels are located in secondary schools.
Hostels in ordinary day schools have been in existence for a
long time, but since the Drop-out Report, they have been integrated
i n t o the overall programme, t o prevent the problem of children f r o m
poor families in t h e rural areas dropping out prematurely f r o m
schools. T h i s project i s implemented by 162 schools5 in Peninsular
Malaysia and co-ordinated by a special unit in t h e Schools Division,
in co-operation w i t h the State Education Departments. In October
1980, there were 259 permanent and rented buildings providing accommodation f o r 27,059 students as shown in Table 9.
Table 9. Hostels in day schools 1980, Peninsular Malaysia

Permanent hostels
Number of Hostels
Number of Hostelites
BOYS
114
12,721
Girls
90
10,268
Boys
28
1,591
Girls
27
1,479
259
27,059
Sex
Rented Hostels
Total
The figure 162 does not include hostel schools in the state of Kedah.
148
Peninsular Malaysia
The development plan f o r this project has provisions t o build

28 new hostels in 1981, 29 in 1982 and another 58 f o r m 1983 t o
1985. By 1985, it i s expected t o provide hostel accommodation for
25,201 boys and 19,186 girls in Peninsular Malaysia.
Conclusion
The preceding discussions have demonstrated that drop-out
has been a problem besetting educational development in Peninsular
Malaysia, especially in t h e late 1960s and early 1970s. While the
problem was negligible at the primary level, wastage at the lower
secondary level and especially during the transition between t h e
primary and the secondary levels was serious enough t o cause private
and public concern. I t has also demonstrated that through ad hoc, as
well as systematic and integrated intervention measures, the problem
has largely been overcome.
While t h e impact and effect o f t h e t o t a l integrated e f f o r t t o

stem the drop-out problem i s clearly reflected by improvements in
enrolment ratios and continuation rates since 1967 t o 1980, t h e
relative contributions of each o f t h e different activities towards overcoming t h e problem i s less clear. The problem i s very complex. Firstly, i t i s extremely d i f f i c u l t t o delineate activities which have been
structured specifically t o overcome t h e problem. This i s because
activities directed towards general quality improvement, b e they
pedagogical or non-pedagogical, also directly o r indirectly help t o
overcome educational wastage. Secondly, quality improvement
activities, implemented in phases over the period, are t o o many and
varied.
Drop-out, as pointed o u t earlier, i s n o t entirely an educational
problem. The concern o f t h e Government over the Drop-out Report
1973, and the wide spread publicity given t o it through the mass
media subsequently, w o u l d b e expected t o have changed considerably the attitudes o f parents, pupils and teachers, towards education.
Changes and trends as a result of social and economic development
over the period, further compound the complexity of the problem.
The Malaysian experience has demonstrated that the problem

o f educational wastage through drop-out can b e overcome. T h e
e f f o r t calls f o r a concerted e f f o r t by b o t h t h e Government and t h e
people, and a commitment, n o t only t o systematically analyse t h e
problem, but also t o carry o u t effectively, intervention measures.
149
This i s only the pre-requisite, for the implementation of intervention

measures brings along with it a train of other problems, including
priority setting and competing needs. I t also calls for a pooling of
scarce trained personnel a n d other resources, and an organisational
structure to formulate the problem, to structure intervention measures, and co-ordinate effectively the implementation of s u c h activities. The choice of action then reflects the determination a n d resolve
of both the Government a n d the people for solving the drop-out
problem.
List of recommendations
Recommendation I
Both efficiency (maximizing the marginal economic returns)

and equity (equalizing public investment in t h e education of the
poor with investment in t h e education of the well-to-do) require
reallocation of State educational investments from upper-secondary
and post-secondary levels to primary school levels. The high rate or
private r e t u r n from secondary and post-secondary education make
the private costs and income foregone while schooling, a highly profitable personal investment for those who qualify. Tuition charges
should replace State subsidies of higher education. Tuition remission
or State loans should b e available for the m o s t needy who qualify.
T h e p u b l i c funds saved, should b e reallocated to primary and preschool education, serving a wider cross-section of t h e population.
Recommendation II
To m o r e nearly equalize the educational opportunities of
t h e rural poor with their m o r e favoured urban peers, annual per
pupil expenditures on the schooling of t h e former, must b e at least
as large. T h e State should reverse i t s current disproportionate support of those already most advantaged. The full costs of a l l educational services b e l o w Form I
I
I(including the private funding of services
at assisted schools), should be raised by the State and allocated so as
to provide equalized per capita expenditures in a l l State assisted
schools.
Recommendation II I
Compensatory educational services should be provided to help
remedy early educational disadvantage. Economic poverty and rural
150
Peninsular Ma lay sk
location are relevant criteria for the allocation of compensatory services. Compensatory services should be concentrated at the preschool and lower primary school levels, in combination with adult parent education. Funding o f compensatory services should b e over
and above the equalization o f basic educational services already recommended. These should be ear-marked categorical funds n o t t o be
pooled w i t h general education funds, but reserved f o r compensatory
programmes for poor children.
Recommendation IV
Examinations at Standard I
I
Iand Standard V should measure
rudimentary literacy. All enrolled pupils should s i t f o r these examinations. Priority and publicity should be given t o the minimization
o f illiteracy rather than t o t h e proportions o f pupils with distin-
guished marks.
Recommendation V
Educational complexes o f substantial size should be developed
t o service small towns and surrounding rural areas. Transportation
services should b e improved and absorbed as an educational cost t o
permit t h e numerous educational advantages accruing f r o m consolidation.
151
L i
EI
,[
rC
153
Peninsular Ma lays2a
7-
154
Peninsular Malaysia
SUPPLEMENTARY TABLES
I. Enrolment and percentage participation of children in primary

schools - Peninsular Malaysia
per cent
Difference
Year
Male & Female
1967
1,315,590
(90.6)
693,720
(94.0)
621,86 1
(87.2)
6.8
1968
1,363,641
(91.7)
715,940
(94.7)
647,701
(88.7)
6.0
1969
1,389,145
(91.2)
727,423
(94.1)
661,722
(88.1)
6.0
1970
1,421,469
(88.2)
748,571
(91.6)
672,898
(84.8)
6.8
1971
1,457,698
(91.4)
759,630
(93.6)
698,068
(89.2)
4.4
1972
1,492,780
(91.6)
779,832
(94.0)
712,948
(89.1)
4.9
1973
1,531,493
(90.6)
794,444
(92.4)
7 37,049
(88.9)
3.5
1974
1,547,33 1
(93.7)
799,282
(95.1)
748,049
(92.3)
2.8
1975
1,586,909
(95.6)
817,289
(97.2)
7 69,6 20
(94.9)
2.3
1976
1,602,635
(97.0)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
(97.1)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
(97.3)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
1979
1,648,5 17
(95.9)
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
1980
1,764,000
(94.2)
803,156
N.A.
N.A.
(89.2)
(4.8)
1977
1978
Male
845,361
N.A.
Female
MEAN
1967-1975
(91.6)
(94.0)
Source: Adapted from Educational Statistics of Malaysia 1967 to 1980, Ministry o f

Education, Malaysia.
155
II.Enrolment and percentage participation of children in lower

secondary schools - Peninsular Malaysia
per cent
Difference
Year
Male &Female
Male
1967
344,364
(51.7)
207,498
(61.5)
136,866
(41.7)
19.8
1968
364,207
(53.8)
217,044
(63.3)
147,163
(44.1)
19.2
1969
379,782
(55.8)
224,097
(64.9)
155,685
(46.4)
18.5
1970
37 8,s 35
(52.2)
222,894
(60.6)
155,641
(43.6)
17.0
1971
403,491
(56.7)
235,409
(63.3)
168,082
(48.2)
15.1
1972
438,013
(60.8)
254,334
(69.4)
183,679
(51.9)
17.5
1973
469,176
(63.4)
269,123
(7 1.5)
200,053
(55.0)
16.5
1974
518,113
(63.5)
288,650
(69.5)
229,650
(57.3)
12.2
1975
561,47 1
(66.8)
309,567
(72.3)
251,904
(61.0)
11.3
1976
589,446
(70.9)
N.A.
N.A.
1977
632,598
(75.0)
N.A.
N.A.
1978
655,774
(78.4)
N.A.
N.A.
1979
681,993
(82.8)
N.A.
N.A.
1980
689,053
(85.0)
356,432
N.A.
325,561
N.A.
Female
~~
MEAN
1967-1975
(58.3)
(66.3)
(49.9)
(16.4)
Source: Adapted from Educational Statistics of Makysia 1967 to 1980, Ministry of

156
Peninsular Ma laysia
Iii.Continuation rates in the primary schools of children

(6+ to 11+) from grades Ito Vi - Peninsuiar Malaysia
Year
Grade
1-11
Grade
II-III
1968
99.3
98.7
Grade
III-IV
Grade
I V -v
Grade
v-V I
Average
I-V I
97.0
96.7
93.0
96.9
96.3
1969
98.5
98.1
96.6
95.9
92.4
1970
98.9
98.5
96.0
95.4
93.6
96.5
1971
99.2
97.6
97.9
96.8
95.2
97.3
1972
100.2
98.6
98.1
97.4
95.4
97.9
1973
98.2
98.4
98.7
98.5
97.5
98.3
1974
99.6
98.9
98.8
98.2
96.9
98.5
1975
100.0
99.4
99.1
99.1
98.6
99.2
1976
98.4
99.2
99.6
99.1
98.8
99.2
1977
99.1
99.6
99.3
98.9
98.3
99.0
1978
99.7
99.8
99.6
99.0
98.4
99.3
1979
99.1
99.4
98.8
99.0
99.8
99.2
1980
100.0
100.0
99.3
99.4
98.5
99.4
98.2
MEAN
Source: Adapted from Educational Statistics of Malaysia 1967 to 1980, Ministry of

157

I V Transition and continuation rates in the secondary schools of chiidren
(12+ to 14+) from. grades VI1 to I X - Peninsular Malaysia
Year
Primmy to
Lower Secondnry
(1)
Grade
nI to VIII
(2)
Grade
V I I I to I X
Average
(3)
W I to I X
(4)
1968
65.3
92.2
92.4
92.3
1969
62.1
91.6
92.4
92.0
1970
68.3
89.8
89.2
89.5
1971
65.3
94.6
95.8
95.2
1972
69.2
95.2
96.5
95.6
1973
73.0
95.5
96.2
95.6
1974
73.7
96.3
96.9
96.6
1975
81.6
96.5
97.0
96.7
1976
78.4
96.0
95.6
95.8
1977
78.9
95.6
97.5
96.6
1978
82.7
98.3
98.0
98.1
1979
83.1
95.8
96.9
96.8
1980
81.3
95.1
96.7
95.9
MEAN
95.2
Source: Adapted from Educational Statistics of Malaysia 1967 to 1980, Ministry of

158
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160
Bi BLiOG RAPHY
1. Educational Statistics o f Malaysia 1937 t o 1980, Ministry
o f Education, Malaysia.
2. Federal Inspectorates Report 1968, M i n i s t r y of Education,

Malaysia.
3. The Report o f t h e Committee o n t h e Study o f School and

Society (Drop-out Report) 1973.
4. Report o f the Committee of Officials o n the Drop-out

Study 1973.
5. Report of t h e Cabinet Committee o n Education 1979.

6. Departmental Reports (unpublished) on:
i. The Supplementary Feeding Scheme ;

ii. The Textbook Loan Scheme; and
iii. School Hostels.
161
SOCIALIST REPUBLIC OF VlET NAM

by L e Nang An
The Vietnamese education system

The system of Vietnamese general education i s composed of
nurseries and kindergartens,nine-year basic schools (with two levels,
one for five years and the other for four years), and three-year
secondary schools. There i s also a system o f complementary educat i o n for adult learners.
Under the colonial and feudal rule, the working masses and
their children were deprived of their educational and cultural life.
The small scale educational system was meant exclusively f o r t h e
children of the upper-class homes, 9 0 per cent of the population
were illiterate. The number of illiterate women and ethnic people
amounted to 95 per cent or more, and even 1 0 0 per cent in many
localities. Nowadays, almost a l l the school-age children are going
t o school. Those who have finished primary education are entitled
to secondary education.
In 1979-80, there were 13,603,750 pupils and learners o f
a l l grades (excluding students o f technical secondary schools, vocational schools, universities and colleges), a 25-fold increase as compared with 1939, the peak year o f educational development under
the colonial and feudal domination.
All systems of schools are under state management. All forms

o f school t u i t i o n fees have been abolished. A network of schools
and classes extends to a l l villages and hamlets, with scholarships for
needy students, and a free supply of textbcoks that the pupils can
share together. In several localities, nursery and kindergarten children
are provided with a free school lunch.
In the former regimes, women were given less educational
opportunities. According t o the statistics recorded by the French
administration before the August Revolution (1945), the peak year
of educational development was 1939, and the rate o f illiterate
women was about 9 8 per cent. In t h e Franco-Vietnamese schools,
162

f r o m primary t o secondary, school girls made up 14.8 per cent, and
only 3.1 per cent in the secondary schools. Today, they account f o r
about 47 per cent in all general education schools. In the school year
1979-80, there were 5,554,175 school girls in 6he t o t a l enrolment of
11, 697,227.
Prior t o t h e August Revolution, in a l l o f t h e country, there
were less than 13,000 ethnic pupils o r 5.5 o u t o f 1,000 could have
access t o education, almost all o f them f r o m upper class families. In
1979-80, the enrolment o f ethnic pupils r a n up to 1,031,557, an
80-fold increase as compared with the pre-revolution period. Vietnamese has become the official medium in the schools. N o w it i s
widely used in the teaching of all subjects in all grades and departments. This i s one o f the decisive conditions f o r t h e vigorous development o f general education and national culture.
T o satisfy the requirements o f educational development, a
large teaching staff has been formed, which represents a considerable
achievement. As compared with 5,500 (mainly teachers for primary
schools) in all o f V i e t Nam right after t h e August Revolution, i t
stands n o w at 378,000 as Table 1 shows:
Table 1. Teachers in Viet Nam

Educational level
Number of teachers
57,000
Nursery schools
Basic schools Grade I
181,000
Basic schools Grade II
99,000
Secondary schools
31,000
Adult Education
10,000
The universalization o f primary and secondary education i s

also a process o f enhancement o f efficiency, l i m i t a t i o n o f repetition
and drop-out, and improvement o f educational quality.
As far as repetition i s concerned, t h e number o f repeaters in

primary and secondary schools throughout the land represents a
major obstacle t o universalization under fixed age-norms, according
t o statistics o f the Planning Department under t h e Ministry o f
Education.
163
Over the past few years, the Government and people have
annually spent a considerable additional sum o n more than half a
m i l l i o n repeaters. The rate o f repetition in each level i s about 5 per
cent, and at Level Io f t h e southern provinces about 8 per cent.
The Board for Research o n Educational Universalization under

the Ministry o f Education, has conducted surveys in localities with
fine records in educational development in districts o f t h e provinces
o f H a Tay, Vinh Phu, Nam Ha, Thai Binh, H a i Phong, and Nghe An.
The surveys show that repetition poses a great problem t o universalization.
Late school entrance

L a t e starting also presents a hindrance to universalization of
preparatory class, primary, and secondary education implemented
under fixed age-norms. In many instances, most commonly in t h e
rural areas, a number o f school boys and girls have started their learning one o r t w o years late, and during t h e process i f they repeat once
or twice, they frequently show a strong dislike f o r school, and
eventually drop-out. Or they cannot finish primary and secondary
grades o n schedule when they begin t o take part in production.
Surveys by the Board f o r Research o n Educational Universalization show that t h e number o f six-year olds attending preparatory class accounted f o r only 50-70 per cent o f t h e six-year o l d
population and 50 per cent o f t h e total enrolment f o r preparatory
classes. However, surveys conducted by the Teachers Training
College I
I,in t e n farming co-operatives o f Vinh Tuong district,
Table 2. Percentages of late starters in ten fanning co-operativesof

Vinh Phu Province 1956-1961
Years
5 year OMS
6 year OHS
7 year OMS
8 year OMS
1956
3.4
21.9
34.0
25.8
9 yenr OMS
8.7
1957
7.1
35.7
26.4
20.7
I
.8
1958
6.8
32.2
32.2
22.7
6.8
1959
7.1
30.5
34 .O
16.7
9.1
1960
16.0
30.8
29.8
13.4
5.6
1961
14.9
35.7
29.4
15.9
3.8
164

Vinh Phu province, show that the number of six-year olds attending preparatory classes makes up o n l y 30-35 per cent of the six-year
o l d population (Table 2), and only over 10 per cent o f the t o t a l
enrolment for preparatory classes. The rest are seven to nine year
olds, and even t e n year olds. The situation i s even more serious in
the mountainous provinces. The surveys in the districts of H a i Phong
also show similar patterns.
All t h i s can boil down to one point: the motivation o f people

to bring their six-year olds to preparatory classes remains a problem
that calls f o r an active and immediate solution by the educational
service.
Typical surveys conducted in a number o f villages showed that
a l i t t l e more than 5 per cent of the children in the six year age-group
were n o t sent t o school because o f prolonged illnesses or physical
infirmities. The m a i n cause o f belated schooling, however, was found
to be unsympathetic parental attitudes. There were parents who
failed to see the necessity t o send their children t o school a t the
proper age. Other parents were reluctant to l e t their children attend
distant schools. Moreover, in large families, a six-year old c h i l d m a y
b e needed a t home as an extra hand (Supplementary Table XII).
Repeaters
A document prepared by the Planning Department, the

Ministry o f Education Directions, Tasks and Plans for Educational
Development in 1980-1981, notes that repeaters constituted a
major obstacle to the efforts t o make education available to recipients a t proper ages. Up to t h e period under review, there used t o
be about half a million repeaters every year. The average rate was
5 per cent for all levels. In southern provinces the rate for the primary level was about 8 per cent.
Typical surveys in this regard revealed a fairly high rate o f
repeaters, even in well developed areas, with the largest number of
f i r s t time repeaters at class (grade) I.The number o f pupils who
repeated two o r three years from classes (grades) Ito VI1 was also
considerable. In certain mountain areas there were pupils who
repeated five or even six times from classes (grades) I-VII. Some
pupils spent as many as eight years on the f i r s t three forms. Delayed
graduation h a d a demoralizing effect o n pupils, while impeding the
progress of education. Table 3 illustrates repetition f o r Thang
165

Long, a village in D o n g Hung district, T h a i Binh Province f o r the
years 1963-72.
Table 3. Repetition in Thang Long V i e
From Classes (grades) I to V I I Number of primary
school pupils
Number of pupils Number of pupils

completing
completing
Chss (grade) V I I
Class (grade) I V
without
without
repetition
repetition
1963-70
(seven years)
89
64
40
1964-71
(seven years)
128
76
61
1965-72
(seven years)
111
61
40
1966-1970
(four years)
140
30
1967-71
(four years)
138
37
1968-12
143
42
(four years)
Poor school facilities and low teacher quality have combined

with other causes to give rise to the great numbers o f repeaters. A
quality survey over a five-year period, from 1975 t o 1980, led to the
following conclusions, which are worth noting:
Only f r o m 45 to 50 p e r cent o f the f i r s t and second-eve1

pupils were qualified. In provinces where conditions were poor the
rate was 30 per cent o r lower still.
Experts also found out that because o f poor quality only 45 t o
50 per cent of the pupils were willing t o continue their studies.
A b o u t 10 per cent, f o r want o f perseverance, became discouraged.
With their permanent intention to drop-out, they constituted a real
problem to both school and society.
M e n t i o n should also be made of material conditions during
and since the war. While it i s true that very great efforts have been
exerted to ensure uninterrupted education, material and technical
166

means provided t o schools have proved t o be inadequate. T h i s was
another cause o f poor quality.
During t h e war, great numbers o f schools were destroyed.
Classes were conducted mostly in makeshift constructions. The
situation had n o t changed much by 1980-1981, when there were
around 1 4 m i l l i o n pupils in kindergartens and general schools in t h e
whole country.
For t h e 276,000 kindergarten, basic general and general
secondary classes in 1980-1981, there were only 194,000 school
rooms, half t o them o f thatch-and-bamboo. That l e f t about 162,000
classes, o r almost 70 p e r cent unhoused.
By t h e end o f 1980, rooms were provided t o only 59 per cent

o f the kindergarten classes, and 49 per cent o f the basic general ones.
Also at that time, most o f the schools only consisted o f classrooms,
administrative offices and housing f o r school personnel. Few were
provided with laboratories, playgrounds, libraries or gymnasiums.
Technical equipment could hardly meet t h e demand f o r development. F o r t h e basic general and secondary general levels, i t barely
covered 10 per cent o f the minimum requirements. School rooms
were t o o crowded and only half o f the pupils were provided with
desks.
The sharp increase in enrolment over the years and a recent

shortage o f paper have resulted in a severe shortage o f books. As far
as pupils were concerned, only 70 per cent o f their demand was met.
For teachers, b o t h manuals and reference books were in short
supply.
Despite great efforts in training, supplies o f primary and j u n i o r
high teachers f e l l respectively 39 per cent and 1 7 per cent short o f
targets as o f the end o f 1980. Teachers for languages, painting and
music, and technical personnel were very hard t o get. O n the other
hand, teacher quality was n o t up t o t h e mark because o f t h e haste in
training. F r o m 20 t o 3 0 per cent o f the teachers, mainly primary
teachers, were rated by experts as unqualified.
Similarly, managerial skills were n o t rated highly by experts,
who maintained that only about 2 0 o r 30 per cent o f t h e heads o f
primary andj u n i o r high schools were truly capable. The rest, promoted
167
The dropout problem i n primary education
f r o m teaching jobs, were n o t experienced as administrators. All t h i s

combined t o lower pupil qualfty.
Magnitude and causes of drop-out
A major concern o f educators i s the fairly large number o f

drop-outs which was observed n o t only during t h e war but also over
recent years.
F r o m 1975 t o 1980, about one m i l l i o n pupils gave up studies.
The rate was particularly high in areas seriously hit by natural
calamities. In H a u Giang Province, southern Viet Nam, the drop-out
rate was 70 p e r cent from grades V I to I X (junior high level), 49 per
cent for grade X, and 50 per cent f o r grade XII. The staying rate for
the whole 12 year system was as l o w as 12 per cent in t h e same
province.
The following drop-out data (Table 4) were compiled by t h e

Department o f Planning, Ministry of Education, f o r the last five
years:
Table 4. Drop-out rates 1975-1976
3.81 per cent
Average rate at primary school

grade
Per cent
5.26
II
2.14
III
2.33
IV
4.86
4.38 per cent
Average rate at junior high schools

grade
Per cent
2.88
VI
4.23
vw
3.43
The drop-out rate f o r t h e primary cycle was particularly high

among primary school children in mountain provinces as Table 5
shows:
See Supplementary Table XI for more detailed information. T h i s table i s based on
the earlier school structure not on the new 12 year structure.
168

Table 5. Drop-out in mountain provinces
Province
Per cent
Ha Tuyen
9.50
Binh Tri Thien
7.80
Hoang Lien Son
4.70
Kien Giang
13.00
Song Be
11.00
cull Long
9.50
Thuan Hai
7.00
In 1977-78, t h e average drop-out rates at primary schools in

northern V i e t N a m was 7.74 p e r cent and in southern V i e t N a m
9.79 per cent. At t h e junior high schools, i t was 3.55 and 6.65 p e r
cent f o r northern and southern Viet N a m respectively. The rate
was particularly high in border provinces in northern and southern
provinces hit by floods and storms. Primary school enrolment
actually decreased by between 5-27 per cent in some o f these p r o vinces.
A more complete picture o f the situation was given by data

obtained o n a national scale in 1978-1979, which, in fact, was the
peak year. See Table 6 below:
Table 6. Dropaut rate in Classes (grades) I-IX, 1978-1979
I
II
III
IV
VI
VIZ
North
6.4
6.8
3.7
4.4
4.2
6.4
7.3
19.5
South
21.7
15.8
17.5
11.5
12.1
12.7
11.3
12.5
classlgrade
VIII
IX
11.8
Source: Committee for Review of Educational Progress 1975-1980.
The large nimber o f school drop-outs has been attributed t o

many causes. One i s discouragement o n the part o f confirmed
repeaters. This was particularly true with schools in t h e mountains
where teaching quality was poor. In s u c h schools the drop-out rate
was as high as 45 or even 50 per cent.
169
Parental attitude was also f o u n d t o be a contributive factor.

Those parents whose children did well at school were generally willing t o allow the latter t o complete their education. On the other
hand, parents o f confirmed repeaters usually made their children,
especially their daughters, leave school at the age o f 13 or 14, particularly in short-handed families.
I t i s therefore hoped that a reductiori in the number o f repeaters and the prevention o f belated schooling will help t o bring
d o w n repetition rate in the 13-14 age-group. Children o f t h i s group
will then be able t o acquire a higher level o f education.
Many children had t o drop-out because their parents were

unable t o afford other related expenses even when n o school fees
were charged, o r because they were needed t o help o u t at home.
T h i s happened mostly t o children at the age o f 13 o r 14 when
they were b i g enough t o work, and accounted for about 35 per
cent of the number o f drop-outs.
Unsuitable location o f schools due t o a widely scattered
population w a s also a major obstacle, especially in mountain regions,
where pupils usually have t o go long distances.
A s i m i l a r condition existed in lowland regions, but the situation

was n o t as serious as o n the highlands. Moreover, with t h e extension
o f primary education t o all hamlets in 1960, distance i s n o longer a
problem t o pupils in lowland regions.
On the whole, about 10 per cent o f the drop-out figure was
accounted f o r by school inaccessibility. Another 5 per cent was
attributable t o war, natural disasters, prolonged illnesses, physical
infirmities, sudden misfortunes, o r illegal migration abroad (Supplementary Table XIII).
I t i s a basic policy o f t h e Government t o develop education on
a large scale and at an accelerated rate t o discharge better, t h e tasks
o f economic and social construction. This policy has received a warm
response f r o m the population and has brought about considerable
progress. Advancement, however, has been l i m i t e d by real difficulties
- the many years o f war and their aftermath, an undeveloped
economy, an inadequate material basis, l o w training efficiency. etc.,
hence the great numbers of late beginners, repeaters, and drop-outs.
170
Socklist Republic of Viet Nam

Sustained efforts, therefore, must b e deployed to p r o m o t e
education, while dealing with each specific case of repetition and
dropping out and to improve organizational structures to s u i t specific
situations. Efforts have been made towards better quality and better
organization.
Actions to prevent dropout

a) T h e Good Teaching Good Study Movement. This movement, launched in October 1961, has been regarded as the most
essential measure to improve quality.
-
Teachers are required to prepare lessons in strict conformity with curricula, to conduct classes with a l l the
zeal required by their profession, to correct papers
with great care, a n d conduct examinations with strictness.
- Teachers must make lessons easy to understand and t o

apply. For this purpose t h e y must incessantly educate
themselves politically and professionally.
-
There must be a sense of shared responsibility among

teachers and between teachers and pupils, which i s
essential for socialist education. School-family relations must also be strengthened for better c o n t r o l o f
pupils progress.
- The motto for teachers i s All For Our BelovedPupils.

Pupils are required to observe regular attendance, to b e
attentive, to understand their lessons thoroughly, t o
give equal attention to all subjects, to combine theory
with practice, a n d to do equally w e l l in scientific,
moral, ethical and physical education.
- Pupils must respect their teachers and share with t h e m

the responsibility for socialist education. They must
value friendship among themselves and must help one
another to make progress.
b) Co-operation with parents and mass organizations
- The school, as the principal educator, will seek the cooperation of parents and mass organizations to see to
it that children get the full benefit of education. As
171

an educational adviser t h e school w i l l also make
suggestions t o parents o n h o w best t o bring up their
children.
- Mass organizations such as t h e H o C h i Minh Communist Y o u t h Union, the H o C h i Minh Young Pioneers
Brigade, and others will do their share in extra curricular education under school guidance.
-
Parents Associations will motivate p a r e n t s t o provide

full education and t o set good examples t o their
children.
T h e movement f o r better quality has, in fact, given rise t o

many support actions over t h e past years, notably the campaigns
among pupils f o r A Thousand Good Deeds t o P u t I n t o Practice
Uncle Hos Teachings: Love o f t h e Country and t h e People, Unity
and Discipline, G o o d Studies and Work, Hygiene, Honesty and
Courage and f o r the honorary t i t l e s o f Uncle Hos Good Nephew
and Uncle Hos G o o d Niece.
Members o f the y o u t h u n i o n and parents have tried t o prove
by concrete deeds that they are Model Brother, Model Sister
and Model Parent while motivating other adults t o do likewise.
Parents also strive f o r t h e Model Family title, which i s granted t o
households o f good internal harmony and good relations with neighbours.
The Teachers Union, f o r i t s part, motivates i t s members t o

strive f o r the Socialist Labour Team t i t l e by acquiring higher
efficiency through collective compilation o f lessons and through t h e
establishment o f effective classroom procedures. Teachers are asked
t o f o l l o w closely the progress o f each pupil, especially the weakest.
Teachers also j o i n parents in enforcing a rational timetable at home.
c) Accelerated development in mountain regions. The Government of V i e t N a m has consistently worked f o r t h e full development o f the mountain regions. F o r t h i s end, it has given every chance
t o m i n o r i t y ethnic groups t o catch up with t h e rest o f t h e population
in education and in other fields. The Ministry o f Education, as
early as in 1955, started formulating vernacular scripts, which are
regarded as a principal instrument f o r mountain tribes t o achieve full
economic and cultural development and attain equality with t h e
majority ethnic group.
172

According t o t h i s policy, t h e Vietnamese language, in i t s
spoken and w r i t t e n form, i s regarded as t h e official language f o r t h e
whole country, the main mode o f communication among t h e various
nationalities. All citizens, therefore, are required t o use it. Tribal
languages, as tribal legacies, are preserved and used locally, along
with the official language. Those tribes which have n o t invested a
w r i t t e n f o r m f o r their languages are helped t o create their own
scripts. Tribal scripts are taught along with the national script at
primary schools in mountain areas, t o provide bilingual s k i l l s t o
pupils. Where mountain tribes are f l u e n t in t h e national language,
it may be used as t h e principal language, while tribal languages
w i l l b e taught as a secondary subject. In areas where the national
language i s not commonly spoken, the o f f i c i a l language will be
taught, with explanations made in the tribal languages, until proficiency with the official language i s achieved.
d) Teacher education. Teacher education has been stepped

up over t h e years despite difficulties in many fields. In southern
V i e t Nam, f o r instance, there was a n increase o f approximately
10,000 primary school teachers and of 13,684 teachers f o r junior
high schools f r o m 1976 t o 1981 - an annual rate o f 23 per cent,
compared with an increase o f 6 per cent in the northern provinces.
Also in t h e south there were 6,616 more senior high teachers in
the same period, o r an annual increase of 8.4 per cent, compared
with 6.4 per cent in t h e north. T o cope with the pressing demand,
training time has t o be cut, t o the detriment o f proficiency. The
following table shows t h e state o f teacher education in 1979-1980:
Table 7. Teachers by level and training 1979-80
Almary
(First LeveI)
Junior High
(Second Level)
Senior High
(Third Level)
Total:
2 17,47 3
125,672
30,492
Women
139,905
71,610
12,223
12,341
357
945
112,120
75,500
5,414
Seniority - 5 years
82,401
52,854
10,969
15 years
32,193
17,889
5,196
13.7%
32%
7 3%
Minority nationals
Below 30 years of age
Qualified
173
T h e quality of the teaching personnel a t teachers schools also

leaves much to b e desired. About half of the number of the teachers
in these schools are fresh in their jobs (from one to five years), a n d
only 6 per cent have acquired post-university education. The Mini s t r y o f Education, therefore, has given teacher training a central
position, and the Government has decreed a n &month year for
teachers a t a l l levels. One of the remaining months i s for vacation,
and t h e three others are for complementary training. Teachers can
further their education through in-service, full-time, or correspondence
courses.
e)
Combination of state and private contributions:
With the end of the war, there was a sharp increase in enrolm e n t at a l l levels, as can b e seen in Table 8:
Table 8. Enrolment increases 1972-75
~~
Enrolment
Year
Kindergarten
Pre-school
education
A t the three levels

of the general
school
1972-1973
268,810
940,s 57
4,675,721
1973-1974
311,680
871,037
5,067,680
1914-1975
405,931
1,237,233
5,248,OS 5
The result was a serious shortage in school space. Schools in

urban areas h a d to take in three, even four, s h i f t s a day. There was
an average of 60 pupils to a class, and school activities were chaotic
as a consequence. To cope with the situation the Prime Minister, in
November 1973, decreed the mobilization of all private and collective resources to improve the material basis of education. N e w
schools were t h e n built and old ones repaired with voluntary contributions by civilians, the army, public offices and mass organizations.
Extra-curricular activities of teachers and pupils were also directed
t o w a r d this end.
Steps toward better organization and management

The following steps have been taken with good results:
a)
Boarding schools: T h e f i r s t schools of t h i s t y p e were

174

opened as early as 1948, during the war against the French, to accommodate those who h a d l e f t French-occupied areas f o r the free
zone. Pupils were issued clothes and stationery, and teachers also
lived in. Thanks to this arrangement, pupils who would otherwise
have been forced to give up studies were able to go on with their
education under reliable surveillance of their teachers, and parents
were thus free t o devote themzelves t o revolutionary work.
b) Teachers to seek pupils: The putting into effect o f this

slogan has brought about good results, particularly in sparsely
populated mountain regions, where drop-out rate was traditionally
high. To remedy the situation, teachers have been assigned t o remote
hamlets to live with the inhabitants, and classes are h e l d for every
four or five pupils.
c) Boarding schools in remote regions: For these types o f
schools, study and living facilities are provided by the State while
food i s supplied by parents. Children enjoy permanent guidance in
their studies as well as in their recreational and productive activities.
Communal l i f e has also promoted unity among the various nationalities, while preserving and enhancing customs peculiar t o each. Teachers
assigned to these schools are required to be familiar with local ways.
M a n y have in fact become Labour Heroes because o f their devotion and their success in public relations. At the same time, a number
of the schools have been cited as models for the whole country,
among them the kindergarten school at Trung Bi, a Muong village in
H a Son Binh province, which has provided primary education to a l l
inhabitants, and the village school at Muong Te, an area inhabited by
Thai and Muong nationals in Son L a province, where a l l inhabitants
- children and adults alike - are attending first-level courses. The
p*ary
school a t L a Pan Tan, a village inhabited at Hmong nationals
in the northern district of Nghia Lo, i s another good example of
parent motivation, organization, and efficient teaching. As a result,
1974-1975 saw an increase of 4.8 per cent in primary enrolment and
of 19 per cent in j u n i o r high enrolment, in the 12 mountain provinces in northern V i e t Nam.
d) Semi-boardhg schools: Schools of t h i s t y p e are designed

to satisfy parents who do not wish to have their children stay away
the whole week. Pupils, in t h i s case, bring their own lunches and
spend the whole day a t school before going home in the evening.
e) M i x e d classes: In areas where it i s impossible to hold
175

classes separately because of inadequate attendance, m i x e d classes grades Iand I
I,
grades I
I
Iand IV, etc. - are organized. This, of course,
makes teaching complicated but a resourceful teacher a n d good planning can do away with the problem.
Special classes: For children who begin school late (at 8, 9
or 10 years), special classes are held, w h i c h cover both the pre-school
programme a n d the grade Icurriculum in one year. This enables
pupils to continue t o move to grade I
Iin the following year. 10-year
olds are allowed to continue to grade I
Iat general schools i f they so
wish, or will be inducted into complementary schools to complete
primary education. Special classes give priority t o older children a n d
l a y great stress on quality. Thanks to them, primary education was
made compulsory in most of the provinces and in 90 per cent of the
villages in the northern plains in late 1960, with school attendance
by 90 per cent of the 6-11 age group. T h e h i n 1960-1961,300,000
m o r e drop-outs returned to school.
f)
g) Teachers in-charge: A system has been instituted by w h i c h

each class i s placed under the special charge of a teacher, who i s
responsible for a l l i t s activities, and who i s chosen for h i s zeal, his
proficiency in organization, and skills in public relations. Teachers
in-charge are required to know their pupils w e l l in order to b e able to
better guide them in their studies. T h e y must work in close cooperation with other teachers, the youth union a n d the young
pioneers union, in related activities, especially in promoting the
sense of collective mastery, in encouraging pupil initiative, in ensuring discipline etc. Teachers in-charge are required to co-operate closely with parents and other concerned parties in evaluating progress, in
nominating candidates for commendations, in making decisions
concerning upgrading or intensive vacation instructions, etc. Teachers
in-charge thus p l a y a very important role in parent motivation. T h e y
are also a great help to potential repeaters and drop-outs, and m a n y
of t h e m have been commended for their sustained efforts and great
success.
h) Parents Associations are designed to strengthen schoolfamily co-operation for better education. T h e y operate through
permanent committees composed of the most active members
elected to represent a l l the classes a t the beginning o f every school
year. T h e m a i n functions of these committees are to assist school
authorities in explaining educational policies to parents, enhancing
176

the latters educational awareness and responsibility, guiding them in
carrying o u t agreements with the school, giving them advice concerning their childrens vocations, and assisting in j o b training. They
have t o also motivate parents t o provide necessary conditions f o r
their childrens studies and establish a rational timetable at home, t o
mobilize material contributions, t o help teachers in field work, and
draw capable parents i n t o extra-curricula activities, and t o act as
spokesmen o n behalf o f parents. In fact, school-family relations have
been strengthened a great deal, thanks t o the existence o f Parents
Associations, which have been particularly successful in urging
unwilling parents t o allow their children t o complete their education.
Private contributions have played a very important role. D u r i n g the
war, when schools h a d t o move f r o m place t o place, homes and barns
were offered for classrooms. Owners w o u l d readily make necessary
alterations for t h e convenience of teachers and pupils, or have their
orchards cleared and their paved courtyards demolished for the construction o f air raid shelters. F o r better precaution, classrooms
were provided with heavily thatched ceilings and surrounded with
solid walls of beaten earth, and trenches were built between t h e
desks for quick evacuation. Casaulties, therefore, were limited t o a
minhum and parents could go about their business assured o f t h e
safety o f their children.
This initiative o n the part o f t h e population was contributive

t o the steady development o f education. Enrolment f o r all t h e three
levels in 1967-1968 was 3,703,200, up by more than one m i l l i o n
compared with 1964-1965, the f i r s t year o f war. The average annual
increase rate was 11.25 per cent. There were 23 pupils t o every
hundred inhabitants, and of t h e t o t a l number, 40 per cent were
girls.
T h e war over, greater contributions were made for t h e restorat i o n o f damaged schools and t h e construction o f new ones. In Vinh
Bao district, H a i Phong, f o r instance, private contributions covered
85 per cent o f all t h e construction costs. N e w schools, built with
private and collective donations, appeared everywhere, even in
remote mountain areas. On t h e whole, private contributions accounted f o r half o f the construction investments made immediately
after the war.
i) Care o f war orphans: One direct consequence o f t h e war i s

the great number o f orphans, and their upbringing i s the concern o f
177

t h e whole population. These children are adopted by volunteers, and
receive allowances in money or stationery f r o m agricultural cooperatives o r other production units. In addition t o regular class
attendance, they receive special t u i t i o n at home t o make up f o r what
they have missed.
All schools, in their annual plans, have special provisions

regarding war orphans, and teachers in-charge will regularly make
home v i s i t s t o inquire i n t o their living conditions and studies. School
Councils, at the same time, assign special tutors t o those who need
intensive instruction, and libraries give p r i o r i t y t o war orphans.
Teachers who sponsor war orphans receive preferential treatment
themselves. Those who take charge o f three children o r more are
assigned fewer periods than others, o r are exempted f r o m communal
activities. They are also paid f o r w o r k done in their spare time.
Teachers with outstanding services to war orphans are commended
by the State.
Steps to enable dropouts to return to school

Belated schooling and dropping o u t remain a major problem,
as revealed by a recent survey in the Mekong River delta.
-
There was a relapse i n t o illiteracy owing t o lack o f followup measures.
The number o f children without schooling kept increasing

over t h e years and swelled the total number o f illiterates.
Late beginners were common, and differences in age in a

class might vary f r o m five t o eight years.
- F r o m 30 per cent t o 40 per cent of the school-age children

s t i l l remained at home.
- Premature termination of education was also common.

The average rate was 19.60 per cent at the f i r s t level and
23.90 per cent at the second level.
This situation, as in t h e rest o f the country, was due t o lack of
facilities and poor quality. There were n o t enough teachers, especially for primary classes. Teacher quality was l o w . Of t h e existing contingent 25 per cent o r 30 per cent did n o t have proper training.
Facilities were inadequate. One classroom would o f t e n be shared by
178

t w o t o three classes, and a desk by t w o o r three pupils. Books
were scarce, so were teaching aids and stationery. What happened in
the Mekong River delta, happened in other parts o f the country,
especially in the mountain regions and areas directly affected by war
and natural calamities.
A programme was therefore advanced t o induct most o f the

school-age children and help them through the third grade, thus providing them with a stepping-stone t o higher grades through complementary education.
The programme consisted o f t h e following steps:
- Relocation o f primary schools t o make them more accessible.
- The opening o f more state-funded boarding schools at

district level in remote mountain regions o r sparsely
populated areas in t h e lowlands, and t h e granting of
more scholarships t o war orphans and children o f needy
families.
The introduction o f an abridged primary curriculum,

which concentrates o n the most essential subjects (Vietnamese, arithmetic, basic notions o f natural and social
sciences, and manual labour), and which covers from 26 t o
28 weeks only (schedules f o r t h i s t y p e o f school may
differ f r o m one place t o another t o s u i t local conditions).
- Modifications t o compress a normal three-year programme

i n t o t w o years t o enable pupils t o move up t o higher
grades in a normal way o r through adult complementary
education.
- Permission f o r remote areas t o run private primary schools,

under t h e supervision o f t h e educational service. This i s
based o n t h e principle o f j o i n t state-private endeavour.
Continuation o f research f o r more efficient methods t o

teach b o t h tribal and national languages in mountain
regions.
- Providing primary school teachers with the ability t o teach

mixed classes.
179
Intensive e f f o r t t o observe age limits and improve quality

at the second level o f the basic general school. Motivation
i s coupled with material incentive in the f o r m o f scholar-
ships.
- In mountain or riverine areas, boarders may b e divided

i n t o small groups and billeted in private homes. Land may
also b e allotted t o parents t o build dwellings for their
children.
The opening o f special junior-high schools t o teach reduced

o r selected subjects, with stress o n Vietnamese, mathematics
and biology (agricultural techniques and common notions
o f physics and chemistry may also be taught). Encouragement i s given t o schools which combine t h e ordinary
junior-high curriculum with j o b training. Such schools are
usually connected with productive units o r technical
centres, for assistance and guidance. This f o r m of theoretical
and practical education, initiated during the war and successfully applied f o r many years, has enabled a great
number o f former drop-outs t o p i c k up their studies and
complete the junior-high programme while acquiring a paying trade.
- Private junior-high schools are allowed wherever public

schools are n o t available. However, teachers, programmes,
etc., must be subject t o strict supervision by t h e educational authorities. Pupils o f these schools may transfer t o
public schools teaching abridged programmes, and may
take national examinations f o r graduation f r o m the basic
general school.
- Drop-outs f r o m 15 years o f age upward who are n o t in a

position t o attend any o f the previously mentioned schools
may receive complementary education, which i s given t o
adults through state-financed full-time courses or inservice courses. Full-time courses are available mainly at
work-and-study schools, worker-peasant complementary
schools, and schools f o r m i n o r i t y nationals, a l l o f which
take boarders.
Conclusion:
The many types o f schools listed above, varied in f o r m and
practical purpose, have proved t o be very beneficial t o children who,
180

due to unfavourable circumstances, are unable t o a f f o r d formal
schooling, but who are willing t o improve their education one way o r
another
I.Population by age groups (1979)

Age Groups
Total
Male
Female
0-2
4,65 7,822
2,389,880
2,267,342
3-6
6,196,016
3,159,984
3,036,032
7-15
12,963,544
6,667,313
6,296,23 1
16-30
13,861,021
6,541,101
7,315,920
31-40
4,373,710
2,065,028
2,308,682
41-50
4,084,833
1,907,721
2,177,112
5 1-64
4,080,969
1,855,393
2,225,576
65 -UP
2,5 23,85 1
990,162
1,533,689
25,5 80,582
27,16 1,184
Total
52,741,766
Source:
1October 1979 Census.
II.Structure of the educational system in Viet Nam
U /
Y
I
F\
t
Higher
Education
Vocational Schools
17 years
Secondary
7 years
Kindergarten
I
Source:
Creche/Day-Care Centres
Mmistry of Education.
181
4-6 years
1-3
YWXS
III.Average pupils per 10 thousand inhabitants

Thousands
Year
2.5
2.6
2.7
1975
1976
1979
Pupils in general education
- miiiions Year
Males
1975
1976
1979
4.9
5.1
5.5
Femaks
5.4
5.7
6.3
Total
10.3
10.8
11.8
Pupils in technical secondary schools

- thousands Year
Males
1975
1976
1979
46
59
102
Females
50
55
68
Total
96
114
170
Students in universities
- thousands Year
Males
1975
1976
1979
66
75
122
Source:
Females
26
26
37
General Statistical Office SRV.
182
Total
92
1O1
159

iV. Kindergartens
1977-19 78
I 9 76-1977
1978-1979
19 79-1980
ClassTooms
(thousands)
25.5
32.3
40.3
48.5
(thousands)
27.1
39.2
48.3
56.6
Teachers
Children
o f which :
(thousands)
823
Il02
1125
1477
Females
Males
379
444
507
595
634
491
714
703
Average number o f
Teacher per 1 classroom
(per sons)
Average number o f
children per 1 classroom
(persons)
32
34
27
30
Average number o f
children per teacher
(persons)
30
28
23
26
Sowce:
1.2
1.2
1.2
V. Courses attendance
Year
Total
(thousands)
Pupils in
general
Education
of which
Pupils in
Pupils of
Adult
Technical
education
secondary
school
Students
in
Universities
Average
pupils per
IO
thousands
inhabitants
Thousands
Thourands
Thousands
Persons
Thousands
1975-76
12.106
10.320
1.598
96
92
2541
1976-77
12.739
10.831
1.693
114
101
2591
1977-78
13.206
11.158
1.788
125
135
2619
1978-79
14.099
11.930
1.877
138
154
2142
1979-80
14.165
11.804
2.032
170
159
2700
Sowae:
183

VI. Generaleducation classrooms
~~
~~
YEW
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
Total
(thousands)
25 8,8
276,2
282,9
292,3
302,l
First kwl
of which
Second level
195,8
208,l
209.0
210,9
215,8
Thud level
52,4
57,3
62,4
69,O
73,l
10,6
10,8
11,5
12,4
13,2
109,4
119,o
13) ,6
1393
102,1
108,4
116,9
124,5
20,2
20.7
22.0
23,6
24.2
42
4,0
4,2
433
494
Index (1975-1976 = 100) %

1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
106,7
109,3
112,9
116,7
106,3
106,7
107,7
110,2
Structure %
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
Sowce:
100
100
1O0
1O 0
1O0
75,6
75,3
73,8
72,l
71,4
General Statistical Office SRV
MI. Teachers in generai education

of which
Year
Total
First lewl
Third level
Second level
~~
~~
(thousinds)
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
313,4
336,s
359,3
363,8
356,7
205,O
217,l
228,O
228,7
213.2
85,7
94.3
104,l
107,l
114,8
22,7
25,1
27,2
28,0
28,7
100
110,o
121,s
124.9
133,9
1O0
110.6
119.8
123,3
126,4
Index (1975-1976 = 100) %

1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
Sowce:
100
107.4
114,6
116.1
113,8
1O0
105.9
111,3
111,6
104,O
184
Soczizlist Republic of Viet Nam

VIII. Pupiis ingeneral education
Year
To tal
First level
of which
Second level
Third level
Thousands
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
10.320
10.831
11.158
11.930
11.804
7404
7723
7857
8286
8026
2410
2600
2761
3040
3140
506
508
540
604
638
Index (1975-1976 = 100) %

1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
Sowce:
100
104.9
108,l
115,6
114,3
1O0
107,9
114,5
126,l
130,2
100
104,3
106,l
111,9
108,4
100
100,6
106,7
119,3
126,1
H. Schoolgirlsin general education.

of which
Year
Total
First level
Second level
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
4910,6
5059,o
5166,8
5289,7
5557,4
3550,8
3638.8
3666,8
3739,4
3763,O
1140,8
1198,8
1263.1
1298,O
1487,9
219,0
221,4
237,6
252,3
306,5
1O0
105,o
110,7
113,7
130,4
100
101,1
108,5
115,2
139,9
Third level
Thousands
Index (1975-1976 = 100) %

1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
Source:
100
103,O
105,2
107,7
113,l
100
102,4
103,2
105,4
105,9
Genera1Statistical Office SRV.
185
X Minority pupils m general education.

Year
Total
First lewd
of which
Second level
1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
1113,3
1155,3
1082,2
1090.1
1175,7
950,O
958,3
880,4
885,4
955,6
144,4
174,8
178,9
181,2
194,7
18,9
22,2
22,9
23,5
25,4
100
121,o
123,8
125,s
134,8
1O0
117,4
121,1
124,3
134.4
Third level
Thousands
Index (1975-1976 = 100) %

1975-76
1976-77
1977-78
1978-79
1979-80
Source:
100
103,7
97,2
97,9
105,6
1O0
100,8
92,6
93.2
100,5
XI. Average of dropouts in first level and in second l e d

education in the whole country - as a percentage
School year
First level education
Second leveI educution
1976-1977
1977-1978
1978-1979
1979-1980
1980-1981
12,65
14,85
12,08
10,54
10,20
11,28
739
11,98
12,07
16,50
In 11mountainous provinces
1976-1977
1977-1978
1978-1979
1979-1980
1980-1981
13,61
15.85
15,58
13,15
15,67
10,28
7,81
9,64
14,Ol
16,08
In 20 delta provinces
(11 provinces o f the Red River Delta
9 provinces of the Mekong Delta)
1976-1977
1977-1978
1978-1979
1979-1980
1980-1981
Source:
13,lO
11,O9
10,33
10,7
15.51
Department o f Planning - Ministry o f Education SRV.
186
12,71
8,99
12,69
13,61
19,77
XII. The average educational l e d of the 15-year-old populationsof

the villages in a district:
As Thuy district - Hai Phong - School-year: 1972-73
Viiiagea
Ngu h a n
Tan Trao
Dai Ha
Thuy Huong
Thanh Son
Thuan Thien
Huu Bang
Ngu Phuc
Kien Quoc
Doan Xa
Dai Hop
Tu Son
Tan Phong
Hop Duc
Hoa Nghia
Minh Tan
Dong Phuong
Dai Dong
Hung Dao
Anh Dung
Da Phuc
An Thai
An Tho
My Duc
Chin Thmg
Quoc Tuan
Tan Wen
Tan Dan
An Thang
Truong Son
Thai Son
An Tien
Pruong Thanh
Truong Tho
Quang Rung
Qung Hung
Bat Trang
Total
Ii-yeardd pop.
Ratea of finishing
Prsnmy odu.
i p s -ntJ
Avenrge edu level

of 15-yearddpop.
(GmdeJ
87.0
87.4
6.3
143
114
80.7
5.4
85
92.9
6.3
1O8
85.2
6.1
128
79.6
5.9
93
88.9
6.1
147
74.8
5.3
258
78.5
5 .2
168
58.8
4 .5
184
174
84 .O
5.4
80.5
5.5
124
79.0
5.69
230
82.6
5.9
228
82.9
143
127
85.3
5.9
5.8
80.8
5.5
99
163
5.95
101
214
111
76.7
81.2
77.2
78.3
79.8
82.8
75.2
89.2
268
194
87.3
67.0
5.9
5 .O
206
87.8
91 .O
6.3
144
72
86.0
6.1
5.94
229
62.0
4.93
181
114
89.5
18.9
6.1
5.57
210
93.3
6 .5
142
69.0
5.07
83
89.1
6.01
226
91.2
6.2
81.95
5.74
153
79
165
150
5163
6.1
6.4
5.3
5.4
5.5
59
4.78
6.2
Sowce: Results of the SIUMYS on Educatbnal Univasalbation, conducted by Hai

Phong Education fica.
187
Plnce
Number
Due to
Due to Due to
of &year- physical prolonged parents
olds
infamities illnesses failure
without
to see
schooling
the
necessity
Having Because Because

t o do
of
of
baby- distant financial
sitting schools
dif
athome
ficulties
Hong Duong,
Ha Tay
45
35
Yen Tien,
Nam Ha
93
11
60
19
Hai Long,
Nam Ha
56
33
13
Co Am,
Haiphong
73
60
Ngu Doan,
Haiphong
31
15
12
15
Vimh Long,
Haiphong
34
23
Dai Thang,
Haiphong
47
31
188
SRI LANKA
By S.M.D. Perera and R. Wtjedasa
Magnitude and characteristics of the dropout problem

The comprehensive phase of schooling in Sri Lanka i s a sequential period, commencing f r o m the lower kindergarten, a t approximately five years of age up to grade X. For the purpose o f this
study, the upper grade has been restricted t o grade VIII, to be in
line with most past studies on t h i s subject. Further, the period of
5-14 years of age i s generally regarded as the compulsory stage of
education, although i t has n o t been made so by law. The comprehensive phase of schooling i s therefore defined as the period 5 to 14
years of age, and the grade range Ito VII. A drop-out w i l l be regarded as a person who leaves school without having completed
grade VIII.
Non-participants in the educational system. The enrolment at
a l l levels in the school system has shown a considerable increase with
the educational changes introduced over the years. The percentage of
non-attendance of the 5-14 year group over the years shows a decrease
For 1979 i t was 22 per cent. The age
(Supplementary Table I).
group of 5-14 years comprises approximately 24 per cent of the t o t a l
population of the island. The number of children who do not attend
school at a l l i s approximately 10-15 per cent of t h i s age group. In
1981 t h i s percentage was reduced to approximately 10 per cent.
The 1973 Consumer Finance Survey (Supplementary Tables I
I
and III)
provides
,
a picture of the non-schooling situation in the
country, in terms of geographical areas and ethnic stratifications. The
estate sector represented the highest non-schooling percentage of
51.7, with the rural sector at 3 1 per cent. In terms of geographic
zones, Zone 4 which includes the hill country and rural areas, again
represented the highest non-schooling percentage of 36.7. In the
ethnic breakdown, o n the 1973 survey, the highest percentage without schooling, at 51.5 i s with the I n d i a n T a m i l population, who are
predominently in the estate sector. N e x t i s sequence, are the Moor
group and the Kandyan Sinhala group. This data i s further confirmed
when t h e distribution of students in Government Schools by ethnic
groups i s considered (Supplementary Table IV).
In 1971, the data on the percentage population with no
schooling in terms o f age and sex indicated serious shortfalls among
females, which increased with the age cohorts (Supplementary Table
V). However, t h i s situation i s being remedied rapidly with the high
enrolment of girls in t h e school system.
Late entrants. A study done by the Statistical Unit o f the
Ministry of Education, indicated that in 1979, 23 per cent did n o t
enter school at the official age of school entry (5+ years). Ten per
cent entered a t 6+ or 7+ years and 5 p e r cent at 8+ years. A group o f
almost 8 per cent did n o t enter school at all. Of t h e t o t a l number o f
334,970 pupils who entered kindergartens in 1980, 276,407 entered
a t age 5+, 42,394 pupils entered at the age of 6+, 11,535 entered at
the age of 7+, and 4,635 pupils at 8+ and above. The late entrants
made up almost 17.3 per cent o f the total.
Supplementary Table VI, taken from the 1977 School Census,
indicates the percentage entering schools late. Once again, the highest
percentages in the late entrants come f r o m districts which are predominantly rural o r of t h e estate sector, and/or contain large concentrations o f the particular ethnic groups referred t o earlier. Late entry
i s a recognized feature of l o w socio-economic conditions of families
and simultaneously parental attitudes towards schooling.
Grade repeaters.
The data on grade repeaters for the years
1974-1979 (Supplementary Table VII), indicate a reduction in grade

repetition at each grade-over the period. The district breakdown o f
repeaters (1977) (Supplementary Table VIII) indicates t h e highest
values in those districts with rural and estate concentrations, and
concentrations o f the same ethnic groups as before. I t should be
noted that the 1972 reforms did introduce automatic p r o m o t i o n into
the education system. However, in practice, the reform has not been
universally applied. The Ministry o f Education data show that some
15 per cent of the pupils are slow learners due to accumulated learning difficulties. The current White Paper on Education outlining
reforms to be introduced in the system, has proposed the following
for the evaluation of learners at the primary level:
190
Sri Lanka
Assessment o f pupil performance at t h e primary level
will seek t o promote the childs growth as a person acquiring skills and will be a part o f the teaching activity.
Frequent testing and m u l t i p l i c i t y o f tests w i l l b o t h b e
avoided. There will be general testing every term with
provisions for learning of a topic for remedial action.
Schooling participants. N o t only has t h e percentage participation improved between 1943-1980, but w i t h i n t h e last few years,
transition ratios within t h e system have also improved. F o r example,
for 100 students entering grade I, Table 1 makes a comparison
between 1974 and 1979.
Table 1. Improvement of transition ratios 1974-1979
1974
1979
Passed out of grade V
52
73
Passed out of grade I X and sat for grade X exam.
46
51
Studied in grades XI, X I I
14
24
Entered University
Source:
School Census 1974/1979.
The participation rates for the various age groups in 1979 are
indicated in Table 2 for t h e whole country.
Table 2. Participationratios 1979
Age Group
Total populetwn
(000s)
School-going
population
(000s)
Non-school going
population
(000s)
Participation
Ratw
(per cent)
5+
348.2
27 1.7
76.5
78
6+
360.9
310.9
50.0
86
I+
358.5
311.1
47.4
87
8+
346.4
307.7
38.7
89
9+
349.1
301.9
41.2
86
10
357.9
296.6
61.3
83
11
344.9
272.0
72.9
79
12+
345.3
234.6
110.7
68
13+
338.7
214.5
124.2
63
14+
327.0
188.9
138.1
58
3,476.9
2,709.9
767.0
78
Total
Source:
School Census and Census of Population.
191
Over the last few years, 340,000 to 375,000 reached the age
o f 5 years, the age o f entry t o schools. However, only an average of
77 per cent entered school. The balance entered late, and about
1O p e r cent never entered school.
A study in 1979 indicates the following:

-
T o t a l population a t 5-14 years of age. 3.48 million.
- Population in Schools (5-14 years), 2.71 million.

- The balance o f 0.76 million comprises:
- Pupils entering at 6, 7 and 8 years of age - 126,000
- Disabled children - 26,000
- Children w h o never enter school - 250,000
- Drop-outs
- 367,000
The 1974 School Census indicated that, in general, i t could be

said that the estate areas, the Tamil speaking areas other than Jaffna,
and the areas with a majority of Muslims, show a low participation
rate. As would be expected, the largest participation i s at t h e primary
level. A gradual fall in the j u n i o r secondary level, and a sharp reduction at the senior secondary level, at ages o f 15-19 years, are characteristics o f the distribution. The social and religious customs,
paucity of facilities in estate and remote rural areas, and l o w socioeconomic status, have h a d their efforts o n participation in the school
system.
Participation by sex. Sexwise, more males participate in the

school system at lower grades, while from grade VI1 and above,
females predominate, and t h i s tendency i s o n the increase in higher
educational institutions.
Table 3. Ratios of males and females
Grades
Males
Females
Kindergarten (Grade I)
107
1O0
Grade II
106
1O0
Grade V
104
1O0
Grade VI11
97
1O0
GraLie X i
89
1O0
Source:
School Census 1979
192
Sri Lanka
For 1980, 1,211,493 females were enrolled in grades It o
VIII, compared t o 1,375,554 males; or 88 females participate for"
every 100 males in t h e compulsory stages o f education. The female
participation i s approximately 65 per cent o f t h e t o t a l female population in t h i s age group. The School Census f o r 1980 also indicates
that 50.8 per cent are males, while 48.2 per cent are females, in
grades It o VIII. There i s a 20 per cent drop in enrolment at grade V,
and a 55 p e r cent drop at grade VIII, compared t o the enrolment at
t h e kindergarten grade.
At t h e level o f t h e education region, male and female participation was almost comparable, with males participating at a slightly
higher percentage in grades 1-V. F r o m grades VI t o VIII female
participation was higher in Colombo, Kalutara, Matara, Matale,
Hambantota, Kurunegala, Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa, Moneragala,
Ratnapura and Kegalle regions. These generally comprise a majority
o f the Sinhala speaking areas. On the other hand, Nuwara-Eliya,
Jaffna, Batticaloa, Mannar, Amparai, Trincomalee and Puttalam,
showed a greater male participation in higher grades. These areas are
the Tamil and Muslim predominating areas, where t h e religious and
social customs d o n o t favour females being o u t o f their homes during
the post adolescent stages o f life.
The drop-outs. Drop-out and drop-out ratios f r o m 1973/74 t o

1978/79 are given in Supplementary Table IX. The ratios indicate an
overall reduction o f t h e drop-outs till 1979. Examining t h e drop-out
II,
there
ratios in t h e grades, however, i t i s noticed that f r o m grade I
i s a gradual increase in t h e drop-outs. Even grade Irecords a drop-out,
which means that after only one year o f schooling, a substantial
I.
p o r t i o n leaves t h e schools. A similar situation exists f o r grade I
High drop-out rates in t h e early grades are recorded in t h e T a m i l and
Muslim areas o f t h e Eastern Coast o f Sri Lanka, t h e estate areas and
t h e rural agricultural districts.
Supplementary Table X gives an idea o f the drop-outs, sexwise,

in schools in 1979. More males drop-out f r o m grade It o grade IX.
However t h e proportion o f drop-outs o f males i s higher in higher
grades than in lower grades, when compared with t h e female dropo u t rate. F r o m grade VI onwards there i s an increasing participation
o f females over males, in the school system. On t h e 1979/1980 data,
t h e highest drop-out rates are in t h e Estate/Tamil/Muslim areas,
followed by the agricultural regions, and the lowest drop-outs are
193
recorded in t h e more active commercial areas w i t h a predominance

o f t h e urban populations. The districts o f Colombo, Kegalle, Gampaha, Kalutara, Kandy, Galle, Matara, Jaffna and Kurunegala have
a steady participation f r o m grade It o grade VI1 and beyond t o grade
X, and also records the lowest drop-out rates. These are the main
centres o f commercial activity, w i t h key towns, in S r i Lanka. I t must
b e indicated, however, that pockets o f l o w income population groups
exist within districts with l o w overall drop-out rates, and these
groups generally reflect higher drop-out rates.
Special drop-out problems. Four groups need special and
detailed attention in regard t o drop-outs:
a)
Estate areas;
b)
Urban l o w income or deprived areas;
c)
Schools in remote rural areas; and
d)
Schools in areas targeted f o r development.
Estate areas. A t o t a l o f 580 estate schools have been taken

a)
over by t h e Government t o date. The t o t a l student population in
these schools i s approximately 60,000. Practically all the estate
schools have classes only up t o grade V. Opportunities for further
education, w i t h i n the estate areas, are almost nil. The non-attendance
in t h i s age group i s 35 per cent. The drop-outs before completing t h e
end o f the primary cycle i.e., grade V, i s 44 per cent f o r the years
1976-1981. This i s one o f the highest f o r t h e entire island for t h e
primary stage. Girls participate less than boys in a l l five grades. The
non-attendance percentage areas (1981), where estates are located,
are given in Supplementary Table XI.
Urban low income or deprived areas. The main urban complexes are Colombo-Kalutara, Galle, Kandy, and Jaffna.
b)
The t o t a l urban population i s 3.2 m i l l i o n and t h e largest i s

the Colombo-Kalutara complex w i t h a population o f 1.83 million.
During the last n i n e decades t h e urabri population has increased
tenfold.
The average growth rate of the Dry Zone urban population

i s more than o f t h e Wet Zone where t h e major urban complexes are.
This i s a positive s i g n indicating that t h e efforts o f t h e successive
governments t o improve the rural areas and draw in the population
t o these areas i s paying off. The problem o f rapid c i t y development
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Sri Lanka
i s under control in S r i Lanka. However, t h e l o w income groups in t h e

cities s t i l l persist. While the cities have some o f the best schools,
drawing in pupils f r o m t h e different areas, the children o f deprived
and slum areas o f t h e c i t y would attend a school close by. Normally
social groupings are observed in school selections and attendance.
Schools attended by pupils f r o m deprived groups will normally n o t
have pupils f r o m the more affluent strata o f society. Pupils in these
schools will show a h i g h prevalance for dropping out. A drop-out
rate o f 50-60 per cent at t h e end o f the primary cycle has been
recorded in studies o f deprived urban communities. They also record
high absenteeism and grade repetition. Class sizes were large and
community support f o r t h e school lacking. Facilities in those schools
were also poor. In t h e C i t y o f Colombo, almost a quarter o f t h e
population are o f the low income groups and live in deprived o r
slum t y p e communities.
c)
Schools in remote rural areas. These schools are located in t h e
distant r u r a l communities or in small groupings o f populations. The
schools are often inaccessible by motorized transport. The schools
would have approximately 100 pupils and are identified as small
schools; 21 p e r cent o f t h e schools in S r i Lanka are o f t h i s category.
The populations in t h e areas are very sparse. Agriculture i s o f t e n t h e
main occupation. D u e t o their location and small size, these schools
tend t o get neglected. Facilities available t o big schools are o f t e n
n o t found, and classes are o f t e n only up t o grade V. Pupils w o u l d
automatically drop-out at grade V. As a senior school may be several m i l e s away, pupils find it d i f f i c u l t t o get t o these b e t t e r schools.
Sending a pupil t o a senior school might n o t b e w i t h i n the means
o f these poor folk. Int h e districts o f Amparai, Vavuniya, Polonnaruwa,
Batticaloa, Moneragala and Bandarawela, 33-45 per cent o f the
schools had n o secondary schools within a distance o f five miles.
Studies indicated that high drop-out rates, higher than national
averages, are observed in t h e small schools o f t h e island.
d)
Schools in areas targeted for agricultural development. The
Dry Zone o f Sri Lanka, covering almost three-fourths o f the land
area o f Sri Lanka, i s sparsely populated, agricultural, and generally
less developed. The greatest potential f o r natural resource development however lies in t h i s area. The Dry Zone i s characterized by
several irrigation, development and colonization schemes. Successful schemes have always resulted in large population concentrations.
195
Schools develop in proportion t o economic development. Here
pupils often continue their education to higher grades. Economic

prosperity results in reduced drop-outs and greater participation in
the educational system. One of the biggest development schemes of
recent times i s one using the potentialities of the largest river in S r i
Lanka, t h e Mahaweli, whose waters flow through the Dry Zone.
Colonies are established in the districts Anuradhapura, Polonnaruwa,
Amparai, Batticalao and Trincomalee and the schools are also being
improved as a part of the scheme for the new settlements. In t h e
schools established and developed, there i s a greater interest in
schooling, and with the growth of prosperity in the area the current
drop-out rates are expected to be reduced. These improved schools
however will b e f e w in number, and confined to the principal rural
towns within the development schemes.
Why drop-outs. Several studies on the drop-out problem have

been done in S r i Lanka. Many of these studies have been indicated
earlier in this paper. These studies give a picture of the situation,
although statistical data are not always available t o support an indepth analysis and comparative study, specially between the different regions of the country and different groups of communities
as t h e y exist now.
As has been indicated in almost a l l studies, the m a i n reason for
leaving school early i s an economic one. It i s quite o f t e n a lack of
means to support a c h i l d in school or the c h i l d being needed by t h e
parents t o support the family by joining the parents in income earning operations. I t i s shown that 88 per cent of the drop-outs of a
sample study came from families w h i c h h a d incomes less than Rs.
5,000 (USS250) per year. Parents of 63 per ce& of the drop-outs
h a d an annual income of less than Rs. 3,000 (US$150) p e r year. This
i s w e l l below the national per capita GNP (US$260) as it stands now.
Sixty per cent o f the t o t a l population in this group have incomes of
less t h a n this figure. While the value of the mean a n d medium incomes
have risen, the relative income share in real terms of the poorest
segments (lowest 40 per cent of the population) has declined over
the past few years. In another study, the clientele (drop-outs) have
indicated that low family income was a major reason for dropping
out or not attending school.
A study of income distribution in S r i Lanka, from 1953 t o

197 3, indicates the comparative incomes received by the different
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Sri Lanka
groups of society. In 1973, the t o p 10 p e r cent received almost
30 per cent of the t o t a l income, while the bottom 50 per cent received only 21 per cent of the t o t a l income. However, in 1953, the top
10 per cent received almost 42 per cent of the income which has
been reduced considerably over the years, while the bottom 70 per
cent has improved their lot.
Table 4. Comparatiw percentage of income reiwd

Strata
Top 1O per cent
1953
I963
1973
42.49
39.24
29.98
11-20 per cent
14.16
16.01
15.91
21-50 per cent
24.64
27.26
31.96
Bottom 50 per cent
18.71
17.49
21 .O5
Source:
Reports: Sample Survey of Consumer Finances Central Bank of Sri Lanka,
195 3-1973.
Generally the b o t t o m 50 per cent came f r o m rural folk, most

of w h o m are engaged in agricultural occupations and village crafts.
Of t h e t o t a l w o r k force of 5.2 million in 1980, 49.2 per cent were
workers in agriculture or related occupations whose wages or incomes, comparatively, were the lowest.
S r i Lanka has a p r o u d record of the numerous social welfare

facilities provided t o the broad masses. Although the per capita
G.N.P. i s about US$260, the Physical Quality of L i f e I n d e x (PQLI),
as measured by the Overseas Development Council of the U n i t e d
States, indicates the index for S r i Lanka at 83. Comparatively, I n d i a
i s 41, and Indonesia 50. S r i Lanka has a high literacy rate of 80, a
low infant mortality rate o f 48, and a high l i f e expectancy of 64
years. While trends show a gradual betterment o f the relative incomes
of the lower strata of society, and the policies of successive govemments have been all targeted to better the lot of the rural population
as well as the urban deprived groups, yet, as it is, the conditions
of t h e p o o r segments of society have not improved markedly. The
purchasing power of the lowest 40 per cent of the population has
decreased with the present rapid inflationary trends. This has effects
on n u t r i t i o n and health, specially o f the vulnerable groups of the
197
population, including t h e young children. L o w economic status and

i t s consequent effects o n t h e health and well-being o f the l o w income
groups, would be reflected in non-school attendance or early dropping
o u t f r o m t h e school system.
Although education i s free in t h e sense that school fees d o
n o t have t o be paid in all Government schools, parents have t o spend
a fair amount o f their income t o educate a child in t h e formal school.
This amount varies with the area, t h e grade, t h e course followed and
the school. Students keep back f r o m schools when their parents
cannot support them financially. In the study indicated, a wide variation of the expenses incurred by parents in sending them t o school
has been reported. At grade I,
a parent had t o spend Rs.620 per year
in a city school, and Rs.333 in a n average school. In a rural school,
it would be Rs.132 o n an average. At grade V it would b e Rs. 925 in
a c i t y school and Rs.707 o r Rs.230 in an average o r rural school.
Higher up t h e grades, the expenses increase. Under these conditions,
a child f r o m a l o w income family w i l l automatically b e a drop-out.
On the sample study, it i s seen that 88 per cent o f t h e drop-outs are
f r o m families o f t h e l o w income groups. The l o w income groups are
mainly in rural agricultural areas, estate populations, and urban deprived areas. The sample study o n drop-outs also indicates that 9 1
per cent o f the parents of drop-outs are labourers, cultivators o r
employed in a similar capacity. Of the work force o f 5.5 m i l l i o n in
Sri Lanka, 49.7 per cent are employed in agriculture, and consists
o f 35.3 per cent males and 13.6 per cent females. In t h e typical rural
agricultural situation in the estate sector as well as the urban deprived
areas, the young assist t h e parents in their vocations at a very early
stage.
T h e majority o f t h e parents o f drop-outs are also o f a l o w

education level. Studies in 1971 indicate, of those w h o had n o
schooling 69.3 per cent are f r o m families of agricultural occupations.
Of those w h o completed their education at grade V only, 59.1 per
cent are f r o m t h e agricultural sector (Supplementary Table XII).
T h e census o f population for 1971 indicates that in the age
group o f 10-14 years, 53,984 young children are employed. Most o f
them are drop-outs or are those who never attended school. Quite
often, under t h e burden of managing a large family o n a subsistance
income, the attention o f parents i s moved away from schooling as
a priority, t o their family struggle t o make ends meet. Families o f
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Sri Lanka
these l o w income groups are large and t h e young q u i t e o f t e n stay
back at home t o l o o k after the ssllyounger ones. The levels o f health
are low. Forty-two per cent o f t h e S r i Lankan pre-schoolers are o f
l o w n u t r i t i o n level, suffering f r o m second or third degree malnutrition. A f u r t h e r 35 per cent o f the population at the lower end o f
this income scale failed t o receive an adequate intake o f calories.
This situation i s specially marked in t h e estate and rural areas o f
Sri Lanka.
Additional problems o f infectious diseases such as respiratory
and bowel diseases are common in these groups. Family planning
i s n o t much practiced and in general groups receiving less than Rs.
400 per m o n t h are considered a high r i s k group. W i t h these problems,
the children o f some families are forced t o keep away f r o m school
and if at all they go, i t will be irregularly at first, and t h e n they
gradually drop out. One survey found that 60 per cent o f t h e dropouts had a very poor attendance record prior t o dropping out. T h e y
also repeat grades; 21 per cent o f t h e drop-outs studied had failed
thrice in t h e grade, 31 per cent had failed twice, and 64 per cent
had failed once. Eighty-two per cent o f t h e drop-outs were over age
for their class. Studies indicated earlier show t h e lack of time and
parental indifference contribute t o almost 20 per cent of t h e dropouts. The physical facilities in the homes are sparse. Ninety-two per
cent o f t h e homes had only kerosene o i l lamps as the means o f illumination for study at night. In districts where t h e population density
i s low, schools in t h e rural areas are scattered widely. As indicated
earlier, t h e majority o f schools in t h e remote rural agricultural areas,
which could include t h e coastal belt in t h e East and N o r t h Eastern
areas with scattered fishing communities, are primary schools.
Although f o r t h e whole island, t h e number o f primary schools per
thousand o f the school-going population averages around 1.5 t o 2.0,
they are widely scattered in districts w i t h large land areas. Further,
the population density in these areas i s low.
T h e secondary schools per unit o f school-going population

shows a wide variation. The availability o f a secondary school within
walking distance t o certain students in these agricultural and estate
areas would be m u c h less than in the more urbanized areas. Ninety
per cent o f t h e schools in t h e rural areas are primary schools and 72
per cent o f the urban schools are secondary schools. Thirty-six per
cent of the schools in S r i Lanka have classes o n l y up t o grade V and
in these rural and estate areas, t h e commonly available school w i l l
199

be t h e primary school. F o r children o f the l o w income bracket in
urban areas, the schools available will o f t e n be a school with classes
up t o grade V o r X. However, due t o t h e special circumstances prevailing in t h e social groups, pupils w h o drop-out before completing
the primary grades will average 40-60 per cent.
Quite often, teachers lack the ability o r the t i m e t o provide
counselling and guidance t o pupils o r parents. Generally one or t w o
teachers serve in the primary schools and they also d o n o t often have
the time, o r they may n o t consider i t their function, t o attend t o
potential drop-outs even if they could b e detected well in time. Criticism has often been levelled at what i s taught and the manner o f
teaching. I f the school i s in a remote area, there i s l i t t l e supervision
or provision o f in-service training t o improve t h e educational component. T h e subject matter i s often said t o be unrelated t o the socioeconomic, cultural or local needs. What i s taught does n o t often have
a local vocational emphasis. I f pupils and parents d o n o t see a relevance of what they learn at school and t h e immediate needs o f t h e
community, they might find it a waste o f t i m e and effort and pupils
leave school t o assist their parents in their economic tasks.
Sir Lankans generally give a very high p r i o r i t y t o education;
92 per cent o f t h e parents o f drop-outs t o o recognize the value o f an

education f o r their children. Academic qualifications as a means t o
obtaining a good government j o b was the need during t h e early
part o f t h i s century and in t h e recent past. However, with high
incomes f o r technical trades and the services sector, the value o f
formal schooling and t h e value o f traditional academic qualifications
are being questioned. Pupils today tend t o leave school with a bare
minimum o f schooling and f o l l o w a technical training, and q u i t e
o f t e n obtain a j o b w i t h a relatively high salary. The availability o f
jobs in the technical and service sectors in the Middle East o n very
high salaries has further induced the young t o leave school early and
f o l l o w that training for which there i s a demand. Today t h e o u t f l o w
o f skills t o t h e Middle Eastern countries has been such that the
remittances sent by S r i L a n k a n s f r o m these countries i s t h e second
largest foreign exchange earner, next t o tea.
Actions to prevent dropouts

(A)Formai education. In this section reference i s made to
actions taken in the formal education sector t o prevent drop-outs.
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Sri Lanka
The story goes as far back as t h e early 1940s where t h e reforms
set in m o t i o n t h e democratization process o f t h e education system.
These reforms brought about increased enrolments and participation. Nevertheless t h e problem o f the drop-outs was becoming
serious and the period f r o m 1950-1970 saw a series o f actions taken
to prevent o r minimise i t s occurence. The pace o f these actions
began t o gather momentum in t h e 1970s and the decade 1972-1982
saw a number of meaningful reforms in t h e education system. One
important objective of these reforms was t h e prevention o f dropouts and t h e problem was attacked o n a multi-dimensional basis.
These reforms belong t o t w o phases, i.e. 1972-1977 and f r o m 1978
onwards. I t must b e stated that so far n o comprehensive evaluation
has been undertaken t o assess t h e impact of these reforms o n t h e
drop-out problem. Changes in t h e general policy in education and the
sudden stoppage of certain programmes also have affected a proper
evaluation o f them. T h e success o r failure o f some o f those programmes are measured by t h e general trends in the drop-out problem
as revealed by t h e statistics o f t h e Statistical Branch o f t h e Ministry
o f Education. Centain new programmes which have a direct bearing
o n the drop-out problem are discussed below:
1972 reforms. The following excerpt conveys t h e main spirit

o f t h e reforms o f 1972:
The present Education Plan gives f i r s t p r i o r i t y t o t h e task o f
formulating a new structure f o r education in S r i Lanka, a structure
that will b e well f i t t e d t o t h e needs o f the country over the years
ahead. Concurrently, attempts will b e made t o raise the internal
quality o f the education system, through expanded programmes o f
curriculum development, teacher training etc., and through measures
that w o u l d increase t h e efficiency with which t h e system operates.
One indication o f t h e p o o r efficiency existing at present i s t h e heavy
incidence o f repetition especially in the early grades.
I t w o u l d b e correct t o say that if t h e facilities available are
used t o the optimum extent, it would be illogical t o allow pupils
t o repeat grades. Moreover keeping back a pupil in a grade may

create psychological blocks in t h e p a t h o f h i s educational progress.
Regarding early drop-outs, too, a systematic study h a s to b e undertaken t o ascertain h o w t h i s can be reduced. Another issue that calls
f o r special attention i s the need t o reduce t h e imbalances in t h e provision o f educational facilities between r u r a l and urban areas.
201

The broad objectives o f these reforms may b e summarized as
follows:
- Working towards a better fit between the education

system and the needs of t h e country at a l l levels of education and
in b o t h general and technical education, by getting t h e structure and
content of education t o sponsor those outcomes o f education needed
for accelerated growth of the countrys economy. This has t o b e
done without violation of the broader objectives o f education.
- Achieving greater internal quality and effectiveness within

the education system by:
a) reducing repetitions and drop-outs while maintaining
educational standards;
b) upgrading t h e skills o f the personnel engaged im education, by training more and better teachers, b o t h preservice and in-service, and also by organizing training
programmes t o meet the needs o f t h e administrative
and management personnel; and
c)
consolidating and extending quality improvement

work o f the last 1 0 years in respect o f curriculum
development, examination reforms etc.
- Furthering the equality o f access t o education:

a) by reducing area-wise imbalances in t h e provision o f
education facilities;
b) by effecting changes in t h e structure o f t h e school

system with a view t o removing t h e disabilities suffered
by some pupils.
Three important programmes launched in 1972, w i t h a view to
achieve the above objectives were: reconstruction of general education; occupationally oriented general education, and improving
facilities in r u r a l areas.
Re-construction of the general education programme. Under
this scheme primary education comprised grades It o V. This i s t h e
stage at which children require guidance o f a single class teacher
rather than t h e services of a number o f specialist teachers. An extensive n e t w o r k of primary schools situated close t o the pupils home
was organized. Steps were taken t o increase t h e population o f children who participated in primary education. Accordingly, it was
202
Sri Lanka
hoped t o increase t h e enrolment o f children o f t h e age range 6+ t o
10+ years, and t o minimiz t h e practice o f allowing pupils t o repeat
the same grades again. These measures were taken with a view t o
increase participation rates and t o exercise a considerable saving f r o m
the point o f view of teaching resources.
The primary education programme was enriched through t h e

promotion o f activity-based methods, in particular through t h e
introduction o f environmental studies and creative activities. I t
assisted the child in appreciating the riches of t h e local environment
and in taking a delight in practical activities o f various kinds. The
teaching of basic s k i l l s in language and number was through t h e
medium o f practical activities. These changes were used t o prepare
children attitudinally so that they could undertake productive
vocations that would contribute t o t h e well-being o f society.
Occupationally oriented general education. The highly academ i c approach associated with t h e curricula tended t o remove pupils
f r o m the realities o f the employment situation. They learned l i t t l e
about t h e productive possibilities o f agriculture, horticulture and
small scale industries, and partly f o r t h i s reason, sought white collar
work. In order t o avoid these problems, and t o assit young people
t o find ways o f making their contribution t o t h e well-being o f
society, major changes in t h e philosophy undenlying general educat i o n were introduced. Education was closely related t o t h e w o r l d o f
l i f e and work.
Based on t h i s philosophy, pre-occupational studies as a compulsory subject was introduced in the lower secondary grades. This
new programme incorporated teaching sequences dealing with
important local occupations/industries, such as fisheries, cash crops,
agriculture, animal husbandry, horticulture, service occupations
such as retail trade, cottage crafts industries such as t h e coir industry.
This programme occupied a prime place in t h e curriculum and

was considered a key strategy through which t h e education system
could assist the young generations t o enter gainful employment in
the areas o f national need.
Improvingthe facilities in rural areas. This was another major
area where action was taken t o reduce t h e discrepancies o f educational provision as between t h e rural and urban areas. As a result
203
of the wide variations in t h e educational provisions in the districts,

drop-out rates in the educationally disadvantaged areas are high.
These discrepancies show up in terms of a number o f indications,
such as in the proportions of graduate and specialist trained teachers,
and in educational facilities such as laboratories and workshops.
A number of steps were taken to remedy these discrepancies, such
as the recruitment and training of specialist teachers for appointment
in r u r a l areas. Special instruction programmes were undertaken
which would, in the long run, represent a major contribution towards
a more equitable distribution of educational facilities.
Another step which h a s helped t h e strengthening o f the educationally backward rural areas, was the improvement o f small
schools. The conditions in over 2000 small primary schools in poor,
difficult rural areas were examined, reviewed, and a special developm e n t e f f o r t mounted. In view o f the multi-dimensional nature o f
their problems, the small schools are being developed as part o f
general community development. The appreciable increase in t h e
enrolments of many o f these schools and the prevention o f early
drop-outs indicate to some extent the success o f the programme.
Reforms of 1978. The reforms o f 1978 represent another
significant phase o f educational development in the country. In
1977, a n e w Government was installed in office.
The Government manifested i t s abiding faith in education
through major policy decisions affecting the structure, content and

span of education. Policy implementation brought many problems
in i t s wake, the immediate being the enhanced requirements in terms
o f teachers, learning space and materials.
The m a i n policy decisions of t h i s period could be summarised
as follows:
a) The development of education with a view to facilitating
the growth of the personality of the pupil in order t o enable him/her
to maintain his/her self respect and dignity.
b) The progressive reduction o f the imbalance that exists

between urban and rural schools.
The Governments concern over the reduction o f the educational imbalance was ultimately aimed at preventing the drop-out
problem. The reforms o f 1972 were not totally successful in reducing
204
Sri Lanka
t h e drop-out problem. The n e w Government had to d o some fresh
thinking on this subject.

In keeping with t h e general policies mentioned above, a
restructuring of the following programmes was carried out:
- lowering of t h e age o f admission t o schools;
-
strengthening the integration of the primary curriculum;
reorganizing secondary education
In 1978, the age o f admission t o school was reduced from six

t o five years, and the span o f the primary cycle was increased by the
addition of a n e w grade (grade I),
k n o w n as the kindergarten, to cater
t o n e w entrants in the five to six year age group. The lowering o f the
age o f admission brought in a further cohort o f approximately
310,000 pupils.
The content o f education in the primary grades provides f o r a n
integrated curriculum. The characteristic feature o f the integration
i s the organization of learning experiences for children around eleven
themes, developed in a spiral sequence, which increases in complexity
f r o m grade t o grade.
Re-organizing junior secondary education. F r o m 1972 t o 1977
the junior secondary cycle, offered a c o m m o n curriculum leading
to t h e National Certificate of General Education (NCGE). All t h e
pupils studied the same subjects except for the options allowed in
the areas of pre-vocational and aesthetic studies. Paucity o f resources
in terms o f competent teachers and equipment for such subjects as
science, mathematics and pre-vocational studies, and ineffective
supervision of instruction, l e f t m u c h to be desired in curriculum
implementation. Further, some teachers and educationists were
inclined t o the view that the standard reached by the pupils sitting
the NCGE examination was lower than the performance level required
o f GCE (O level) candidates. This dissatisfaction with the NCGE
Examination led t o i t s replacement by the GCE (O level) Examination and t o the extension of the junior secondary cycle by a further
year f r o m the beginning of 1978.
The Junior Secondary Curriculum was re-designed for a five
year grade span. The pre-vocational studies, with 83 subjects, were
replaced with a lesser number of technical subjects f o r which trained
teachers and workshops were generally available. The curricular
205
content o f t h e other subject areas, particularly science, mathematics

and social studies was revised t o reflect new objectives and the extended grade span.
Other measures. In addition t o t h e above reforms, t w o very

vital and far reaching moves were made by t h e present Government
t o prevent and minimize t h e drop-out problem: (i)
the take over, by
the Government, o f the estate schools; and (ii)
t h e distribution o f
free school textbooks. I t i s t o o early t o assess the effects o f these
moves, but knowing t h e genesis o f t h e drop-out problem i t could
be said that these t w o moves w o u l d have a very salutary effect o n
the problem of drop-outs.
i) Estate schools are found in t h e tea growing areas located at

elevations over 3,000 ft., and in the rubber growing areas at lower
elevations. Though the State t o o k over almost a l l the assisted schools
in t h e inland in 1961, t h e estate schools were n o t included. Those
estate schools were taken over by t h e State during 1978-1980.
The State i s n o w taking t h e necessary steps t o improve t h e condition
o f estate schools.
ii) I t has been noted above that one o f t h e primary causes
f o r early drop-out i s t h e poor economic background o f the pupils.
This has caused hardships b o t h t o the parents and t o t h e pupils in
n o t being able t o get t h e required textbooks and clothes and other
accessories needed t o go t o school. A study conducted by the Regional
Education Department, Gampaha in 1975, o n t h e use o f textbooks
by pupils o f t h e region, revealed:
a) There i s a l o w usage o f textbooks except f o r t h e textbooks
o n t h e f i r s t language and English. The others were used less
than 50 per cent by t h e group.
b) In schools in urban areas, central colleges, and other

developed schools, t h e use of textbooks was satisfactory,
while in t h e r u r a l schools i t was very unsatisfactory.
The Government has n o w taken a very important step by

supplying t h e required textbooks free, so that a c h i l d need n o t dropo u t f r o m t h e school system o n account o f n o t being able t o get
textbooks. Preliminary assessment o f this move has shown that there
has been a remarkable improvement in t h e participation rates o f
pupils as a result o f this action. As mentioned earlier, these actions
in preventing the drop-outs in t h e formal system are continuously
206
Sri Lanka
affecting the system, but i t s effects have not been properly assessed.
The structural and curricular reforms o f 1972 and 1978,
though responsible for reducing the number of drop-outs, have not
helped sufficiently in solving the problem in i t s totality. Recent
statistics show that t h e pupils from lower social and economic strata
find that the forces causing drop-outs are t o o strong to withstand in
spite o f the improvements made by the reforms. This problem has to
be looked at from another angle. Steps have to be taken also, to
retrieve the drop-outs, by giving them a second chance in the formal
system itself. So far, f e w effective measures have been taken t o do
so. While effective preventive measures are being taken, avenues
should be made open for the drop-outs to continue their studies if
and when they desire to d o so. This aspect of the problem i s l o o k e d
i n t o in the current Education White Paper proposals and recommendations have been made t o t h i s effect.
The r e f o r m proposals. An Educational Reforms Committee
was appointed in 1978, and was entrusted with the task o f studying
t h e present system and making necessary recommendations for improvement. The terms o f reference o f this committee were to examine
the structures a n d objectives o f education, and curricula, methodology, textbooks, extra curricular activities, and the relationship
between, the school and community, and make appropriate recommendations. The Committee, being aware of the educational wastage
that i s prevalent in t h e system, made several recommendations with
a view t o preventing or minimizing it.
I t has recommended that the curriculum a t the Junior Secondary Level be based on the need to consolidate the basic knowledge
and s k i l l s acquired by the pupi! a t the primary level, lay the foundation for further education, and introduce the pupil gradually t o the
world o f work by providing for the acquisition o f certain simple
s k i l l s relevant to a range o f vocations.
These simple skills are given by a n e w subject which will

replace the technical subjects that are presently taught. The m a i n
aims o f teaching this subject are: to introduce the pupils to the
world of work and inculcate positive attitudes towards it; t o provide for domestic skills, as appropriate to the age groups; to help
the pupils acquire some familiarity and proficiency in the use of
common tools and appliances; to provide for certain pre-vocational
skills and make pupils proficient in simple skills relevant to a range
20 7
o f vocations; to provide for an activity-based subject to give the nonacademically oriented pupil meaningful learning activities in which
the pupil can excel.
Several linkages have been recommended whereby drop-outs
of the formal system could re-enter it via non-formal programmes.
One such recommendation i s the forming of Technical Education
Authorities (TEA) by the Tertiary Education Commission. T h e
TEA will provide:
a) Technical, vocational training a t the artisan and operator
level; the craftsman level; the technician level;
b) Programmes for upgrading s k i l l s and for re-training; and

c) A vocational education stream corresponding to grades
IX-XI in the school system, f o r students with an aptitude
for vocational studies.
Vocational training courses at the artisan o r operator level will
be designed mainly f o r those who leave school early and seek vocational training. Each course will consist of units o f employable s k i l l s
and the duration will b e determined according to the t y p e o f s k i l l s
imparted. The minimum age o f admission will be 14 years. On successful completion of a course, trainees will be awarded a certificate
o f competence which will be recognized a t national level. Provision
will also be made for individuals to offer related u n i t s a t a later stage
in t h e i r vocational career.
Crafts level training courses will cover a wide variety o f trades
in engineering, commerce, service occupations etc. Educational
qualifications for admission to these courses will vary according t o
the field of training. The minimum, however, will be grade VIII.
Full time craft courses w i l l consist of t w o parts. The f i r s t part will
provide basic technical education and training. The second part
will be apprenticeship training. Corresponding p a r t time courses will
also be available to those in employment and unable t o attend full
time courses. Steps will also be taken to offer special full time and
part time courses t o skilled craftsman already in employment t o
enable them to obtain higher technical qualifications.
Full time and part time technician level courses in engineering,

commerce and service occupations will be provided by the TEA
for those w h o have successfully completed the General Certificate
208
Sri Lanka
of Education Examination, and for those who have l e f t t h e general
educational stream at an earlier stage, but have since obtained prescribed alternative qualifications.
TEA w i l l organize three-year courses for the GCE Technical

Stream, w h i c h will run parallel to grades IX, X a n d XI o f t h e normal
GCE courses conducted in schools. A scheme in guidance and counselling i s also envisaged, whereby pupils and parents are advised on
educational matters and job opportunities. An islandwide n e t w o r k of
Open Schools will b e organized to provide further education on a
very wide scale. T h e Open School will provide a variety o f short-term
courses.
(B) Non-formaleducation. There i s a paucity of avenuesfordropouts to enter the f o r m a l system via a second chance education, although there has been a growing awareness of the need for diversified
learning experiences and n e w strategies are being developed for t h i s
group. Many government agencies have responded to the ever increasing demand for training opportunities a t various levels a n d in various
fields. Likewise, the private sector organizations and voluntary
agencies conduct similar programmes as part of their business and
social welfare activities.
Au these out-of-school programmes c o u l d b e broadly divided

into two categories. Those programmes which involve formal enrolm e n t and registration are t h e formal out-of-school or non-formal
programmes. These programmes have graded learning sequences
spread over a specified period of time, and usually terminate with a n
examination with or without certification. The other i s the set o f
programmes which are of very short duration, with no formal enrolm e n t and registration. Institutions in the public, private a n d voluntary
sectors conduct programmes of t h i s type for their own staff and outside clientele groups.
Government ministries and departments. The government

agencies which offer training programmes include t h e Ministry of
Education, t h e National Apprenticeship Board, the Ministry of
Labour, the Department of Small Industries, t h e Ministry of Agriculture, the M i n i s t r y of R u r a l Development and the Social Services Department. The courses offered are mainly technical in nature, to
meet the growing needs of the private and industrial sector, to improve agricultural and technical skills. These programmes cater to
out-of-school youths.
209
The voluntary sector has been active in this field f o r a number

o f years. They are, in the main, welfare organizations, denominational, and non-denominational, that conduct programmes f o r out-ofschool y o u t h and other disadvantaged persons, leading t o their
employment o r rehabilitation. The Sarvodaya Sramadana movem e n t o f S r i Lanka i s the largest voluntary organization that conducts
out-of-school and adult education programmes. The organization
r u n s about t e n Development Education Centres, and a network o f
village and urban development groups conducted by young people
who had received t h e i r training and orientation at the Development
Education Centres.
Technical Education Unit. In order t o cater t o t h e large
numbers o f drop-outs and push-outs f r o m t h e formal system, t h e
Ministry o f Education, through i t s Non-formal Education Branch,
offers a technical training programme f o r them. The programme
was conceived in 1973. One important feature o f i t was t h e linking
o f t h e facilities o f the formal system t o achieve the desired goals.
Under-utilized school buildings, workshops, and equipment were
mobilized t o give technical training t o school leavers.
In 1977, t h e Ministry o f Education realized t h e potential o f
this programme t o m e e t the rapidly growing demand f o r skilled
personnel, and up-graded and expanded it t o t h e present Technical
Education Unit programme. The present programme consists o f a
full time Technical Education Unit programme and a part t i m e
Technical Education Unit programme, woven i n t o a network o f
units designed t o m e e t the needs o f school leavers, school drop-outs
and unemployed young adults o f the country.
The objectives o f the programme are:

-
t o train school leavers and school drop-outs f o r self employment;
t o impart s k i l l s to school leavers enabling t h e m t o secure

employment in t h e k - i b l i c and private sectors;
t o reduce frustration among y o u t h and thereby promote

t h e maintenance o f social harmony;
- t o reduce migration o f talent in technical w o r k f r o m t h e

rural sector t o the urban sector;
-
t o i n s t i l l correct attitudes which would enable them t o

participate fully in development work;
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Sri Lanka
-
to promote the use o f traditional technology and local

r a w materials wherever it i s appropriate.
Each electorate i s served with a full time Technical Education

Unit (FTU) as a nucleus, and a number o f p a r t t i m e u n i t s (PTU) are
organized around it. These u n i t s are attached to schools, and the
principals of these schools are heads o f these u n i t s . Where the school
principal i s unable to devote sufficient t i m e t o t h i s work, a senior
teacher f r o m the staff i s appointed t o be in charge o f the unit under
the overall supervision o f t h e principal.
Units are approved by the Ministry o n the recommendation o f

the Regional Director o f Education. The Regional Director usually
does this in consultation with the Member of.Parliament o f the area.
H e also takes i n t o consideration the facilities available in the schools,
the technical subjects taught in the school, resources available in the
area, t h e local industries, crafts and t h e opportunities f o r employment.
A full time unit (FTU) conducts five training sessions a week.

Each session i s of three hours duration and i s usually held after
school hours, i.e., in the afternoon o r during weekends. A PTU conducts training t h r e e days a week. Each session i s three hours, and
these too are usually h e l d during the afternoon or weekends. Thus
each course in a FTU has 15 hours of training a week or about 60
hours training a month, whereas a PTU has nine hours training a
week o r about 36 hours o f training a month. Both training programmes have an equal number of training hours and the duration
of a course in a FTU i s six months and a PTU offers a t e n months
course.
Courses in a TU are selected by the school principal with the
assistance of the Advisory Board, the school staff and others. The
Non-formal Education Branch of the Ministry issues a l i s t of courses
to be conducted. This l i s t consists o f courses which meet t h e objectives o f the programme. However the principal i s given the option to
start a course outside the l i s t and i s expected to give reasons for it.
Since the m a i n objective of the TU Programme i s training for employment, he must substantiate h i s request with evidence that employment opportunities exist f o r the particular course he i s requesting.
Very often, school heads have made use o f t h i s facility and obtained
approval f o r courses outside the list. The principle behind the approval o f course guides i s to allow TUSto conduct courses based
21 1
either on needs of the island or o f a local area, allowing, as far as

possible, initiative o n the part of instructors, while a t the same time
maintaining the quality standization of the courses.
Instructors t o provide t h e training are selected f r o m among
technical teachers in schools, master craftsmen, technically qualified
personnel in the government or non-governmental sector. An instructor i s recommended by a School Principal in charge o f a TU, and
appointed by the relevant Regional Director of Education. Guidance
for such appointments are l a i d d o w n by the Ministry of Education.
Training course guides are prepared by the instructors themselves, and are approved by t h e Ministry. Syllabuses f o r a few courses
are supplied by the Ministry.
The equipment available in the school i s normally used t o conduct this training. Under the Swedish International Development
Agency (SIDA) Aid Programme, additional equipment has been
supplied t o these units f r o m 1978.
The courses are meant mainly f o r school leavers and school
drop-outs in the middle school, i.e., grades VI-IX. But there i s n o
restriction o n admitting even others, with lower educational attainments, provided they have the knowledge necessary to follow
courses. F o r each course, about 20 trainees are selected. All trainees
must be over 15 years of age and must not be attending school. They
must put in over 80 per cent attendance and pass the test a t the end
of the course. A certificate i s issued by the TU to those who are successful.
The following Table gives details of the expansion of the
Technical Education Unit programme from 1974 t o date.
Table 5. Expansion of the Technical Education Unit Programme FuU Time

Technical Education Unit (FTU)
Yenr
No. of Centres
1977*
No. of Courses
No. of nainees
67
1978
40
111
1990
1979
85
302
5870
1980
87
308
601O
Organized in 1977.
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Sri Lanka
Table 6. Part Time Technical Education Units (PTU)
Year
No. of Centres
No. of Courses
No. of Rainees
1974
15
49
620
1975
102
290
6,526
1976
212
650
11,096
1977
304
671
15,730
1978
375
933
20,597
1979
626
1,428
26,984
1980
861
1,226
27,463
The programme has a wide coverage in terms o f the numbers

trained, types o f courses offered, and distribution o f training centres
throughout the island.
When t h i s programme w a s started the main objective o f it was
t o train school leavers for self-employment. However, w i t h t h e recent changes in the employment market, more attention was laid o n
t h e training o f skilled workers and personnel f o r the service sector.
The programme had accepted t h e need t o have a follow-up
scheme t o help t h e trainees t o find employment after training. A
scheme t o give loans t o trainees after t h e successful completion o f a
training course t o set themselves up in self-employment has been
negotiated with the major government banks. According t o t h e
statistics maintained in t h e non-formal education branch, approximately 40 per cent o f trainees have found employment.
Literacy programmes. In addition t o the Technical Education
Unit programme, t h e Non-formal Education Branch o f the Ministry
o f Education has an adult education programme. This programme i s
mainly concerned with continuing education and specific areas such
as nutrition, health, population dynamics etc., are undertaken. One
other important subject area i s literacy. This programme i s targeted
o n the very early school drop-outs or t h e non-school goers. Concentrations o f this group are f o u n d often in t h e main towns o r locations such as fishing communities.
The attempt i s t o draw in t h i s group o f youngsters away f r o m

the adult working environment in which they linger, t o a school
environment, under the guidance of trained staff. A functional f o r m
213

o f literacy i s taught, where the learning they acquire could be
related to the daily work they perform. Surveys were conducted
in 1980, in several locations, to identify the problems, and in 1981
eleven pilot projects were launched. Each literacy centre i s jointly
organized by the Ministry of Education and a voluntary organization.
Results indicate a positive response from the target groups. I t i s
hoped to expand t h i s programme further in the current year.
Programme of the National Apprenticeship Board. The National Apprenticeship Board (NAB) was established under t h e
National Apprenticeship A c t No.49 of 1971, with the following
objectives:
-
t o formulate, implement and supervise a scheme of training

t o cover each category of apprentices;
t o establish apprenticeship standards in relation t o each

training, determine the period of training for each category o f apprentices and the number, nature and content
or the type and level o f training to be undergone by each
category ;
- t o determine the trade tests to be undergone by each

category o f apprentices and their proficiency, and issue
certificates to those who qualify;
- t o determine in consultation with the Minister, the amount

of allowance payable to each category o f apprentices;
- t o determine the hours and conditions o f work, leave
entitlement, holidays and other conditions to be observed
by each category;
- t o do a l l such other acts o r things as are necessary for o r

incidental to, the attainment of objectives herein before
mentioned.
Applications f o r apprenticeship are called by a notification in
the Government Gazette and/or newspapers. Eligible applicants are
sent t o the employers f o r interview and selection. At the start, the
minimum age for admission was fixed a t 18 years and educational
qualifications varied f r o m grade V upwards, depending u p o n the
trade category.
On recruitment, a l l apprentices - and ifthey are minors,

their parents/guardians - enter into a contract o f apprenticeship with
214
Sri Lanka
t h e employers and t h e contract i s registered with t h e Director o f Apprenticeship.
There are n i n e levels of apprenticeship training provided by

the Board. They are:
-
Craft apprenticeship
- Technician apprenticeship
- Special apprenticeship
-
Moratuwa Engineering Faculty undergraduate apprentice-
ship
- Craft (situational) apprenticeship

- Peradeniya Engineering Faculty undergraduate apprenticeship
- Artisan apprenticeship
- Sub-technician apprenticeship
-
Special situational apprenticeship
Out o f these n i n e levels o f training, persons falling i n t o the

category o f those with incomplete education are admitted t o only 3
levels; namely craft apprenticeship, craft (situational) apprenticeship
and artisan apprenticeship courses. Admissions t o other courses are
made f r o m those with GCE O level o r higher educational qualifications.
Craft apprentices receive practical training and related instruct i o n in a specific categorized trade f o r a pre-determined period o f
time in a factory, an industrial establishment o r a w o r k place, and
are trained t o be a skilled craftsmen. The numbers o f trades in t h i s
field have been increasing annually, and in 1980 i t was 127 trades,
including those in the special apprenticeship programme.
Apprentices receive practical training and related instructions
as laid d o w n in the relevant training standards o f t h e Board. Training
schedules are drawn up t o indicate the movement o f apprentices
f r o m one training t o another, o r f r o m one employer t o another, so
that they will gain all t h e prescribed s k i l l s o f the trade o r vocational
area. They will work with craftsmen, and their training will be supervised by a Training Officer employed by t h e establishment. Periodic
inspections by Inspectors o f Apprenticeship will ensure that training
i s conducted as scheduled.
215
Every apprentice i s required t o demonstrate that h e has

acquired t h e necessary skills by completing some type o f theoretical
and practical examination. Assessment f o r certification i s done at the
end o f the period o f training. F o r craft and special apprentices,
practical assessment takes the f o r m o f performance tests i.e., making
o f some w o r k pieces.
Vocational training programmes of t h e Department of Labour.
The vocational training programmes o f the Department o f Labour
had their origin about 23 years ago. They are aimed at training outof-school and unemployed y o u t h in employable skills, mainly in t h e
engineering, manufacturing, building construction, tailoring trades.
The Department o f Labour has at present t w o permanent
centres, five district training centres, and a network o f mobile training centres. There are approximately t w o mobile centres in each o f
the 160 electorates in the country.
The courses available in these centres are electrical work,
welding, fitting, machinery, auto-mechanical work, sheet metal
work, radio repairs and electronics, tractor operation and maintenance, marine engine repair, foundry, pattern making, t o o l and dye
making, boat building, carpentry and masonry. These courses are
full time, and training i s conducted five days a week f o r one year.
The entry requirement in grade VI11 o f the school system, and
trainees must be over 18 years. There i s an admission test. The
numbers that underwent training in 1979, 1980 and 1981 are given
below:
Table 7. Ttainees and courses in the permanent training centres

and district training centres
Number trained
Centre
1979
1980
1981
Orugodawatte
340
340
366
Narahenpita
21 O
210
30
30
Marawih
30
While the permanent centres and the district centres are mainly geared t o meet the requirements o f modern training in areas
mentioned above, the mobile centre programme i s geared t o meet
the localised demand o f trainees in a narrow array of trades.
216
Srz' Lanka
Table 8. Courses in Mobile Training Centres
Course
Duration
Number
Trained
Tailoring
9 months
3,480
3,380
Carpentry
9 months
825
1,021
Masonry
6 months
600
856
Hairdressing
6 months
Other crafts
6 month
Total
03
45
38
4,950
5,298
There are 3 1 9 centres spread over the country. Buildings

available in the c o m m u n i t y are selected as training centres while the
Department o f Labour supplies the equipment.
The educational qualifications for admission i s grade VI11 and
the age i s between 18-30 years. There i s a n admission test. In the
permanent training centres and district training centres, a quota of
general education i s imparted, while in the mobile centres, the training i s mainly vocational.
The trainees are provided with a stipend of Rs.5 per day. In
a l l the above training programmes, testing i s done every three months.
At the end of the course a certificate i s awarded.
The programmes of the Department of Probation and Child
Care Services. The Department of Probation and Child Care Services
offers a correctional service to the juvenile delinquents. This consists
of three main activities, namely:
- The non-institutional treatment of offenders

-
The institutional treatment of juvenile delinquents
The institutional treatment of pre-delinquent children
The institutional correctional service administered by the

Department consists of five State Remand Homes (one of w h i c h i s
for girls), six NGO Remand Homes, Five Certified Schools (one of
which i s for girls), and a n Approved School for boys.
The Certified Schools and the Approved School provide
suitable rehabilitative treatment under residential conditions to
particular juveniles between the ages 12 to 16, whether delinquent or
217
in need o f care and protection, or are exposed t o moral o r physical

danger o r who are beyond control. The maximum period o f detention i s three years. The certified school is, in essence, a therapeutic
community and the following programme services are provided in
these schools.
-
An e f f o r t i s made t o give t h e maximum possible academic

instruction within the three year period. The inmates who
have obtained sufficient educational levels p r i o r t o their
admission are sent t o neighbouring schools f o r purposes o f
preparing for public examinations.
- Vocational training in a number o f trades i s provided. This

i s t o facilitate their rehabilitation once they are discharged
f r o m the school. The selection for vocational training i s
primarily based o n t h e aptitudes o f t h e inmates, t h e i r preferences w i t h possible consultation with parents, and o n
the employment prospects available in t h e i r home areas.
The certified school at Makola provides training in agriculture, carpentry, masonry, m o t o r mechanism, lathe work,
spray painting, welding and tinkering. Sports and other
social activities, such as scouting, drama, music, are also
a part o f the curriculum.
Educational programme of the S r i Lanka Sarvodaya Shramadana Sangamaya. This movement, f i r s t organized by a group o f
volunteers f r o m among teachers and students in a c i t y school t o
carry o u t a rural development project in a backward village, has
grown in scope and dimensions over the years. Sarvodaya literally
means awakening o f all, and Shramadana means the donation of
e f f o r t o r labour. The ultimate objective o f t h e movement i s t o
being about the total awakening o f all through a process o f conscientisation, leading t o self reliance and collective action.
The objectives o f the movement are as follows:

a) By concrete development action, t o awaken the masses o f
r u r a l people t o exploit their o w n development potential
through self-help and self-reliance.
b) T o bring about a general recognition o f t h e importance o f

utilizing labour resources o n a voluntary basis for the
development o f the nation.
218
Sri Lanka
c) To evolve in the country a grass-roots development leadership, drawing i t s strength from the peoples' traditional and
cultural values and to gain knowledge a n d s k i l l s through
action experiences.
d) To pave the way for a development theory and practice in

w h i c h an integrated approach i s 'made towards developm e n t of the individual, the community the nation and the
world, based on universally accepted human values.
The methodology adopted by the movement i s based on i t s
Shramadana ideal of sharing time, thought and energy for the general
w e l l being. This process, carried out actively at the grass-roots level,
has yielded excellent results, by creating the necessary psychological
conditions necessary to develop a n d implement development programmes, enabling village leadership, especially among the groups of
youth, to undertake responsibility for planning and enlisting t h e cooperation of other agencies with similar objectives. T h e second
m e t h o d adopted by t h e movement i s the basic human needs approach. In this, minimum basic human needs are identified by action
participation of representatives from the deprived sectors in the
economy, and the organizational framework i s developed to satisfy
these identified basic h u m a n needs.
Two of the significant activities of the Movement are indicated

below:
The villuge development scheme. T h i s scheme h a s been designed
to develop all aspects of human l i f e in the community. It generally
starts with the specific objective o f completing a basic requirement in
the village. Once t h e Shramadana Camps are organized, participants
are exposed to the ideals and discipline of the movement.
I t i s presumed that the enlightened village i s a pre-requisite for
all development activities, a n d the c o m m u n i t y decides on a follow-up

programme. Youth leaders are identified and are given training. The
movement also helps in revitalizing the village economy by providing
opportunities for skills training, linking village needs with Governm e n t extension services.
Development education scheme. The 14 Development Education Institutes scattered in various parts of t h e country provide t h e
training in a number of fields. These take the form of pre-school
219
education, community, kitchen and health care programmes. Training y o u t h f o r self-employment takes the f o r m o f agriculture oriented
education, training in arts and crafts and the provision o f knowledge
and skills in appropriate technologies.
Department of Rural Development. There are 11,700 Rural
Development Societies in t h e island organized by t h i s department,
which are typically village level organizations targeted o n the improvement o f t h e community. These societies undertake simple
development programmes as well as social programmes. They also
engage in self-employment projects.
Womens Bureau of S r i Lanka. Established under the Ministry
o f Plan Implemenation, i t s main objective i s t o mobilize r u r a l women
t o play an active part in development. A variety o f income generating
activities are conducted in the main districts. Socio-economic development programmes are conducted in deprived communities. I t
conducts a j o i n t programme o f skills development f o r women with
the Non-formal Branch o f the Education Ministry.
Conclusion
The participation in t h e school system, o f students in the age
group 5-14 years, i s almost 78 per cent. By Asian standards, t h i s i s
a fairly high percentage. During 1980/1981 the drop-out rate for
t h e grades I-VI11has increased over t h e figure f o r 1979/1980.
Indicators p o i n t t o t h e economic factor as the overriding
reason f o r dropping out. The majority o f t h e drop-outs are f r o m
families belonging t o the economically lower 50 per cent o f t h e
workforce. The occupation o f the majority o f t h i s group i s agricultural in t h e rural areas, while in the urban areas they compose the
l o w wage earning working categories. Since almost 80 per cent o f t h e
drop-outs will be f r o m t h i s category, the reasons f o r dropping o u t
will be t h e economic and social conditions that are intrinsic t o t h i s
strata o f society.
More recent studies (1980/81) indicate an increase in t h e dropout ratio. The reasons can only be surmised now. Over the years, the
share o f t h e national income o f the lower 50 per cent o f t h e populat i o n has been gradually o n the increase. The social welfare policies
implemented over t h e years, specially o f education and health, have
been targeted t o benefit those o f the l o w income social groups. The
220
Sri Lanka
concentration o f investment f o r rural development have attracted
populations to these areas rather than t o the cities. In s p i t e o f all
these beneficial efforts and trends, S r i Lanka has not escaped t h e
economic problems which Third World countries face a t this point
of time. Indications are that the purchasing power of the economically lower 40 per cent o f the population has decreased. A closer
l o o k at the educational system itself in satisfying individual, social
and national needs i s needed. The White Paper proposals for educational reform are an attempt t o meet t h e present requirements f o r
adjustment and change. Wide inter-regional and intra-regional disparities exist, and the varying rates o f school drop-outs as they are
present now, have been indicated.
The changes and adjustments made in the formal system over

t h e years, t o meet national needs as well as needs o f i t s participants
are indicated. These changes, adjustments and also the facilities that
are being progressively improved, have contributed t o keeping
students in the system and preventing them f r o m dropping o u t early.
F o r those who leave the system o r d o n o t enter the system,
t h e non-formal schemes of assistance come i n t o operation. Several
Government Departments and Non-Governmental Organizations
conduct a variety of training programmes t o assist t h i s group of outof-school youth, and retrieve them t o the educational system.
The White Paper proposals f o r educational r e f o r m have indicated retrieval schemes in i t s proposed structures f o r t h e formal
system. Most of these training programmes are targeted t o develop
particular employable s k i l l s within a short space o f time.
There i s an urgent need f o r co-ordination and investigation of
training programmes, t o avoid duplication of effort and to provide
f o r t h e most effective and useful training. The White Paper Proposals have provided the base for the necessary co-ordination. The
Non-formal
Education
Research and Development Centre
(NERDTAC), being established by the Ministry of Education, will
conduct investigations and research on the present delivery systems,
t o increase their efficiency.
221

I. Non-attenders 1950-1979
Year
1950
Estimated No. of
children of
5-14 years
at mid year.
(000s)
No. of children of 5-14

years in March
attending
school
(000s)
No. of children
5-14 years, not
attending
schools
(IOOOS)
Percentage
of nonattendance
1833
1194
639
34.9
1958
2281
1737
544
23.8
1963
2778
1948
870
29.2
1968
3121
2216
905
29.0
1975
3468
2324
1144
32.9
1978
3410
2641
938
23.8
1979
3471
2710
167
22 .O
Source: Statistics Section Education Ministry Sri Lanka.
i. Percentages of total population in the no schooling education status

Sector
Percentage with
no schooling
Urban
26.6
Rural
31 .O
Estate
51.7
(Colombo, Kalutara, Galle, Matara excluding the housing
units in the Colombo Municipality).
26.2
(Hambantota, Moneragaia, Ampara, Polonnaruwa, Anuradhapura, Puttalam)
33.3
Zone 3
Jaffna, Mannar, Vavuniya, Trincomalee
32,8
Zone 4
(Kandy, Matale, Nuwara-Eliya, Badulla, Ratnapura,

Kegalle, Kurunegala)
36.7
(Colombo Municipality)
28.2
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 5
AU island
32.2
(approximately 12 per cent have to be deducted from
the above percentagesto account for the pre-schoolgroup).
Source: 1973 Consumer Finance Survey
222
Sri Lanka
III.No
- schooling by ethnic group
Ethnic Group
per cent without schooling

(5-14 year group)
Kandyan Sinhala
Low country sinhala
Ceylon Tamils
Indian Tamils
Moors
Malays
Burghers
Others
Ali communities
33.6
30.9
33.5
51.5
37 A
22.4
14.4
25.0
32.0
(Approximately 12 per cent have to be deducted from above

percentage to account for the pre-schoolgroup).
Source: 1973 Consumer Finance Survey
IV. Distribution of students in government schools

by ethnic groups (1976)
Ethnic Group
Sinhala
Ceylon Tamils
Indian Tamils
MUSlilllS
Malay
Burghers
Others
Percentage distribution
of schools enrolments
78.9
12.2
1.O
.7.4
0.2
0.2
Percentage
distribution
of the
population
73.0
12.6
5.5
7.1
0.2
0.3
O .2
~~~~
Source: School Census 1976 and Census of population 1981
223
Aged over I O
with no
schooling.
34.5
33.5
51.5
37.4
22 A
14.4
32.2
V. Percentages of population with no schooiing by age and sex (1971)

~~
Age
Total
Male
~~
*Female
15-19
13.9
12.2
15.6
20-24
15.0
11.5
18.3
25-29
18.0
12.5
23.4
30-34
20.3
13.8
27.1
35-39
28.1
17.8
38.6
4044
27.6
17.0
39.6
4549
32.3
20.2
47.0
50-54
34.6
21.8
50.2
55-59
39.6
25.7
56.0
6064
42.9
28.5
61.1
6569
45.3
30.9
62.0
70-74
50.7
35.4
70.3
6.3
43.8
77.6
25.9
20.3
31.8
70 and over
Total
Source: 1971 Census
224
Sri Lanka
VI. Percentage of late entry to school
District
Percentage entering late
Colombo South
Homagama
Colombo North
Kalutara
Kandy
Matale
Nuwara-Eiiya
Gaiie
Matara
Tangaile
Jaffna
Mannar
Vavuniya
Batticaloa
Ampara
Trincomalee
Kalmunai
Kurunegala
Chilaw
Anuradhapura
Polonnaruwa
Bandarawela
Moneragala
Ratnapura
Kegaiie
Sri Lanka
24.2
15.2
15.4
17.3
18.9
20.1
28.2
17.3
17.5
24.1
13.4
20.9
27.4
25.0
23.7
23.9
34.1
18.1
24.9
24.1
22.8
28.0
27.5
15.3
18.1
20.6
Source: School Census 1977
225
N
o?
l00
Pi
W
l-
v)
W
N
QI
l-
os
N
O
W
01
QI
p:
l-
d
d
N
CI
O
O
W
d
W
U!
l-
d
QI
-x
3
v)
3
00
Y
3
QI
l-
o?
00
v)
v!

v!
E:
E:
CI
01
o?
00
O!
v)
O!
00
v!
3
3
3
v)
O
N
x a
01
QI
QI
m
io
N
o?
lQI
3
O
m
;3;
z
3
io
d
N
d
O
2
d
;.;
W
O
c?
P00
o?
bm
o?
m
QI
4
3
CI
01
io
9
CI
l00
x
00
CI
os
3
io
g
N
m
W
m
W
m
QI
3
?-I
c:
io
d
N
v)
l-
O
l-
W
d
l-
2 2
2 2
3
d
N
W
d
O
O
d
W
VI
O!
O
N
3
W
W
os
W
O
O
N
W
d
o?
l-
3
v)
v)
v)
v)
00
v)
v)
o?
lQI
3
l-
v)
v!
03
W
W
v!
00
3
l-
N
lv)
l-
o?
3
226
0;
CI
QI
.
I
.
I
g2
.9
51
a
9
Sri Lanka
WI. Repetition rates (1977)
Colombo South
Homagama
Colombo North
Kalutara
Kandy
Matale
Nuwara-Eliya
Galle
Matara
Tangaiie
Jaffna
M~~
Vavuniya
Battucaloa
Amparai
Trincomalee
Kalmunai
Kurunegala
Chilaw
Anuradhapura
Polonnaruwa
Bandarawela
Moneragala
Ratnapura
Kegaiie
Sri Lanka
7.2
6.7
7.3
7.3
15.5
20.9
21.8
15.1
17.3
15.6
12.5
15.2
17.0
21 .O
17.7
31.7
21.7
17.0
19.9
19.1
14.5
18.6
16.2
15.4
16.3
15.3
6.9
7.3
5.8
6.9
12.6
15.2
15.6
11.8
14.7
15.1
10.8
12.7
12.0
17.5
14.8
21.4
19.6
13.5
15.3
14.5
0.6
15.5
13.6
12.8
11.9
12.2
7.5
9.1
5.6
7.6
11.4
13.8
15.2
13.0
13.9
13.1
11.3
14.1
12.7
17.2
17.8
19.0
18.8
10.9
13.8
13.5
12.5
14.6
16.1
12.7
11.3
11.8
Saurce: School Census
227
7 .O
7.3
5.1
6.5
8.6
13.8
13.4
10.9
11.7
10.3
1.8
11.5
11.7
12.2
13.8
14.7
14.1
8.6
11.3
13.0
10.5
11.0
13.2
10.4
9.4
9.6
7.5
5.7
6 .O
6.3
8.8
11.3
13.8
9.7
11.4
10.3
8.5
11.3
10.6
11.4
13.6
14.8
10.6
8.9
11.1
10.3
10.1
11.3
11.1,
9.4
10.1
9.3
13.4
9.7
7.0
9.3
7.5
6.1
13.6
12.0
11.5
8.7
10.7
9.5
3.9
8.7
9 .O
12.3
11.2
8.6
6.3
7.5
5.3
12.1
9.2
9.8
8.8
9.5
4.9
2.6
3.5
3.8
3.3
3.9
9.7
5.O
6 .O
4.0
4.5
3.8
2.3
5.2
3.9
9.5
6.2
4 .O
3.2
4.5
2.2
7.8
4.3
5.6
4.5
4.5
3.O
2.8
3.7
3.6
3.3
3.O
8.7
5.5
4.8
3.5
4.2
5.3
2.6
4.7
3.3
6.1
7.4
5 .O
3.5
3.2
1.6
8.8
4.5
4.4
3.8
4.5
.g
c
N
m
m
O
?5
O
c
3
g
0
N
3
O
N
I-
- -
m
N
00
VI
O
n
O
m
m
O
3
n
.
O
m
m
VI
m
VI
VI
W
c
N
VI
VI
0.
w
m
N
c
O!
VI
3
c
QI
O!
p.
N
3
9
N
3
CI
c
m
m
VI
m
c
VI
n
io
N
ID
2 t
3
N
3
3
N
VI
O
?
4
3
VI
'O
O
3
O
e
N
P
L!
3
3
3
O
x
rn
O
2 O
I-
z
2
IN
i
;
O
Y)
2 *9 3
m
c
N
3
O
m
3
O
N
O
P
IN
L!
c
o
W
VI
n
v!
N
N
00
0,
N
O
: ::
0.
FI
c
O
m
8'
d
s
3
d
O
L!
w s
VI
FI
c!
E
VI
N
Im
c .
.
Ic
s
c
Ic
VI
L!
c
m
VI
0.
x
2
.s
n
e
w:
m
I-
o:
n
P
c
O
c .
.
c
228
Sri Lanka
X. Drop-outs and sex composition (1979)

Grade
Total Enrolment
Total
Male
Total Dropouts Governmmt

Schools last 12 months
Female
Female
Male
Total
~
343,122
111,138
165,384
2,388
2,871
5,259
I
I
396,711
204,306
192,405
1,939
2,331
4,210
I
I
I
348,031
118,540
169,491
5,204
5,926
11,130
IV
307,679
157,224
150,455
5,487
6,926
12,413
261,164
135,986
131,178
5,331
6,781
12,112
Vi
222,431
112,773
109,658
4,556
5,790
10,346
VI1
174,469
88,107
86,362
3,122
4,147
8,469
MI1
122,712
60,650
62,122
3,995
5,032
9,027
iX
168,337
82,654
85,683
1,587
2,019
3,464
Total 2,350,716
Gr. Ito
Ix
1,197,878
1,152,738
34,249
42,423
16,672
Source:
Statistics Section, Ministry of Education.
Xi. Statistical survey of estate sdiools (June 1981)

Distriet
No. of
SChOOlS
No. on
roil
(5-15years)
No. of schools
below 100
pupils
No. not
attending
Percentage
not
attending
1. Homagama
05
35 2
05
80
2. Matara
04
230
04
225
50.56
22.7
3. Gaiie
07
650
03
396
31.85
4. Kandy East
32
2810
12
1597
36.23
5. Kandy West
57
4569
39
2315
34.20
6. Kalutara
35
2950
36
1349
31.37
103
11790
53
7715
3955
73
7983
31
4691
37.01
7. Bandarawela
8. Ratnapua
9. Matale
1O. Nuwara-Eliya
19
1752
12
1174
40.12
199
23130
93
13157
36.25
52
41.60
1962
29.86
16768
36.09
11. Kurunegala
02
73
02
12. Kegaiie
44
4607
28
Total
Source:
580
60876
324
Schools Unit (Plantation Sector) Ministry of Education.
229

XII. Distribution of those employed by occupation
and educational attainment (1979)
Total
No schooling
Grades I-V
Grade VI and
above
GCE (O
level)
GCE (A
level)
Degree
Unspecified
Source:
White Collar
Occupations
Number
(000s)
per
cent
per
cent
Other Occupations
Number
(000s)
per
cent
654.5
2.4
116.0
274.8
18.1
4.1
8.0
26.3
1,790.0
41 -4
853.8
333.3
49.4
69.3
59.1
31.8
1,173.9
15.9
474.5
436.8
32.5
26.6
32.9
41.9
120.6
69.1
14.6
8.4
39.0
22.4
65.3
94.6
1.1
1.7
2.6
3.7
30.1
45.3
94.5
5.7
O .4
546.3
1.2
68.7
1.3
203.9
4.3
25.6
Agricultural
Occupations
Number
rooos)
Dept., of Census & Statistics Population Census.
230
BIBLIOG R APHY
1.
Haputhantri, S. A report on a Survey of Non-School going

children and students who drop-out of school at an early
stage in S r i Lanka 1979. U N I C E F - S r i Lanka.
2.
Report t o U N I C E F - Estate Schools Division - Ministry of

Education - 1981.
3.
Progress Vol. 1. Ministry of Plan Implementation
4.
Kariyawasam T. A report on a Study of early school drop-outs

in Secondary. Schools of underpriviledged areas in t h e C i t y of
Colombo - National Council of Y M C A S r i Lanka 1977.
5.
UNICEF S r i Lanka (1980181) and M A R G A I n s t i t u t e Studies

in depressed slum areas of Colombo c i t y 1976/77.
6.
Summary Report of Small Schools, Mid-TermR w i e w U N I C E F /

Ministry o f Education. December, 1980.
7.
National symposium on changing needs of children. Childrens

Secretariat & UNICEF, S r i Lanka (1981)
8.
National Study on Meeting the educational needs of young

people without schooling or w i t h incomplete schooling, Mini s t r y o f Education S r i Lanka 1981.
9.
Report o n the Sample Survey of Consumer Finance, Central

Bank of S r i Lanka.
1o.
Nutrition Status in S r i Lanka. I t s determinants and corrective

measures, FNPP Division, Ministry of Plan Implementation 1980.
11.
Labour issues in development, Monograph Series Sri Lanka

Foundation I n s t i t u t e 1981.
12.
Migration of Sri Lankans for employment abroad - Manpower

Planning Division. Ministry of Plan Implementation - 1981.
13.
Report of t h e Special Committee on Education, Ceylon, Sessional Paper XXIV of 1943, Ministry o f Education.
23 1
- Dec. 1981
14.
Ariyadasa, K.D. The Curriculum Development Centre of Sri

Lanka. Unesco Regional Office for Education in Asia, Bangkok
- 1977.
15.
Education proposals for Reform - Ministry of Education

1981.
232
THAILAND
by Chinmpat Bhumirat
The problem
In Thailand there i s compulsory education for six years,
namely, f r o m grade It o grade VI, or for children between 7-14 years
of age. Thus, children who are in t h e specified age bracket, are
supposed to b e attending schools o r at least have t h e i r names enrolled
in school. F o r this reason there i s n o real data concerning t h e dropouts and it i s necessary t o consider some other related statistics
which can reflect the drop-out problem. The available statistics that
might be u s e f u l are the attendance rates o f students and t h e flow
rates f r o m grade I V t o grade V.
Any particular areas which have a large number o f students

continuously absent from schools o r which have l o w student attendance rates, m a y b e considered as problem areas. I t i s possible that
some students j u s t have t h e i r names registered in schools, but they
actually never attend the schools.
T h e f l o w rates from grade I V through grade V m a y also indicate

t h e degree of the drop-out problem. Since compulsory education
in Thailand used to be only four years f r o m grade Ithrough grade
IV, then extended to grade VI1 in 1966 and scaled d o w n t o cover
up t o grade VI in 1978, there are a large number of parents who are
s t i l l used t o the o l d system, and prefer t o send their children t o
schools f o r only four years. The consequence o f this i s the low rate
o f continuation f r o m grade I V to grade V.
Pattern and trends of drop-out. A research study done by the
Department o f General Education in 1974 in Samut Songkram province found that 65.5 per cent o f drop-outs h a d been repeaters
before. The reasons for dropping o u t ranged f r o m having t o assist
parents with house-work t o students health problems and death.
(Table 1).
Rates o f attendance o f students were obtained in 1981 by the
Educational Research Division, National Education Commission, in
233
Table 1. Parents interview on causes of drop-out

Gmse
Per cent
1. Assist parents with house-work
32.7
2. Students decision
17.3
3. Financial difficulties
13.4
4. Lack of parent support
7.7
5. Students health problem
5.8
1.3
6. Death
7. Unable to define causes
21.8
Total
100.0
the schooling mapping research project. The research found that

the attendance rates of students were fairly high, at about 93 per
cent. There were a few provinces, Udorn Thani, Yasothorn, and Roi
Et, t h a t h a d exceptionally high attendance rates. Their attendance
rates were about 98 per cent. On the other hand, there were a f e w
provinces such as Prachin Buri, N a k h o n Nayok, Surin, and Trat
which h a d lower attendance rates of about 86-89 per cent. Other
provinces not indicated here had their attendance rates about 90 per
cent or higher.
When comparing attendance rates between different geographical regions, it was found that the central and eastern regions h a d
lower attendance rates than the northeastern region as indicated in
Table 2.
Table 2. Averages of attendance rates of different geographical regions*

Geographical Region
~
Average
Standard Deviation
~~
Central and Eastern
89.99
2.28
Northeastern
93.99
3.25
92.60
3.49
Total
Averages of attendance rates of different provincesshown in Supplementary Table I.
234
Thailund
Even though t h e overall attendance rates of Thailand c o u l d b e
considered high at about 93 per cent, there i s s t i l l a n educational
problem since absence in school reduces efficiency and could intensify
t h e drop-out problem.
The difference in attendance rates between different schools
or different geographical regions might b e the result of distance
between home and school. The school mapping research project
found that t h e central and eastern regions had a higher number of
students who h a d to travel over 40 minutes from home to school,
t h a n did the northeastern region, as illustrated in Table 3.
Table 3. Average percentage of students travelling over

40 Minutes from home to school*
Geographicalregion
Average
Central and Eastern
11.36
3.36
7 .O0
3.12
8.39
4.09
Northeastern
Standard deviation
~~
Total
Data at provincial level shown in Supplementary Table II
The figures in Table 2 and Table 3 show a negative relationship

between t h e distance from home to school and the attendance rates.
In areas where students have to travel a b n g way to school, the
attendance rates are lower t h a n areas where schools are located near
the community. T h i s relationship suggests t h a t t h e attendance rates
could be improved if m o r e schools are provided in order to reduce
the distance from home to school.
During the last t e n years, the flow rates from grade N t o grade
V have improved, especially in some provinces. The trends in the
improvement during 1976 to 1980 are shown in Table 4.
The improvement of the flow rates from grade I V through
grade V during 1976 to 1980 i s generally satisfactory, since all provinces except T a k a n d Lampang showed significant improvement.
Another set of statistics that shows the flow rates at the national
level i s t h e comparison between the number of grade I V graduates
a n d the number of students entering grade V in t h e following year.
Table 5 illustrates this trend during 1973 to 1977.
235

Table 4. The flow rates from grade I V to grade V - 1976-1980
Rovince
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Kamphaeng Phet
Tak
Nakhon Sawan
Pichit
Phitsanulok
Phetchaboon
Sukhothai
Uttaradit
Chiangrai
Chiangmai
Nan
Phrae
Lampang
Lampoon
Mae Hong Som
Kanchanaburi
Chonburi
1976
i980
29
.5 2
.57
.37
.50
24
AO
58
.37
.39
A8
58
.49
.44
50
A4
.4 7
.79
.49
.6 1
.84
.64
.63
.71
.62
.70
.69
.67
.68
.49
.69
.65
61
.93
Table 5. Comparing grade I V graduates with entering Vth gmders in the

following year during 1973 to 1977
~~
~~
Year
Grade I V Graduates
Enteringgrade V
1973
774,428
315,813
49.73
1974
779,692
320,900
41.16
1975
821,772
350,852
42.69
1976
902.1 1O
394,696
43.75
1977
937,874
5 38,590
57.43
Per cent
The f l o w rates in Table 5 show an improving trend, especially

between 1976 and 1977. T h e improvement amounted t o more than
0 per cent. However, these overall f l o w rates were s t i l l much below
t h e target, since compulsory education in Thailand i s six years and
covering through grade VI. Thus, t h e real target for f l o w rates f r o m
grade IV t o grade V should be 100 per cent in every community.
Causes of drop-out. T h e causes of t h e drop-out problem could

be described under three aspects as follows:
236
Thailand
1.
Geographical aspect. The drop-out problem may be considered in terms o f t h e amount of time students have t o spend o n
travelling f r o m home t o school. O n average about 8 per cent o f
students have t o spend more t h a n 40 minutes.
Also, in some areas, t h e geographical conditions cause difficulties f o r transportation. As presented in Tables 2 and 3, any
particular areas that have a high number o f students who are required t o spend much time travelling f r o m home t o school, would
have l o w attendance rates.
2.
Soco-economic aspect,
T h e socio-economic condition i s
closely related t o t h e geographical condition. Areas of harsh geographical conditions usually have depressed economic conditions. This
includes inadequate irrigation systems, and health and public services.
Thus, areas having poor economic status usually have l o w attendance
rates and flow rates, because children have t o stay at home and assist
the family with t h e house w o r k o r have t o l o o k for employment in
order t o earn a living o r are t o o sickly t o attend school regularly.
In a poor district, parents do n o t favour sending their children
t o school. They do n o t see any difference whether their children are
educated or not. They prefer having their children stay at home t o
help when t h e parents need them. Thus, t h e values and attitudes o f
parents regarding education have s t i l l t o b e improved.
3.
Education-management aspect. The f i r s t problem related t o
educational management i s that o f expanding compulsory education
t o cover up t o grade VI. Since there are a large number o f small
primary schools located in rural areas, they have a lack o f teachers.
Many o f these schools manage t o provide only up t o grade IV. This
situation i s t h e reverse o f schools in urban and t o w n areas, where
there are highly qualified teachers and some teachers are even unable
t o find employment.
The second problem concerns the quality o f education. Even
though the quality o f education may n o t have a direct effect o n t h e
drop-out problem, it could intensify the problem. F o r instance, when
the quality o f education i s low, t h e number o f repeaters could
increase. I t w a s f o u n d that t h e majority o f drop-outs had been
repeaters at least once.'
Supportive information regarding repeaters and drop-outs may be found i n Supplementary Table V.
237
Possible solutions. Some possible solutions to the drop-out

problem are:
i) Increasing educational opportunity by provision o f schoolbusing f o r children in remote areas; provision o f bicycles and necessary equipment for children in remote areas; building more roads
between villages s o students can travel t o school more easily; using
mobile schools; and building more schools where necessary.
ii) Improving educational resources by attention to staff,

buildings and equipment. A sufficient number o f qualified teachers
must b e provided especially in remote areas; some special incentives
should be offered for teachers in remote areas; educational grants m a y
be provided f o r local people in remote areas so that they w o u l d come
back and teach in their o w n community. School buildings may be
expanded t o accommodate more students; and multipurpose buildings m a y b e provided t o b e fully utilized by various school activities.
School equipment could be improved by offering training courses
for teachers o n h o w t o produce teaching equipment by using local
materials and by the establishment o f a school equipment centre in
a district o r between neighbouring schools.
iii) Improving the quality o f education by in-service training;

use of educational innovation where appropriate; development o f
a monitoring system for periodic evaluation; and finding ways t o
increase attendance rates by adjusting the school vacation so that
the children can help their parents during the harvesting period.
iv)
Improving parents attitudes and values about education
by informing them about the importance of education and giving

them some concrete examples o f the benefits. Also, a mobile public-relations service could b e developed to serve at community level in remote areas where attendance rates are low.
Projects to prewnt dropout and increase educational opportunity

There are t w o related and interesting projects to b e presented:
1. The Alternate Intake for SmallPrimary Schools inThailand
2. The School Bicycle Project

Alternate intake for small primary schools. The pilot study o f
this project began in 1978 with a goal t o alleviate the problems of
small primary schools in rural areas. The nature o f the problem i s
238
Thailand
that people in rural areas l i k e to live in scattered locations close t o
the rice fields or plantations. The nature o f this t y p e o f housing
makes t h e communities small and scattered. Thus, it i s necessary t o
have many small primary schools to serve these communities. I t i s
difficult t o maintain these small primary schools because t h e expense
involved i s high. I t i s n o t efficient to have numerous small schools
since the educational resources such as teachers and funds f o r school
buildings are limited. Some districts are unable to provide a sufficient
number of teachers, and in some cases, one teacher has t o teach more
than one class at t h e same time. This in turn reduces educational
quality, and the educational attainment in small primary schools i s
low.
There are many possible sblutions t o t h e probIem. One of
them i s to adjust t h e student-intake system. The project i s called
the alternate intake f o r small primary schools. T h e project was
designed to decrease t h e operation costs by reducing t h e number o f
classes. Instead of admitting f i r s t graders every year, t h e schools take
in new students every other year, and combine a two-age group in
the same class. A two-age group consists o f students a t n o r m age f o r
grade 1 ( 7 years) and students w h o are up t o one year below the
norm age.
The consequence o f this method causes t h e small primary
schools to have o n l y three classes a n d only three teachers instead of
six classes (grade Ito grade VI) and s i x teachers.
The objectives o f t h i s project are t o reduce the number of
classes t o s u i t the number o f available teachers; t o search f o r a teaching technique to be used with two-age group children; t o reduce
operational costs, such as the salaries o f t h e teachers, and t h e budget
f o r school buildings; to improve educational quality; and t o make i t
possible for small primary schools to provide education up to grade VI.
The alternate intake system i s to admit two age groups of
children i n t o grade Ievery other year. The alternate intake system
m a y be illustrated as in Table 6.
The alternate intake i s conducted according t o the following
steps:
1st year:
Accepting six-year o l d and seven-year o l d children

instead of only seven-year olds in the ordinary way. However, during
the f i r s t year, the school will s t i l l have the same number of classes.
239
Table 6. A model for an alternate student-intake
Year
Grader
GmdeII
Grade III
Gmde I V
Grade V I
Grade V
O
O
O
O
O
@
@ = classes formed b y the project
0 = ordinaryciasses
Year
3
4
Grader
GradeII
Grade III
GmdeIV
Grade V
Grade V I
]@ ]@
}@
}@
}@
]@
}@
}@
]@
}@
}@
}@
}a
Zndyear: No student intake, thus, the school has only five

classes (without grade I).
3rd year: Accepting six-year o l d and seven-year o l d children

as in the f i r s t year. This causes the school t o have five classes (all
grades but grade II).
4th year: No student intake. The school has f o u r classes
I
,
IV, V and VI).
(grades I
240
Thailand
5th year: Accepting grade Istudents as in t h e f i r s t and third

year. The school has four classes (grades I,
III,
V and VI).
6th year: No student intake. This sixth year i s t h e f i r s t year
when the school has only three classes (grades II,
I V and Vi).
I f t h e same process continues, t h e school would have only
three classes in each year either grades I,
I
I
Iand V or grades II,I V
and VI.
The School Bicycle Project. This project i s also an alternative
f o r mitigating problems o f small primary schools in rural areas. Since
compulsory education i s six years, i t i s an obligation o f t h e State t o
provide a sufficient number o f schools t o expand compulsory educat i o n up to six years. There are a large number of small primary
schools in rural areas which have only a f e w students in each class
(less than 100 students in a school). I f these schools have t o expand
t h e number o f classes t o cover grade V and V I i t would b e costly and
n o t very efficient. Thus, t h e students in these small primary schools,
after finishing grade I V should attend some other large schools in t h e
nearby district.
The objectives o f this project are t o reduce t h e budget f o r

expanding compulsory education; t o increase efficiency and quality
o f education, since some research studies indicated that educational
attainment i s higher in larger schools; and t o increase educational opp o r t u n i t y and expand compulsory education t o cover every part o f
t h e country.
After students complete grade I V in a small r u r a l school, t h e

State has t o provide a bicycle t o each one so that they have t h e
means t o attend grades V and V I in a more distant school. This strategy could save money, especially in t h e l o n g run. F o r example, a
small primary school which has about 15 grade I V graduates may
plan t o purchase 10-15 bicycles during t h e f i r s t t w o years ( t w o s t u dents may share a bicycle). This w o u l d cost about 12,000-15,000
Baht (or about US$590-740), plus maintenance costs which would
be l o w and could be absorbed by the community.
This programme might b e inconvenient for students w h o have
to travel a long way t o school, and in case the traffic i s heavy, it may
be dangerous, especially f o r small children. Thus, this programme i s
recommended for areas which have good roads and light traffic. The
241
children should n o t travel more than six kilometres f r o m home t o

school.
Actions to prevent drop-out

Project t o provide formal education. This report describes
three related projects, the Mobile School Project, the Special Education Project, and t h e Nuclear School Project.
Mobile School Project. The objectives o f t h i s project are t o
(a)
provide educational opportunities for children in very small commun i t i e s in remote areas, and t o reduce t h e educational budget for building new schools.
Activities under this project are t o find a temporary building

t o be used for teaching-learning activities, assign a teaching team t o
teach in a small community for up t o one month, then move o n t o
teach in another small community where there i s n o school, and
develop a special curriculum t o be used by this programme.
(b)
Special Education Project. Objectives under this project are
t o provide educational opportunities for b o t h physically and economically disadvantaged children t o improve educational quality,
and t o reduce t h e educational budget for building new schools.
Project activities are t o build new schools for special education
services, t o expand some existing schools t o serve disadvantaged
children, and t o specify areas t o b e served by special education
schools.
(c)
Nuclear school project. Objectives under this project are t o
make a nuclear school as an academic centre, t o enable a nuclear
school t o expand compulsory education and reduce t h e drop-out
problem, and t o alleviate t h e transportation problem, because t h e
nuclear school i s located near a community.
Projects to provide non-formai education. This includes five
related projects as follows:
i) Adult general education (Levels 1-5)

ii) Functional literacy programme
iii) Adult vocational education
i v ) Mobile trade training school
v) Public library programme
24 2
Thazland
i)Adult general education (Levels 1-5) has as i t s objectives t o

improve literacy rates and prevent relapse to illiteracy, to provide
opportunities for those who need to further their education, to
promote cultural activities and encourage family planning, to fully
utilize educational resources, and to educate people so t h a t t h e y can
adjust themselves in the environment properly.
The basic adult education curriculum consists of two parts.
Each part takes six months to complete. The school meets three days
a week (two periods/day). The courses offered are Thai, arithmetic,
basic career, geography, history, and health education. This curriculum i s used only in rural areas.
Adult education, Levels 1 and 2 (Level 1 = grade II,

Level 2 =
grade IV), takes six m o n t h s to complete. The school meets five days
a week (two periods/day). The courses offered are Thai, sociology,
science, arithmetic, and health education. This curriculum i s used
in town and urban areas for adults who want t o further their education.
Adult education Level 3 (Level 3 = grade VII), takes one and

a half years to complete. The school meets five days a week (two
periods/day). The courses offered are Thai, English, mathematics,
science, sociology, and health. A student i s allowed to take a pair of
courses in one t e r m as offered below:
a) mathematics 160 periods, and health 40 periods;
b) T h a i 80 periods and English 120 periods; or

c) science 80 periods and sociology 120 periods,
Adult education Level 4 (Level 4 = grade X) takes one a n d a

h a l f years to complete. The school meets five days a week (two to
three periods/day). The courses offered are similar t o those a t Level
3. A student i s allowed to take a pair of courses in one t e r m as
offered below:
a) mathematics 258 periods and health 42 periods;
b) T h a i 108 periods and sociology 192 periods; or

c) English 168 periods and science 132 periods.
Adult education Level 5 (Level 5 = grade XII) i s offered in

three categories, science, arts, and general studies. The curriculum
243
at this level i s identical to grades X I and X I I o f formal education and

takes two years t o complete. The school meets six days a week (four
periods/day).
ii) The functional literacy programme, objectives are t o provide reading s k i l l and arithmetic ability t o people so that they can
use them in daily life, to improve living conditions of villagers in
remote areas, t o reduce illiteracy, and t o utilize fully educational
resources.
This programme was designed o n the basis of problems and
needs of people in rural areas. The teaching-learning activities could
be conducted a t any convenient place, such as the Wat (temple) or at
home.
The learners have to attend about 200 periods (about five to
six months). The contents of courses offered are aimed at solving
problems in the following areas: job and employment, economic
condition, health and family life, and moral aspects.
The programme i s divided into four levels:
Level 1 i s equivalent t o grade II,and i s of six months
duration.
Level 2 i s equivalent t o grade IV, and i s of six months
duration.
Level 3 i s equivalent to grade WI, and i s of one and a half
years duration.
Level 4 i s equivalent t o grade X, and i s of one and a half
years duration.
The courses offered for Levels 3 and 4 are mathematics,
health, Thai, sociology, science and English.
iii) The adult vocational education programme has as i t s

objectives to provide vocational training for people who l e f t school
early; t o promote the use of free time; to upgrade workmanship by
improving working knowledge and skills; and t o utilize fully educational resources.
A survey has to be conducted t o find the needs o f people, then

a suitable vocational training i s provided. Each course being offered
must b'e a short course and includes both theory and practice. The
244
Thailund
learner must be 15 years of age o r older and have basic knowledge,

equivalent t o grade IV. T h e attendance must b e recorded and checke d as in the formal schooling system.
The courses f o r adult vocational education must b e short

courses and practical in terms o f application. The curriculum covers
four areas: industrial a r t s , business, agricultural, and career education.
iv) The mobile trade training schools are able t o move f r o m one
place t o another. The specific training i s offered according t o t h e
needs of local people. The training should take about five t o six
months, after which, the teaching team moves o n t o another community. Their objectives are t o produce middle-skilled and semi-skilled
manpower t o fulfil t h e increasing demand; t o reduce t h e gap between
the Government and t h e local people in remote areas, because this
programme i s offered by t h e Government and the target group i s
people in remote areas; t o improve t h e living conditions o f r u r a l
people, and t o offer a door-to-door t y p e o f education so t h a t everyb o d y w i l l have an equal chance o f getting the service.
T h e training course was designed t o take about five t o s i x

months o r about 300 periods. The curriculum covers various types
o f training. Thus the training should be suitable for t h e localneeds.
The subjects o f training courses are: mechanics, electronics, radio
repairs, refrigeration, tailoring (dressmaking), hairdressing, typing,
cooking, accounting, etc.
v) The public library programme i s t o create 69 provincial
libraries and 26 district libraries. T h e objectives o f t h e programme
are t o support non-formal education; t o encourage people t o read
and t o build an interest in reading; t o provide up-to-date news and
knowledge t o t h e people; t o educate people so that they can understand their rights and responsibilities; t o promote and support Thai
culture, and t o promote t h e use o f free time.
245
I. Amages of attendance rates at provincial level
Rovince
Attendance Rates
us a percentuge
1. LobBurl
91.32
2. Prachuab Khiri Khan
91.33
3. Prachin Burl
86.18
4. Nakhon Nayok
87.23
5. Chachoengsao
91.41
6. ChanthaBuri
91.72
7. Trat
88.70
8. Rayong
92.02
9. UdonThani
98.14
10. KhonKaen
94.48
11. NongKhai
93.87
12. Lod
95.82
13. bon Ratchathani
94.72
14. Yasothon
98.06
15. Nakhon Phanom
90.68
16. RoiEt
97.80
17. Kalasin
96.18
18. Nakhon Rachasima
93.75
19. Burl Ram
90.24
20. Chaiyaphum
94.70
21. SiSaKet
89.96
22. surin
87 .O0
23. SakonNakhon
94.48
246
Thailand
II.Average per cent of students travelling for
over 40 minutes from home to school
Province
~
percentage
~~
1. LobBud
10.03
2. Prachuab Khhi Khan
15.27
3. PrachinBuri
6.08
4. Nakhon Nayok
9.1 3
5. Chachoengsao
10.48
6. ChantaBuri
I . Trat
14.14
-
8. Rayong
14.39
9. UdonThani
12.54
10. KhonKaen
3.39
11. NongKhai
6.32
12. Loei
4.68
13. ubon Ratchathani
6 .O0
14. Yasothon
9.48
15. Nakhon Phanom
7.24
16. RoiEt
2.57
11. Kakdn
4.03
15.87
18. Nakhon Rachasima
4.23
19. BuriRam
20. Chaiyaphum
5.49
21. Si Sa Ket
4.95
1O .90
22. surin
7.35
23. SakonNakhon
247

III. Average percentage of promotion rates at provincial level
~
Bovince
1. Lob Buri
Grades
I-II
Grades
II-III
Grades
III-IV
Grades
IV-V
Grades
V-VI
Completing
Grade V I
80
90
90
95
89
96
2. Rachuab Khbi Khan
81
89
81
93
87
95
3. RachinBuri
I9
86
87
91
81
95
4. Nakhon Nayok
83
90
90
94
80
95
5 . Chachoengsao
18
89
89
95
90
92
6. Chanta Buri
80
90
98
95
89
94
7. Trat
80
90
89
94
88
94
8. Rayong
81
92
99
91
91
98
86
93
94
94
96
91
94
95
93
98
95
98
11. NongKhai
91
95
96
91
89
96
12. Loei
89
93
94
99
91
93
92
95
94
95
95
97
1O0
99
99
97
94
100
9. UdonThani
10. KhonKaen
13. bon Ratchathani

14. Yasothon
15. Nakorn Phanom
84
90
95
94
95
96
16. RoiEt
98
93
91
I9
91
98
11. Kaiasin
95
91
91
96
94
96
18. Nakhon Phanom
85
89
89
93
91
95
19. BuriRam
83
88
94
99
90
95
20. Chaiyaphum
89
93
93
91
91
97
21. Si Sa Ket
84
90
90
92
80
92
22. Surin
71
85
86
97
88
95
23. Sakon Nakhon
94
97
98
91
92
91
248
Thailand
IV. Admission ratios between number of students at primary level and the
number of populationbetween 7-14 years of age.
Bovince
~~
Population
between 7-14
number of primary
school students
per cent
1. Kamphaeng Phet
117,771
84,167
71.47
53,311
39,216
73.56
165,399
139,591
84.39
88,284
72,860
82.53
5. Pisanulok
142,653
104,661
73.37
6. Phetchabun
157,177
120,989
76.98
7. Sukhothai
107,371
76,980
71.69
2. Tak
3. Nakhon Sawan
4. Pichit
61,877
63,195
102.13
9. ChiangMai
170,08 1
124,207
73.03
10. ChiangRai
173,87 1
131,406
75.58
76,855
57,936
75.38
8. Uttaradit
11. Nan
12. Lampang
106,629
90,711
85.47
13. Lampoon
60,305
44,953
74.54
14. Phrae
81,421
62,816
77.15
15. Paya0
84,857
68,841
81.13
16. Mae Hong Son
23,030
14,879
64.61
77,96 1
84,262
108.08
18. ChonBuri
114,310
81,975
71.71
19. Chachoengsao
17. Kanchanaburi
135,675
69,144
50.96
20. ChanthaBuri
55,711
49,441
882'5
21. Rayong
65,718
55,852
84.99
2,120,673
1,637,226
77.21
Total
249
The d r o p s u t problem in primary education

V. Number of drop-outs who had been repeaters before.
Number of
students
School
Non-repeaters
dropOuts
1. BanLadYai
2. BanTaluKaew
Repeaters
'
I
2
3
4
5
Total per
num- per time times times times times
cent
ber cent
4
22.2
13
23.1
77.8
10
76.9
55.6
3. Wat Katu Karam
4 44.4
4. Wat Kor Yai
3 33.3
66.7
27
81.8
5. WatRadBamroong
33
18.2 10
6. Wat Tham Sathit
40
22.5
15
31
77.5
7. Wat Bang Nai
29
22 75.9
24.1
4 9 35.5 35
38
15
93
65.5
Total
142
(Surveyed by Department of General Education, Ministry o f Education in Samut Songkram

Province 1974).
250

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Towards universalization of

primary education i n Asia and the Pacific

SOME CASE STUDIES

UNESCO REGIONAL OFFICE FOR EDUCATION IN ASIA

The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout

Efforts towards equalization o f educational opportunities

Sample study o f wastage (repeaters and drop-outs) at

Measures for preventing drop-outs a t the elementary

Projects t o prevent drop-out and increase educational

Actions t o prevent drop-out

DROP-OUT IN PRIMARY EDUCATION:

T h e ideal situation towards which all countries are striving i s

Countries striving t o attain UPE have t o eliminate wastage and

M r s Eiien Sattar i s the author of Universal Primary Education in Bangladesh.

Unesco, Wastage in Primary and General Secondary Education: A Statistical Study

The drop-out problem in primury education

where drop-out exists. By i t s presence, i t proclaims that UPE has n o t

T h e r e were 390 m i l l i o n primary school-aged children in

example, to quote oniy three:

The nature of the problem

A repeater i s a child who has to repeat the same grade, due t o

The extent of repetition

Unesco. Statistical Yearbook, 1982 III 160-163

The drop-out problem in primary education

Table 1. Primary level repetition in selected countries

Total Repetition Rate

Unesco. Statistical Yearbook 1982, III 160-163

Data i s not readily available, and comparative data over one o r

Table 2. Repeaters by sex inselected countries (latest year available)

Unesco. Wastage in Primaty and General Secondary Education op. cit. p. 34

T h i s includes Japan, the USSR, and the Pacific nations.

Unesco. Wastage in Primaty and General Secondary Education. op. ut. p. 28

Table 3. Percentageof primary grade repeaters in selected countries

Unesco. Sfatistimi Yearbook 1982. III 160-163

The majority of countries for w h i c h data i s available show higher

The dropout problem in primary education

Table 4. Level of repetition in rural and urban schools in selected countries

Percentage distribution between grades

The drop-out problem in primary education

Singapore, Ceylon, Iran

Thailand, Philippines, Afghanistan

Viet Nam, India, Cambodia, Pakistan

Unesco. Bulletin 1 9 6 7 0 ~cit.

Table 7. Primary cohort survival, late 1970s

R a p i d expansion of the primary school system m a y b e p a r t l y

The drop-out problem in primary education

children f r o m lower social strata, disadvantaged groups, and girls.

Table 9. Primary level drop-out in selected counties

90 per cent by 1987

100 per cent by 1990

75 per cent by 1985

100 per cent by 1998

100 per cent by 1986

100 per cent by 1990

Co1.5 APEID/Unesco. Univer~kieingprimmyEducation. Bangkok, 1983. p.9

Nepal: Mogendra ali Singh, Educational Wastage in Nepal. Kathmandu,

The drop-out problem in primary education

D a t a on actual grade-wise drop-out i s difficult to find. Table

Table 10. Drop-out by grade in three countries

See reports this volume

In Bangladesh, 60 per cent of drop-out occurs before grade 3?

Some factors responsible for dropout