AnswersNOTE:youranswersmaynotbewordedexactly

thesameandthatisokayaslongasyouhavethesamebasic
ideas!!
Activity22.1HowDidDarwinViewEvolutionviaNaturalSelection?
Darwinisrememberednotbecausehewasthefirsttoproposethatevolutionoccurs.Many
othershadpresentedthisideabefore.Instead,heisrememberedfordefiningthemechanism
behindevolutionthatis,thetheoryofnaturalselection.Todothis,Darwinintegrated,orput
together,informationfromawiderangeofsources.Someofthisinformationwasprovidedby
others;someheobservedonhisown.

Usetheunderstandingyougainedfromcreatingtheconceptmaptoanswerthequestions.
1.Inthe1860s,whattypesofevidencewereavailabletoindicatethatevolutionhadoccurredon
Earth?
Evidencewasavailablefromstudiesoftaxonomy(classificationoforganismsbasedon
similaritiesinmorphology,forexample),paleontology(fossilevidencethatdemonstratedhow
organismshadchangedovergeologictime),andbiogeography(thestudyofthedistributionof
organismsinthepresentandthepast).
2.Howdidknowledgeofmechanismsofartificialselection(usedindevelopingvariousstrains
ofdomesticatedanimalsandplants)helpDarwinunderstandhowevolutioncouldoccur?
Darwinknewthatartificialselectioncouldleadtodramaticchangesinthephenotypesof
individualsinaspeciespopulation.Asaresult,hethoughtthatnaturalselectioncouldsimilarly
leadtochangesinpopulations.Thesechangeswouldtendtooccurmoregradually,however.
Similartoartificialselection,naturalselectionwouldeliminateorreducethenumbersofsome
variantsinthepopulationbecausethesevariantseitherdidntsurviveordidnotreproduceas
wellasothers.
3.Basedonhisstudies,Darwinmadeanumberofobservations;theyarelistedinthechart.
CompletethechartbyansweringhowDarwinmadetheobservations.
Observation
a.Allspeciespopulationshave
thereproductionpotentialto
increaseexponentiallyover
time.
b.Thenumberofindividualsin

HowdidDarwinmakethisobservation?Thatis,what
didhereadorobservethatgavehimthisunderstanding?
DarwinreadMalthussessayonthepotentialforhuman
populationstogrowataratefarbeyondthecapacityof
theirfoodsupplyandotherresources.Heappliedthis
concepttootherpopulationsandconcludedthatall
naturalpopulationshavethispotential.
Althoughthismaynotbetrueforthehumanpopulation,

naturalpopulationstendsto
remainstableovertime.
c.Environmentalresourcesare
limited.
d.Individualsinapopulation
varyintheircharacteristics.

e.Muchofthisvariationis
heritable.

itistrueformostnaturalpopulationsoforganisms.
Darwinobservedthatinnature,thenumberoforganisms
perspeciesinagivenareatendstoremainrelatively
constantovertime.
ThiswasmadeobviousinMathussessay.Itwasalso
obvioustoDarwinasheobservednaturalpopulations.A
givenareahasonlysomuchfood,onlysomanynesting
sites,andsoon.
Darwinwasanamateurnaturalistevenbeforehisvoyage
ontheBeagle.Hewasalsoapigeonbreeder.Bothof
theseexperiencesledhimtounderstandthatthereis
considerablevariationinpopulationsoforganisms.
Asapigeonbreeder,Darwincoulddemonstratethisto
himself.Healsohadagoodunderstandingofthe
mechanismofartificialselectionasitappliedtoanimal
husbandryandagriculture.

4.Basedontheseobservations,Darwinmadeanumberofinferences.Whichofthe
observation(s)inquestion3allowedDarwintomakeeachinference?
Inference
a.Productionofmoreindividualsthanthe
environmentcansupportleadstoa
struggleforexistencesuchthatonlya
fractionoftheoffspringsurviveeach
generation.
b.Survivalforexistenceisnotrandom.
Thoseindividualswhoseinheritedtraits
bestfitthemtotheenvironmentare
likelytoleavemoreoffspringthanless
fitindividuals.
c.Theunequalabilityofindividualsto
surviveandreproduceleadstoagradual
changeinthepopulation,withfavorable
characteristicsaccumulatingoverthe
generations.

Observationsthatledtotheinference
Darwincombinedhisunderstandingofthe
firstthreeobservationsabovetomakethis
inference.

Usingthefirstinferenceandthe
observationsthatvariationexistsandsome
ofitisheritable,Darwinmadethelogical
assumptionorinferencethatthelessfit
variantswouldnotsurviveaswell.Asa
result,theywouldberemovedorreduced
inthepopulation.
Thisisalogicalextensionoftheprevious
twoinferences.Removalofunfit
individuals(ortheirreductionrelativeto
others)wouldobviouslyleadtogradual
changeinthepopulationovertime.

5.Basedontheseobservationsandinferences,howdidDarwindefinefitness?

Biology7thedictiondefinesfitnessastherelativecontributionanindividualmakestothegene
poolofthenextgeneration.Organismslessabletosurviveandreproducearelessfit.In
contrast,theremainingorganismsareconsideredmorefit.
6.HowdidDarwindefineevolution?
Darwinpreferredtotalkaboutdescentwithmodification,ortheideathatallorganismsare
relatedthroughdescentfromsomeunknownancestor.Evolutionwas,asaresult,definedasa
gradualchangeinspeciesovertime.
7.Whatistheunitofnaturalselectionthatis,whatisselected?Whatistheunitofevolution
thatis,whatevolves?
Theindividualorganismistheunitthatisselectedbecauseitistheindividualorganismthat
eitherdiesorsurvives,reproducesordoesnotreproduce.Theunitofevolutionisthespecies
population.
8.Inapopulationofmice,someindividualshavebrownfurandsomehaveblackfur.Atpresent,
bothphenotypesareequallyfit.Whatcouldhappentochangetherelativefitnessofthetwo
phenotypesinthepopulation?Forexample,whatcouldcauseindividualswithbrownfurto
showreducedfitnessrelativetoindividualswithblackfur?
Therearedifferentpossiblewaysofansweringthisquestion.Hereisone:Ifbothpopulationsare
equallyfitatpresent,wecanassumethatneitherismoreorlessthreatenedbypredationasa
resultoftheircolor.Inotherwords,bothcolorsareequallyvisible(orinvisible)topredatorsin
thecurrentenvironmentalcircumstances.Perhapsthegroundandgroundcoverareamixofboth
blackandbrownpatches.Ifsomethingoccurstochangethebackgroundcolorofthe
environment,thecolorsofthemicemaybecomemoreorlessapparent.Forexample,assumea
smallcolonyofthemicearetransportedtoanotherareawherethegroundandgroundcoverarea
mixofblackandgreen.Inthisenvironment,thebrownmicewouldbemorevisibletopredators
thantheblackmice.Asaresult,thebrownmicewouldbecomelessfit.
9.Assumeyoudiscoveranewworldonanotherplanetthatisfulloforganisms.
a.Whatcharacteristicswouldyoulookfortodeterminethattheseorganismsaroseasaresultof
evolutionaryprocesses?
Again,thisquestionhasmanypossibleanswers.Oneapproachistolookforthesametypesof
evidencethatDarwinused.Forexample,ifyoulookattaxonomy,canyoudevelopgroupingsof
organismsbasedonsimilaritiesinmorphology?Isthereafossilrecordontheplanet?Doesthe
fossilrecordshowagradualchangeinspeciesovertime?Doanyofthefossilorganismslook
similartoexistingorganisms?Isthereanyevidencethatspeciesincloseproximitytoeachother
appearmorecloselyrelatedthanspeciesatgreatdistancesfromeachother?(Youcouldalsogo
beyondwhatDarwinknewandusemoremoderntechniquesofDNAanalysis,assumingthey
haveDNAorsomesimilarhereditarymaterial,andlookforsimilaritiesamongspecies.)
b.Whatcharacteristicswouldyoulookfortodeterminethattheseorganismsdidnotariseasthe
resultofevolutionaryprocesses?

Youwouldlookforevidencethatindicatedtherewasnogeneticrelationshipamongdifferent
species.Iftheorganismsdidnotariseasaresultofevolutionaryprocesses,therewouldbeno
reasonforthemtoshareanysimilaritiesinmorphology,development,physiology,ormolecular
biology.
10.Whyisitincorrecttosay:Vertebratesevolvedeyesinordertosee?
Naturalselectionoccursinthepresent.Organismsthatsurvivemusthavetraitsthatallowthem
tosurviveunderexistingconditions.Asaresult,eachmutationrequiredtoproducetheeyemust
havemadethoseindividuals(relativetootherswithoutthemutations)morefit.Relativetothe
lessfitindividuals,theysurvivedbetterandproducedmoreoffspring.

Activity22.2HowDoDarwinsandLamarcksIdeasaboutEvolution
Differ?
Earlyinthe1800sLamarckproposedatheoryofevolution.Hesuggestedthattraitsacquired
duringanorganismslifeforexample,largermusclescouldbepassedontoitsoffspring.The
ideaofinheritanceofacquiredcharacteristicswaspopularformanyyears.Nosuchmechanism
isimpliedinDarwinstheoryofevolutionvianaturalselection,however.AfterDarwin
publishedhiswork,scientistsconductedmanyexperimentstodisprovetheinheritanceof
acquiredtraits.Bythemiddleofthe20thcentury,enoughdatahadaccumulatedtomakeevenits
mostadamantsupportersgiveuptheideaofinheritanceofacquiredcharacteristics.
GivenyourunderstandingofbothLamarcksandDarwinsideasaboutevolution,determine
whetherthestatementsonthenextpagearemoreLamarckianormoreDarwinian.Ifthe
statementisLamarckian,changeittomakeitDarwinian.Here
aretwoexamplestatementsandanswers.
EXAMPLES
A.ThewidespreaduseofDDTinthemid1900sputpressureoninsectpopulationsto
evolveresistancetoDDT.Asaresult,largepopulationsofinsectstodayareresistantto
DDT.
Answer:ThisisaLamarckianstatement.DDTworkedonlyagainstinsectsthathadnoDDT
resistancegenes.ThegenesforDDTresistancehadtobepresentforinsectstosurviveDDTuse
inthefirstplace.
Suggestedchange:WidescaleuseofDDTinthemid1900sselectedagainstinsectsthathadno
resistancetoDDT.OnlytheinsectsthatwereresistanttoDDTsurvived.Theseinsectsmated
andpassedtheirresistancegenesontotheiroffspring.Asaresult,largepopulationsofinsects
todayareresistanttoDDT.
B.Accordingtoonetheory,thedinosaursbecameextinctbecausetheycouldntevolvefast
enoughtodealwithclimaticchangesthataffectedtheirfoodandwatersupplies.
Answer:ThisisaquasiLamarckianstatement.Organismsdonotpurposefullyevolve.(Genetic
recombinationexperimentsareperhapsanexception.)Onceyouareconceived,yourgenesare
notgoingtochange;thatis,youarenotgoingtoevolve.Thegeneticcompositionofaspecies
populationcanchangeovertimeascertaingenotypesareselectedagainst.Genesdetermine
phenotypes.Theenvironmentalconditionsmayfavorthephenotypeproducedbyonegenotype
morethanthatproducedbyanother.

Suggestedchange:Accordingtoonetheory,thedinosaursbecameextinctbecausetheir
physiologicalandbehavioralcharacteristicsweretoospecializedtoallowthemtosurvivethe
rapidchangesinclimatethatoccurred.Theclimaticchangescausedchangesinthedinosaurs
foodandwatersupplies.Becausenoneofthedinosaurssurvived,thegenesandassociated
phenotypesthatwouldhaveledtotheirsurvivalmustnothavebeenpresentinthepopulations.
STATEMENTS
1.Manyofthebacterialstrainsthatinfecthumanstodayareresistanttoawiderange
ofantibiotics.Theseresistantstrainswerenotsonumerousorcommonpriortothe
useofantibiotics.Thesestrainsmusthaveappearedorevolvedinresponsetotheuseofthe
antibiotics.
Answer:ThisisaquasiLamarckianstatement.Althoughthestrainsevolvedinresponsetothe
useofantibiotics(theantibioticskilledoffthestrainsthatdidnothavegenesforresistance),the
strainsdidnotappearinresponsetotheantibiotics.Ifnoresistancegeneswerepresentwhen
antibioticswereapplied,allwouldhavediedoff.
Suggestedchange:Manyofthebacterialstrainsthatinfecthumanstodayareresistanttoawide
rangeofantibiotics.Theseresistantstrainswerenotasnumerousorcommonpriortotheuseof
antibiotics.Antibioticusemusthaveselectedagainstthosebacterialstrainsthatdidnothave
resistancegenes,leavingonlythosewithresistancetosurvive.
2.Lifearoseintheaquaticenvironmentandlaterinvadedland.Onceanimalscameontoland,
theyhadtoevolveeffectivemethodsofsupportagainstgravityandlocomotioninorderto
survive.
Answer:ThisisaLamarckianstatement.Iftheanimalswerenotalreadyabletosupport
themselvesandmoveingravity,theywouldnothavesurvivedonland.
Suggestedchange:Lifearoseintheaquaticenvironmentandlaterinvadedland.Theanimals
thatcameontolandhadtohavepreviouslyevolvedeffectivemethodsofsupportagainstgravity
andlocomotioninordertosurvive.
3.Agivenphenotypictraitforexample,height,speed,toothstructure(andthereforethe
genesthatdetermineit)mayhavepositivesurvivalorselectivevalue,negativesurvivalor
selectivevalue,orneutral(neitherpositivenornegative)survivalorselectivevalue.Whichof
theseithasdependsontheenvironmentalconditionstheorganismencounters.
Answer:ThisstatementisDarwinian.Eachofthevariantsweseeinphenotypehasaspecific
fitnessand,asaresult,aselectivevalueundertheexistingenvironmentalconditions.

4.Thechildrenofbodybuilderstendtobemuchmoreathletic,onaverage,thanotherchildren
becausethecharacteristicsandabilitiesgainedbytheirparentshavebeenpassedontothe
children.
Answer:ThisisaLamarckianstatement.Theparentscannotpassontraitstheyacquiredduring
theirlifetimes.Theycanpassononlythegenesthattheyhave.
Suggestedchange:Thechildrenofbodybuilderstendtobemoreathletic,onaverage,thanother
children.Bodybuildersmaytendtohavespecificgenesforthesetraits,ortheymaytraintheir
childrentobecomeathleticmorethanotherpeopledo.