History 289A-B: Writing in the Ancient World

Instructor: Anthony Barbieri-Low

Class Times: Fridays, 9-11:50; HSSB 4080
Office: HSSB 4225
Office Hours: Mondays 12:00-2:00 or by apt.
Barbieri-low@history.ucsb.edu
Course Introduction:
Course Requirements and Grading: The purpose of this two-quarter sequence is to
research and write a near-publishable quality paper, or a chapter of a dissertation, if
appropriate. Full seminar participation in discussions is expected. In addition, each week,
you are expected to write a 2-3 page summary and analysis of the shared readings, and
your assigned readings. All readings and summaries must be completed prior to seminar.
Together, seminar participation and these summaries are worth 40% of your grade. [If
you are an undergraduate or are only taking this course for one quarter, this will be 100%
of your grade] At the end of the first quarter, you will be expected to present and submit
an annotated bibliography of sources relevant to your research topic (25%) and an 8-10
page proposal for your research paper to be written in the spring quarter (35%).
Annotated Bibliography: (25%)
This should include all those sources you expect to consult or use in the writing of
your research paper during the spring quarter. You are expected to check out,
borrow from ILL, copy or download these during this quarter, and peruse them
sufficiently to know their potential worth, even if you do not have time to read
them yet. The bibliography is to be annotated, with each entry appended by one
or two sentences describing the potential use and/or problems of this source. You
are expected to include entries in every modern and ancient language in which
you can stretch your abilities to work.
Research Proposal: (35%)
The research proposal, which will be presented to the seminar during the final
week, should address a specific problem related to the topics covered in the
seminar, or related to ones own research. What is the state of the field in relation
to the question? What methodology and/or theoretical perspective do you intend
to follow? How will the sources identified in the annotated bibliography help you
to address this problem? What is the significance of the project for the field, and
for a broader audience?
Next Quarter:
During the spring quarter, you will finish the research on your topic and write a complete
research paper, of near-publishable quality. The course meetings each week will revolve

around the writing of the paper. Early in the quarter, you will discuss your topic with the
seminar, and present one source which you will be using. Later in the quarter you will
peer-review outlines and drafts of papers, and finally, give a full presentation of your
results to the seminar.
Week 1: Friday, January 9th, 2015: Introductory Themes
Shared Readings:
Trigger, Bruce G. Writing Systems: A Case Study in Cultural Evolution. In The First
Writing: Script Invention as History and Process, edited by Stephen D. Houston,
39-70. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004. (PDF)
Goody, Jack, and Ian Watt. The Consequences of Literacy. In Literacy in Traditional
Societies. Edited by Jack Goody, 27-68. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,
1968. (PDF).
Week 2: January 16th, 2015: Orality vs. Literacy, Memory Culture
Shared Reading:
Ong, Walter J. and John Hartley. Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word.
30th anniversary ed. New Accents. London ; New York: Routledge, 2012.
Halverson, John. Goody and the Implosion of the Literacy Thesis.Man 27
(1992): 301-317. (PDF)
Assmann, Jan. Memory Culture & Written Culture. In Assmann, Jan. Cultural
Memory and Early Civilization: Writing, Remembrance, and Political
Imagination. 1st English ed, pp. 15-110. New York: Cambridge University Press,
2011. (PDF)
Assigned Readings
Lord, Albert Bates. The Singer of Tales. New York: Atheneum, 1968.
Parry, Milman and Adam Parry. The Making of Homeric Verse: The Collected Papers
of Milman Parry. Oxford: At The Clarendon Press, 1971.
Goody, Jack. The Interface between the Written and the Oral Studies in Literacy, Family,
Culture, and the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1987.
Goody, Jack. The Domestication of the Savage Mind. Themes in the Social Sciences.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1977.
Goody, Jack. The Logic of Writing and the Organization of Society. Studies in Literacy,
Family, Culture, and the State. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1986.

Goody, Jack. Literacy in Traditional Societies. Cambridge, Eng.: at the University Press,
1968.
Havelock, Eric Alfred. Preface to Plato History of the Greek Mind, V 1. Cambridge,:
Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 1963.
Havelock, Eric Alfred. The Muse Learns to Write: Reflections on Orality and Literacy
from Antiquity to the Present. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986.
Havelock, Eric Alfred. The Literate Revolution in Greece and Its Cultural Consequences
Princeton Series of Collected Essays. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press,
1982.
Havelock, Eric Alfred. The Greek Concept of Justice: From Its Shadow in Homer to Its
Substance in Plato. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1978.
Street, Brian V. Literacy in Theory and Practice. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1984.
Week 3: Friday, January 23, 2015: Origins, Evolution, and Disappearance of
Writing Systems
Shared Readings:
Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. An Ancient Token System: The Precursor to Numerals
and Writing. Archaeology, November/December 1986, 32-9.
Chang, K.C. Art, Myth, and Ritual: The Path to Political Authority in Ancient China.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1983. (selection PDF)
Damerow, Peter. The Origins of Writing as a Problem of Historical Epistemology.
(PDF) 1999.
Postgate, Nicholas, Tao Wang & Toby Wilkinson. The Evidence for Early
Writing: Utilitarian or Ceremonial. Antiquity 69 (1995): 459-480. (PDF)
Daniels, Peter T. Fundamentals of Grammatology, Journal of the American
Oriental Society 110 (1990): 727-731.
Baines, John. Writing and its Multiple Disappearances. In The Disappearance
of Writing Systems : Perspectives on Literacy and Communication. Edited
by Baines, John, John Bennet and Stephen D. Houston, 347-62. London ;
Oakville, CT: Equinox, 2008. (PDF)
Assigned Readings:

Schmandt-Besserat, Denise. Before Writing. 2 vols. 1st ed. Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1992.
Daniels, Peter T. The Syllabic Origin of Writing and the Segmental Origin of the
Alphabet. In Downing, Pamela, Susan D. Lima and Michael Noonan. The
Linguistics of Literacy, 83-110. Philadelphia: J. Benjamins Pub. Co., 1992.
Cooper, Jerrold S. Babylonian Beginnings: The Origin of the Cuneiform Writing
System in Comparative Perspective. In The First Writing: Script Invention as
History and Process, edited by Stephen D. Houston, 71-99, Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2004.
DeFrancis, John. Visible Speech: The Diverse Oneness of Writing Systems. Honolulu:
University of Hawaii Press, 1989. (PDF)
Baines, John. The Earliest Egyptian Writing: Development, Context, Purpose. In The
First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process, edited by Stephen D.
Houston, 150-189. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Diamond, Jared. Blueprints and Borrowed Letters. The Evolution of Writing.
In Guns Germs and Steel A short history of everybody for the last
13,000 years. London: Vintage, 1998, 215-238. (PDF)
Keightley, David. The Origins of Writing in China: Scripts and Cultural Contexts. In
The Origins of Writing, edited by Wayne M. Senner, 171-202. Lincoln:
University of Nebraska Press, 1989.
Keightley, David N. Art, Ancestors, and the Origins of Writing in China.
Representations (1996): 68-95.
Boltz, William G. Early Chinese Writing, World Archaeology 17 (1986): 420-436.
Boltz, William G. The Origin and Early Development of the Chinese Writing System. Vol.
78 American Oriental Series, Edited by Edwin Gerow. New Haven: American
Oriental Society, 1994.
Mair, Victor H. (1992) West Eurasian and North African Influences on the
Origins of Chinese Writing, in: B.H.K. Luk et al. (ed.), Contacts
between Cultures. Eastern Asia: Literature and Humanities, vol. 3 of:
Selected Papers from the 33rd International Congress of Asian and North
African Studies (Toronto 1990): 335-338, Lewiston, Queenston &
Lampeter: Edwin Mellin Pr.

Bagley, Robert W. Anyang Writing and the Origin of the Chinese Writing System. In
The First Writing: Script Invention as History and Process, edited by Stephen D.
Houston, 190-249. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Gelb, Ignace J. A Study of Writing. Rev. i.e. 2d ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1963.
Senner, Wayne M. The Origins of Writing. 1st paperback ed. Lincoln: University of
Nebraska Press, 1991.
Houston, Stephen D. The Shape of Script: How and Why Writing Systems Change. 1st ed.
School for Advanced Research Advanced Seminar Series. Santa Fe, N.M.: School
for Advanced Research Press, 2012.
Baines, John, John Bennet and Stephen D. Houston. The Disappearance of Writing
Systems: Perspectives on Literacy and Communication. London ; Oakville, CT:
Equinox, 2008.
Week 4: Friday January 30th: Writing in Earliest States (Wang Haicheng)
Shared Reading:
Wang, Haicheng. Writing and the Ancient State: Early China in Comparative
Perspective. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2014.
Week 5: Friday, February 6th, 2015: Decipherment
Shared Readings:
Robinson, Andrew. At the Signs of the Unicorn: The Indus Script. In Lost Languages:
The Enigma of the World's Undeciphered Scripts, 264-95. New York: McGrawHill, 2002.
Deciphering the Rosetta Stone. In Parkinson, R. B., Whitfield Diffie, M. Fischer and
R. S. Simpson. Cracking Codes: The Rosetta Stone and Decipherment. London:
British Museum Press, 1999.
Palaima, Thomas G.; Elizabeth I. Pope; F. Kent Reilly III (2000). The Parallel Lives of
Michael Ventris and Linda Schele and the Decipherment of Mycenaean and
Mayan Writing (pdf). Austin: University of Texas.
Assigned Readings:
Walker, C. B. F. Cuneiform. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press, 1987.
Booth, Arthur John. The Discovery and Decipherment of the Trilingual Cuneiform
Inscriptions. London: Longmans, Green, and Co, 1902.

Adkins, Lesley. Empires of the Plain: Henry Rawlinson and the Lost Languages of
Babylon. London: HarperCollins, 2003.
Doblhofer, Ernst. Voices in Stone: The Decipherment of Ancient Scripts and
Writings. New York: Viking Press, 1961.
Pope, Maurice. The Story of Decipherment: From Egyptian Hieroglyphs to Maya Script.
Rev. ed. New York, N.Y.: Thames and Hudson, 1999.
Robinson, Andrew. Lost Languages: The Enigma of the World's Undeciphered Scripts.
New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002.
Coe, Michael D. Breaking the Maya Code. 3rd ed. London: Thames & Hudson, 2012.
Coe, Michael D. On Not Breaking the Indus Code." Antiquity 69.263 (1995): 393-395.
Houston, Stephen D., Oswaldo Fernando Chinchilla Mazariegos and David Stuart. The
Decipherment of Ancient Maya Writing. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma
Press, 2001.
Parkinson, R. B., Whitfield Diffie, M. Fischer and R. S. Simpson. Cracking Codes: The
Rosetta Stone and Decipherment. London: British Museum Press, 1999.
Chadwick, John. The Decipherment of Linear B. 2nd ed. London,: Cambridge U.P., 1967.
Robinson, Andrew. The Man Who Deciphered Linear B : The Story of Michael Ventris.
New York: Thames & Hudson, 2002.
Week 6: Friday, February 13th, 2015: Scribes, Scribal Education, and Scribal
Culture
Shared Readings:
Smith, Adam (2011). "The Evidence for Scribal Training at Anyang." in Writing
and Literacy in Early China: Studies from the Columbia Early China
Seminar: 173-205.
PseudoKhety, The Satire on the Trades: The Instructions of Dua-Khety. In The
Literature of Ancient Egypt. Edited by William Kelly Simpson.
Roccati, Alessandro. Scribes. In The Egyptians. Chicago: University of Chicago
Press, 1990: 61-85.

Pearce, Laurie E. The Scribes and Scholars of Ancient Mesopotamia. in

Civilizations of the Ancient Near East. vols. 3-4: 2265-2278. New York:
Scribner and Sons, 1995.
Analyze one image or sculpture of a scribe (any culture) consult professor.
Assigned Readings:
Williams, Ronald J. Scribal Training in Ancient Egypt. Journal of the American
Oriental Society 92, no. 2 (1972): 214-221.
Heel, K. Donker van Haring B. J. J. Writing in a Workmen's Village : Scribal Practice in
Ramesside Deir El-Medina. Leiden: Nederlands Instituut voor het Nabije Oosten,
2003.
Wente, Edward. The Scribes of Ancient Egypt. In Civilizations of the Ancient near
East, 4, 2211-2221. New York: Scribner and Sons, 1995.
Schlott-Schwab, Adelheid. Schrift Und Schreiber Im Alten gypten. Mnchen: C.H.
Beck, 1989.
Parkinson, R. B., Stephen Quirke, Ute Wartenberg and Bridget Leach. Papyrus. 1st
University of Texas Press ed. Egyptian Bookshelf. Austin: University of Texas
Press, 1995.
Haring, Ben. From Oral Practice to Written Record in Ramesside Deir El-Medina.
Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient 46, no. 3 (2003): 249272.
Charpin, Dominique. Reading and Writing in Babylon. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard
University Press, 2010.
Blow-Jacobsen, Adam. Writing materials in the Ancient World. In Roger S.
Bagnall, ed. The Oxford Handbook of Papyrology. New York: Oxford
University Press, 2009, pp. 3-29.
Carr, David McLain. Writing on the Tablet of the Heart: Origins of Scripture and
Literature. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Toorn, K. van der. Scribal Culture and the Making of the Hebrew Bible. Cambridge,
Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007.
Coe, Michael D. The Maya Scribe and His World. New York: Grolier Club, 1973.

Avrin, Leila. Scribes, Script, and Books: The Book Arts from Antiquity to the
Renaissance. Chicago: American Library Association, 1991.

Week 7: Friday, February 20th, 2015: Letters and Frontier Documents

Shared Readings:
Bowman, Alan K. The Roman Imperial Army: Letters and Literacy on the
Northern Frontier. In Literacy and Power in the Ancient World. Edited by
Alan K. Bowman and Greg Woolf. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1994.
Sima Qians letter to Ren An, (Watson, Qin volume), 227-37.
Loewe, Michael. Wood and Bamboo Administrative Documents of the Han
Period. In Shaughnessey, Edward L., ed. New Sources of Early Chinese
History: An Introduction to the Reading of Inscriptions and Manuscripts.
Early China Special Monograph Series 3. Berkeley, Calif., 1997, 161-92.
Assigned Readings:
Letters from the well at Liye. 8-659+8-2088 (Chen Wei, Liye Qin jiandu jiaoshi
(diyi ji), 194-95; and 8-823+8-1997 (Chen Wei, 233); probably related to the
latter is 7-4, published by He Youzu in Xinjian Liye Qin jiandu ziliao xuandu
(yi), published on the bsm.org website
(http://www.bsm.org.cn/show_article.php?id=2068).
Letters Home from Heifu and Jing From Qin site of Shuihudi. In Yunmeng
Shuihudi Qin mu. Beijing: Wen wu chu ban she, 1981.

Giele, Enno. Evidence for the Xiongnu in Chinese Wooden Documents from the
Han Period. In Brosseder, Ursula, and Bryan K. Miller, eds. Xiongnu
Archaeology: Multidisciplinary Perspectives of the First Steppe Empire in
Inner Asia. Bonn Contributions to Asian Archaeology 5. Bonn: Vor- und
Frhgeschichtliche Archologie, Rheinische Friedrich-Wilhelms-Universitt,
2011, 49-76.
Bowman, Alan K. Life and Letters on the Roman Frontier: Vindolanda and Its
People. London: British Museum Press, 2003.
La Vaissire, tienne de. The Rise of Sogdian Merchants and the Role of the
Huns: The Historical Importance of the Sogdian Ancient Letters, in The
Silk Road: Trade, Travel, War and Faith. ed. S. Whitfield with U. SimsWilliams. London: The British Library, 2004.

Richter, Antje. Letters and Epistolary Culture in Early Medieval China. Seattle ;
London: University of Washington Press, 2013.
Wente, E.F. Letters from Ancient Egypt. Atlanta, 1990.
Michalowski, Piotr, and Erica Reiner. Letters from Early Mesopotamia. Atlanta:
Scholars Press, 1993.
Hoffner, Harry A., and Gary M. Beckman. Letters from the Hittite Kingdom. Atlanta,
GA: Society of Biblical Literature, 2009.
Lindenberger, James M., James M. Lindenberger, and Kent Harold Richards. Ancient
Aramaic and Hebrew Letters. Atlanta, Ga: Scholars Press, 1994.
Gansu sheng wenwu kaogu yanjiusuo , Gansu sheng
bowuguan , Zhongguo wenwu yanjiusuo
, Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan lishi yanjiusuo
, ed. 1994. Juyan xinjian . 2 vols. Beijing: Zhonghua
shuju.

Grenet, F. and Nicholas Sims-Williams, The Historical Context of the Sogdian Ancient
Letters. In Transition Periods in Iranian History, Actes du Symposium de
Fribourg-en-Brisgau, 22-24 Mai 1985. Leuven: E. Peeters, 1987, pp. 101-122.
Li Junming . 2009. Qin Han jiandu wenshu fenlei jijie
. Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe.

Li, Junming . Gu dai jian du . Beijing: Wenwu chubanshe,

2003.
Loewe, Michael. Records of Han Administration. 2 vols. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 1967-68.

Week 8: Friday, February 27, 2015: Literacy

Shared Readings:
Bowman, Alan K. and Greg Woolf. Literacy and Power in the Ancient World. In
Literacy and Power in the Ancient World, 1-16. Cambridge ; New York:
Cambridge University Press, 1994.
Baines, John. Visual and Written Culture in Ancient Egypt. Oxford; New York: Oxford
University Press, 2009. (Selection)
Assigned Readings:

Harris, William V. Ancient Literacy. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989.
Barbieri-Low, Anthony J. Craftsmans Literacy: Uses of Writing by Male and
Female Artisans in Qin and Han China. In Writing and Literacy in Early
China: Studies from the Columbia Early China Seminar, Ed. by Li and
Branner. Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 2011, 370-99.
Yates, Robin D.S. Soldiers, Scribes, and Women: Literacy among the Lower Orders
in Early China. In Writing and Literacy in Early China: Studies from the
Columbia Early China Seminar, Ed. by Li and Branner. Seattle and London:
University of Washington Press, 2011, 339-69.

Janssen, Jac. J. Literacy and Letters at Dier El-Medna. In Village Voices: Proceedings
of the Symposium "Texts from Dier El-Medna and Their Interpretation", edited by
R.J Demare and A Egberts, 81-95. Leiden, Netherlands: CNWS Publications,
1992.
Bryan, B. "Evidence for Female Literacy from Theban Tombs of the New Kingdom."
Bulletin of the Egyptological Seminar 6, (1984): 17-32.
Lesko, Leonard H. Literature, Literacy, and Literati. In Pharaohs Workers, 131-144.
Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994.
Houston, Stephen D. Literacy among the pre-Columbian Maya: A Comparative
Perspective. Writing without words: Alternative literacies in Mesoamerica and
the Andes. Durham, Duke University Press, 1994: 27-49.
Week 9: Friday, March 6, 2015: Accountancy and Administration
Shared Readings
Nissen, Hans Jrg, Peter Damerow and Robert K. Englund. Archaic Bookkeeping: Early
Writing and Techniques of Economic Administration in the Ancient near East.
Chicago, Ill.: University of Chicago Press, 1993. (selections)
Barbieri-Low, Anthony J. Model Legal and Administrative Forms from the Qin,
Han, and Tang and Their Role in the Facilitation of Bureaucracy and Literacy.
Oriens Extremus 50 (2011): 125-56.

Hudson, Michael. Introduction: The Role of Accounting in Civilizations

Economic Takeoff. In Creating Economic Order: Recordkeeping,
Standardization, and the Development of Accounting in the Ancient Near
East Hudson, Michael, and Cornelia Wunsch, eds, 1-22. CDL Press, 2004.
Assigned Readings:

Cameron, George G. Persepolis Treasury Tablets. Chicago: University of

Chicago Press, 1948.
Hallock, Richard T. Persepolis Fortification Tablets. Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1969.
Haggman, S. Directing Deir El-Medina. The External Administration of the Necropolis.
Vol. 4: (Uppsala Studies in Egyptology), 2002.
Loewe, Michael. Records of Han Administration. London,: Cambridge U. P., 1967.
Sanft, Charles. Communication and Cooperation in Early Imperial China: Publicizing the
Qin Dynasty. Albany: State University of New York Press, 2014.
Giele, Enno. Imperial Decision-Making and Communication in Early China: A Study of
Cai Yong's Duduan Opera Sinologica,. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2006.
Carmona, Salvador, and Mahmoud Ezzamel. Accounting and accountability in ancient
civilizations: Mesopotamia and ancient Egypt. Accounting, Auditing &
Accountability Journal 20, no. 2 (2007): 177-209.
Week 10: Friday, March 13, 2014: No Class, Instructor out of town.
Week 11: Friday, March 20, 2015: Ancient Languages and Their Writing Systems
Presentation of research proposals.
Assigned Readings:
Egypt
Allen, James P. The Ancient Egyptian Language: An Historical Study. Cambridge ; New
York: Cambridge University Press, 2013.
Allen, James P. Middle Egyptian: An Introduction to the Language and Culture of
Hieroglyphs. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
Loprieno, Antonio. Ancient Egyptian: A Linguistic Introduction. Cambridge ; New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. (especially chapters 1-2).
Greece

Woodard, Roger D. Greek Writing from Knossos to Homer: A Linguistic Interpretation

of the Origin of the Greek Alphabet and the Continuity of Ancient Greek Literacy.
New York: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Woodard, R. D. Greek-Phoenician Interaction and the Origin of the

Alphabet. In Mediterranean Cultural Interaction, A. Ovadish ed.,
33-51. Tel Aviv: Tel Aviv University Press.
Woodard, Roger D. Attic Greek and Greek Dialects Chapters 24-25 in Cambridge
Encyclopedia of the World's Ancient Languages. Ed. Woodard, Roger D,.
Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press, 2004.

Chadwick, John. The Greek dialects and Greek pre-history. Greece and Rome
(Second Series) 3, no. 01 (1956): 38-50.
Jeffery, Lilian Hamilton, and Alan W. Johnston. The local scripts of
archaic Greece: a study of the origin of the Greek alphabet and its
development from the eighth to the fifth centuries BC. Clarendon
Press, 1990.
China
Bottro, Franoise. Writing on Shell and Bone in Shang China. In The First Writing:
Script Invention as History and Process, edited by Stephen D. Houston, 250-261.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004.
Keightley, David. Sources of Shang History: The Oracle Bone Inscriptions of Bronze
Age China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1978.
Keightley, David. The Religious Commitment: Shang Theology and the Genesis of the
Chinese Political Culture. History of Religions 17, (1978): 211-224.
Tsien, Tsuen-hsuin. Written on Bamboo & Silk: The Beginnings of Chinese Books &
Inscriptions. 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2004.

Alain Peyraube. Ancient Chinese In The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World's

Ancient Languages. Ed. Woodard, Roger D,. Cambridge ; New York: Cambridge
University Press, 2004.
Qiu, Xigui, Gilbert Louis Mattos, and Jerry Norman. Chinese Writing. Berkeley, Calif:
Society for the Study of Early China and the Institute of East Asian Studies,
University of California, 2000.
Mesoamerica

Coe, Michael D. and Mark Van Stone. Reading the Maya Glyphs. 2nd ed. London:
Thames & Hudson, 2005.
Marcus, Joyce. Mesoamerican Writing Systems: Propaganda, Myth, and History in Four
Ancient Civilizations. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1992.
Schele, Linda, Peter Mathews. The Code of Kings: The Language of Seven Sacred Maya
Temples and Tombs. New York: Scribner, 1998.