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METEOROLOGY
ATP Meteorology
ATP DOC 9
Revision : 1/1/2001
INDEX
ATP METEOROLOGY
1. The Atmosphere
2. Stability
3. Wind
4. Airmasses
5. Clouds
6. Visibility
7. Precipitation
8. Fronts and Pressure Systems
9. Thunderstorms
10. Turbulence
11. Ice
12. Climatology
13. Weather Forecasts
01
17
27
47
49
59
69
73
109
119
127
137
149
209
239
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CHAPTER 1
THE ATMOSPHERE
The Earth is surrounded by a layer of air, the atmosphere. All weather occurs within the
atmosphere, and meteorology is the study of this weather.
The atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases, principally nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%).
Water is present in the atmosphere, in either vapour, liquid or solid form. Particles of dust, smoke
and other impurities are also held in suspension in the air.
The atmosphere may be conveniently subdivided into the layers shown. It is the troposphere
which is of special interest, since it contains the vast majority of weather.
Within the troposphere the temperature of the air tends to decrease uniformly with height, until the
tropopause is reached. The tropopause is a marked boundary between the troposphere and the
stratosphere, and it is at this level that the decrease of temperature with height ceases quite
abruptly. Within the lower layer of the stratosphere the temperature remains reasonably constant
with increasing height, and in fact the temperature immediately above the tropopause is likely to be
a few degrees higher (warmer) at high latitudes than it is at low latitudes.
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Towards the top of the stratosphere the temperature actually tends to rise significantly due
primarily to the presence of ozone , which is a very strong absorber of ultraviolet radiation.
The height of the tropopause varies with latitude and season. In general it is lowest at the poles
and highest at the equator and in latitudes higher than 30 it is lowest in winter and highest in
summer. Nearer to the equator the seasonal trend is reversed and the tropopause is slightly higher
in January than in July. The table below gives approximate mean values for the height of the
tropopause over the North Atlantic and adjacent areas.
Pole
60N
30N
Equator
January
28 000 ft
30 000 ft
55 000 ft
57 000 ft
July
32 000 ft
35 000 ft
53 000 ft
55 000 ft
It is important to remember that the tropopause is the level at which temperature ceases to
decrease with height. The lowest tropopause temperatures will therefore be found where the
tropopause is highest. Appreciate that, since air is compressible, approximately 75% of the mass
of the atmosphere is contained in the troposphere, the air above being very much rarefied by
comparison.
When studying the atmosphere it is convenient to examine the factors which influence weather
before moving on to consider wind, cloud and the weather itself. These important factors are heat,
pressure and moisture and of these heat (in the form of temperature differences) is the most
influential in determining climate.
The Standard Atmosphere
It is sometimes convenient to compare the state of the atmosphere as it exists at a given place and
time with a standard atmosphere. A standard atmosphere is also necessary as a datum to which
pressure instruments such as pressure altimeters may be calibrated.
The International Standard Atmosphere
Mean sea level temperature +15c
Mean sea level pressure
1013.25 hPa
Mean sea level density
1225 grams per cubic metre
The temperature is assumed to decrease from mean sea level at the rate of 1.98c per 1000 feet
(6.5c per 1000 metres) up to an altitude of 36,090 ft (11 km) and thereafter to remain constant at 56.5c up to 65,600 ft (20 km). Above 65,600 ft the temperature is assumed to rise at a rate of
0.3c per 1000 ft (1c per 1000 metres) up to an altitude of 105,000 ft (32 km).
The Jet Standard Atmosphere
The mean sea level values of temperature, pressure and density are identical to those of the
International Standard Atmosphere, however the temperature lapse rate is assumed to be 2c per
1000 feet with no tropopause. In other words, the temperature in the Jet Standard Atmosphere at
40,000 ft is -65C (as compared with -56.5C in the International Standard Atmosphere).
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Heat
The presence of quantities of heat in the atmosphere has a very marked influence on the weather.
Temperature
In meteorology temperature is measured in degrees Celsius (c). For all calculations, however,
temperatures in degrees Absolute (A) are required. The size of a one degree step is exactly the
same on the Celsius scale as on the Absolute scale. The difference is the starting point, such that:
0A =
273A =
-273c
0c
The Kelvin scale has the same starting point as the Absolute scale and the value of each unit in
the Kelvin scale is in effect 1 Celsius or Absolute. When using the Kelvin scale, however, the
degree sign is omitted.
Latent Heat
Latent heat plays a very important part in meteorology, from airframe icing to hurricanes, and so an
understanding of the principle is important. As has already been said, water exists in the
atmosphere in three states, solid, liquid and vapour. For a change of state to take place from solid
to liquid, liquid to vapour or solid to vapour heat energy (latent heat) must be supplied in order to
bring about this change of state. Conversely, when water is changing state in the opposite direction
(vapour to liquid, liquid to solid or vapour to solid) an equivalent amount of heat energy (latent
heat) is released.
4 The change of state of water from solid to liquid state is termed melting (or fusion).
4 The change of state from liquid to solid is termed freezing.
4 The change of state of water from liquid to a vapour is termed evaporation and in the
reverse direction condensation.
4 The change of state of water directly from a solid to a vapour is termed sublimation.
4 The change of state of water directly from a vapour to a solid is termed deposition (or
sometimes as sublimation).
Latent heat is involved in the change of state of any matter, however it is the latent heat involved in
the change of state of water which is of concern to us in our study of meteorology.
The unit of heat used is the calorie, which is the amount of heat required to raise the
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The solar energy which reaches the surface of the Earth is now either absorbed or reflected. The
proportion of energy which is absorbed rather than reflected will depend on the nature and specific
heat of the surface.
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Only a small amount of heat is absorbed into the atmosphere directly from incoming insolation. The
atmosphere must therefore be heated indirectly by the sun. That is to say that the sun heats the
surface of the Earth and that the heat from the surface is then transferred to the atmosphere by
means of conduction (the air in contact with the surface is warmed) and convection (hot air at the
surface rises into the atmosphere). Further atmospheric warming occurs when warm air at the
surface rises, cooling as it does so, until the water vapour within the air condenses out as either
water droplets or ice crystals, thus releasing latent heat. Finally, relatively long wave radiation from
the Earths surface (long wave because the Earths surface is very much cooler than the surface of
the sun) adds to the heating of the atmosphere. Because this terrestrial re-radiation is long wave, it
is rather more readily absorbed by the water and the carbon dioxide contained within the
atmosphere.
Temperature Variation
The temperature of the air close to the Earths surface will vary because of many factors. The
mean surface air temperature of the poles is much lower than at the equator. A further fact
contributing to low temperatures at high latitudes is that snow and ice reflect a high proportion of
the insolation, and that much of the heat which is absorbed is used as latent heat to melt the snow
or ice without an increase in temperature.
If you appreciate that the sun appears to circle the Earth at northerly latitudes between April and
September and at southerly latitudes between October and March, then you should also
understand why seasonal variations of mean surface air temperature occur.
The temperature of the surface will tend to change diurnally, that is to say over a 24 hour period.
Below shows an idealised diurnal curve of temperature variation, for a dry land surface, with
cloudless skies and no wind.
Shortly after sunrise, the amount of insolation begins to exceed the amount of terrestrial reradiation, and the temperature rises. By 1400 local mean time the sun has passed through the
zenith and the angle of incidence of the incoming rays decreases. The amount of terrestrial reradiation now exceeds the amount of insolation and the temperature falls.
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Over the sea rather more of the incoming solar radiation is reflected, and much of the heat which is
absorbed does not result in a rise in temperature, since it is required as the necessary latent heat
to facilitate the process of evaporation of the sea surface into the atmosphere. Additionally, the
insolation will penetrate to a depth of several metres, causing a minimal overall rise in temperature.
As the sea re-radiates long wave heat energy, the plentiful supply of water vapour near the surface
readily absorbs this energy. The heat loss from the surface layer is therefore small, and the result
in a diurnal variation in surface air temperature over the sea seldom exceeds 1C.
Over the land the diurnal variation of temperature is reduced by cloud cover. Substantial layers of
stratus cloud will reduce the amounts of insolation reaching the Earths surface, and will quite
effectively blanket the Earth at night. This blanket of cloud absorbs much of the long wave
terrestrial radiation, and re-radiates it back to the surface.
High surface winds will also flatten the diurnal curve, since the wind causes the air at the surface,
which is changing temperature diurnally, to mix with the air above, which is likely to be at a far
more constant temperature since it is neither heated or cooled (directly) by varying surface
temperatures.
From a consideration of these factors it should be apparent that the greatest diurnal variation of
temperature will occur inland (rather than on the coast) when skies are clear. In addition, this
variation is, on average, greater in summer than in winter because the higher daytime
temperatures during the summer result in greater heat loss at night (the hotter a body the greater
the rate at which it gives up heat).
Surface Air Temperature
Surface air temperature is measured at a point 1 .25 metres above the ground, where
the free flow of air is unrestricted. The thermometer is protected from the direct rays
of the sun, the box used to protect the thermometer from the elements is called a Stevenson
screen.
Temperature Units
Temperature is measured either in Celsius , Fahrenheit, or Kelvin. It must be known that :
0c = 273K
Celsius to Fahrenheit = 5/9 (F-32)
Fahrenheit to Celsius = -32 9
5
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Figure (a) shows a normal ELR, normal since we know that on average the temperature of the air
decreases with height at around 2C per 1000 feet. Figure (b) shows a situation where the
temperature remains constant through a given layer of air, this is known as an isothermal layer. (c)
shows a situation where the temperature is increasing with height, and this is known as an
inversion.
Temperature Deviation
It is often convenient to express the actual (ambient) temperature at a point in the atmosphere by
comparing it with the temperature which would exist at the same point in either the International
Standard Atmosphere (ISA) or the Jet Standard Atmosphere (JSA). For convenience it is
sufficiently accurate to use a temperature lapse rate of
2C/1 000 ft (rather than 1 .98C/1 000 ft) when working with the ISA.
Example:
An aircraft is flying at Flight Level 250 (25,000 ft). The ambient temperature is 37C.
Determine the temperature deviation from ISA.
Solution
First calculate the temperature which would exist at 25,000 ft in the ISA (2C/1000).
At 25,000 ft in the ISA the temperature would be (25 x 2) 50C colder than at MSL.
The temperature in the ISA at MSL is always +15C in either of the standard atmospheres.
Therefore the temperature (ISA) at 25,000 ft would be (+15C - 50C) = -35C.
Temperature deviation is a statement of the deviation of the ambient condition from the standard
condition.
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Therefore:
ISA temperature (25,000 ft)
Ambient temperature (25,000 ft)
Temperature deviation
=
=
=
-35C
-37C
ISA -2C
Example 2
The ambient temperature at 17,500 ft is -16C. Express this temperature as a deviation from ISA.
Solution
ISA temperature (1 7,500 ft)
Ambient temperature (17,500 ft)
Temperature deviation
=
=
=
=
Example 3
At FL 250 the temperature is given as ISA -9C. Determine the ambient temperature.
Solution
ISA temperature (25,000 ft)
=
+15c - (25 x 2C)
=
+15C 50C
=
-35C
ISA temperature deviation
=
-9C
(The ambient temperature is 9C colder than the standard temperature)
Ambient temperature
=
-35C- 9C
=
-44C
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
-56.5C
+3C
-53.5C
+15C - (43 x 2C)
+15C 86C
-71C
+17.5C
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Pressure
Barometric pressure is the force exerted by the atmosphere. Pressure acts in all directions,
upwards and sideways as well as downwards. It is convenient to imagine pressure as the weight of
the column of air above a given point. The point in question may be the surface of the Earth, or the
altimeter capsule within an aircraft.
The units of pressure are force divided by area, for example pounds per square inch, or dynes per
square centimetre. The unit of pressure used by South Africa is the hectopascals (hPa), which is
the pressure exerted by 1000 dynes per square centimetre. In the continuing process of
international standardisation (some would say confusion), there is a gradual move towards
expressing atmospheric pressure in Hectopascals (hPa or HPA). The good news is that there is no
difference between the millibar and the hectopascal scales. Only the name of the unit of
measurement has been changed.
Pressure Datums
The subscale of an altimeter is normally set to one of three datums:
QFE
QNH
The QFE reduced to mean sea level (MSL) pressure using the standard
atmosphere temperature lapse rate. The pressure altimeter is calibrated to the
standard atmosphere, and so when QNH is set on the altimeter subscale the
instrument indicates the airfield elevation. We talk above of reducing QFE to QNH. It
is however a reduction in height which results in an increase in pressure when
changing OFE to QNH for an airfield which is above MSL.
1013 hPa
When flying above the transition altitude it is normal to set 1013 hPa on the
altimeter subscale and maintain a flight level. When 1013 is set on the subscale, the
height shown on the altimeter when the aircraft is on the ground is known as the
QNE value.
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Meteorologists determine a mean sea level pressure which is more accurate than the QNH by
reducing the QFE to mean sea level using ambient rather than standard atmosphere temperature
lapse rates. The MSL pressure thus obtained is termed the QFF.
Isobars
Isobars are lines joining points of equal barometric pressure. Surface isobars are the most
commonly used of all constant pressure lines, but the name is misleading. Surface isobars, by
definition, join points of equal mean sea level pressure rather than points of equal surface
pressure. In other words, surface isobars join points of equal QFF rather than points of equal QFE.
The surface chart above shows surface isobars (at 2 hPa intervals which is normal) forming the
characteristic patterns outlined below
4
4
4
4
4
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Pressure Gradient
Pressure gradient is a measure of the rate of change in pressure with distance. It is normally
expressed as the change in pressure in hPas per 100 nm measured at right angles to the isobars.
The windspeed is related to the pressure gradient, the closer the isobars the stronger the
windspeed, but this covered fully in subsequent chapters.
Isallobars
Stations measuring and reporting barometric pressure do so at fixed intervals. It is therefore a
simple matter to determine the rate of change of pressure per hour at each reporting station. Lines
joining points of equal rate of change of pressure are known as isallobars. Isallobars help the
forecaster to predict the future path of pressure systems.
Density
Barometric pressure may be thought of as the weight of air above a point, it is clear therefore that
pressure must reduce as height is increased. The rate of change of pressure with height depends
upon the density of the air concerned.
Density is defined as mass per unit volume, for example grams per cubic metre. As air is heated it
expands, and the same mass of air then occupies a larger volume. In other words the density of
the air has reduced. Conversely, when air cools it contracts, now the same mass of air occupies a
smaller volume and the density of the air has increased.
Consider two columns of air, one warm and one cold. The cold column will be denser than the
warm column and therefore the rate of change of pressure in the cold column would be greater
than in the warm column. Assuming that the surface pressure is the same at both columns, then
any given pressure will occur at a lower level in the cold column than in the warm column. Of
course a pressure altimeter senses a pressure and indicates a level which it is calibrated to
associate with that pressure. Consequently, since pressure altimeters are calibrated to the ISA,
they will tend to overread in air which is colder than standard (the dangerous case), and underread
in the air which is warmer than standard (the safe case).
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Were this air to be cooled to zero degrees the relative humidity would be 100% and
the air would be saturated.
It is important to appreciate that cooling air below the dewpoint must result in condensation since
(ignoring the condition of supersaturation which is very rare) the relative humidity of the air
cannot exceed 100%. Consequently the excess water vapour (on the top line of the equation) must
change state.
The Wet and Dry Bulb Thermometer
A wet and dry bulb system is used to determine surface air temperature, relative humidity and
dewpoint. Note however that the wet bulb temperature is not the dewpoint temperature, except
when the air is saturated.
The dry bulb thermometer measures the temperature of the free air. A wet bulb thermometer is a
normal thermometer, the bulb of which is wrapped with a single layer of muslin, kept continually
moist by means of distilled water which is supplied from a reservoir through a short wick.
Any evaporation is shown by a lower wet bulb temperature, due to the extraction of the latent heat
of evaporation from the bulb. The drier the air the greater the rate of evaporation, and the larger
the amount of heat removed from the bulb. A large difference between dry and wet bulb
temperatures therefore indicates dry air, or low relative humidity. Alternatively, identical wet and
dry bulb temperatures indicate that no evaporation is occurring, that the air is saturated, and that
therefore the relative humidity is 100%.
The wet bulb temperature may be defined as the lowest temperature to which air may be cooled by
the evaporation of water.
The wet and dry bulb thermometers are collectively termed a hygrometer.
DEWPOINT
The dewpoint is the temperature to which a volume of air must be cooled at a constant pressure for
saturation to occur. This is not to be confused with wet bulb temperature
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Revision Questions
1.
An aircraft is at FL220 with the altimeter set. The pilot omits to reset the altimeter for
landing. The destination airfield has an elevation of 580m, with a QNH of 1026. 1 hPa. After
landing, the altimeter reads:
a)
b)
c)
2.
During an altimeter serviceability check, the following indications were observed. Airfield
elevation 5327, apron elevation 5 306. The altimeter with the QFE set reads 80. The
instrument error is:
a)
b)
c)
3.
increase
stay the same
decrease.
The earths weather changes are primarily due to one of the following:
a)
b)
c)
7.
You are flying at an indicated height of 2000 feet from a high pressure to a low pressure
system. It you maintain the indicated height your true height will:
a)
b)
c)
6.
absolute humidity;
relative humidity:
specific humidity.
5.
101
59
80
The amount of water vapour in a mass of air expressed as a percentage of the total amount
of water vapour that the mass of air could contain if it was saturated at the same
temperature and pressure, is known as the:
a)
b)
c)
4.
2 285
1 517
1 900
The amount of water vapour which may be held in suspension in the atmosphere depends
largely on the following:
a)
b)
c)
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8.
9.
10.
At 11:00 Z the pressure altitude at an airfield is 1 250 and the OAT is 32C.
At 22:00 Z the pressure altitude is 1750 and OAT 15C for the same airfield.
As a result. the density altitude will:
a)
b)
c)
15.
14.
1023hPa
1017 hPa.
1003 hPa.
13.
Wind velocity.
Temperature.
Rainfall.
12.
32C=0F
C=5/9(F-32)
F=5/9( C+32 )
11 .
ISA +20 C
JSA+15C
JSA+17C
Increase by 300.
Decrease by 1309.
Decrease by 750.
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16.
17.
18.
18883
22673
19116
6 946
7 268
7 590
Dewpoint.
Wet bulb temperature.
S.A.L.R.
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CHAPTER 2
STABILITY
The stability, or otherwise, of the air is one of the primary factors which determine the type of
weather experienced. A stable atmosphere will, depending on the temperature and humidity, give
either fine weather with clear skies, or widespread stratiform cloud with drizzle, or perhaps fog.
Alternatively an unstable atmosphere will give cumuliform cloud and showers, possibly heavy with
thunderstorms.
In order to assess the state of stability or otherwise of the atmosphere it is necessary to compare
the environmental lapse rate (discussed in Chapter 1) with the appropriate adiabatic lapse rate.
The meteorologist is able to make such comparisons on a special graph of temperature, humidity
and pressure values called a tephigram. The diagrams which follow are simplified versions of this
graph.
Adiabatic Lapse Rate
If a parcel of air moves vertically within the atmosphere the pressure exerted on the parcel by the
column of air above it will necessarily change, the pressure decreasing as the parcel rises and
increasing as the parcel descends. As a consequence of the changing pressure the temperature of
the air contained within the parcel will also change, the temperature falling as the parcel ascends
and rising as the parcel descends. The change of temperature which occurs solely because of
change of pressure is known as adiabatic heating or cooling as appropriate. When considering
adiabatic lapse rates it is assumed that no heat energy will flow between the parcel of air and the
surrounding environment.
Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate
The rate at which unsaturated (dry) air will change temperature, solely due to change of pressure,
when moved vertically within the atmosphere, is 3c per 1000 ft of vertical displacement.
On the next page you see a graph of altitude (vertical scale) against temperature (horizontal scale).
The height range shown is from mean sea level to 15,000 ft and the temperature range is from
30C to +30C. It is necessary to become familiar with the graph and its uses in order to
understand much of which follows. Locate the straight lines running diagonally from bottom right to
top left of the graph, the bottom left side being labeled DALR for dry adiabatic lapse rate. Check
that the lapse rate shown is in fact 3c/1 000 ft. For example the DALR line which starts at +30c
at MSL shows 15C a: 15,000 ft. A 15,000 ft change of height at 3C/1 000 ft is a 45c change in
temperature, which checks.
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Return now to the previous diagram and locate the curved saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR)
lines on the graph. Satisfy yourself that a tangent to the curves close to mean sea level gives a
rate of approximately 1.5C/1 000 ft, but at 15,000 ft the rate is closer to
2.5C/1 000 ft. due to the decreasing amount of latent heat released by condensation.
Stable Air
Stable air, by definition, is an air mass within which a parcel of air may be displaced vertically, and
will tend to return to its original level. An example of dry air in a stable state is shown below.
In this case the air is dry and therefore the parcel, which is lifted through 5000 ft, will cool at the
DALR. The parcel will therefore cool from +15C to 0C in this example. The environmental lapse
rate, the actual temperature of the air surrounding the parcel, is shown to the right of the DALR
line. At 5000 ft the ELR line shows the temperature of the free air to be +5C.
The lifted parcel is colder, and therefore denser, than the surrounding air. The parcel will
consequently sink back to its original level when the lifting force is removed. The air is therefore
stable.
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This time the lifted parcel of air is saturated throughout the ascent and has therefore cooled at the
SALR of 1.5C/1 000 ft in the lower atmosphere from +10C at MSL to +2.5C at 5000 ft. Again the
ELR lies to the right of the relevant adiabatic line. The parcel of air is colder and therefore denser
than its environment, and the parcel will sink once the lifting force is removed.
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The previous graph shows an ELR lying to the right of both the DALR and the SALR. In this
situation the atmosphere is stable, regardless of whether the lifted parcel of air is dry or saturated.
In either event the parcel will be colder and therefore denser than its environment at the top of the
lifting layer, and will therefore subside.
Unstable Air
The next graph shows dry air in an unstable state. Now the ELR lies to the left of the relevant
adiabatic lapse rate line, which in this case is the DALR since the air is dry and remains so
throughout its ascent within the lifting layer. At the upper limit of the lifting layer (in this case 5000
ft) the parcel of air is warmer and therefore less dense than the environment. The parcel will
therefore continue to rise, seeking air with an actually low density.
The next diagram shows saturated air in an unstable state. Now the ELR lies to the left of the
SALR and consequently a parcel of air which remains saturated throughout is assisted ascent will
be less dense than its environment on reaching the upper limit of the lifting layer. Again, therefore,
the parcel will continue to rise once the lifting force is removed.
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Absolute instability exists when the ELR lies to the left of both the DALR and the SALR. In this
event a parcel of air will be unstable and will continue to rise beyond the lifting layer regardless of
whether it be dry, saturated, or start dry and become saturated during its ascent within the lifting
layer. Absolute instability is shown below.
To complete the picture consider the situation where the ELR lies between the DALR
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and the SALR, as shown next. In this the air is said to be conditionally unstable. This is because
the air is only stable as long as it is dry. Very shortly after saturation occurs during the lifting
process the lifted parcel will become unstable.
Neutral stability exists when the parcel of air exists at the same density as the environmental air
surrounding it and therefore moves neither up or down.
SUMMARY
4 If ELR < SALR the atmosphere is always stable
4 If SALR < ELR < DALR the atmosphere is stable for
unsaturated air , but unstable for saturated air
4 If ELR > DALR the atmosphere is always unstable
**In cases where the ELR equals the SALR or DALR, the possibility
of neutral stability should be investigated.
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QUESTIONS
1.
2.
The saturated adiabatic lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate
because:
a)
b)
c)
3.
7.
Type of clouds
stratus
cumulus
nimbostratus
8.
Absolute instability;
Conditional instability;
Absolute stability.
6.
5.
4.
become stable;
become unstable;
will cause poor surface visibility.
Which are the characteristics of a cold air mass moving over a warm surface:
a)
b)
c)
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9.
10.
The type of cloud expected to form when unstable moist air is forced to rise
over a mountain is most likely to be:
a)
b)
c)
11.
16.
The structure and formation of different cloud types which form as a result of
air that is forced to rise depends upon:
a)
b)
c)
15.
14.
13.
What type of cloud is most likely to form under conditions of stable moist air:
a)
b)
c)
12.
Saturated air that is forced to rise will cool at an average rate of:
a)
b)
c)
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17.
If the SALR is 1.7C/1 000 and the ELR is 1.625C/1 000, then the
air mass is likely to be:
a)
b)
c)
18.
19.
Stable.
Unstable.
Conditionally unstable.
20.
Conditionally unstable.
Absolutely stable.
Absolutely unstable.
Absolute stability.
Absolute instability.
Conditional instability.
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CHAPTER 3
WIND
Wind is the horizontal motion of air. Wind velocity quantifies this horizontal motion in terms of the
direction from which the wind is blowing, and the speed at which it is blowing.
Buys Ballots law states that if an observer stands with his back to the wind low pressure is on
his/her right in the southern hemisphere, and on his/her left the northern hemisphere.
Wind which changes direction, either at one given point with the passage of time, or at one point
when compared with another, is said to veer or back, depending on the direction of the change.
When the wind direction changes in a clockwise sense (from 090 to 180) it is said to veer.
Conversely when the wind direction changes in an anticlockwise sense (from 330 to 27) it is said
to back.
Gusts of wind are increases in the prevailing windspeed of relatively short duration, measured in
seconds rather than minutes. They are generally confined to the air near the surface and result, for
example, from airflow around buildings. Similarly, a lull is said to occur when the windspeed
decreases for a few seconds.
The gust factor is often used to warn a pilot to expect turbulence associated with gusting surface
winds:
The gust factor=
x 100
If surface observations showed gusts of 35 kt and lulls of 15 kt the mean windspeed would be 25
kt. The range of fluctuations would be 20 kt and so, in this case, the gust factor would be 80%.
Squalls are also increases in windspeed, but now the increased windspeed is likely to last for
minutes rather than seconds. Squalls are normally associated with the passage of large
cumulonimbus clouds, especially when these contain active thunderstorm cells.
A gale force wind is said to exist, and a gale warning issued by the Meteorological Office,
whenever the windspeed measured 10 metres above the surface has a mean value of 34 kt or
greater, or is gusting to 43 kt or more.
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Geostrophic Wind
A geostrophic wind is the wind which blows at 2000 feet when the surface isobars are straight and
parallel. Geostrophic winds obey Buys Ballots law and must therefore blow parallel to the isobars
as shown .
The geostrophic wind blows along the isobars, rather than across them from high to low pressure,
because of the presence of the geostrophic force. The speed of the wind is governed by the
pressure gradient, which is indicated by the distance between the isobars, the closer the isobars
the steeper the pressure gradient and therefore the stronger the wind.
All unsteered bodies in motion over the surface of the Earth are subject to a deflecting force, to the
right in the northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere. This force is generally
known, when the unsteered body is moving air, as the coriolis force.
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Below shows how the geostrophic wind is established. A body of air will move initially in the
direction H-L under the influence of the pressure gradient (PG), which always acts at right angles
to the isobars. As soon as the body begins to move it becomes the veritable unsteered body, and
is subject to a deflecting geostrophic force (GF), which acts at right angles to the direction of
movement. The body of air therefore follows the curved path and, but for the continuing presence
of the geostrophic force, the particle would continue in a straight line. The geostrophic force
continues to deflect the air, however, along a curved path(real wind). This process is continued
until the air is moving under the influence of a balance between the pressure gradient and the
geostrophic force.
Since the pressure gradient and the geostrophic force are balanced, once the geostrophic wind is
established, they are necessarily equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The geostrophic
wind therefore blows parallel to the isobars with low pressure to the left in the northern hemisphere
and to the right in the southern hemisphere.
As latitude decreases the speed of the geostrophic wind increases for a given pressure gradient.
The fact that geostrophic wind speed (for a given pressure gradient) increases in magnitude as
latitude is decreased would suggest that, at the equator, the smallest pressure gradient would give
an infinitely strong geostrophic wind. In fact, the wind does not obey Buys Ballots law in low
latitudes, and the geostrophic formula is considered to break down within 15 of the equator. The
result is that, at low latitudes, the air moves across the isobars from high pressure to low pressure.
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Gradient Wind
The geostrophic wind blows at 2000 ft when the isobars are straight and parallel, however more
often than not isobars are not straight but curved.
Curved isobars surrounding both low and high pressure systems in the northern and southern
hemisphere are shown below. In each case the wind at 2000 ft will still obey Buys Ballots law, and
will therefore curve around the system to remain parallel to the isobars. A wind which follows a
curved path in this manner is termed a gradient wind.
The fact that the air follows a curved path indicates the presence of a third force in addition to the
pressure gradient and the geostrophic force. The third element is the centripetal force, which acts
inwards towards the centre of the system, and which constrains the air to follow a curved path.
The previous diagrams graphically shows the three elements of the gradient wind around a low
pressure system. The centripetal force is provided by the pressure gradient force (the air could not
follow a curved path unless it was moving, and the movement is itself caused by the pressure
gradient). Consequently the pressure gradient (in terms of its ability to generate wind speed) is
effectively reduced and this results in a reduction in the speed of the gradient wind. This means
that when isobars are curved cyclonically around a low pressure area the gradient wind is less than
the theoretical (or geostrophic) value for a given pressure gradient. To put it another way, given a
constant air density, latitude and isobaric spacing, the wind speed at 2000 ft will be lower when the
isobars are curved concentrically around a low pressure system than it would be were the same
isobars to be straight and parallel.
It should be noted that the above explanation, whilst something of an oversimplification, is an
accepted method of describing the gradient wind/geostrophic wind relationship for the purpose of
the CAA syllabus.
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Many people find it difficult to accept that, at a given latitude and with the same pressure gradient,
the wind around a high will be stronger than the wind around a low, however the statement is
correct for the same pressure gradient. Experience tells us that gale force winds occur around
depressions whilst the winds associated with anticyclones are usually light, however the reason for
this is that steep pressure gradients are found close to depressions (the isobars are tightly packed)
whereas slack pressure gradients normally exist in high pressure regions.
Wind at the Surface
We have now established that in a status quo situation the air at about 2000 ft will blow parallel to
the surface isobars. Furthermore we know that, if the pressure is changing, the isallobaric effect
will cause the air to tend to flow from high to low pressure. It is now necessary to consider the
effect of surface friction on the movement of air moving adjacent to the surface.
Below illustrates the relationship between a 2000 ft geostrophic wind and resulting surface wind in
the southern hemisphere. The wind at 2000 ft is shown as blowing parallel to the isobars since the
pressure gradient force is equal in magnitude but opposite in direction to the geostrophic force.
Taking this horizontal movement of air to the surface will cause the windspeed to decrease
because of surface friction. If the windspeed decreases so must the geostrophic force. At the
surface the pressure gradient is therefore greater than the geostrophic force and the wind tends to
blow in the direction of the stronger force, which is the pressure gradient. The wind at the surface
will therefore decrease in speed and back in the northern hemisphere, but decrease in speed and
veer in the southern hemisphere, when compared with the wind at 2000 ft.
The amount by which the surface wind will decrease in speed, and consequently change direction,
depends initially on the nature of the surface. The sea exerts only a small frictional retardation on
the air above, and therefore the speed of the wind at the surface is not changed dramatically
(perhaps a 25% reduction), and consequently the direction of the surface wind changes only a little
(perhaps only 15 removed from the 2000 ft wind, backed in the northern hemisphere, veered in
the southern hemisphere).
Over the land the frictional retardation is far greater than over the sea. The tendency is therefore
for the surface wind to be considerably reduced in speed and changed in direction when compared
with the 2000 ft wind above the friction layer. Unfortunately
the situation over the land is not quite so clear cut, and it is now necessary to consider
the effect of the mixing layer on the surface wind.
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There are basically two factors which will influence the degree to which the air at the surface will
mix with the air above. The first is the surface temperature, which will govern the amount of
thermal mixing. Over the sea the degree of thermal mixing will remain more or less constant by day
and night, because of the practically non-existent diurnal change in surface temperature.
Conversely, over the land the degree of thermal mixing is likely to be far greater a noon than at
midnight, especially with clear skies. This means that during the day the air at the surface will mix
with air above through a fairly deep layer. This reduces the difference in speeds between the upper
and lower levels and therefore causes the surface wind to veer (in the northern hemisphere) and
strengthen, when compared with the night time mean surface wind.
At night, during winter, over land, when a strong inversion has formed there will be little or no
mixing between the air at 2000 ft and the air at the surface, indeed the limit of mixing may be at
500 or 1000 ft. This could well result in a fresh wind at 2000 ft (above the inversion) and a calm
wind at the surface (below the inversion). When we consider the question of windshear we will see
that this marked change of wind speed can lead to problems for aircraft which are taking off or
landing.
The second important factor is the speed of the surface wind itself. The stronger the wind, and of
course the rougher the surface, the greater will be the depth of the mechanical turbulence mixing.
As with thermal mixing the deeper the mixing layer the smaller the deviation between the 2000 ft
wind and the surface wind.
Of the two contributing factors surface heating is the most significant, giving rise to a distinct
diurnal variation of wind velocity over the land, as shown.
Thus far we have considered the relationship between the 2000 ft wind (the geostrophic wind as
we have considered it, but equally the gradient wind, should the isobars be curved) and the surface
wind. We conclude by examining the differences in the wind at a higher level but still potentially
within the friction layer. The 1500 ft wind can be taken as a good illustration of this effect.
Over the sea the 1500 ft wind is likely to be close to the 2000 ft wind both by day and by night,
since there is little thermal mixing and any mixing layer caused by turbulence is very unlikely to
extend to 1500 ft. Similarly, over the land at night there is no thermal mixing and (since the surface
wind speed will have decreased in speed from its daytime high) the turbulence layer is again
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unlikely to extend to 1500 ft. Over the land by day, however, the stronger surface wind and the
thermal mixing from the warm surface will result in a mixing layer which could easily extend to
1500 ft.
Assuming this to be the case, the 1500 ft wind over the land is likely to be close to the 2000 ft wind
by night, but is likely to decrease in speed (and back in the northern hemisphere) as it mixes with
the surface wind during the day.
Local Winds
The preceding paragraphs have considered very much an idealised situation. It is now necessary
to consider the way in which certain features, such as coastlines, villages and hills, can affect the
flow of air in a localised situation.
Sea Breezes
During the day, the land surface temperature rises but the sea surface temperature remains almost
constant. Due to this differential surface heating, the pressure above about 500 ft over the land
rises, although the pressure at the surface is, for the moment, unchanged. There is now relatively
high pressure above 500 ft over the land and air flows out to sea, a gentle drift of one or two knots.
As air is being taken away from the land, the pressure at the land surface must now begin to drop
slightly. Conversely when air begins to accumulate at above 500 ft over the sea, the pressure at
the sea surface rises.
With high surface pressure over the sea and low surface pressure over the land, the air at low level
now flows from sea to land as a sea breeze, as illustrated.
In the fullness of time the sea breeze would turn to blow parallel to the coast line under the
influence of geostrophic force. By the time that the geostrophic force exerts its full effect, however,
the land is starting to cool and the sea breeze to diminish in strength.
Sea breezes are most likely to occur under clear skies in the summer and with a slack pressure
gradient to give otherwise light winds.
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In temperate latitudes, sea breezes reach a maximum speed of around 10 kt, although in tropical
latitudes the speed may be as high as 20 kt. As a rule, sea breezes do not extend more than 10 to
15 miles on either side of the coastline, and the breeze is confined to very low levels, diminishing in
speed rapidly above 500 ft to become negligible in most cases by about 1000 ft.
From an aviation point of view the primary significance of sea breezes is that they can sometimes
cause advection (sea) fogs to drift inland to cover coastal airfields briefly. Fortunately the high land
surface temperatures, which caused the sea breeze, will normally soon disperse the fog.
Convergence with the existing wind can result in convection cloud, creating a sea breeze front or
possibly even triggering a thunderstorm if conditions are suitable. In some cases, because the sea
breeze tends to be shallow, windshear can occur at coastal aerodromes.
Land Breezes
A land breeze is the breeze which blows from land to sea by night. It is effectively a sea breeze in
reverse, since by night the ground will be colder than the sea surface.
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Katabatic Winds
As a land surface cools at night the air in contact with it will also cool and consequently increase in
density. When this happens on sloping ground the dense air will tend to flow down the slopes as a
katabatic wind. The strength of the wind will depend upon the degree of surface cooling, and so the
strongest winds are likely at night under clear skies, especially with a snow covered surface.
A well known example of a vigorous katabatic wind is the Bora, an offshore wind blowing off the
high ground on the northern shores of the Adriatic. The wind sets in suddenly and frequently
reaches speeds of well over gale force, with gusts in excess of 100 kt.
Anabatic Winds
An anabatic wind is the reverse of a katabatic wind, but the air moving up the slope by day will be
travelling at a much more leisurely pace. Except near a coastline where the anabatic wind is
augmented by a sea breeze, it is seldom of any significance.
Valley Winds
Valley winds are also known as ravine or funnel winds. Air coming up against a mountain range
tends to flow around the edges rather than over top, especially if the air is stable. Where a valley
passes through the mountain range the air will tend to flow along the valley, even if the wind has to
change direction in order to do so. Where the valley is narrow, or converges, the windspeed in the
valley will increase sharply due to the funnelling or canalisation effect.
A change in the general pressure distribution which causes the free air wind to change direction by
as little as 20 or 30 may well cause the valley wind to change direction by 180 since this wind is
constrained to flow along the valley.
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The Mistral is a valley wind which blows down the Rhone valley as it passes through the Alps in
Southern France. It is significant to note that the enhanced speed of the Mistral is apparent beyond
the confines of the valley, persisting over the coast and into the northern Mediterranean.
Fohn Wind
If air is forced to rise over a mountain range, adiabatic cooling of the rising air will result. Initially the
unsaturated air will cool at the DALR, however if the ridge is sufficiently high, the air will cool to its
dewpoint. As the air continues to rise beyond this point condensation will occur and the air will
now cool at the SALR. Cloud will form and precipitation in the form of rain or snow on the windward
side of the mountain may result.
Assuming that the air is stable on reaching the top of the ridge it will descend on the lee side. If
precipitation has occurred on the windward side it will now be dryer and consequently the
condensation level on the lee side will be higher than on the windward side. Although the air will
heat initially at the SALR it will heat at the DALR from the condensation level downward. In
consequence the air will heat for longer at the DALR on the lee side than it cooled at this rate on
the windward side.
Furthermore the air has deposited a high proportion of its moisture content as precipitation on the
windward slopes. As a result a warm dry air blows beyond the ridge as a fohn wind.
The name originates in the Alps, however another example is the Chinook which blows in the lee
of the Rockies.
Berg Wind
The berg wind is very similar to the Fohn wind, but differs in that it is not the height of the mountain
that causes the temperature increase, but the long descent where the air warms at the DALR
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The conditions which favour the formation of standing waves or mountain waves are as follows:
(i)
A ridge of suitable dimensions, ideally with a gently sloping face on the windward side and
a steeply sloping face on the leeward side. A ridge height of 500 ft or more above the
surrounding terrain may give rise to standing waves, if the conditions which follow are met.
(ii)
A wind which is blowing perpendicularly to the ridge, plus or minus 30, with little change of
wind direction with height.
(iii)
A windspeed in excess of 15 kt at the top of the ridge, and increasing with height.
(iv)
A marked stable layer, ideally an isothermal layer or an inversion, between ridge height and
a few thousand feet above the top of the ridge, with less stable air above and below.
Mountain waves may extend for many miles downwind of the ridge, it can be up to 500 nm
downwind of the Andes, however 50 to 100 nm is more normal. The vertical extent of standing
waves is also considerable, on occasions extending well above the tropopause.
The average wave length of mountain waves in the troposphere is in the region of 5 nm although in
the extreme they may be much longer. A good estimate of the wavelength (in nautical miles) can
be achieved by dividing the mean tropospheric windspeed in the region of the wave formation by
seven, such that a 5 nm wavelength would be associated with a mean tropospheric windspeed of
35 kt. Where standing waves extend into the stratosphere the wavelength is likely to increase
above the tropopause.
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The depth of oscillation of an individual standing wave is considered in terms of the double
amplitude, which is the distance from trough to peak. In general the higher the ridge and the
stronger the wind the greater the amplitude of the resulting waves. The most severe conditions are
likely to occur when the wavelength of the wave coincides with the undulating terrain downwind
of the ridge. An average double amplitude is 1500 ft (giving vertical velocities in the order of 1000
ft/nm). An extreme case in SA might be a double amplitude of 2000 ft/nm, however in the USA
double amplitudes of 20,000 ft (giving vertical velocities of 5000 ft/nm) have been recorded.
In mountainous areas the wave formation may well be disturbed by the terrain downwind of the
source ridge, alternatively the wave formation may be disrupted by changes in the total airstream.
In either case the resulting wave breaking effect may result in transient but severe turbulence,
which is difficult to forecast.
The diagram previous shows the three distinct types of cloud associated with standing waves. Bear
in mind however that, if the air is sufficiently dry, these characteristic clouds may not be present to
act as a visual warning of standing waves. Alternatively, the standing wave clouds may be present
but obscured by other cloud systems, particularly frontal cloud.
Cap cloud may form on the windward side of the mountain in much the same way as with fohn
winds. This cloud is frequently carried down the lee side of the ridge by the wave formation as a
cloud fall or fohn wall.
With sufficiently moist air, rotor or roll clouds will form in the rotor zones. They may appear as
harmless bands of ragged cumulus or stratocumulus lying parallel to and downwind of the ridge,
but in fact are rotating about a horizontal axis which is the centre of the rotor zone. Appreciate that
the rotor zones are caused by the breakdown of the flow into violent turbulence and therefore roll
clouds should be avoided at all cost, not only because of the turbulence but also because of the
icing risk in the right (wrong) temperature band. The strongest rotor normally forms under the crest
of the first wave downwind of the ridge and normally at a level which is near or somewhat above
the ridge crest. There are not normally more than two rotor clouds in the lee of the ridge.
The wave motion of the air may produce lensshaped or lenticular cloud in the crests of the
waves. The cloud is forming as the air rises and cools through its dewpoint at the upwind end of
the crest and dissipating as the air descends and heats back through its dewpoint at the
downwind end of the crest. There is very little opportunity for the condensed water droplets to
encounter ice nuclei and therefore high concentrations of supercooled water droplets may give
serious icing problems at temperatures as low as 30C. Lenticular cloud normally appears up to a
few thousand feet above the ridge height but may be seen at any level in the tropopause and
perhaps even in the stratosphere. The outlines of lenticular cloud are normally smooth, often
appearing as a stack of inverted saucers, however ragged edges to these clouds should be taken
as a warning of turbulence, possibly due to wave breaking.
We have yet to consider jet streams, suffice for the moment to say that jet streams produce
turbulence and vertical windshears and that both can be greatly enhanced in intensity and extent
when a jet stream (which is a fast flowing tube of air just beneath the tropopause) is found in
conjunction with marked mountain/standing wave activity.
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The hazards associated with flight in standing waves are summarised below:
(i)
Loss of terrain clearance in the troughs of the waves and rotor zones.
(ii)
Severe turbulence in the rotor zones, especially in the first rotor zone.
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Whenever standing waves are forecast, or their presence is suspected, terrain clearance should be
increased significantly, and flight in cloud should be avoided. If the route cannot be conveniently
planned to avoid the area altogether, the track should be arranged to cross the ridge at right angles
from the windward to the leeward side.
Rotor Streaming
Rotor streaming. which should not be confused with rotor zones, occurs when very strong winds
are blowing more or less perpendicularly to a ridge, but now the strong winds extend through a
restricted depth when compared with the height of the ridge and diminish rapidly at some height
above the ridge, thus preventing the formation of standing waves and associated rotor zones. In
this event severe turbulence is likely downwind of the ridge, extending vertically from ridge height,
to perhaps two or three times ridge height. In addition to the cap cloud which may or may not be
present, rotor streaming may generate cumuliform cloud, which is likely to drift downwind, possibly
dispersing as it drifts away.
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Thermal Winds
A thermal wind is a component of the wind velocity at any given level which results from the mean
temperature difference between two adjacent air masses.
Take the concept down to a smaller scale and the drift of air from land to sea above a sea breeze
is an example of the effect of a thermal wind component.
Changing temperature leads to changing density which results in changing pressures at points
above the surface, and it is the pressure gradient which results in wind. A simplistic but useful
concept is of pressure being the weight of the column of air above a given point or level. If the
column expands upwards due to increasing mean temperature there will be a greater depth of air
above a stated level within the column than before. Consequently the pressure at this level will
have risen, and an upper air high pressure area now exists.
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The strength of the thermal component at any given level depends on the mean temperature
difference between two air masses and the height band over which the temperature difference is
considered (the greater the depth of air which is considered, the larger the thermal wind
component becomes for any given mean temperature difference). In temperate latitudes a formula
based on these two factors can be used to give an approximation of the strength of the thermal
component:
Speed of thermal
wind component
Mean temperature
gradient (0C per
100 nm)
The above formula serves as a useful approximation only. Questions involving the use of this
formula are not currently set in the examination. It does however serve to emphasise the important
point that the greater the difference in mean temperature of adjacent air masses, and the greater
the depth of air considered, the stronger the resulting thermal component.
Jet Streams
A jet stream is a ribbon of very fast moving air which occurs close to the tropopause. The ribbon
itself may be many hundreds of miles long, some 200 nm across and 2nms deep. Jet streams are
generally said to be present when the speed of air exceeds 60 kt, however speeds of 100 kt,
occasionally 200 kt, and exceptionally 300 kt, may occur. The principal component of any jet
stream is invariably the thermal component. When the geostrophic component is from
approximately the same direction as the thermal component the speed of the upper wind will be
even greater.
The polar front jet stream is the one which concerns us in Sth Africa. The polar front is discussed in
depth later on. Suffice for now to describe it as a definite interface of polar air to the south and
temperate air to the north. The mean position of this interface lies at a latitude corresponding to the
north of Zimbabwe in the summer, but the Cape Coastal regions in the winter. It is disturbances
along the front which gives us most of our bad weather in the form of polar front depressions and
their associated warm and cold fronts.
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As we have now established the thermal wind component will be strong when a significant
difference of mean temperature exists through a deep layer of air vertically, but over a short
distance horizontally. A distinct interface between cold polar air and warm subtropical air qualifies
admirably, hence the polar front jet stream.
Since the environmental lapse rate will tend to become isothermal above the tropopause the depth
of air which will give the greatest difference in mean temperature across the polar front extends
from the surface to the tropopause. It is for this reason that the jet stream associated with the polar
front occurs close to but just below the tropopause as illustrated.
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The tropopause occurs at a lower altitude in the cold air than in the warm air, the change of
height occurring fairly sharply at the front itself.
The interface (frontal surface) between the polar and subtropical air is sloping, with the cold
air undercutting the warm air.
The jet stream is denoted by isotachs, which are lines joining points of equal windspeed.
The core of the jet stream is located just below (normally less than 5000 ft below) the
tropopause in the subtropical warm air.
Since the wind is obeying Buys Ballots law, the cold air lies to the north of the warm air and
therefore the jet will be blowing from a westerly direction.
The isotachs are most closely packed together on the cold or polar air side of the core of
the jet stream and it is for this reason that the polar side of the jet is the likely location of
the most serious windshear and clear air turbulence.
Since a jet stream is often associated with fronts, the presence of cirrus cloud may serve as
an indication of the presence of a jet stream, particularly at a warm front, however jet
streams do not themselves generate cloud and frequently occur in clear air.
Over the Atlantic the movements of frontal systems means that position of the polar front jet stream
can move north or south from its forecast position quite rapidly.
Apart from very strong headwinds the major problem with jet streams is clear air turbulence (CAT).
Whenever adjacent streams of air are travelling at different velocities turbulence will occur. Within
a jet stream the speed of the air is changing rapidly with departure from the core, especially
towards the polar air side of the core. This is important. To avoid the clear air turbulence the best
course of action is to descend into the warmer air.
When CAT associated with jet stream activity is forecast a close eye should be kept on Doppler,
INS or GPS drift and groundspeed indications. When either are changing rapidly you are
approaching the jet stream and clear air turbulence is likely.
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The outside air temperature gauge can also give some warning. It is wise to strap the passengers
and crew in, since CAT can be every bit as severe as the turbulence experienced in heavy
thunderstorm activity. CAT is not only experienced with jetstreams, it can also occur above rapidly
building cumuliform cloud, in sharp upper troughs (and occasionally in upper ridges), and in rotor
zones and rotor streams which are devoid of cloud. Whilst it is unlikely that standing waves will
give CAT as such (other than in the rotor zone), the presence of a standing wave can intensify the
CAT associated with a jetstream flowing through the upper waves.
Jet streams occur anywhere where a strong thermal gradient exists between air masses. The
subtropical westerly jets which occur in each hemisphere between equatorial and
subtropical/temperate latitude air masses at about 30N and 30S are similar in structure to the polar
front jets. In the northern hemisphere summer are easterly jet stream also occurs at high levels
near the equator.
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QUESTIONS
1.
2.
The surface winds flow across the isobars at an angle rather than parallel to the
isobars due to:
a)
b)
c)
3.
The hydrometer.
The anemometer.
The anegraph.
The winds which blow from opposite directions in the summer and winter in
certain regions of the tropics are called:
a)
b)
c)
8.
7.
The force that acts at right angles to the wind causing it to flow parallel to the
isobars in the Southern Hemisphere is known as:
a)
b)
c)
6.
5.
surface friction:
Coriolis force;
the greater atmospheric pressure at the surface.
Winds at 5000 feet above ground level on a particular flight in the Southern
Hemisphere are north-easterly while most of the surface winds are easterly.
This difference in direction is primarily due to:
a)
b)
c)
4.
Trade winds.
Monsoon winds.
The doldrums.
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CHAPTER 4
AIR MASSES
An airmass is a large body of air whose properties are horizontally uniform with regard to
temperature and humidity and vertically uniform with regard to lapse rates. Its characteristics are
dependant on its origin.
CLASSIFICATION
Polar (P)
Tropical (T)
Maritime (M)
Continental (C)
Warm (W)
Cold (K)
NOTE:
The thermodynamically classification is compared to the surface over which it was moving.
SUPERIOR AIR
Air which originates in the upper atmosphere above permanent anti-cyclones. This air is
continually sinking and in so doing, becomes warm, stable and very dry.
FACTORS AFFECTING MODIFICATION OF AN AIRMASS
4 The characteristics of the area over which it moves after leaving the area of origin.
4 Speed at which it moves.
4 Diurnal variations e.g. a cold mass of air moving inland during the night will not be modified
as much as during the day.
4 Mechanical influences that cause mixing of airmass.
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QUESTIONS
1.
2.
Tropical Maritime Air moving over a warm land mass is most likely to produce:
a)
b)
c)
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CHAPTER 5
CLOUDS
In this chapter the various means by which cloud forms and dissipates are discussed. You will
learn to classify cloud by height and appearance. In the following section, dealing with Practical
Meteorology, you will learn how to encode and decode those shorthand notations of cloud
descriptions which are in common use (for example in the written form in TAFS and METARs, and
in diagrammatic form on synoptic charts).
Cloud
Cloud forms when condensation occurs. In the atmosphere hygroscopic nuclei are required in
order for the water droplets to condense. With an abundance of such nuclei, for example particles
of salt or sulphuric combustion products condensation can occur before the air has cooled
absolutely to its dewpoint. The consequent difference between the condensation level and the
saturation level is of academic rather than practical interest.
At very low temperatures cloud forms by the process of sublimation. In this situation the air
saturates at a sub zero temperature and the water changes state directly from vapour to solid ice
crystal state. For this process to occur ice nuclei are required.
It is because there are normally insufficient ice nuclei present in the atmosphere when the
temperature is only at least subzero, and therefore water vapour is still being released at a fairly
high rate, that supercooled water droplets occur. A supercooled water droplet is simply a droplet of
water which exists in a liquid state at a temperature which is below 0c, Cloud which is at a
temperature of 0c to 10c will consist predominantly of supercooled water droplets.. Between
10c and 40c the ratio of ice crystals to supercooled water droplets will increase, whilst at
temperatures below 40c only ice crystals remain.
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In order for air to be cooled to its dewpoint (or frost point) one or more of the following processes
must occur;
4 net loss by conduction to the cold surface of the earth
4 loss of heat by radiation from the air
4 adiabatic cooling due to ascent of the air
The first of these processes will result in the formation of dew or hoar frost or, with a little
turbulence mixing, fog or mist. This is in effect cloud at the surface, however a freshening of the
wind may cause the fog or mist to lift into the low cloud.
Direct cooling by radiation from the air itself, or more correctly from the water vapour contained in
the air, may contribute to the condensation process but is unlikely to be the sole cause of cloud
formation. It appears therefore that, apart from the lifted fog situation, all cloud forms due to the
adiabatic cooling which results from the vertical movement of air.
This vertical movement may result from any one (or a combination of two or more) of the following;
4
4
4
4
turbulence
orographic ascent
convection
widespread ascent, such as that caused by air converging at a warm, cold or occluded
front, or within a depression.
There are basically two types of cloud, heap or cumuliform cloud, and layer or stratiform cloud. The
type of cloud which forms when air becomes saturated depends upon the type of lifting process
and stability of the air. If you have read and understood chapter 2 you should appreciate that
unstable air will give cumuliform cloud, whereas stable air will give stratiform cloud.
Cumuliform cloud is characterised by its marked vertical development. Clouds may be scattered
with blue skies between, or may lie in a continuous line, as occurs at a cold front. Cumuliform cloud
gives showery precipitation which is often heavy, and the risk of turbulence and icing. The greater
the vertical development of the cloud, the greater are the risks inherent in flying through the beast.
Stratiform cloud forms in more or less uniform sheets, often with clear air between the layers. The
precipitation associated with this kind of cloud is more likely to be continuous and light or moderate
rather than heavy. Severe turbulence is rare in layer cloud and the rate of ice accretion is normally
low or moderate rather than severe.
Helpful Hint !
To work out the height of the cloud base, find the difference in the
wet and dry bulb temperatures, and multiply the number by 410.
You have now found the cloud base height above ground in feet.
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Cloud Classification
Cloud is classified in two ways, according to the height of the base, and according to the
characteristic appearance.
The table at below gives the heights of the base of low, medium and high cloud.
The tables on the next pages give a generalised description of the various types of cloud
formation, together with an outline of probable associated precipitation and significant
weather.
Cu, Cb and Ns are, by definition, low cloud, since the base height occurs below 7,000 feet. The
first of the three, cumulus cloud, may well be contained within the first 7,000 feet of the
atmosphere, especially in its fair weather form. Cumulonimbus and nimbostratus clouds,
however, commonly straddle two or three of the height bands. It is for this reason that these clouds
are commonly given their own subclassification, as low cloud with a marked vertical extent.
Prefixes are used to denote high cloud (cirro), medium cloud (alto) and rain bearing cloud (nimbo).
Upper cloud does not extend much above the tropopause. As the height of the tropopause
decreases towards the poles so do the tops of the upper cloud levels.
You will already have encountered a cloud description which is not mentioned in the preceding
tables, namely lenticular (or lenticularis) cloud which is often associated with standing waves.
Another cloud description which is worthy of note is altocumulus castellatus cloud. This is medium
cloud with a distinctive turret or tower like appearance, and often occurs in rows or lines.
Castellatus cloud is associated with instability in the middle atmosphere and, like lenticular cloud,
is worthy of note because of the possible high icing risk. Since altocumulus castellatus is indicative
of middle atmosphere instability, its presence is often an indication of the likely development of
thunderstorms.
Finally, there are two other cloud types which occur at very high altitudes. The first is noctilucent
Cloud, which is found at the 80 km level (260,000 ft) and is believed to consist of ice crystals. The
second is nacreous cloud, which occurs at sunset at altitudes of between 20 and 30 km (65,000
and 98,000 ft). Because of their colouring, these clouds are sometimes known as mother of pearl
clouds, in any event neither of these cloud types significantly affect the weather within the
troposphere.
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Family or
Group
HIGH
CLOUDS
(5 to 13
km)
MEDIUM
CLOUDS
(2 to 7 km)
LOW
CLOUDS
(from the
surface to
2 km)
CLOUDS
WITH
VERTICAL
DEVELOPMENT
Type or Genus
Cirrus
Abbrev. of
name
Ci
Composition
Cirrostratus
Cirrocumulus
Cs
Cc
Altocumulus
Ac
Altostratus
As
Stratus
St
Water droplets
Stratocumulus
Sc
Water droplets
Nimbostratus
Ns
Cumulus
Cu
Cumulonimbus
Cb
Ice Crystals
Ice Crystals
Ice Crystals or water
droplets
Water, ice or snow
particles
Precipitation
None
Seldom, if any,
only slight rain
or snow
None
None
Light or
moderate rain or
snow.
Usually none, if
any, only drizzle
or light snow.
Seldom
Continuous rain,
the name
implies rain from
cloud
Only localised
showers when
clouds in
advanced stage
Rain showers
and / or hail,
squalls and
thunder.
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52
Turbulence Cloud
The formation of a turbulence (or mixing) layer as air moves across the surface was
discussed in a previous chapter. Below diagrammatically shows the effect of vigorous mixing
within a stable layer of air, the ELR of which was originally 1C/1 000 ft, extending from the
surface to 3000 ft.
The air within the friction layer has become thoroughly mixed and, due to adiabatic cooling
and heating, the ELR has been modified, changing from its original stable rate to, in this case,
3C/1 000 ft. Rather than complicate matters, it has been assumed in this example that the
mixing within the turbulence layer has not resulted in the air being cooled to its dewpoint, and
the subsequent formation of cloud. Suffice to say that, if the air had been cooled to its
dewpoint due to mixing, the ELR above the condensation level would have tended towards
the SALR, whilst the ELR below the cloud would have tended towards the DALR.
The effect of mixing is always the same; the ELR tends towards the appropriate adiabatic
lapse rate. The more thorough the mixing the greater will be the modification of the original
ELR towards the adiabatic rate. Note the marked inversion which characteristically occurs at
the top of the mixing layer.
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The mixing process and the subsequent redistribution of heat within the layer is assumed to
be self contained, so that heat is neither gained nor lost by the process. The mean
temperature in the layer is the same after mixing as it was before. The steepening of the
lapse rate therefore results in the warming of the air in the lower levels and cooling near the
top of the layer.
The moisture contained in the air within the turbulence layer will become evenly distributed
throughout the layer due to mixing. If the air contains sufficient moisture, the mixing and
cooling may cause the air to become saturated within the layer, and cloud will form from the
condensation level to the top of the mixing layer. Below shows such a layer of cloud. Note
that the top of the cloud will be flat, the vertical motion of the air being effectively arrested by
the inversion which has formed at the top of the mixing layer.
The cloud so formed will rarely exceed three or four thousand feet in depth. The base height
of the cloud will depend on the depth of the mixing layer, which is itself dependent on the
windspeed and the nature of the surface, and on the moisture content of the air. The cloud
will either be stratus (with lighter winds and moist air) or stratocumulus (with stronger winds
and drier air).
Turbulence cloud will occur when the following conditions are fulfilled:
4 The turbulence is active enough to cause the ELR within the mixing layer to tend
towards the DALR.
4 The air is sufficiently moist, so that saturation occurs within the layer, once mixing has
occurred.
4 The ELR above the mixing layer is stable (otherwise the air will continue to rise and
cumuliform cloud will result).
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Turbulence cloud can only form when the surface air is sufficiently humid. A cold surface will
obviously serve to raise the relative humidity of the air in contact with it. Over parts of SA this
type of cloud often forms in the late evening when turbulence persists whilst the ground cools
rapidly, raising the relative humidity of the air. For the same reason, the base height of
existing turbulence cloud will often lower during the evening.
Alternatively, turbulence cloud may form after sunrise following a clear night with low surface
temperatures, although in this case the cloud is unlikely to persist once the surface
temperature rises, however, when the cloud layer is thick, surface heating will be slow and
cloud dispersal delayed.
Heavy precipitation is unlikely from turbulence cloud, however a sufficiently thick layer of
stratocumulus formed in this way may give drizzle or light flurries of snow with sufficiently low
temperatures.
Flight conditions which are likely when flying in or near turbulence cloud are summarised
below:
4 Above the cloud flight will be smooth in the stable air and visibility will be good.
4 Within the cloud light or occasionally moderate turbulence is likely, visibility will be
poor and above the freezing level (which will be modified by the mixing within the
layer) airframe icing will occur.
4 Below the cloud the light or occasionally moderate turbulence will persist and visibility
will be poor due to the dust which is lifted by the mixing and subsequently trapped
below the inversion.
Convection Cloud
Turbulence cloud derives its name from the fact that it is the turbulence which causes the
mixing which gives rise to the cloud. Similarly convective cloud is so called because the
trigger action is convective. With this type of cloud the vertical extent is dependent very much
on the ELR, possibly from the surface to the tropopause.
The point in question in the preceding sentence is the point at which the surface temperature
will increase to a value such that the adiabatic line passes to the right of the upper air
inversion. Now the cloud development is rapid and a point of neutral stability may not be
reached, in the extreme, until the isothermal layer above the tropopause is reached. In this
event it is probable (in temperate latitudes) that the top of the cloud will occur at a height
where further condensation or sublimation is inhibited by the lack of water vapour in the very
cold air, rather than at the point where neutral stability is achieved. It should be appreciated
that, in this case, turbulence will be experienced above the cloud, since the air is still rising.
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The instability illustrated above has occurred because of convection due to insolation. The
resulting cumuliform clouds necessarily form only over the land and only by day. Convective
cloud may however form due to advective convection.
If cold air moves over a warm surface, the air at the surface will heat advectivelv. If this
advective heating is sufficient, convective instability will result. The clouds thus formed may
occur over land or sea and by day or night. The height of convective cloud is again primarily
governed by the depth of the instability layer. If this layer is only a few thousand feet thick,
then fair weather cumulus will develop. If instability exists through 10,000 feet or even 20,000
feet then towering cumulus or cumulonimbus clouds will form, given that the air is sufficiently
moist.
The marked instability associated with cumuliform cloud of marked vertical extent gives rise
to strong vertical currents of air; to the formation of large water droplets; and to the
characteristic heavy shower activity.
The composition of a cumuliform cloud will be liquid water between the condensation level
and the zero degree isotherm. Between 0C and -10C the cloud will consist almost entirely of
supercooled water droplets, giving significant airframe icing problems.
Between -10C and -40C the cloud will consist of a mixture of supercooled droplets and ice
crystals with the proportion of ice increasing with increase of altitude and consequent drop in
temperature. With temperatures below -40C the cloud is composed entirely of ice crystals
and now the column like appearance of the cloud often breaks down. The ice crystals at the
top of the cloud tend to drift downwind giving the anvil which is often seen at the top of
towering cumulus and cumulonimbus. It is possible that a cumulonimbus will become an
active thunderstorm cloud, and thunderstorms are discussed in a following chapter.
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Orographic Cloud
The causes of orographic cloud formation are, generally speaking, the same as for turbulence
cloud, however the effect of the surface turbulence is magnified. It might be imagined then
that orographic cloud will be predominantly stratiform in nature. This is often the case,
however a greater depth of air is affected and consequently the lapse rates and moisture
content of the air at greater heights must be considered.
Consider the behavior of air which is flowing perpendicularly to a ridge rising 3000 feet above
the general surface level. The surface air will be forced upwards through 3000 feet, similarly
the air which was at 3000 feet will be physically lifted to 6000 feet. Here then is a case where
a whole mass of air, rather than an isolated pocket or parcel of air, is physically lifted and of
course cools adiabatically. This will alter the ELR of the air within the lifted layer, possibly
causing a previously stable air mass to become unstable.
Assuming that the air is moist and that saturation occurs during the lifting process, the state
of stability of the lifted air will determine the type of cloud which forms. If the air is stable after
lifting the cloud will be stratiform in nature, If the air is unstable after lifting then cumuliform
cloud will form, the depth depending on the thickness of the instability layer, and the amount
of moisture present in the air. A Fohn wind (the warm dry wind on the leeward side of a ridge)
results from orographic cloud formation. The cloud in this case is stratiform; the air is stable at
the summit, which is why it readily flows down the leeward side. It is the loss of moisture as
precipitation falls out of the cloud which gives the characteristically dry air downwind of the
ridge.
By comparison the violent thunderstorms which sometimes occur over the Alps in Europe are
another example of cloud which is predominantly orographic in nature. Here the air is most
definitely unstable after lifting.
Frontal Cloud
The cloud associated with frontal systems is discussed in a subsequent chapter. Suffice for
now to say that the gentle uplift of air associated with warm fronts tends to give predominantly
stable conditions and consequently a wide band of stratiform cloud. The steeper interface of a
cold front gives a more pronounced uplift of the warm moist air ahead of the front and now
cumuliform cloud is the norm.
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QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
6.
5.
4.
Cu;
St or Sc;
Ac.
The type of cloud usually caused by air rising over a hill is:
a)
b)
c)
Cirrocumulus.
Altocumulus.
Stratus.
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CHAPTER 6
VISIBILITY
Visibility is a measure of the transparency of the atmosphere. More practically it is a measure
of the distance at which significant objects or features can be seen and recognised. By
definition it is the maximum horizontal distance in a particular direction at which a dark object
of certain dimensions can be seen against a light background such as the horizon sky by an
average observer. When visibility varies with direction, the lowest value is measured.
It is often possible to see lights, or shiny objects reflecting strong sunlight, at distances which
are beyond the stated visibility, especially if they contrast with their surroundings.
Visibility reported at night is that value which would be given by day in the same conditions of
transparency of the atmosphere. Lights of known intensity are observed, and an allowance
made for that intensity. The range at which the light can be seen is thus converted into
equivalent daytime visibility.
Meteorological visibility as defined and discussed above has serious limitations as far as
pilots are concerned. Haze, mist and fog all tend to be layered, so that visibilities at different
levels may be very different. Furthermore light coloured objects wont be seen against a sky
background until the range is considerably less than the published visibility (why is it that so
many gliders are painted sky blue?). Flight visibility (which is relevant when assessing VFR
criteria) is defined as being the visibility forwards from the flight deck.
Further problems exist when looking obliquely at the ground, through layers of fog, mist or
haze, and these situations are discussed later on in the chapter
Obscuring matter which will reduce the transparency of the atmosphere, and therefore
visibility, may be classified as follows:
4 Fog.
4 Mist.
4 Cloud.
4 Precipitation.
4 Sea spray.
4 Smoke.
4 Sand.
4 Dust.
4 Fog
FOG
Fog is cloud at ground level. It exists, by definition, if the surface horizontal visibility is
reduced to less than 1000 metres due to the presence of water droplets which are held in
suspension in the air.
Fog normally forms where conductive cooling from a surface below the dew point
temperature of the air occurs. Radiation and advection fogs are attributed to this method of
cooling. Fog can also form if additional moisture is supplied to the surface layer of air. This
occurs when precipitation is followed by evaporation which increases the relative humidity in
two ways. Firstly the water vapour content of the air is increased as the moisture evaporates,
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and secondly the heat energy required for the process of evaporation is taken from the air,
thereby lowering the temperature.
Mist
Mist is thin fog The definition is as for fog except that the visibility is now 1000 metres to 5000
metres.
Haze
Haze is defined as a reduction of surface horizontal visibility, but not to below 1000 metres,
due to solid particles held in suspension in the air. Were the visibility to drop below 1000
metres, the nature of the obscuring matter would be specified, as, for example, smoke or
dust.
Smoke Fog
With smoke fog the visibility is reduced to less than 1000 metres, with the obscuring matter
being a combination of water droplets and solid particles which are produced as a by product
of combustion.
Radiation Fog
Radiation fogs will only form over land since a significant diurnal variation of surface air
temperature is a prerequisite of this kind of fog. Remember that, under clear skies and with
light winds, the diurnal temperature graph follows a downward curve from around 1400 LMT
to dawn the following day. If the air is sufficiently moist, the cooling air will pass its dewpoint
and the moisture will condense out as visible water droplets.
The ideal wind speed for creating the turbulence necessary to support the water droplets is
two to eight knots. Exceptionally, there may be sufficient turbulence to form and maintain fog
even when the surface wind is reported as calm. At wind speeds of 10 kt and above fog will
either tend to disperse, by mixing with the drier air above, or lift to form low stratus.
The requirements for radiation fog to form are therefore:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)
Moist air.
A land surface.
Clear skies.
Light wind.
Hygroscopic nuclei.
The longer the night and the lower the temperature the more likely is the formation of
radiation fog, which is therefore most frequent in the Southern African regions in late autumn,
winter and early spring, although radiation fog may occur at other times. Radiation mist is a
fairly common feature around sunrise on a bright summer morning.
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Radiation fogs are most prevalent over lowlying ground, especially where there is a
moisture source such as a marsh, lake or river. Fog which forms on hillsides will tend to drift
downwards under the influence of katabatic drainage.
The synoptic conditions favouring the formation of radiation fogs are anticyclones, ridges and
cols, which tend to provide the necessary clear skies and light winds.
Radiation fog may form in the late afternoon, or at dusk, or at any time during the night. The
fog will form whenever the ground cools the air in contact with it to below the dewpoint,
providing that the wind speed is within the critical limits.
Radiation fog frequently forms rapidly shortly after sunrise following a night with clear skies
and calm wind conditions. Remember that two to eight knots of wind are required to give
radiation fog. Since the conditions have been calm through the night, the condensation has
caused a heavy dew, however at sunrise the wind will tend to strengthen. Add to this the
thermal mixing as the sun heats the ground and excites the surface layer of air and, quite
suddenly, a radiation fog can form.
Radiation fogs normally disperse in the opposite manner to which they form. After sunrise,
the suns rays penetrate the fog and heat the surface. The surface warms the air to above its
dew point and the fog evaporates into the air as vapour. If the fog is too thick, however, or if a
layer of cloud covers the sky once the fog has formed, it is likely that dispersal will be
delayed. Indeed, the small amount of thermal turbulence and the slight diurnal increase in
windspeed experienced under these circumstances may serve to thicken the fog rather than
disperse it. Once this situation has developed, the fog is likely to persist until there is an
increase in surface wind velocity to greater than 8 kt, or a change to a drier air mass.
Radiation fog rarely exceeds a few hundred feet in depth, which is the usual depth of the
mixing layer caused by light winds.
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Advection Fog
The cooling processes involved in advection fog is provided by the movement (or advection)
of warm moist air over a cold surface, the temperature of which is below the dewpoint of the
air. Advection fog, unlike radiation fog, can and does form readily over the sea as well as the
land.
Hill Fog
Hill fog is simply low cloud which is covering high ground. The presence of the high ground
may or may not have contributed to the presence of the cloud.
Frontal Fog
Both radiation and advection fogs are described as air mass fogs since they depend on
cooling taking place within an extensive and more or less uniform mass of air. By contrast,
frontal fog occurs at the surface position of the interface between two adjacent air masses.
Frontal fog may form in one of two ways. The frontal cloud may come down to the surface as
the front passes a given point. This is more likely to happen over high ground. Alternatively
the increase in moisture due to the frontal rain may cause saturation resulting in
condensation. This type of fog is most likely to occur at a warm front or warm occlusion.
Steam Fog
As you can see steam fog forms when cold dry air blows over a warmer surface, that being
either a warm water surface, or warm moist land such as a swamp or marsh. It can also form
over the arctic regions over water, and is caused by very cold very dry air from the ice pack
blowing over the relatively warmer ocean surface. A relatively light wind is required to form
steam fog inland, but a steam fog over sea may form and actually increase in depth and
distribution with a strong wind (ie >15kt).
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A different problem exists when the visibility through the fog exceeds the vertical depth of the
fog. In this case the pilot might be reassured, since the runway is clearly visible on the
downwind leg. As seen, however, the runway will not again become visible until a very late
stage of the final approach.
It is unwise to attempt a visual approach to land if this involves descending into an obscuring
layer of fog, mist or haze without visual contact with the runway.
Visibility is better looking out of sun rather than looking into sun in the situations previously
described. This is principally because of the glare factor. Conversely, looking into moon will
give better visibility than looking out of moon, principally because of the better contrast.
Visibility in Cloud
Visibility in cloud varies with the cloud type. In cirrus, the visibility may exceed 1000 metres
whilst in cumulonimbus the visibility may be no more than 10 metres.
Visibility in Precipitation
Visibility in rain depends on the size of the raindrops and their concentration. Heavy tropical
rain may give a visibility of only 100 metres, whilst heavy rain in temperate latitudes may limit
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the visibility to 1000 metres. Moderate rain gives a visibility of between 3 and 10 kilometres.
In drizzle, the visibility is often seriously reduced, especially if mist is also present.
Heavy rain can affect a pilots perception of distance from the approach or runway lights by
diffusing the glow of the lights and causing them to appear to be less intense and therefore
more distant than is actually the case. Alternatively rain on the windscreen can cause runway
lights to bloom and double their apparent size, causing them to appear to be much closer
than is actually the case.
A heavy rain shower moving towards an aircraft making a visual approach to land can cause
a shortening of the pilots visual segment, which is that distance along the surface visible to
the pilot over the nose of the aircraft. This may produce an illusion that the nose of the aircraft
has pitched up. The natural response should be guarded against, since it would involve
lowering the nose of the aircraft and/or reducing power.
Snow reduces the visibility considerably, typically down to 1000 metres or less in moderate
snowfall but down to between 200 metres and 50 metres in heavy snowfall. Drifting snow will
give similar visibility to falling snow.
Visibility in Smoke
The incomplete combustion process in a fire, be it domestic, industrial or natural, introduces
solid carbon particles into the atmosphere. The larger particles will soon settle on the surface,
however the smaller particles will remain in suspension in the atmosphere.
The resulting reduction in visibility will depend on the rate of introduction of the combustion
waste into the atmosphere, the rate of dispersal, and the distance of the observer from the
source of pollution. The problem will be the greatest in, and downwind of, industrial regions.
The dispersal of smoke may occur either vertically, horizontally, or both. With an unstable
atmosphere, the obscuring matter will be carried upwards. Conversely, with an inversion the
obscuring matter will be effectively trapped beneath the inversion and the visibility will be
poor. In such conditions, the top of the inversion layer will be clearly defined by a marked
improvement in visibility in the air above. In extreme cases a haze horizon will be apparent
when looking down on the inversion from above at a shallow angle.
The wind is the principal factor governing the horizontal rate of dispersal of smoke, the
stronger the wind, the better-the visibility.
When carbon combustion waste is introduced into an inversion layer already affected by mist
or fog, smoke fog results and the visibility is now seriously reduced. Such smoke pollution
occurs in industrial regions and increases the frequency, density and persistence of the fog
layer.
Visibility in Dust or Sand
Dust and sand is raised into the atmosphere by the wind. Larger sand particles will normally
only rise to twenty or thirty feet, giving the classic dust storms of North Africa and fog like
levels of visibility. Dust storms, or Haboobs, frequently occur in the Sudan in the gusty winds
under cumulonimbus clouds.
Air mass dust storms, again prevalent over North Africa, present a very much less localised
condition than the Haboob. Now smaller dust particles are carried up to three or four
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thousand feet, and the visibility may be reduced to 300 metres or less over hundreds of
square miles.
Finally, it should be appreciated that even with good in-flight visibility, the absence of a
natural horizon may lead to serious disorientation problems.
Runway Visual Range
During a takeoff run or when approaching to land the pilot requires information concerning
the distance at which he may expect to see the runway markers or the runway lights as an
aid to visual orientation. An assessment of meteorological visibility is, by definition, of limited
value to the pilot under these conditions. One way in which the pilot is provided with a more
pertinent assessment of the visibility is by passing him the Runway Visual Range, or RVR.
RVR is defined as the maximum distance at which the pilot may expect to see the runway
lights or runway markers, during a takeoff or landing ground roll, from a point five metres
above the touchdown point.
RVR may be assessed by an observer stationed 76 metres from the centre line of the
runway, abeam the touchdown point. The observer sights and counts (in the direction of
landing) The numbers of the runway markers, runway lights or special reference lights
positioned at known intervals that he can see. Using tables, this number is converted to RVR
and passed to the pilot. Using this manual system, RVR is assessed and passed to the pilot
whenever the meteorological visibility is less than 1500 metres.
Instrument Runway Visual Range systems (IRVR) are used at major airports to assess RVR
automatically using transmissometers. These instruments measure the atmospheric opacity
along the runway using a beamed light source of known intensity which is shining at a
photoelectric cell some four feet away. A problem arises with IRVR in that the fog may be
patchy and an IRVR meter measures localised visibility. This problem is overcome by
positioning one instrument at the touchdown end of the runway, one at the midpoint, and
one at the upwind end of the runway, IRVR reports are passed when the visibility falls below
1500 metres, or when the observed IRVR is at or below the maximum assessable value for
the equipment in use, or when shallow fog is forecast or reported. Between zero and 200
metres the RVR is reported in steps of 25 metres; between 200 and 800 metres in steps of 50
metres; and between 800 and 1500 metres in steps of 100 metres.
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QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
b)
c)
7.
The 0500 METAR from an airport indicated no clouds with a temperature dew point
spread of less than 20 C. At sunrise you can expect:
a)
b)
c)
6.
the advection of colder air under warm air, or the advection of warm air over
cold air;
terrestrial radiation on a clear, relatively still night;
wide-spread sinking of air resulting in heating by compression.
5.
warm moist air over low, flat areas on clear, calm nights;
warm, moist air moving over a cold surface;
cold air moving over a warm surface.
The most frequent type of surface based temperature inversion is that produced
by:
a)
4.
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8.
What are the characteristics of advection fog, radiation fog and steam fog:
a)
b)
c)
9.
10.
The fog type most common along the West coast of South Africa is:
a)
b)
c)
11.
Radiation fog results from cooling the air to its dew point, while advection and
steam fog require the addition of moisture to the air near the surface through
evaporation.
Advection fog deepens as wind speed increases up to 20 knots, while steam
fog requires calm or very light wind, and radiation fog forms when the ground
or water cools the air by radiation.
Radiation fog is restricted to land areas, while advection fog is most common
along coastal areas and steam fog forms over a water surface.
Advection fog.
Radiation fog.
Guti fog.
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CHAPTER 7
PRECIPITATION
The moisture released from cloud is termed precipitation and may take the form of water in
either its liquid state, rain, or its solid state, snow or hail. Precipitation is classified in
meteorology according to its size, shape, composition, and duration. When water vapour
condenses onto hygroscopic nuclei within a cloud the droplets so formed will initially be 0.02
mm or less in diameter. The smallest droplets reaching the surface as rain will be of
approximately 0.2 mm in diameter and the largest approximately 5.5 mm in diameter.
Obviously then the condensed water droplets must have grown in size within the cloud before
falling out as precipitation. The mechanics of growth are described in the two theories of
precipitation.
Coalescence Theory
This theory suggests that rain drops form because minute condensed water droplets collide
with each other and therefore increase in size. The problem with this theory is that, since the
upcurrents in a given cloud will be fairly uniform, all water droplets will tend to travel upwards
at a constant speed and therefore coalescence (or collision) is unlikely to readily occur. Once
a differential in water droplet size is established the theory becomes easier to swallow, since
now the heavier droplets will travel upwards at a slower rate than the smaller droplets, and a
chain reaction is now established.
The coalescence theory offers the only explanation as to how precipitation forms in cloud
which is wholly at a temperature of above 0C.
The Ice Particle Theory
The ice particle theory, otherwise known as the Bergeron process, suggests that ice particles
must be present in the upper part of the cloud before precipitation can occur. If the cloud is
forming up to heights where the temperature is below freezing, some of the water droplets
carried up will freeze on to ice nuclei. The proportion of frozen droplets will increase towards
the top of the cloud as the temperature drops further below 0C.
According to the theory in question the ice crystals grow in size due to sublimation and to
collisions with supercooled water droplets. Eventually the ice crystals become too large to be
supported by the upcurrents and they begin to fall through the cloud. During the descent they
become larger still, due to further collisions with liquid water droplets. Depending on the
temperature the precipitation which started its descent from the top of the cloud as an ice
crystal will leave the base of the cloud either as rain or as snowflakes.
The coalescence theory offers no explanation for the formation of snowflakes. The ice particle
theory offers no explanation for the formation which occurs from clouds which are wholly at
temperatures above 0c. It would therefore appear that the two theories are complementary.
The size of raindrops, however formed, is proportional to the upcurrents present in the rain
bearing cloud. This is one reason why not all clouds give precipitation. If the upcurrents are
very weak the water droplets falling out of the cloud will be very small, and will totally
evaporate within the unsaturated air beneath the cloud before reaching the surface.
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Water droplets, or ice particles, will be held in suspension in the cloud until they grow to such
a size that the terminal velocity of the raindrop exceeds the velocity of the upcurrent
attempting to support it. The table below shows the relationship between droplet size and
terminal velocity. Note that the maximum droplet size quoted in the table is 5.5 mm, and that
a vertical upcurrent of 30 feet per second is required to hold a droplet of this size within the
cloud. Vertical velocities of this magnitude are not uncommon in large cumulonimbus cloud.
Stronger upcurrents will not result in larger water droplets falling out of the cloud as
precipitation, since these larger droplets will break up due to air resistance during their
descent.
Diameter
(mm)
0.02
0.1
1
2
3
4
5.5
Terminal
Velocity
0.04
0.8
12
21
26
28
30
(ft/sec)
Rainfall is classified as drizzle if the size of droplets reaching the surface is less than 0.5 mm.
As the size of the droplets increases moderate rain is said to be falling, whilst heavy rain
occurs when the droplets are approaching maximum diameter (5.5 mm). There are no clearly
defined parameters to distinguish between the various categories, although drizzle is often
defined as being rain which is so light that it causes no appreciable pattern to be formed
when it falls upon a still water surface.
The duration of rainfall is important. Continuous rain is self-evident, however there is a
distinct difference between intermittent rain and showers. With intermittent rain, the sky
remains cloudy between periods of rainfall, whilst with showers the sky clears between the
periods of precipitation.
If precipitation fails in the form of ice (other than hail) three forms are classified, and
these are roughly related to size:
(i)
Small grains of opaque white ice, normally less than 1 mm in diameter, form granular
snow.
(ii)
Crystals in the form of needles, normally about 2 mm long, are known as ice needles.
(iii)
Sleet occurs when rain and snow fall together, or alternatively where snow partially melts as it
falls.
Hail is again precipitation in the form of ice. Soft hail consists of white opaque pellets rarely
exceeding a few millimeters in diameter. It falls predominantly from cumuliform cloud in
shower form during cold weather.
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True hailstones, or hard hail, are hard pellets of varying sizes, frequently with a structure of
concentric layers of alternating clear and opaque ice. Hard hail is normally associated only
with instability cloud of considerable depth. The ice particle theory of precipitation formation
suggests that an ice crystal initially forms the core of any precipitating matter. With hail it is
believed that, in the upper parts of the cloud where there is a scarcity of supercooled water,
the ice particle grows in size only slowly. Here air is trapped as a new layer of ice forms
around the original ice particle giving an opaque appearance to the ice layer. The hail stone
now descends into the lower cloud where there is an abundance of supercooled water.
Another layer of ice forms rapidly. Without trapping any air, and so this layer of ice will be
clear or transparent.
Should the magnitude of the up draughts now increase the hail stone will be carried upwards
once again and the whole process repeated.
In the case of a large cumulonimbus cloud in temperate latitudes the building process may be
repeated often enough to give hail stones approaching 1 cm in diameter. At lower latitudes
hail stones the size of golf balls occur, in South Africa stones of this size can and do
devastate acres of crops in minutes, and cause considerable structural damage.
In equatorial regions hail occurs only rarely at surface levels, because of the higher ambient
temperatures which melt the hail before it reaches the surface.
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CHAPTER 8
FRONTS & PRESSURE SYSTEMS
Fronts
As we have just seen in, the development and movement of large homogenous air masses
dominate the weather over large areas of the surface of the Earth. These carry with them the
thermal and humidity characteristics of their source region, although they will be modified
(especially in the lower levels) by the surface over which they are advected. It is inevitable
that these large air masses will come together as they move over the surface of the Earth. It
is equally inevitable that, when they meet they will have very different thermal, stability and
humidity characteristics. At first the zone of meeting will cover a long distance but as the air
masses move towards one another, the transition from one to the other will become sharply
marked. This sharp zone of transition is called a front.
The front so formed has a profound influence on our lives. It is on fronts that our most
frequent weather systems (frontal depressions)are generated. We will look t these in detail in
a later chapter
By the end of this chapter you will be able to describe the process of formation, the
associated structure, movement, aviation weather (including local influence of the terrain) and
wind-conditions associated with:
warm front
cold front
occluded front
troughs and
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We talk about a front when the frontal surface intersects the ground surface. It is the front that
is forecast by the meteorologist after having conducted an analysis of the surface weather
charts.
The frontal surface is not just a narrow line but is actually a zone of transition from one air
mass to the other, the frontal zone. Its width varies between 60 - 90 miles at upper levels,
while 30 - 50 miles are normal values at the ground surface.
The slope of the frontal zone depends on the motion of the air masses and the difference of
temperature (density) between them. When the two air masses are drawn together and the
contrast between them increases the front forms and we talk about frontogenesis. The
opposite is called frontolysis.
The front concept was introduced in 1918 by J. Bjerknes and was further developed by
Bergeron, among others, in something called the Bergen school. At this time the number of
observations was small and the quality mostly poor, at least as far as the upper levels were
concerned, so the Bergen school created an idealised model of a frontal system.
Observations have gradually improved, but it was not until the 1960s that the front models
were modernised. With satellites constantly taking pictures and Doppler radar dissecting
cloud systems, new front models have been introduced, much owing to an Englishman by the
name of Browning.
The fact that two air masses adjoin each other does not necessarily mean that there is a welldefined front between them. Great contrasts in temperature and/ or humidity over a short
distance are also required. Such sharp contrasts do not arise suddenly, but several
processes are in progress during a longer period of time (day /days).
The frontogenesis is a fairly complicated process and is outside the scope of this text. Here
we will confine ourselves to illustrating a weather situation, where the wind pattern sharpens
the temperature contrast between two air masses and cause a frontogenesis.
In the chapter on Pressure systems is there a simplified description of the development of
an extra-tropical cyclone along the Polar front.
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Fronts, Definitions
Warm front:
Cold front:
Occluded front:
front
Stationary front:
We will return to the different fronts further on in the chapter. On the weather charts the
various fronts are marked thus:
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Front Principle
When the forces have operated long enough, all the oil will be floating on top of the water,
and the pressure gradient force will have ceased. Applying this illustration to the weather, the
cold front has overtaken the warm front, and the warm, less dense, air will be overriding the
cold air - the front has occluded.
In the atmosphere wind does not blow from higher towards lower pressure but parallel to the
isobars. Two air masses, one warm and the other cold can thus adjoin each other with the
cold air as a wedge under the warm air, without the cold air being further pressed in under the
warm air. A state of equilibrium will develop, where the slope of the frontal surface depends
on the difference in temperature and the wind on both sides of the front.
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Now suppose we replace the air to the right of the wall A - B with a wedge of cold air, as if it
were a front. Seen sideways we get the right figure with warm air to the left and the wedge of
cold air to the right. Since the cold air has greater density than warm air, a hypothetical pillar
of air, X, will be lighter than a pillar, Y, in the figure above.
Let us now draw the figure again with the warm air mass seen from above, and replace the
air to the right of the wall A - B with the wedge of cold air. We then get the following pressure
picture. The line A - B in this case represents a front.
The new pressure picture shows that a front is situated in a trough, and this is where we
always find the fronts - in more or less well-developed troughs.
When the front A - B moves towards an observer at point C, the air pressure will first be
falling, until the front has arrived at C and then it rises again. Imagine a motion from C
towards D in the figure above. The bending of the isobars also indicates that the wind will
veer when the front passes the observer, from SW to NW in our example.
On a recording barometer, a barograph, we will get a very clear indication of a frontal
passage. We would see a continuous fall of pressure as the front approaches. When the front
passes through, the fall of pressure will stop and then the pressure may start to rise again.
The change of pressure during the last three hours, the pressure tendency, is among other
things used to trace fronts and, on the weather chart, the tendency can be plotted as an
isallobaric field. Did you remember that an isallobar is a line joining places that show the
same value of barometric tendency at the same level and over the same period of time?
Regions where the pressure is rising more than elsewhere are marked as rise regions or
isallobaric highs, and those with falling pressure are marked as fall regions or isallobaric
lows..
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vector to the lower wind we can see that, with increasing height, the wind will back.
Vs
Vu
VT
front)
At the cold front we will see the same effect and if we carry out the same reasoning we will
see that the wind at this front will back as we climb.
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Here we can state that if a warm front approaches an observer from west towards east, the
upper level clouds will approach the observer from a northerly direction. When the cold front
has passed and continues eastwards, the high level clouds associated with it will move from
a southerly direction.
These changes are what you could expect in an idealised situation. However you must keep
in mind that, in the study of meteorology, no two situations are identical. The conditions will
change from day to day and from locality to locality. Some of these changes may be masked
by other effects and will not appear.
We will now look at the conditions associated with fronts.
The Warm Front
When the warm air is overtaking the cold air, it will ride up and over the heavier cold air while
advancing. The cold air forms a wedge in below the warm air. The slope of the frontal surface
is gentle or 1/100 - 1/150 on an average. (The warm front can be compared to the bows of an
icebreaker, which slides up on top of the ice and then presses it away. This results in a
descending air motion in the cold air).
The movement of the warm front can be estimated from the isobar spacing along the front. If
we measure the spacing using the geostrophic wind scale along the warm front according to
the figure, the movement of the front is about 70% of the wind speed read from the scale.
This gives the vector velocity of the front in a direction of movement perpendicular to the
front.
This simple rule of thumb is only valid when the estimated movement is about 8KT or more.
The average speed of the warm front is 20KT (10-30), but deviations may be great. That is to
say, the front will pass about 24 hours after you have seen the first Ci clouds.
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Above shows a simplified picture of a warm front. This is the idealised view of what it could
look like out at sea or over level areas. Over broken terrain deviations may be great due to
surface heating or cooling and mechanical effects.
The first clouds we see when a warm front is approaching are cirrus clouds (Ci) often around
FL 250-350. After that we find clouds at lower levels as the cloud veils grow more dense and
turn into cirrostratus at Fl 200-250. The thickness of these layers varies from case to case,
but it is generally a question of several thin layers of ice clouds. It is often possible to catch a
glimpse of the ground through these clouds while flying on top.
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Closer to the front the clouds grow more compact and from FL 150-200 and downwards there
are mostly compact clouds with only thin layers of clear sky in between. Depending on the
distribution of temperature altostratus clouds consist of ice crystals, supercooled water
droplets (0 -15) or ordinary water drops. Precipitation starts to fall but it usually evaporates
before it reaches the ground. In winter can it create hazardous icing conditions if its rain that
falls into air with subfreezing temperatures below the warm front.
As the precipitation reaches the ground the cloud will have developed into a nimbostratus and
the cloud base has lowered to about FL 60- 80. The distance from the surface front is now
about 150- 200 miles. The slow and smooth lifting at a warm front generally produces
precipitation of moderate and constant intensity. Below the nimbostratus clouds there are
stratocumulus and stratus clouds developing at all possible levels.
The area of precipitation, about 200 miles wide, occasionally turns into frontal fog and drizzle
20 - 50 miles ahead of the frontal passage at the ground surface and Instrument
Meteorological Conditions are very likely.
Behind the warm front, in the warm sector, the sky will change radically and the upper-level
clouds will vanish. What remain are the typical warm air mass clouds and weather at low level
(stratus/stratocumulus etc.) and some inversion clouds at altitude, as e.g. sheets of
altocumulus (Ac).
Differences
Dry warm air
If the warm air is very dry, it must be lifted to high level before condensation occurs. In these
cases only medium-high clouds (As, Ac) and high clouds (Ci, Cs) are generated, and any
precipitation that may form will not reach the ground but appear as fall streaks (virga).
Unstable warm air
If the lapse rate in the ascending warm air modifies to an unstable condition, convective cells
will form as the warm air is lifted along the frontal surface. The Cb clouds are not visible from
below, but the intensity of the precipitation generally increases. At altitude, however, the Cbcells are clearly visible. In this case we say that the Cb clouds are embedded in the rest of
the mass of clouds and they lead to increased precipitation locally.
Sometimes so-called rain bands occur, which are temporary increments of the intensity of the
precipitation. In practice it appears, that there are usually two bands of more intense
precipitation, one associated with the leading edge of the precipitation and another just ahead
of the ground front.
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Flying
conditions
warm
in a
front
In a warm front extensive cloud systems exist both vertically and horizontally. Flying close to
or through a warm front therefore always involves a lot of instrument flying. Turbulence is
generally light, except for the very transition zone, where more severe turbulence may exist
locally. If embedded Cbs occur, ordinary Cb-weather will prevail with severe turbulence,
possibly hail and thunder.
Nimbostratus clouds may cause severe icing in a young front when there is a maximum
amount of supercooled droplets, or in the winter over the sea, where the water content
always is great. Exactly as in the case of Cb-clouds, the icing intensity will decrease when the
cloud has drained itself of some of its humidity content.
It is wise to avoid flying through frontal clouds within the temperature interval 0- 5C since in
this layer there often exists a mixture of large supercooled drops and snow flakes. This leads
to a high risk of severe icing if your luck is out. You should also keep in mind that, if the front
is being driven against high ground, the additional orographic lifting will cause an increase in
the liquid water content of the cloud and a consequent intensification of the icing.
Visibility in the cloud masses varies, but in those parts of the cloud where precipitation
occurs, flight visibility will be very limited, and if the drops are large, they will splash against
the windscreen reducing visibility to nil.
The size, number and speed of the precipitation droplets will also influence the visibility below
clouds. In general we will have to allow for a flight visibility significantly worse than the values
specified in METAR and MET REPORT.
Stratus clouds often form in connection with precipitation. Fog, so-called frontal fog, also
forms in situations where warm rain occurs. The uplands will nearly always be affected by low
stratus associated with warm front rain.
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Remember that below the surface of the warm front there is a wedge of cold air. If the
temperature of this air is below 0, the raindrops will supercool and the risk for severe icing
even outside the clouds will be great. If the raindrops have time to freeze, ice pellets appear
on the ground, but there is still a great risk for severe icing in layers just above the ground.
Passive cold front, slow moving cold front, weak cold front or cold kata-front
At a passive front the warm air is slowly lifted, and the cloud system looks like that of a warm
front turned the wrong way. The slope of the cold front, however, is much steeper closest to
the ground, which leads to the formation of convective cells at the leading edge of the front
(see fig. below). Then follow the warm front clouds, turned the wrong way. Ns - As - Cs - Ci
and in the area of precipitation stratus may form and, once in a while, fog - if the winds are
light enough. If the warm air in front of the cold front is dry and stable stratified the cloud
layers associated with the front might be reduced to dense layers of Sc and Ac.
Note in the figure that the major part of the precipitation area will end up behind the front
itself, but that the most intense precipitation will be found associated with the front. The
precipitation area is 100 - 150 miles broad, and the front is moving with a speed of 10 - 15
KT.
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In association with the occlusion process upper fronts also form. These indicate the old
boundaries between warm and cold air. At many weather service stations these upper fronts
are analysed and marked with a broken red line or a hollow warm front indication to signify an
upper warm front, and a broken blue line or a hollow cold front indication signifying an upper
cold front.
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On a surface weather chart, an occluded frontal system show three typical fronts joining
together in the occlusion point or triple point. Those are the occlusion front, the cold front
and the warm front.
After the occluding process has persisted for a while, the contrasting air masses will become
equalised, and the weather system is beginning to dissolve. An old occlusion therefore
seldom constitutes any major problem as to flying weather at altitude, but stratus clouds may
still exist at low level.
Back-bent Occlusions
Sometimes the low pressure centre remains close to the occlusion point and the occluded
front twists around the low. This is known as a back-bent occlusion and it can appear as a
new warm or cold front sweeping down behind the occluded low.
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Cloud amount at height increases in front of the warm front. The stability in the cold air
below the approaching warm front increases and the convective clouds turn into
stratocumulus. At height will the tropopause levels increase.
The extensive warm front rain creates cloud formation at lower levels and stratus and
fog can occur.
Inside the warm sector, the humidity and stability of the air and the
temperature
contrast in respect to the surface determine the weather conditions. But usually in
this area stratus, advection fog and drizzle are
common.
The cold front is associated with showery precipitation now and then with hail
thunderstorms.
Just behind the cold front is the convection reduced due to sinking motions and higher
cloud levels reducing the insolation. The low level weather is often clear but winds
might be gusty.
Further away from the front is convection blooming up and showers develop. This
area shows the typical cold air mass signs.
The travelling ridge of high pressure in between the frontal depressions stabilises the
weather pattern, convection turns into scattered stratocumulus below the subsidence
inversion. Winds calm down and radiation fog might develop over land during the
nights.
and
Cold air, however, is being forced towards the Equator, so the track of the subsequent frontal
waves is moving further south all the time.
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Secondary Fronts
A front is the boundary between two different air masses. Sometimes differences in
temperature and humidity arise within the same air mass, and we then talk about a secondary
front.
Secondary fronts mostly occur in the cold air behind a low pressure, when the air, which is
moving south, passes over different underlying surfaces, land or sea. During its motion over
water the air picks up humidity, and becomes somewhat unstable as the temperature at low
level rises.
If air moving over land encounters airflow from the sea, a front is generated and the warmer
air rises. But the process is limited both horizontally and vertically and mostly affects only a
narrow zone. However, the weather can be intense with steady precipitation and low cloud
bases.
Trough
We sometimes find troughs, in addition to the frontal troughs, around depressions. In a trough
the wind converges at low level. This leads to the strengthening of an initially ascending air
motion. If the humidity is sufficiently high, the lifted air condenses, forming convective clouds
with rain-showers. Moreover, if the air mass is initially unstable, bands of very intense Cbs
form along the trough. Most troughs are found in the cold air behind the frontal low. The cold
air from the north is advected down over a warmer, underlying surface and is destabilised
before the high pressure ridge between the lows begins to affect the weather.
Flying weather in a trough line
Violent Cbs should always be regarded with great respect, and the Cb clouds are usually
exceptionally intense along trough lines resulting in thunder, hail and severe turbulence. The
figure illustrates how a trough line often sweeps down into the cold air behind a cold front or
an occluded front. A hooked line marks the trough line.
Squall Lines
Ahead of convective cells of cumulonimbus, there is an outflow of cold air (downdraft or gust
front). If the warm air which is forced aloft is moist and unstable or in a state of conditional
instability, very intense Cb cells rapidly form which will prevail over the mother cloud. The Cb
tops of the recently formed cells are initially much lower than the original clouds, but the
weather becomes more intense and downdrafts of the downburst type occur. Over larger
continents tornadoes may form. After a short while (15 - 30 minutes) the proportions of the
new Cb clouds may become significant.
Ahead of a cold front or a trough line the outflow of cold air can be fairly uniform and at about
the same distance from the mother clouds a line of new CB clouds forms - a squall line.
Mountain Effects On Fronts
When a warm front passes a mountain range, the air, which is lifted over the mountain, will
strengthen the formation of clouds and the precipitation on the windward side.
Moreover, the retreating cold air may be trapped between the mountain and the frontal
surface. The result is that the warm front sometimes seems to halt in front of the mountain,
(stau in the Alps). On the leeward side the air is being adiabatically heated as it subsides,
which brings about decreasing precipitation and occasionally cloud dispersal - Foehnopening.
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Not until well beyond the mountain does the frontal surface resume its original appearance
with clouds and rain similar to the conditions prevailing before the passage of the mountain.
To the observer or meteorologist, it seems that the front has come to halt then dissolved. It
then suddenly reappears out of the blue a distance beyond the mountain. The many
forecasting problems mostly show as vaguely formulated TAFs (Terminal aerodrome
forecasts) in the area.
Note that flying weather deteriorates radically on the windward side of the mountain, and you
had better prepare for possible Cb-weather if you intend to fly through the front.
If the air on the leeward side is cold and heavy it may persist, and the warm air glides away
as an upper air mass and an upper front. Once again the meteorologist will meet problems,
since the change of air mass will not appear in the observations from the ground.
A cold front lifted over a mountain is always strengthened
In winter, the air behind the mountain may be colder at low level than the approaching cold air
mass. The cold front then passes the top of the mountain and continues as an upper cold
front (cf. with the warm front).
If the coldest air is found behind the cold front, the extra speed given to the cold air downhill
may strengthen the cold front some distance behind the mountain, where the warmer air is
pushed up, forming a Cb cloud.
We mentioned earlier that a frontal passage does not always imply an expected temperature
change. Here below are three such cases:
Cold Front Leading To an Increase Of Temperature
There is often a strong wind and heavy turbulence behind a cold front. If there is a ground
inversion with low temperatures ahead of the front, it will disintegrate, and the passage of the
front will marked by an increase of temperature.
Warm front passage that does not lead to an increase of temperature
In wintertime with snow and well-developed ground inversions, this inversion sometimes
persists even after the passage of the warm front. On the surface weather map it is not
possible to notice any change of temperature or dew point after the frontal passage.
Another example occurs on warm and sunny summer-days, when the growing cloudiness
ahead of the warm front prevents insolation and thus lowers daily temperatures. The cooling,
due to precipitation, will further reduce the temperature.
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Weather
AHEAD IN THE
COLD SECTOR
Veers and
strengthens
Falls steadily
AT THE PASSAGE
OF THE FRONT
Backs and weakens
BEHIND IN THE
WARM SECTOR
Direction steadies
Rises
Steadies
Falls steadily
Remains steady
Slowly rises
Good except in rain
or snow
Ci, Cs, As, Ns, Fra,
St, Fra Cu, below As
& Ns
Continuous rain or
snow
Rises
Often mist or fog,
poor
Low Ns and Fra St
Precipitation nearly
stops or does stop
Intermittent drizzle or
none
AHEAD IN THE
COLD SECTOR
Sudden Veer and
strengthens
becoming equally
Little change
AT THE PASSAGE
OF THE FRONT
Suddenly Backs and
perhaps a squall
BEHIND IN THE
WARM SECTOR
Veer after squall or
backs later in more
squalls
Little change
Fallls
Steady but drops in
pre frontal rain
Steady but drops in
pre frontal rain
St, or Sc Ac As then
Cb
Drizzle
Rises suddenly
Rises suddenly
Dew Point
Temperature
Pressure Tendency
Temperature
Visibility
Cloud types
Weather
Suddenly falls
Falls suddenly
Cb with Fra St and
Fra Cu or low As
Heavy rain, snow,
hail, maybe thunder
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Pressure Systems
On the weather charts there are different types of pressure systems with different names
depending on how the systems are generated. As a well-educated pilot you should know how
these differences form and what sort of weather is typical for the various pressure systems.
By the end of this chapter you shall be able to
Describe the formation and properties of:
The air pressure may vary considerably between different places on earth. These pressure
differences are of decisive importance to the Earths weather and winds. On the charts of the
weather service we find the pressure pattern, delineated by the isobars, enclosing areas of
different pressure;
Some very old ships barometers, and most barometers that are displayed in homes, declare
that low pressure means rain and storm and high pressure calm and sunny weather. These
simple declarations were the results of many years experience compressed into one
measurement and a simple forecast. In this chapter we present the various pressure
systems. The old sailors were not so far wrong in their assumptions, even if conditions are
somewhat more complicated than they thought.
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When we study the vertical airflow in a high pressure cell, we see mass convergence at
height and divergence at low levels creating a descending air movement or subsidence within
the core of the anticyclone with an outflow at low level. The subsidence is checked at some
height above the ground, due to the thermal mixing in the surface layer and a subsidence
inversion is formed. The height of the subsidence inversion depends on the intensity of the
anticyclone, the thermal mixing and on the distance from the core. Values from 2000 to 5000
feet are not unusual for cold anticyclones while warm anticyclones can show values up to FL
100.
Above the boundary layer, the wind blows in a right-hand circuit parallel to the isobars. In the
boundary layer, friction slows the wind down and it will blow at an angle out from the centre.
The outflow at the bottom leads to a sinking motion of air through the high, and the air is
compressed and adiabatically heated. The result can be seen as a subsidence inversion,
within which the temperature rises significantly and the humidity decreases. Note, in the
Southern Hemisphere the rotation is reversed.
The air above the inversion is dry, while the air below may or may not be humid depending on
the circumstances that prevail. Air pollutions collect below the inversion, and this leads to an
impairment of visibility in the stable air in the lowest levels. If the airflow is such that the
inversion persists for a day or so, clouds will probably form in the inversion.
At high latitudes, the increased loss of terrestrial radiation due to the drying at height creates
nocturnal inversions at the ground level and large areas with Sc and St clouds may form in
maritime air masses.
In the winter these clouds may persist for several days, making VFR-flights impossible and
cause poor weather for IFR-landings.
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When the humidity is high and the lower levels are cold, there is a great risk of fog forming
below the subsidence inversion.
In the summer or at lower latitudes the clouds often dissolve during the day and reform at
night. They are mostly Sc clouds. If the air below the subsidence inversion is unstable or
conditionally unstable, Cu may form below the inversion in the day.
In continental air masses the humidity content is lower, but in spite of that, visibility is mostly
limited below the inversion. If the air passes major lakes or a sea, it will rapidly absorbs
humidity, which leads to the formation of clouds.
In the same way, the maritime air mass will dry out with an extensive passage over a major
land surface.
Flying weather is generally good above the subsidence inversion, that is, it is cloudless and
good visibility values.
High Pressure Types
There are two main high pressure types, depending on whether they consist of warm or cold
air. We assume, that the distribution of temperature is symmetric around the centre,
otherwise the system will slope and we wont get a true presentation of the pressure.
Subtropical Highs (Warm Anticyclones)
These highs are caused by air from the equatorial regions streaming northwards
(southwards) at altitudes around the Equatorial tropopause. They are deflected to the right
(left), which generates the subtropical jet and an accumulation of air around the 30 latitude
north (south). At low level the air pressure increases and there is a return flow out from the
system. Within the subtropical highs there is subsidence from aloft and the centres consist of
warm air. The subsidence inversion in these cells is sometimes called Trade inversion.
These anticyclones are often stationary or very slow moving (more or less a seasonal
movement) and are therefore referred to as permanent highs.
Towards the Polar side of the centre itself, the high pressure is clearly visible on the 500 hPa
charts (FL 180) in the summer. In the winter, however, the high may be difficult to identify
above 700 hPa (FL 100) at the same latitude.
The air below the subsidence inversion is humid and unstable, above it is dry and stable. The
weather is dominated by a Cu-sky below the inversion.
The height to the inversion varies within the high pressure cell. The highest values are found
in the western parts nearest the Equator (5000 7000 Ft) and the lowest in the north-eastern
part ( 1500 2000 Ft). This is the reason why Tropical showers are more likely to develop in
the western part of an ocean than in the eastern.
On its way to the north the low-level air normally picks up large amounts of humidity. At the
same time, as the sea temperature decreases, the air is cooled from below and, in the winter,
this frequently leads to vast areas of low clouds, drizzle and fog when the air reaches the
southern African coastline.
In the summer the anticyclone occasionally is intensified over the North Atlantic. This causes
lows and their associated rain areas to move in a wide arc north of Scandinavia, forming a
blockage (a blocking high) with dry and sunny weather over western Europe.
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When the last depression in a series has passed, a major outbreak of cold air generally
occurs, which creates a cold high. This high is north of the subtropical high pressure cell in
the polar air (if we talk about the polar front, which is the most common position). In this case,
the subtropical high pressure cell will weaken and the thermal high will intensify and replace
the subtropical high. After a while, however, the cold air will be heated and transformed into
tropical air, and the air masses and pressure distribution will have returned to their original
positions. We call this regeneration.
Low, Cyclone or Depression and Trough
In a low the isobars are normally closely spaced, resulting in windy weather except in the
centre where the wind is calm. The air is sucked in at low level (convergence) and is then
forced aloft and cools adiabatically. If the air is initially humid, this general lifting leads to
condensation and the forming of clouds
Above the boundary layer, the wind follows a left-hand circuit parallel to the isobars. Friction
acts as a brake on the wind in the boundary layer, and the wind blows at an angle towards
the low pressure centre. The result is a general lifting of the air within the low pressure area.
In a low pressure area convective movements, if any, will be strengthened, and Cb-clouds
are likely to form if the air is or becomes unstable. However, even if the air is stable, clouds
will form if the air is humid enough, and in this case there will be extensive stratiform cloud
layers. Visibility at low level is generally better than in an anticyclone, due to a stronger
mixing of the air.
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A.
Dynamic = cold low
The low is deepening at altitude and the winds are increasing
B.
Thermal = warm low
The low is weakening aloft and turns into a high pressure
E.g. the Asiatic warm low
The adiabatic cooling (due to the expansion of the air) generally leads to extensive
cloudiness in the whole low pressure area. At our latitudes there is a transport of unstable
cold air in the northern and western parts of the low, while there is an airflow of more stable
warm air in the southern and eastern parts. Showers are therefore more frequent in the
north-western parts of the low. Apart from the showers, visibility is often good in the low. If the
lifted air is sufficiently humid, extended As / Ac layers with embedded areas of light rain may
form.
The Origin Of Low Pressures And Weather
From the aviation point of view there is a better grouping than dynamic and thermal, and we
usually consider the following different types and sub-divisions:
Non-frontal depressions:
Orographic lows
Thermal lows
Summer lows over land or
Monsoon low
Equatorial low or trough
Instability lows
Winter lows over sea
Mediterranean low
Polar low
Baltic Sea low
Cold air pool
Tropical revolving storm
Easterly waves
Whirlwind or Tornado
Frontal depressions
Orographic or lee-side lows or troughs
When a current of air flows towards a mountain range, especially one with north-south
orientation, the barrier will force the air to compress on the windward side and over the
mountain and the air will thereafter stretch on the leeward side of the mountain. From the air
circulation point of view, there will be a tendency for anticyclonic curvature over the mountain
with closely spaced pressure surfaces, and on the lee-side there will be a clearly visible
cyclonic curvature.
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This leads to falling air pressure, and a low forms on the leeward side of the mountain. This
is known as a lee-depression or a lee-trough. The lee-trough is usually stationary as long as
the air stream remains the same and no deepening low forms.
These figures show how orographic lows may form.
The lee-low causes the pressure surfaces to slope down towards the mountain, and over the
mountain the pressure surfaces are closely packed. This may be a flight safety risk in itself, if
the margin between the flight level and the height of the obstacle is small.
Behind the mountain, foehn winds prevail, and the weather is generally fine (or at least better
than in the surroundings), but humid air may be sucked into a lee trough giving clouds and
sometimes also precipitation.
When a cold front encloses warmer air on the leeward side of the mountain, this generally
leads to a rapid development of the system. The low will deepen and intense cumulonimbus
clouds will form.
When the cold air sweeps round the sides of the mountain and across it, the warm air on the
leeward side will act as a warm sector and a wave forms on the front.
This wave normally develops rapidly. This leads to an occlusion-like process, and the storm
moves away from the mountain.
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Thermal depressions
Thermal depressions form over warm surfaces, which in most cases consist of a continent or
some other major land area. The heated air rises through convection and turbulence, and
after a while a high pressure aloft is formed. This causes an outflow of air and the air
pressure at the ground decreases, similar to the sea breeze system but on a larger scale.
There is an influx of air towards the ground low and an ascending motion is generated,
strengthening the convective clouds in the area, if any.
Thermal depressions are often sub-divided into
Monsoon low
Summer lows over land
Equatorial low or trough
The most predominant thermal depressions are the monsoon low pressures in Asia, the
Equatorial low pressure belt and the summer lows in south-western USA and north-east
Africa. However, lesser heat lows are very common on the weather charts in the summer.
The smaller cyclones are shallow and dont affect weather to any greater extent.
We will deal with the weather in the Equatorial trough and the monsoons in a separate
chapter and here we will concentrate on summer lows.
If the air is dry, the heat lows mostly bring good flying weather with slight cloudiness and
moderate to good visibility.
When the air is humid, however, convective clouds of the CB-type are likely to form, and
some heat thunderstorms or squalls will also appear. This is a rather common feature in
France and on the Iberian Peninsula. Thermal lows generated in these areas may drift
towards north-western Europe and Scandinavia.
Remember that extremely warm weather affects flying in many ways. The high temperatures
result in lower density and therefore reduced aircraft performance. From the physiological
point of view, the warm and humid weather may in the long run cause heat stroke, and
prolonged exposure to this type of weather can adversely affect the pilots performance.
Instability lows
If large scale organised convection takes place, resulting in convective clouds and
precipitation, within an area where there already initially is a lee-low, a development may take
place that looks similar to a thermal low. This is an instability low.
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The same process that created the thermal low, i.e. heating, also influences the instability
low. The difference is that in this case a significant part of the energy is derived from the
released latent heat of the condensation process. According to the hydrostatic equation,
heating causes the distance between two pressure surfaces to increase. As a result of this a
high pressure is generated aloft resulting in an outflow of air and falling pressure at the
ground. If there already exists a divergence at height, the effect will be strengthened and a
rapid pressure fall may occur at the surface level. This generates a spiral flow in towards the
centre.
Instability lows can be very intense, particularly in the Tropics (Tropical Revolving Storms). In
mid-latitudes the humidity content is less (the amount of humidity in the air depends on
temperature, as we know) and the lows are thus less intense.
Polar lows
Instability lows often form when cold polar or arctic air moves south over a gradually warmer
sea or major lakes. Examples of this can be found in the northern parts of the North Sea,
North Atlantic and North Pacific in the period from November to March. In these cases the air
will transform due to an intense heating and vapour increase in the lower levels resulting in
intense convection.
A common phenomenon occurs when arctic air moves down over the Norwegian Sea with a
fresh N to NE wind. Behind Lofoten and to the lee of Vestlandet, lee-lows form. These
instability vortices are also called Polar Lows. They are small (about 300 nm wide) but violent
lows, formed as a Revolving Storm with a typical Eye or sometimes as a large comma, with
long bands or clusters of convective clouds, heavy showers/squalls and a strong gusty wind.
Occasionally a vortex may slip past Norway and reach the British Isles or the Skagerak area
and further down to southern Scandinavia/ North Germany as an intense snowstorm.
Between the two highs there is a tendency to a cyclonic airflow and the formation of lee-lows
off the south-eastern coast of Norway. When the cold air reaches the warmer water, small
intense instability lows develop, Polar lows.
A similar type of instability low forms in the winter on the Bay of Genoa. They are generated
when the cold Mistral wind sweeps down over the warm Mediterranean.
Cells of cold air aloft, cold pools
When extratropical cyclones are discussed we will consider the general theories about the
long waves encircling our globe, separating the cold polar from the warm tropical air. These
waves are usually zonal, that is moving from west to east along a latitude line, but sometimes
cold air outbreaks, cut-off from the main stream, generate a pool of cold air at height in a
position far south of the normal Polar front. This cold pool can remain for several days
constituting a potential area of instability at height.
In the summer warm lows form over the continents, and sometimes these may develop into
instability lows. This happens when cold air is carried in over the low (by the upper airflow) or
when a cold pool already exists at height. In these conditions the atmosphere becomes
unstable, and a major area of thunderstorms may develop. These thunderstorms interfere
with aviation in the area, since it may be difficult to fly round them.
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Warm and humid surface, water temperature of at least 27 C. (24C for survival.)
Uniform Trade winds at all levels, otherwise the Cb-clouds will be scattered.
Sufficiently unstable atmosphere at low level for the convective clouds to
penetrate the Trade wind inversion. (This is possible for air moving east with the trade
winds and being thoroughly humidified at low level).
Divergence in the upper part of the troposphere poleward of the area where large
scale convection develops, e.g. a branch of the subtropical jet interacts with the area.
Influence of the Coriolis force since vorticity is an essential part of the circulation, means that
tropical cyclones do not occur at the Equator or within 5 latitude. The remains of a TRS can
reach the Equator area e.g. in the Borneo region.
Tropical cyclones do not form in areas (during periods) where the monsoon flow is strong.
It is quite clear from what has been said above that the tropical cyclones cant form over land,
because it is too dry. Neither do any tropical cyclones form over the south Atlantic, because
the sea currents keep the water temperature down(require at least 26c) and the ITCZ is
usually north of the Equator. A third restricting factor is the Trade wind inversion, which is
lowest over the eastern parts of the oceans and highest in the west. In the eastern parts
convection is checked almost at once, while in the western parts the rate of ascent can be
considerable, making penetration of the trade wind inversion possible. This is why we find
fewer hurricanes in the eastern parts of the oceans, while they are fairly frequent in the west.
In the Atlantic and eastern Pacific N.H. they are called hurricanes, occur mainly in
the period July to November, frequency about 10 times a year.
In the Indian Ocean they call them Cyclones, occur April May and Oct.- Nov.
Occasionally (less than 5 times a year).
Nov. April,
In the western Pacific N.H. and South China Sea, the name is Typhoon, June
November, this is the peak TRS area with a frequency of about 20 systems a year
and a small TRS possibility the whole year around.
In the western Pacific S.H. they are known as Cyclones, Nov. - April.
Most cyclones form between 8 15 latitude north and south of the Equator. They are then
caught by the prevailing easterly flow in the tropics and carried away westwards or northwestwards according to the arrows on the map at a speed of about 10 to 20 KT. When the
TRS passes the 25-30 latitude they re-curve pole-wards in a north, later north-east
direction, (N.H.), and in a south easterly direction in the southern hemisphere.
When reaching a continent or cooler water surface the radius increases, the wind speed
decreases and the system turns into a normal extratropical cyclone. The re-curved TRS
moving into the west winds poleward of 30 latitude usually accelerate and speeds faster than
30 kts are common.
If the storm hits land before the whirl has exhausted itself, not only the hurricane-winds but
also a flooding will cause destruction. A pillar of water, the Storm Surge or ocean swell, is
created by the strong circulation in the system and the pressure from the on-shore wind will
do the rest. The flooding may rise to 15 to 30 feet or more above the normal water level, and
in regions near the coast the most common cause of death is drowning, while most people
survive the gusts of wind. Ocean swells travels outwards from the system at an average
speed of about 1000 miles a day which is several times faster than the TRS movement.
Tropical Revolving Storm From The Pilots View
The typical characteristics of a fully developed TRS are circular isobars, strong gusty winds,
spiral cloud pattern and a typical eye in the centre.
From a pilots point of view all TRS should be avoided, because there is always a potential
risk of severe turbulence in and around the CB-spiral bands and especially in the border
around the eye. At low levels devastating winds and turbulence close the airports. The
change to lighter winds occurs at heights above 30 000 feet or so in the outflow region from
the TRS.
Due to the cyclonic circulation in a TRS, a flight with the eye on your left side will result in a
tailwind component in the Northern Hemisphere. This also means that the most intense parts
of a TRS is found in the right front quarter of the storm where the storm movement and winds
interact while the weakest portion is in the left rear quarter.
In the tropical regions there are often extensive areas with Ci-clouds. These are no real threat
to flight but it is vital, when operating in these areas, to distinguish between these clouds and
the spiral band CB.
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The eye (1) about 10 to 20 NM in diameter, The eye wall (2) of embedded CB clouds
adjacent to the eye with tops at 40 - 50 000 feet MSL or more, and the convergence lines (5
to 30 NM wide) with showers spiraling inwards (50 to 200 NM apart) towards the centre of the
storm, also known as rainbands (3).
The areas with the strongest winds are found 50 to 100 NM outside the eye. The wind speed
also depends on what side of the hurricanes direction of movement you are. The highest
speeds are on the side coinciding with the direction of movement and this is the area that
sailors try to avoid. This is the right side of a N.H. TRS. Speeds in excess of 150 KT are not
uncommon, while the system itself moves at about 10 KT.
Wind weakens at height and the cyclonic circulation turns into an anticyclonic, this happens
above about 40 000 MSL.
The weather intensity is also increased in certain areas of the TRS. This is especially true in
the leading inside sector, north-east quadrant in a TRS moving westwards on the northern
hemisphere, since this is the quadrant where a large amount of humid air is drawn into the
system.
The systems direction of movement is determined from an average wind between the Trade
wind at low level and the upper wind at the top of the system. Two processes sometimes
result in the storm intensifying into a super hurricane. This happens when there is a pool of
cold air aloft, leading to increased instability and thus stronger convection, (besides, the cold
air loses potential energy as it subsides to the south exactly as at a front). The other process
is generated when there is a jet stream aloft, which intensifies the outflow from the upper
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anticyclone in the TRS. Increased outflux reduces the pressure at lower levels, and suction
into the cloud system is strengthened.
In the central equatorial Pacific the trade wind systems of the two hemispheres converge in
the Equatorial Trough and wave disturbances may be generated if the equatorial trough is
sufficiently removed from the equator (usually 5) to provide a small Coriolis force.
These disturbances quite often become unstable forming a cyclonic vortex as they travel
westwards towards the Philippines, but the winds do not necessarily attain hurricane strength.
But there is yet another explanation of how tropical cyclones originate, and this is probably
the most common reason for tropical cyclones in the Atlantic.
Tropical Revolving Storm Dissipation
When the tropical cyclone moves in over a cooler surface (less than 24C) the winds abate
and the eye of the cyclone is filled up with clouds before the whole system dissolves.
Occasionally the storm comes in contact with the polar front and an extra tropical cyclone
forms on the polar front. Cyclones of this type are recognised by their high wind speeds
(often > 32 m/s) and elliptical form with clouds in a helical pattern.
When a TRS develop it is given a name, special for that region, and the Weather Service
responsible for the TRS tracking issues special bulletins and significant meteorological
warnings, SIGMET. In USA a hurricane watch is issued when a TRS is expected in the area
within a day or more, and a hurricane warning is issued when the arrival is expected within 24
hours. The following is an example of a Hurricane warning.
NNNN
ZCZC 111
Xxxxxx xxxx 302200
HURRICANE DAVID MARINE ADVISORY NUMBER 19
NATIONAL WEATHER SERVICE MIAMI FL
22002 AUGUST 30 1979
HURRICANE WARNINGS IN EFFECT FOR PUERTO RICO, VIRGIN ISLANDS, SOUTH
COAST OF DOMINICAN REPUBLIC AND SOUTHWEST PENINSULA OF HAITI.
HURRICANE CENTER LOCATED 16.8 NORTH 67.1 WEST AT 30 / 22002. POSITION
EXCELLENT BASED ON NOAA RECONNAISSANCE, TIME OF FIX 17382, LAND BASED
RADAR AND SATELLITE. PRESENT MOVEMENT WEST NORTHWEST OR 285
DEGREES AT 11 KT. DIAMETER OF EYE 20 NM. MAXIMUM SUSTAINED WINDS 130 KT
GUSTS TO 150 KT..
FORECAST VALID 31 / 06002 17.2 N 68.5 W.
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The wind inside the tornado itself may reach values close to 270 KT, and when winds of that
force pass a building, a suction is generated, which simply pulls off a roof or lifts the whole
house. (compare with a wing).
The following table illustrates a scale that is used to describe the intensity of the tornado.
Professor T. Fujitas tornado scale
KT
F0
F1
F2
Damages
35 - 62 Light
63 - 97 Moderate
98 - 136 Considerable
KT
F 3 137 179
F 4 180 226
F 5 227 276
Damages
Severe
Devastating
Incredible
A tornado cannot be forecast in the usual way due to its short duration and small scale. From
experience we know however, that if the band of precipitation in a CB bends like a comma
(according to the radar picture), a tornado usually forms at the narrow end. The best way,
however, is to use a Doppler radar system and continuous warnings.
When tornadoes are likely to form during the next few hours, a tornado watch is issued by the
met office for the region. This alerts the public that tornadoes may develop within a specific
area during a certain time period.
Once a tornado is spotted either visual or on a radar screen a tornado warning is issued
by the local National Weather Service office.
Radio and TV stations interrupt regular programming to broadcast the warning, and in some
communities sirens are sounded.
At higher latitudes rare tornado encounters are usually made during a hot summer afternoon.
Waterspouts
There are two types of waterspouts. The first is developed downwards from a convective
cloud formed over warm water surfaces where ordinary towering cumulus clouds are
developing. The second type is formed by a rapidly converging airflow over a warm water
surface and builds upward from the surface just like a whirlwind. These columns of rotating
air are known as waterspouts. Outside southern Florida there may be hundreds of them
during the March to October period. During the autumn waterspouts can be seen over the
northern Baltic Sea. Waterspouts can sometimes be difficult to discover if there is a shower at
the same time, but the lower parts of a waterspout is usually composed of sea spray whipped
up from the water surface.
Pilots dont fly in tornadoes more than once. In the case of an inadvertent whirlwind or
waterspout encounter the flight conditions are extremely turbulent and structural damage may
occur.
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QUESTIONS
1.
2.
The air ahead of the warm front is colder than the air behind the overtaking cold front
at a:
a)
b)
c)
3.
When crossing a cold front in the Southern Hemisphere from the warm to the
cold sector there will be:
a)
b)
c)
7.
6.
right
left
south.
When crossing a cold front at a higher altitude the change in the temperature
and wind direction will be:
a)
b)
c)
5.
When crossing a cold front in the northern hemisphere, either from the cold to
the warm, or from the warm to the cold side, the wind shift will be such as to
require an alteration in heading to:
a)
b)
c)
4.
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8.
9.
10.
13.
A col.
The bad weather is over.
A family of depressions.
A jet stream may occur in the upper levels if the horizontal pressure gradient
is high and will be found in the:
a)
b)
c)
12.
After the passage of a cold front at Cape Town the wind veers to the NW.
This probably indicates:
a)
b)
c)
11 .
South/south-westerly winds.
Rising pressure.
North -westerly winds.
In an occluding frontal system the air ahead of the warm front is colder than the air in
the cold air mass overtaking the warm air mass. The occluded front
will be:
a)
b)
c)
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CHAPTER 9
THUNDERSTORMS
The way in which cumulonimbus cloud forms was discussed in the previous chapter. It was
established that such clouds will only form if a state of marked instability exists within the
atmosphere. If such instability exists in an extreme form, thunderstorms can develop. Only
cumulonimbus clouds will produce thunderstorms, but not every cumulonimbus will produce
the extremes which make flight in or near thunderstorms an uncomfortable and possibly
hazardous occupation.
Thunderstorms are most likely to occur when:
4 Instability exists throughout a layer of air which is at least 10,000 feet deep. That is to
say, that the ELR will be greater than the SALR throughout this layer.
4 An adequate supply of moisture is available to form and maintain the cloud.
4 A trigger action is present.
Thermal trigger actions in the form of insolation or advection were mentioned in the previous
chapter, as was orographic lifting. In addition the lifting which occurs when the warm air
ahead of a cold front is forced to rise up the steep frontal interface of warm and cold air can
trigger thunderstorms. Finally the situation where air is converging to a point and
consequently rising (convergence lifting) may act as a suitable trigger.
Trigger actions may act alone or in a combination. For example a marked cold front may
develop thunderstorm activity on reaching an orographic obstacle.
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Depending on the type of trigger action, thunderstorms may be classified as air mass or
frontal storms. With air mass thunderstorms, the primary trigger action will be thermal and
may be due to insolation or advection. With insolation as the trigger action the thunderstorms
develop most readily in a col or weak depression and of course in temperate latitudes at
least, only over the land. The most favourable time of day for these storms to develop is in
the afternoon with maximum insolation, and they are most likely to occur during the summer
months. Air mass thunderstorms also occur over the sea and now the trigger action is
advective, with cold moist air moving over a relatively warm sea. Thunderstorms may form in
this way by day or by night.
Such storms often form along the coastline, where an orographic trigger reinforces the
advective trigger action.
Because of the nature of the trigger action, air mass thunderstorms tend to be isolated. Over
the land the trigger action is primarily insolation, the sky is therefore unlikely to contain any
significant layers of stratiform cloud which could mask the presence of the storm cells. Over
the sea the trigger action is advective, and the presence of stratiform layers will not impede
the formation of thunderstorm cloud.
Now the storm cells may well be embedded in the stratiform cloud, presenting a hazard to
aircraft which are not equipped with airborne weather radar.
With frontal thunderstorms the trigger action is attributed mainly to frontal uplift. Frontal
thunderstorms normally occur only at the cold front, although they may occur at the warm
front on rare occasions, or on an occluded front. The storm activity now appears as an
advancing line of thunderstorm cloud known as a line squall. Such squall lines may well be
100 nm in length and thus present a significant barrier of hazardous weather.
Penetration of such a line squall may prove difficult both because of the distribution of the
storm cloud and because of the presence of other frontal clouds within which the
thunderstorm cloud will be embedded.
An indication of potential thunderstorm development may come from the presence of
altocumulus castellatus, which is cumuliform cloud with a base above 8000 ft caused by
instability at medium levels.
The Life Cycle of a Thunderstorm
It is not yet clearly understood why some cumulonimbus clouds produce thunderstorms whilst
others do not, It is assumed that the large amount of amount of latent heat which is released
as moist air condenses within the cloud provides the energy which is necessary for the storm
activity to develop.
A thunderstorm will normally consist of several cloud cells in different stages of development.
The diameter of individual cells varies from one to five miles, with adjacent cells separated by
narrow cloudfilled lanes. Each storm cell has a life cycle of three identifiable stages. The
direction of movement of thunderstorms has been found to be close to the direction. of the
wind at the 700 mb (10,000 ft) level.
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Development Stage
New and growing cells can be recognised by their clearly defined cauliflower shaped top and
outline. Development is usually very rapid, perhaps being completed within 30 minutes by
which time the top of the cloud may reach the tropopause and beyond, reaching in some
cases 40,000 ft in temperate latitudes and 60,000 ft in sub-tropical and tropical regions. The
top of a developing cell has been observed to rise at more than 5000 ft/min. The development
or cumulus stage is shown .
Mature Stage
The mature stage is marked by the onset of precipitation and downdraughts, and by the top
of the cloud taking on a less distinct fibrous appearance due to the presence of ice crystals.
The precipitation itself creates downdraughts in the cloud, initially due to friction. The
descending air warms at the SALR but the descending ice crystals and super cooled water
droplets ensure that the downdraught is maintained. Severe up and down draughts may exist
close together reaching speeds in excess of 3000 ft/min. Sharp vertical gusts of 10,000 ft/min
have been measured. It is because of the descending air that the freezing level, which was
originally higher within the cloud than in the surrounding free air, will lower rapidly. In the next
section, which deals with practical meteorology, we will learn to expect icing within
cumulonimbus cloud both above and below the published (free air) freezing level.
On reaching the ground, the cold dense air of the downdraught spreads out horizontally away
from the centre of the storm. As this cold air moves away from the storm it causes squall wind
conditions which are often severe, with marked change in wind direction as well as a
significant increase in windspeed. The leading edge of this spreading cold air is known as the
gust front and may extend up to 20 km from the storm centre or up to 40 km from an
organised line of storms. The effects of the gust front may be felt at heights of up to 6000 ft
above the ground. The mature stage is illustrated. The average duration of this second stage
is in the order of 30 minutes.
Microburst
When a particularly severe storm occurs a microburst may be produced. A microburst is a
highly concentrated and powerful downdraught of air, typically less than 5 km in diameter and
lasting from 1 to 5 minutes. Downdraught speeds of 60 kt have been observed in severe
microbursts.
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A microburst need not be associated with precipitation , a dry microburst occurs when
precipitation evaporates before reaching the ground a phenomenon described as virga such
as might happen with a high cloud base. The evaporative cooling in this case enhances the
strength of the downdraught.
Dissipating Stage
This stage commences when the storm has exhausted the local supply of moist air. The
downdraughts will by now have spread right across the cloud, and the precipitation will have
moderated to a light drizzle. The subsiding air may cause the cloud to dissipate, or
alternatively the cloud may spread laterally to form stratocumulus.
Small updraughts still persist in the upper part of the cloud which consists almost entirely of
ice crystals. The top of the cloud therefore persists, and tends to drift downwind to form the
characteristic anvil.
The dissipating stage is illustrated previously. The process of dissipation may take two hours
or more.
Remember that a thunderstorm cloud will consist of several individual cells. At any time,
perhaps one cell will be forming, one active and the remainder dissipating. A problem arises
in that the subsiding air from the dissipating cells causes convergence which triggers new
cells or reactivates old ones. The storm cloud therefore may become regenerative, providing
that sufficient moisture persists in the air.
A particular condition of storm regeneration is known as the selfpropagating storm. In this
case the cell regenerates itself rather than forming new ones or regenerating its
neighbours. It occurs when a marked change of wind velocity (either in direction or speed)
exists within the deep band of unstable air within which the storm cell grows. The cloud is
tilted out of the vertical and at the active stage the precipitation tends to fall outside the
boundaries of the cell. The resultant downdraughts are remote from the cell itself and
consequently do not cause the cell to progress into the dissipating stage. Should there be a
layer of dry air within the band of instability, it is believed that the consequent evaporation
greatly enhances the energy levels within the system.
So far so good, but where does the lightning come from? The answer of course is that if we
knew for sure perhaps we could solve the worlds energy problems. The movement of water
droplets within an existing electrical field, coalescence, friction between ice crystals,
evaporation and melting of ice crystals, freezing of water drops and sublimation of vapour into
ice particles are all known to produce electrical energy.
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For some reason areas of significantly differing potential form within the cell. By the active
stage the potential difference is great enough to overcome the natural insulating properties of
the air and lightning results. Lightning may occur between two points in the same cloud,
between adjacent clouds, or between a cloud and the surface.
Hazards
Outlined below is a brief summary of the hazards associated with flight in or near
thunderstorms. Remember that the best precaution available is absolute avoidance. Make full
use of available meteorological briefing facilities, act upon SIGMETS when received, and
make full use of AWR or stormscope systems when fitted.
Hail
Hailstones form readily in thunderstorm cloud, and large stones can cause significant
damage to the leading and upper surfaces of an aircraft. As a rule, the hailstones decrease in
both size and intensity towards the top of the cloud, and so penetration, if unavoidable,
should be made at high level.
Hail should be assumed to exist at any level in a thunderstorm. Stability at or near the
tropopause results in the characteristic flattened top of a cumulonimbus and strong upper
winds cause the overhang of the anvil from which hail may fall. Flight beneath the overhang
should therefore be avoided.
Hailstones of up to 5 inches in diameter have been found at ground level and at 10,000 ft
hailstones 4 inches in diameter can be encountered. Hailstones large enough to cause
structural damage to aircraft should be expected up to 45,000 ft.
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Icing
A subsequent chapter deals in depth with icing, both airframe and engine. Suffice for now to
say that the abundance of supercooled water droplets will give rapid accumulations of
airframe ice when flying above the freezing level. As the temperature drops the amount of
liquid water present diminishes and therefore the risk of icing decreases.
The consequence of ice on the airframe will be a spoiling of the aerodynamic shaped smooth
surface giving an increase in drag and a loss of lift, as well as an increase in weight. The
stalling speed will increase, engine intakes may become restricted, unheated static and pitot
sensing devices may become blocked, and ice on aerials may cause loss of communications
and navigation aids. With propeller driven aircraft uneven icing on the blades may set up
dangerous stresses and to cap it all forward visibility through unheated windscreens will
diminish rapidly.
In order to avoid these problems penetration, if unavoidable, should be made as high as is
possible, so that the temperature is well below -10C. Alternatively penetration should be
made below the freezing level, which will be lower within the cloud than outside it, providing
that minimum safe altitude considerations, revised with due consideration for the turbulence
factor, permit such a course of action.
In thunderstorms airframe icing may occur from 0C down to 45C, however at the lower
temperatures fewer supercooled water droplets exist and the probability of severe icing
occurring at temperatures below -30C is very much reduced. The increased weight and
reduced control effectiveness due to ice accretion may result in control problems, anti icing or
deicing systems should be used to the full if penetration of a storm cell cannot be avoided.
Induction system icing should also be considered since thunderstorms form in conditions of
high humidity. With turbine engines flame out due to ice ingestion must be anticipated and
continuous use of the ignition (in accordance with any limitations laid down in the flight
manual) should be employed to reduce the risk of flame out.
Lightning
Lightning strikes on aircraft are thought to be most likely to occur at levels where the
temperature is between -10C and +10C, that is to say within about 5000 ft above or below the
freezing level. Providing that the aircraft is properly bonded there should be little damage
other than burn marks at the points of entry and exit of the lightning strike. External aerials
are of course insulated from the airframe rather than bonded to it. Should lightning strike such
an aerial, it is likely that the heat generated across the insulating material will burn off the
aerial as effectively as a welding torch.
Magnetic compasses will become totally unreliable following a lighting strike. The large
deviations observed immediately following the strike will decay fairly rapidly. Smaller but
significant residual deviations will however remain for long periods and it will be necessary to
check and probably recalibrate the compasses before the next flight
Lightning flashes may cause short term partial loss of vision at a time when the pilot needs it
least. Antiglare glasses (or sunglasses) should be worn and flight deck lights (or the normal
internal lighting) should be turned full up to minimise the effect.
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Again flight through the cloud, if unavoidable, should be made at as high a level as is
practical. Gyro magnetic compasses should be switched to the pure gyro mode prior to
penetration of the storm activity.
Static Electricity
The static electricity within the cloud will cause interference with radio communication and
navigation systems. VHF systems will not be seriously affected; HF systems will suffer rather
more than VHF systems whilst equipments operating in the MF, LF and VLF bands will be
most affected. Remember that the ADF receiver will indicate unerringly the centre of the
nearest active cell! (set to 250 in the tropics to use the ADF as the poor mans radar!!)
The existence of static may first be noticed as noise on HF and MF radio bands, and to a
lesser extent on VHF receivers. In heavy static a visible discharge known as Saint Elmos fire
may be seen, particularly around the edges of windscreens, which is very pretty but does
absolutely nothing for your night vision.
Turbulence
Turbulence is strongest in developing and mature
cells. Vertical displacements of 5000 ft have
occurred and large roll and pitching motions should
be anticipated.
Mammatus (that is to say mammary shaped) clouds
projecting below cumulonimbus or altocumulus
clouds are indicative of strong vertical turbulence.
Outside of the storm cell severe turbulence may
exist out to a range of between 15 and 20 nm
downwind.
The presence of lightning cannot be regarded as a reliable guide as to where the strongest
turbulence exists. Although a storm must be well developed before lightning occurs it may
very well continue in the decaying stage when the turbulence has diminished.
Severe turbulence can be encountered several thousand feet above an active storm,
particularly when windspeeds of 100 kt or more exist.
Accidents involving loss of control and in some cases structural failure have occurred as a
result of attempts to regain control or through incorrect flying techniques.
Windshear
The presence of a thunderstorm is likely to create a high risk of windshear. At low altitude
changes in windspeed of as much as 80 kt and changes in wind direction of as much as 90
can occur. Windshear is discussed in the following chapter.
Tornadoes
A tornado is a concentrated vortex that may extend from the surface well into the cloud.
Although they are more common and more severe in the USA they can also occur in the UK,
Europe and parts of Africa.
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Tornadoes are a very serious aviation hazard and wind speeds within the vortex have been
observed at 200 kt. The tornado may be visible as an extension of the cloud down to the
surface, however when the cloud does not extend down to the surface the vortex may cause
a funnel cloud to form below a cumulonimbus.
Water Ingestion
There may well be areas within the storm where the updraught velocity exceeds the terminal
velocity of water droplets. In these areas very high concentrations of water may occur and a
risk of flameout or of structural failure of jet engines exists. Guidance for the safest
operation of jet engines in these conditions should be given in the flight manual, however
avoidance must remain the first priority.
Instrument Errors
Pressure variations and gusts may result in errors in pressure instruments. Altimeter errors of
up to plus c-minus 1000 ft may exist. Near the surface heavy rain indicates the areas within
which these areas are likely to occur. Airspeed indicator errors may result from water
ingestion into pitot heads.
Attitude indicators may not provide sufficient accuracy at large angles of pitch, or may not
have sufficient a sufficient range of freedom to cope with the attitudes which might be
encountered in areas of extreme turbulence. Magnetic compasses cannot be relied upon
after a lightning strike and should be checked as soon as possible.
Use of Weather Radar
The primary purpose of airborne weather radar (AWR) is to aid thunderstorm avoidance.
Guidance on the distances by which thunderstorms should be avoided is given below. It
should be noted that radar cannot provide reliable indications as to areas of hailstones within
a storm cell, since rain and hailstones produce similar echoes on the AWR. Because of the
high rate of growth of thunderstorms, if storm clouds have to be over flown, a vertical
separation of at least 5000 ft should be maintained.
Flight altitude
0 20 000 ft
20 000 25 000 ft
25 000 30,000 ft
Above 30 000 ft
Aircraft without a serviceable AWR should avoid by 10 nm any storm which is tall, growing
rapidly or has an anvil shaped top.
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QUESTIONS
1.
Thunderstorms usually associated with heavy hail showers and destructive winds are:
a)
b)
c)
2.
3.
7.
Which thunderstorms generally produce the most severe conditions such as heavy
hail and destructive winds:
a)
b)
c)
6.
What are the indications that downdraughts have developed and a thunderstorm has
reached a mature stage:
a)
b)
c)
5.
4.
Airspeed.
Altitude.
Attitude.
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CHAPTER 10
TURBULENCE
MECHANICAL TURBULENCE
Wind blowing over buildings and mountains causing eddies.
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WAKE TURBULENCE
Wing tip vortices are generated by all aircraft, the greatest danger exists near heavy
aircraft operating at low speed and a high AoA.
( i.e. During take-off and landing. )
In the air:
These vortices drift down at + 500 ft/min and level off + 900 ft below the generating aircraft.
(Always fly above the flight path of a larger aircraft. ) NB - If you accept a clearance to follow
another aircraft you have in sight, the responsibility for wake turbulence avoidance is
transferred from the controller to you.
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On the ground:
Vortex strength diminishes with time and distance behind the generating aircraft. These
vortices tend to remain on the ground and move out at about 5 kts. ( A 5 kt cross-wind
causes the upwind vortex to remain on the runway, while the downwind vortex may drift
across a parallel runway. ) NB - Beware closely separated parallel runways.
Landing
When landing after a large aircraft has landed - stay above its glide path and touch down
beyond its touchdown point.
When landing after a large aircraft takes off - touch down well before its rotation point.
Minimum separation times are:
Medium behind heavy - 2 mins.
Light behind heavy - 3 mins.
Take off
Taking off after a large aircraft has taken off - rotate before the large aircraft's rotation point,
climb out above or upwind of its flight path. Taking off after a large aircraft lands - rotate
beyond its touchdown point.
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MOUNTAIN WAVES
Standing waves are indicated by the presence of Lenticular clouds or rotor clouds. In the
absence of cloud, CAT can be experienced.
Favourable Conditions
Wind
-
Constant direction.
Increasing speed with height.
Must blow within 30 of mountain.
15 Kts for small mountain.
30 Kts for large mountain.
Air
Mountain
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WIND SHEAR
Wind shear is described as the change in direction and/or speed of the wind in a relatively
short distance (vertical or horizontal).
Elevated runways.
Airfield in lee of mountain.
Approach path over water (frictional).
Not landing into wind (noise abatement).
Jet streams.
Sea breeze against moderate gradient wind.
Marked temperature inversion.
APPROACH TECHNIQUES
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MICROBURSTS
These can occur below Cu or Cb clouds if virga or a rain shaft is present. As the rain falls and
evaporates, it cools the air around it rapidly which then sinks towards the surface. This may
cause down draughts in excess of 6 000'/min and surface winds of 120 kts! Look out for Cu
clouds with a wispy appearance and associated virga, dust circles about 1 km in diameter or
a rain "foot" below a Cb cloud.
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QUESTIONS
1.
2.
The meteorological conditions which are, in particular liable to produce marked low
level wind shear are:
a)
b)
c)
3.
5.
4.
convective currents:
light wind;
warm cloudless conditions.
Jet streams;
Cb clouds:
Cold fronts.
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CHAPTER 11
ICE
There are two distinct types of icing which present a hazard to aircraft in flight. The first is
airframe icing, and the second is engine icing.
Airframe Icing
Ice accretion on the surfaces of an aircraft can only occur if the airframe is below 0c, the
ambient temperature is below 0c and, with one exception, supercooled water is present.
Supercooled Water Droplets
Water exists commonly in the atmosphere in its invisible vapour form. When air containing water vapour is
cooled, it will eventually reach its dewpoint and is now saturated. Further cooling will cause condensation to
occur. The process of condensation, or the change of state of water from vapour to liquid form, requires a supply
of nuclei. These nuclei, which are termed hygroscopic nuclei, form the core of the condensed water droplets.
Hygroscopic nuclei, which may be sulphuric combustion products or sea salt particles, are normally in plentiful
supply and so condensation will occur readily when the air is cooled below its dewpoint.
Since dewpoint reduces as water vapour content reduces, a point will arise where air which is very dry must be
cooled to below 0(c before saturation is achieved. However at temperatures below 0c the water vapour forms into
ice before it reaches its dewpoint. The temperature at which this occurs is called the frost point and the process is
called sublimation. Ice will only form, however, if a suitable surface or an ice nucleus is present. At ground level
this presents no problem, but in the free atmosphere where ice nuclei may be absent, water vapour is unable to
form ice and condensation occurs instead. The resulting water droplet, which exists at a temperature below 0(c, is
known as a supercooled water droplet (SCWD). These supercooled water droplets are unstable, and any
subsequent contact with a surface or an ice nucleus will result in a change of state of the SCWD into ice.
Ice nuclei, which are believed to be very small ice particles, are typically only found at lower temperatures.
Consequently, in the temperature range 0(c to 10(c where ice nuclei are almost completely absent, SCWDs are
abundant. From 10( to 40(c the proportion of SCWDs reduces progressively, until at temperatures below 40(c
they are normally absent (except in cumulonimbus cloud).
For an aircraft the hazard created by the SCWD is obvious, however the type of ice formed depends on the size
and the temperature of the droplet. From chapter one we know that latent heat is always absorbed or released
when matter changes state. When water freezes latent heat is released at the rate of 80 calorie per gram of water.
This release in latent heat maintains a portion of the SCWD in its liquid state when it impacts on a surface such
as the leading edge of an aircraft wing. The proportion of the droplet which remains liquid depends on
temperature and is based on the rule that 1/80th part of the droplet freezes into ice instantly for each degree
Celsius that the droplet is below zero.
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Due to the release of latent heat, then, a supercooled water droplet at a temperature of
-5(C striking the leading edge of the wing will behave in the following way:
5/80ths of the water droplets will freeze on impact with the wing.
The heat energy released at this stage will raise the temperature of the remaining 75/80ths to 0(C.
This water will now flow back over the top surface of the wing, losing heat to the aircraft skin and
freezing as it flows back.
Opaque Rime
The portion of the supercooled water droplet which freezes on impact with the leading edge does so more or less
instantaneously and in so doing will trap pockets of air. The results of this will be that the ice on the leading edge
will be whitish in appearance, it will be light and honeycomb in structure, because of the air, and brittle. This ice
is known as opaque rime or simply as rime ice and is encountered in clouds of low water content composed of
small SCWDs.
Clear Ice
This type of ice exists as a transparent or translucent coating which takes on a glassy appearance. This ice results
from the water which flows back over the aircraft freezing as it does so. Droplets combine together whilst still
liquid and form a continuous surface which when frozen is dense, heavy and hard to remove. Clear ice forms
when large SCWDs are encountered and is worst, for a given droplet size, at temperatures which are only just
below zero. At these temperatures only a small part of each SCWD will freeze on impact with the remainder
freezing relatively slowly as it flows back over the cold (subzero) aircraft.
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Icing in Cloud
The type of icing to be found in cloud depends on the cloud type and the method of its formation. Convection
clouds are associated with strong vertical currents which can therefore support larger SCWDs and are more likely
to result in clear ice formation. Stratiform clouds on the other hand are formed by the turbulence process or by
the comparatively gentle uplift of air, for example at a warm front. Such clouds usually consist of smaller water
droplets and tend towards opaque rime formation.
Individual cloud types can vary quite widely from the generalisation given above and are discussed below.
At Temperatures down to 20(C cumulus clouds consist almost entirely of SCWDs, with the greatest number
occurring in the most newly formed cloud. Thus in the temperature band 0(c to 20(c (-30(c in cumulonimbus)
severe clear icing should be anticipated. Moderate or light icing should be expected at lower temperatures with
little or no icing below 40(c (-45(c in cumulonimbus).
Stratus usually consists of small water droplets and at temperatures below 0(C may give light to moderate opaque
rime.
Stratocumulus usually consists of water droplets at temperatures down to 15(c and may cause moderate opaque
rime icing. Orographic lifting (discussed shortly) will however increase the severity of the icing experienced.
Stratocumulus can also form from the spreading out of cumulus under an inversion, most frequently over the sea
in winter. Again the severity of icing in stratocumulus formed in this way may be increased.
Altocumulus normally consists entirely of small water droplets at temperatures down to -10C. At lower
temperatures the proportion of SCWDs reduces but remains predominant down to -30C. Airframe icing is likely
to be light to moderate opaque rime except in altocumulus castellatus and altocumulus lenticularis where
convection and orographic effect respectively increase the water content and droplet size in the cloud.
Altostratus usually consists of small water droplets giving light to moderate opaque rime.
Nimbostratus cloud may extend from a few hundred feet above the surface at a warm front to at least 5000 ft and
frequently above 10,000 ft. Some part of the cloud is likely to contain SCWDs large enough to cause clear ice to
form. Moderate icing should be anticipated in this cloud between 0c and -15C, however if the front is active, or
if there is a significant orographic effect, moderate or severe icing should be expected at temperatures as low as
-25C.
Cirrus cloud usually consists entirely of ice crystals and does not therefore pose an icing risk.
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Orographic Effect
Icing in cloud over high ground is likely to be worse than it would be over level terrain. The forced ascent of
moist air from lower levels tends to increase the rate of condensation and as a result the cloud contains more free
water. Additionally, the increased upward motion results in more and larger water droplets being retained in the
cloud and consequently a greater icing risk.
The accelerated rate of cooling which occurs when stable air is lifted orographically tends to lower the cloud base
slightly over hills. The 0(c level will also occur at a lower level.
Rain Ice
One particularly unpleasant type of airframe icing is known as rain ice. It occurs, in temperate
latitudes, normally when an aircraft is flying in the cold air ahead of a warm front, during the
winter months. For rain ice to form on the airframe the aircraft must be flying above the
freezing level. The problem becomes serious when the freezing level is low enough to
prevent the aircrafts descent into the warm air below, because of terrain clearance
considerations.
Above illustrates the situation in which rain ice will readily occur. The aircraft and the air in
which it is flying are both at subzero temperatures and large water droplets are falling out of
the nimbostratus cloud at the warm front. If the rain is not supercooled on leaving the cloud it
may well become so as it falls through the cold air under the front. Because the airframe is at
a temperature which is below 0c, and because the concentrations of supercooled water
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droplets within the critical temperature band (0 to 10c) are high, dangerous levels of
translucent ice will form on the upper surfaces very rapidly.
On encountering rain ice, the pilot has three sensible options:
(i)
To turn back.
(ii)
To climb into the warm air on the other side of the front.
(iii)
To descend in the cold air and fly beneath the freezing level if terrain
clearance permits.
Hoar Frost
Hoar Frost is a white semi crystalline coating of ice which often appears on the ground, and
on aircraft when they are left out in the open during long winter nights, when the skies remain
predominantly clear of cloud, and the temperature drops below 0C.
As the surface temperature drops rapidly under the clear skies the surface air temperature
will also drop rapidly, especially in still air or light wind conditions, which will inhibit any mixing
of the surface air with the warmer air above.
If the air is sufficiently dry the dewpoint will be at a temperature which is below 0c. In this
situation sublimation will occur when the air reaches a temperature which is approximately
1c above the dewpoint. It is at this temperature that the air becomes saturated with respect
to ice. This critical temperature is known as the frost point.
Sublimation is the change of state of water directly from vapour to solid (ice crystalline) state.
The synoptic situations favouring the formation of hoar frost are anticyclones, ridges of high
pressure or cols, all of which tend to give the necessary light winds, dry air, and clear skies.
Hoar frost must be removed from an aircraft before flight. The presence of a rough ice layer
will increase drag, decrease lift, obscure windscreens and interfere with radio navigation aids
and communications if it forms on aerials. There will be a slight increase in aircraft weight,
and control surface movement could be inhibited.
Furthermore, should the aircraft fly through an inversion shortly after takeoff, which is likely in
the prevailing meteorological conditions, further frosting will occur which will readily adhere to
the already roughened surfaces. The resulting increase in stall speed and loss of lift could
have serious consequences at this critical stage of flight.
An aircraft which has been flying at high altitudes and subsequently makes a rapid descent
may well pick up hoar frost during the descent. This is because, when the aircraft arrives in
much warmer air at lower level the airframe may still be cold enough to chill the air flowing
over the airframe to its frost point.
Ice formation on the airframe with result in:
(i)
Increase in all up weight, lowering the climb rates and cruise ceilings.
(ii)
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(iii)
(iv)
(v)
(vi)
Interference with radio communications and radio navigation aids when ice forms on
aerials.
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As fuel is introduced into the airflow at the fuel jets evaporation will occur. The latent
heat of evaporation is drawn from the fuel air mix and the body of the carburetor.
(ii)
As air passes the throttle valve it accelerates, the pressure drops and the air cools
adiabatically. This cooling effect will be most pronounced when the engine is running
at low rpm and the throttle valve restricts a large portion of the airflow orifice.
As a result of the two situations described above ice will build up within the carburetor,
reducing the airflow, possibly blocking fuel jets and freezing moving parts such as the throttle
valve.
The total cooling effect may result in a temperature drop of as much as 30C. During this
temperature drop, air which is unsaturated may cool through its dewpoint and condensation
will occur. Further cooling will then result in a deposit of ice.
The following facts are worthy of note:
4 Carburetor icing may occur with air temperatures as high as +30C with a closed or
partially closed throttle.
4 The icing problem is most likely to be severe at temperatures of +5C to +15C with a
relative humidity of 60% or greater.
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QUESTIONS
1.
2.
The characteristics of rime ice and conditions most favourable for its formation are:
a)
b)
c)
3.
c)
-2C
to -15C;
0C to - 15C:
0C to -10C.
The environment in which aircraft icing is most likely to have the highest rate
of accumulation is:
a)
b)
c)
6.
5.
opaque, rough appearance. tending to spread back over the aircrafts surface,
most frequently encountered in cumuli form cloud;
milky granular appearance, forming on leading edges and accumulating
forward into the airstream, encountered in stratiform clouds and temperatures 10 C to 20 C;
transparent appearance and tending to take the shape of the surface on
which it freezes, encountered in stratiform cloud at temperatures only
slightly below freezing.
Convective clouds are the most dangerous from the icing point of view because:
a)
b)
4.
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CHAPTER 12
CLIMATOLOGY
Climatology is the study of the average weather of the various areas of the Earth. In the study
of this subject a good quality world atlas, giving not only topographical information but also
maps of normal seasonal temperatures and pressure distribution would be very useful.
For the purposes of the examination syllabus the candidate is required to have an
understanding of the idealized general circulation of the atmosphere, the modifications to this
circulation and the resultant weather features associated with specific areas of the world.
The syllabus also requires candidates to have some knowledge of the weather of the main air
routes and the upper level winds and jetstreams likely to be met on those routes.
This study of climatology will be made easier if you acquire some knowledge of geography,
the location of the major cities, countries and areas of the world particularly in relation to the
equator and the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn, hence the atlas if you are not already a
globetrotter.
The starting point is an examination of the idealized circulation.
Idealized Circulation
If the earth had a uniform surface, and was not rotating, the flow of air (or circulation) would
be the simple flow where there would be just air rising at the equator and settling and cooling
over the poles.
The surface of the Earth receives much more intense insolation at the equator than at the
poles. Because of the high surface temperatures which this produces at the equator, the air is
warmed, expands and rises creating high pressure at altitude over the equator (compared
with the poles), and the outflow of air at height due to this high pressure creates low pressure
at the surface.
At the poles, due to the low surface temperature, there is subsiding air which produces high
pressure at the surface and low pressure at high levels.
Consequently there would be a general movement of air towards the poles at high levels due
to the high pressure over the equator and the low pressure over the poles. At the surface the
flow of air would be from the high surface pressure at the poles towards the low surface
pressure at the equator.
In fact the flow described above is something like a sea breeze but on a gigantic scale.
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Earth Rotation
The effect of the Earths rotation and thus coriolis (geostrophic) force on the circulation
described above is shown below, the flow of air obeying Buys Ballots Law.
At upper levels the air moving towards the poles from the equator is now turned right in the
northern hemisphere and to the left in the southern hemisphere by geostrophic force. This
takes place at about 30 from the equator because, as we already know, the geostrophic
wind equation breaks down near the equator. The resultant accumulation of air creates high
surface pressure in latitudes 20 to 40 (in each hemisphere) as well as strong westerly winds
at height. The two belts of high pressure are recognisable features of the actual world
circulation as the subtropical high pressure belts. As a result of the high surface pressure
there is an outflow of air at the surface towards the equator and the poles.
The picture of the idealized circulation can now be expanded to show the zones of high and
low pressure and the resultant air circulation. The diagram below shows both a plan view and
an elevation of the various zones and the horizontal and vertical movement of the air.
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Climatic Zones
Because they are essentially products of solar heating, the features previously described
would change latitude with the seasonal movement of the sun.
Pressure zones, in turn, produce climatic zones. Because rising air cools, much cloud and
precipitation forms in the temperate and equatorial belts of low pressure. At the poles and in
the sub tropical belts of high pressure, due to subsiding air, conditions are mainly dry.
Due to seasonal movements of these systems, transitional zones are produced which are
affected by one or other of these systems according to the season.
These statements apply to an idealized world with a uniform surface. In the real world the
pressure patterns can be much more complex, however this simple approach and the
following descriptions of the more important climatic zones will be useful in our study of
climatology.
Polar Climate
High pressure is often replaced by travelling depressions giving unsettled weather and snow.
Below 0c, the ground is permanently covered by ice and snow. Above 0c, a tundra type of
climate is found where mosses and lichens grow, although the sub soil remains frozen
(permafrost).
Disturbed Temperate Climate
Here the weather is controlled mainly by travelling frontal depressions and less frequent high
pressure systems; winds are mainly westerly, gales are frequent. There is much cyclonic
precipitation throughout the year with no dry season.
Mediterranean Climate
This is a transitional climate, being disturbed temperate in winter and dry subtropical in
summer. Winters are cool and unsettled, summers are warm and dry.
Arid Subtropical Climate
These areas are always under the influence of the sub tropical high pressure belt. As a
consequence, skies are clear, it is warm and practically rainless. The great desert areas of
the world are found within this zone.
Tropical Transitional (Savannah) Climate
In winter the weather is governed by the dry trade winds. In summer it is governed by the belt
of equatorial rains. The duration of the wet season decreases as latitude increases.
Equatorial Climate
This zone has two main rainy seasons which occur as the sun crosses the equator but there
is no real dry season. There is much convective activity with heavy showers and frequent
thunderstorms. Temperature and humidity are both high and are almost uniform throughout
the year.
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In January the sun is in the southern hemisphere and the maximum heating occurs over the
land masses which then become areas of low pressure, effectively moving the ITCZ well
south of the equator. Over the eastern Pacific and the Atlantic the ITCZ tends to lie mainly to
.the north of the Equator. Over the Indian Ocean and the western Pacific Ocean the ITCZ lies
in the southern hemisphere. As you can see from the diagram in July (the northern
hemisphere summer), the ITCZ reaches its maximum northerly position over China
(approximately 45N) rapidly moving back towards the equator over the China Sea. It reaches
20N over North Africa and southern Arabia and 30 over India. Over the Atlantic and Pacific
oceans the ITCZ lies mainly between 10N and 15N.
Stability and Moisture Content
The trade winds are initially relatively dry and stable, since the air mass originates as
descending air in the subtropical high pressure belts. Passage over warmer seas towards the
ITCZ produces instability due to heating from below and a rapid increase in moisture content
due to evaporation into the dry air at the lower levels.
ITCZ Weather
ITCZ weather has wide variations depending on local factors. In some areas over land, a
relatively narrow front is found, much like the fronts in temperate latitudes. Over the sea, the
ITCZ is from 30 to 300 nm wide, with the weather varying from fair weather cumulus with an
inversion between 3,000 ft and 8,000ft to heavy cumulonimbus with violent turbulence and
severe icing and tops above 50,000 ft at times. Where there are stable conditions at medium
and high levels, the cumulus buildup stops and the cloud spreads out into large sheets of
stratiform clouds.
The main aspect of ITCZ weather is warm moist air with the potential to produce heavy cloud
and rain. The ITCZ is also covered in relation to regional climatology in a later part of this
section.
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SUMMER
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WINTER
A coastal low may develop off the east or west coast. When there is a strong flow of air off
the plateau, it will 'remove' air from the coastal region giving rise to a weak low pressure cell.
They will move southwards on the West Coast and Northwards on the East Coast. These
cells will persist as long as conditions permit.
The coastal lows are accompanied by rain, low cloud, and drizzle.
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It is also a Summer condition. The SE winds blow away the pollution (DOCTOR). The winds
are fairly dry thus mostly clear skies. The table cloth is formed by air being forced to rise over
the mountain.
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CHAPTER 13
AVIATION WEATHER FORECASTS
Met information available to pilots may be listed under the following headings, abbreviations
for messages being shown where applicable:
1. Aerodrome weather reports METAR AND SPECI
2. Aerodrome forecasts TAF
3. Area forecasts ARFOR (not available in Sth Africa)
4. Area QNH forecasts
5. Route forecasts ROFOR (available on request)
6. Sigmet and Airmet information
7. Warnings of hazardous phenomena in the vicinity of airports
8. Warning for aviation sever storms of tropical and sub-tropical origin
9. Aircraft weather reports AIREP
10. Met broadcasts VOLMET & ATIS
ALL MET MESSAGES GIVE THE TIME IN UTC
Now lets look at the type of forecasts and observations that you will use in South Africa
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METAR-SPECI-TAF
METAR AND SPECI
Format for METAR/SPECI is fixed and according to following common presentation:
IDENTIFICATION
-
METAR
=
routine weather observation
SPECI
=
selected special weather report
Location identifier.
Date and time indicator in UTC 121100Z for METAR, for SPECI time
group will indicate time of occurrence of change.
e.g. METAR FAJS 121100Z ...
SURFACE WIND
-
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RVR
-
During periods when horizontal visibility or RVR is less than 1500 one
or more RVR groups shall be included in reports.
PRESENT WEATHER
-
One or more but not more than three groups of codes shall be used to
report all present significant weather at or near airfield.
QUALIFIER
INTENSITY
1
DESCRIPTOR
2
WEATHER PHENOMENA
PRECIPITATION
3
OBSCURATIO
N
4
- Light
MI Shallow
DZ Drizzle
BR Mist
Moderate
(no qualifier)
BC Patches
RA Rain
FG Fog
DR Drifting
(below 2
metres)
SN Snow
FU Smoke
SG Snow grains
VA Volcanic
ash
BL Blowing
(extend to
above 2
metres)
IC Diamond dust
(ice crystal)
vis < 3000 m
+ Heavy
VC In the
vicinity
(within 8 km,
but not at
the
aerodrome)
DU Widespread
dust
PE Ice pellets
FZ Super-cooled
FC Funnel
cloud (s)
(tornado
or
waterspou
t)
SA Sand
GR Hail - dia. > 5
mm
Thunderst
orm
PO welldeveloped
dust/sand
whirls
SQ Squalls
SH Shower
TS
OTHER
5
GS Small hail
and/or snow
pellets
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SS
HZ Haze
Sandst
orm
DS Duststorm
Haze
Mist
Smoke
Widespread dust
Shallow fog
Fog patches
Fog in vicinity
Fog
Light
drizzle
Moderate drizzle
Heavy
drizzle
Light
rain
Moderate rain
Heavy
rain
Light
snow
Moderate snow
Heavy
snow
Light
shower
Moderate shower
Heavy
shower
Light
showers of small hail
Moderate showers of small hail
Heavy
showers of small hail
Light
showers of hail
Moderate showers of hail
Heavy
showers of hail
Thunderstorm
Light
thunderstorm with rain
Moderate thunderstorm with rain
Heavy
thunderstorm with rain
Light
thunderstorm with hail
Moderate thunderstorm with hail
Heavy
thunderstorm with hail
Light
thunderstorm with snow
Moderate thunderstorm with snow
Heavy
thunderstorm with snow
Funnel clouds
Funnel clouds in vicinity
Volcanic ash
Squalls
CAVOK
Sky clear
No significant weather
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HAZE
MIST
SMOKE
WIDESPREAD DUST
SHALLOW FOG
FOG PATCHES
FOG IN VCNTY
FOG
FBL DRZL
MOD DRZL
HVY DRZL
FBL RAIN
MOD RAIN
HVY RAIN
FBL SNOW
MOD SNOW
HVY SNOW
FBL SHWR
MOD SHWR
HVY SHWR
FBL SHWR OF SMALL HAIL
MOD SHWR OF SMALL HAIL
HVY SHWR OF SMALL HAIL
FBL SHWR OF HAIL
MOD SHWR OF HAIL
HVY SHWR OF HAIL
TS
FBL TS WITH RAIN
MOD TS WITH RAIN
HVY TS WITH RAIN
FBL TS WITH HAIL
MOD TS WITH HAIL
HVY TS WITH HAIL
FBL TS WITH SNOW
MOD TS WITH SNOW
HVY TS WITH SHOW
FUNNEL CLD
FUNNEL CLD IN VCNTY
VOLCANIC ASH
SQUALLS
CAVOK
SKC
NSW
(few)
SCT
(scattered)
BKN
(broken)
OVC
(overcast)
Only two cloud types are regarded as convective, CB and TCU, TCU being a
contraction of towering cumulus.
VERTICAL VISIBILITY
If the sky is expected to be obscured and information on vertical visibility is
available, vertical visibility VV shall be shown in Units of 30 m (100) e.g.
VV010.
CAVOK
-
TEMPERATURE / DEWPOINT:
-
Whole degrees C.
PRESSURE
-
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SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION
This portion of the METAR will start with recent weather indicated by RE.
Only the following phenomena will be reported as recent weather:
-
Freezing precipitation.
Moderate/heavy rain or snow.
Moderate/heavy ice pellets/hail.
Moderate/ heavy blowing snow.
Sand/dust storm.
Thunderstorms.
Volcanic ash fallout.
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becoming . . .
TEMPO
temporary . . .
NOSIG
no significant change.
Following the appropriate indicator will be the applicable time group for the element
reported on. Time group can be further qualified by an AT (at), FM (from) or TL (until)
prefix:
BECM FM 0930 ...
NOSIG appended to end of the METAR will indicate just that .. no significant
change expected in the next at least 1 hour.
Present weather
Cloud base
Cloud amount
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TAF
TAF is the international code for a terminal aerodrome forecast.
Any TAF amendment will be prefixed TAF AMD.
As a generalisation, TAF coding follows the same conventions as for METAR/SPECI
and the same table 4678 is used.
IDENTIFICATION
-
Message ID TAF.
FORECAST CLOUD/HEIGHT
-
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CAVOK
-
TEMPERATURE
-
TM10/0100Z
ICING
620904
where 6
2
090
4
0
is icing indicator
indicates light icing in cloud
indicates base height of layer of icing 9000' AGL
indicates thickness of layer i.e. 4000'
Indicates to top of cloud.
TURBULENCE
-
Presented as:
562508
where 5
6
250
8
indicates turbulence
indicates severe turbulence in clear air
indicates base height in layer of turbulence 25000'
AGL
indicates thickness or layer of turbulence 8000'.
BECMG
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SAMPLE TAF
TAF FAGC 160200Z 160606 13018KT 9000 BKN020 T19/0900Z BECMG 0608
SCT015CB BKN020 541800 TEMPO 0812 17025G40KT 1000 TSRA SCT010CB
BKN020 650100 T16/1000Z FM12 15015KT 9999 BKN 020 BKN100 T20/2000Z
Transcribed as:
Forecast FAGC(African region, South Africa, Grand Central) date of issue 16 time of
issue 0200Z Period 16/0600z to 17/0600z SW 130 deg 18Kt / visibility 9000 m / 5 t0 7
oktas cloud 2000' AGL / temperature 19 C at 0900Z / weather becoming between
0600/0800Z 3 to 4 oktas cumulonimbus cloud at 1500' 5 to 7 oktas cloud at 2000' /
infrequent moderate turbulence in cloud 18000' AGL to tops of cloud / temporarily
between 0800/1200Z wind 170 deg 25 gusting 40 Kts visibility 1000m in thunderstorm
rain / 3 to 4 oktas cumulonimbus cloud at 1000' 5 to 7 oktas cloud at 2000' / moderate
icing in cloud 1000' AGL to tops of cloud / temperature 16 C at 1000Z / from 1200
surface wind 150 deg 15KT / visibility greater than 10000m / 5 to 7 oktas cloud at 2000' /
5 to 7 oktas cloud at 10000' / temperature 20 deg C at 2000Z.
Now thats how a simple one is done lets now look at some more real life examples for
discussion in class:
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Alexander bay
Bisho
Bloemfontein Airport
Bethlehem
Beaufort West
Cape Town Int
FACT
Airport
FACV Calvinia
FADN Durban Int Airport
FADY De Aar
FAEL East Londen
FAEO Ermelo
FAER Ellisras
Pietersburg Gateway
FAGB
airport
FAGG George Airport
FAHS Hoedspruit
FAIR
Irene
Johannesburg Int.
FAJS
Airport
FAKD Klerksdorp
FAKM Kimberly
FAKS Kroonstad
FALA Lanseria Airport
FALI
Lichtenburg
FALT Louis Trichardt
FALW Langebaanweg
FALY Ladysmith
FAMG Margate
FAMM Mmabatho
FANC Newcastle
FANS Nelspruit
FAOB Overberg
Port Elizabeth
FAPE
Airport
FAPG Plettenberg Bay
FAPH Phalaborwa
FAPM Pietermaritzburg
FAPR
FAPS
FARB
FASB
FASS
FATH
Thohoyandu
FATI
FATZ
FAUL
FAUP
FAUT
FAVB
Thabazimbi
Tzaneen
Ulundi
Upington
Umtata
VRyburg
FAVG
FAVV
FAVY
FAWI
Vereeniging
Vryheid
Witbank
FAWK
Waterkloof (SAAF)
FAWM
FBSK
FDMS
FQMA
FVHA
FXMM
FYGF
FYKT
FYWB
FYWH
FYWW
Welkom
Gaberone
Manzini (Matsapha)
Maputo
Harare
Maseru
Grootfontein
Keetmanshoop
Walvis Bay
Windhoek (Town)
Windhoek Int. Airport
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CHARTS
ABBREVIATIONS FOUND ON CHARTS AND FORECASTS:
ABBREVIATION
MEANING
ESC
escarpment
LOC
local
CIT
city
LYR
layer
HIV
highveld
LOV
lowveld
COT
coastal
MAR
maritime
MON
mountains
VAL
valley
ISOL
isolated
individual CB cells
OCNL
occasional
FRQ
frequent
EMBD
embedded
FEW
few
SCT
scattered
BKN
broken
OVC
overcast
MTW
mountain wave
TURB
turbulence
LSQ
line squall
WS
wind shear
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LOW
FL100 - FL250
MEDIUM
4 Codes used on the chart are given below the Time/Temp/QNH/Wind box.
4 The symbols for significant weather are given in box 1.
4 The symbols for fronts, convergence zones, tropopause heights, pressure centres,
freezing levels, the ITCZ and the jet stream are given
in box 2.
4 All clouds are denoted within the mmmmmm sign.
4 The symbol XXX denotes that the cloud base (or tops) do not appear on the chart in
use.
4 Pay attention to the forecast period and the additional information box.
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The top right hand corner of the chart gives a box which:
i.
ii.
iii. The depth of the atmosphere covered. In this case FL 250 - 450 or
FL 370 - 150 HPA.
iv. The chart is a fixed time chart for 0600 UTC, 24 February.
NB
For the exam the chart can be assumed to be valid for the
whole period of flight. No movement of weather phenomena is
necessary.
v.
vi. The units used on the chart are Pressure Altitude (Hectofeet),
knots and C
c. The vertical distance at which phenomena are expected are indicated by
flight levels, top over base or top followed by base. 'XXX' means the
phenomenon is expected to continue above or below the vertical coverage of
the chart.
d. The surface positions together with the direction and speed of movement
of pressure centres and fronts are denoted as shown on the chart.
Note: Slow indicates movement of less than 5 knots.
e. Dashed lines denote areas of CAT. These are areas are numbered and
are associated with the decode box on the chart.
eg
Area 5
Moderate turbulence FL 460 to below FL 250 (XXX)
with localised severe turbulence
f. On lower charts the 0 C Isotherm will also be shown as a dotted line with
the FL indicated.
eg
- - - - - - - 0C:FL130 - - - - - - - -
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Average the wind velocity and temperature between Point A and Point D
STEP 1
Point A lies between two winds both 270/100 kt, therefore take
the wind at point A to be 270/100 kt, Temperature -57C.
STEP 2
Point B tends towards the southern wind so the speed will be
more likely to be 65 kt, measure the direction using your protractor,
approximately 26O/65 kt, Temperature -58C.
STEP 3
Point C is between two wind velocities but tends slightly to the
southern one. So take the wind velocity as 235/50 kt. Temperature is between 64 C and -62 C. So take the temperature as -63 C.
STEP 4
STEP 5
The above problem is quite a simple way of arriving at the mean wind velocity
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On certain routes the averaging process may not be so easy. Suppose that the wind
directions that we extrapolate are 100, 080, 245, 255, 260, 270, 285, 285. Note
that two winds are easterly in origin and opposite to the rest of the extrapolated winds. If
we average these values then the mean wind direction calculated would be 220. Which
goes against what is obviously a predominantly westerly wind. In this type of case
discard the two easterly winds and only average the westerly wind, coming out with a
much more sensible solution of 265. When averaging the wind make sure that the
difference in values of the wind directions that you are averaging is less than 180.
The wind speed is resolved in a similar fashion. If the winds are all from directions within
1800 then a simple averaging process can be used, If as in the above case we have 2
easterly winds and 6 westerly winds then we have to accept that the easterly winds will
offset the values of the westerly winds. In this case give positive values to your westerly
winds and negative values to your easterly winds eg -45, -50, +20, +30, +65, +65, +70,
+90 so our mean wind speed would be 30 kt.
Example
Use the charts given above to calculate the mean wind velocity and
temperature along the track AD.
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Solution
STEP 1
80 W
320/20 KT
-46 C
30 W
030/30 KT
-46 C
70 W
250/45 KT
-47 C
20 W
215/70 KT
-52 C
55 W
225/40 KT
-48 C
10 W
300/30 KT
-48 C
40 W
020/60 KT
-49 C
0 E/W
290/40 KT
-48 C
STEP 2
STEP 3
STEP 4
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Beaufort scale
A numeric scale used to estimate the force of the wind when no instruments are available:
Wind
speed(km/h)
Designation
Description
<2
calm
2-5
light air
6-11
light breeze
12-19
gentle breeze
20-29
moderate breeze
30-38
fresh breeze
39-50
strong breeze
51-61
moderate gale
62-74
fresh gale
75-86
strong gale
87-100
whole gale
101-118
storm
widespread damage
119+
hurricane
Berg Wind
A hot dry wind blowing off the interior plateau of South Africa, roughly at right angles to the
coast. Occur mainly in winter when there is a low pressure system south of the country and a
strong high over the country
Black Frost
A dry freeze with respect to its effects upon vegetation, that is, the internal freezing of
vegetation unaccompanied by the protective formation of hoarfrost.
Blocking High
Any high that remains nearly stationary or moves slowly , so that it effectively "blocks" the
movement of migratory lows(cyclones) across its latitudes.
Buster
A sudden shift in wind direction behind a coastal low from north-east to south-west. The
buster is well known for its sudden onslaught with winds going from calm to 40 knots+ in a
matter of minutes.
C
CAT
Clear air turbulence. Turbulence experienced by aircraft as it is flying in cloudless conditions
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Cloudburst
Any sudden and heavy fall of rain, almost always of the shower type. Most of the times it is
associated with thunderstorms.
Cold Front
Any non-occluded front that moves so that the colder air replaces the warmer air; i.e. the
leading edge of a cold air mass.
Condensation
The physical process by which water vapor becomes liquid or solid.
Cut-off Low
A cold low which has become displaced out of the basic westerly current, and lies to the
south of this current.
Cyclone(low or depression )
An area of low pressure with a cyclonic flow. ( clockwise in the Southern hemisphere).
D
Dew Point
The temperature to which a given parcel of air must be cooled at constant pressure and
constant water-vapor content in order for saturation to occur.
Doppler Weather Radar
A new Weather Surveillance Radar system developed in 1988. This powerful and sensitive
Doppler system generates many useful products for meteorologists, among them: standard
reflectivity 'echoes', wind 'velocity' or atmospheric air motion pictures, and Arial 1-hour, 3-hour
, or storm-total precipitation images.
Downburst(microburst)
A strong downdraft, initiated by a thunderstorm, that includes an outburst of damaging winds
on or near the ground. Downbursts may last for anywhere from a few minutes in small scale
microbursts on up to 20 minutes in lager , longer lived microbursts. One example of a
downburst, called straight-line winds, can reach speeds of 176km to 240km, or squarely in
the range of a strong tornado. Downbursts are further detailed as either: Microburst: a
convective downdraft with an affected outflow area of less than 4 km wide and peak winds
lasting less than 5 minutes. They can create dangerous vertical/horizontal wins shears which
can adversely affect aircraft performance and cause property damage.
Dryline
A narrow zone of extremely sharp moisture gradients. Thundershowers usually develop just
to the east of the dryline in South Africa.
Dust Devil
A well developed dust whirl; a small but vigorous whirlwind usually of short duration, rendered
visible by dust, sand and debris picked up from the ground. Diameters range from about 3m
to 30m; their average height is about 200m but a few has been observed as high as 2000m.
E
El Nino
Significant warming of the waters in the eastern Pacific Ocean, usually off the coast of South
America, which results in shifts of world-wide weather patterns. Can cause prolonged periods
of drought or floods. In South Africa, El Nino is associated with prolonged droughts.
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F
Fetch
An area from which waves are generated by a wind that is nearly constant in direction and
speed.
Flash Flood
A flood that rises and falls quite rapidly with little or no advance warning, usually as the result
of intense rainfall over a relative small area.
Freezing Level
In aviation terminology, then lowest altitude in the atmosphere over a given location , at which
the air temperature is 0 degrees C; the height of the 0 C constant temperature surface
Fujita Scale
A scale used to classify tornadoes based on wind damage and was developed by Theodore
Fijita( university of Chicago)
F
scale
Wind Speed
(km/h)
Damage
F0
64-115
light
F1
116-179
Moderate
F2
180-251
Major
F3
252-329
Severe
F4
330-416
Devastating
F5
417-508
Incredible
G
Greenhouse Effect
The heating effect exerted by the atmosphere upon the earth by virtue of the fact that the
atmosphere absorbs and remits infrared radiation.
Gust Front
The leading edge of a mass of relatively cool, gusty air that flows out of the base of a
thunderstorm cloud and and spreads along the ground ell in advance of the parent
thunderstorm cell; a mesoscale cold front. A shelf or roll cloud may accompany the gustfront.
H
Halo
Rings or arcs that encircle the sun or moon which are caused by the refraction of light
through ice crystals that make up high level clouds.
Heat Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm of the airmass type which develops near the end of a hot, humid, summers
day.
Heat Wave
A heat wave exist when for 3 days the maximum temperature is 5 degrees higher than the
man maximum for the hottest month.
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High ( anti-cyclone)
An area of high pressure with a anticyclonic circulation. ( anti clock wise in the southern
hemisphere)
Hoarfrost
A deposit of interlocking ice crystals formed by direct sublimation on objects. Most of the frost
experienced in winter on the high lying areas of South Africa is hoarfrost.
Hurricane
See tropical cyclone.
I
Instability
A state of the atmosphere in which the vertical distribution of temperature allows rising warm
air to continue to rise and accelerate.. This kind of motion is conducive for thunderstorm
development.
Inversion
A situation where the temperature increases with hight instead of decreasing. It is quite
common in the winter and because there is no upward motion of warm gases it results in
severe pollution of the lower layers.
Isobar
A line of equal barometric pressure as shown on a weather map.
J
Jet Stream
A narrow band of strong winds in the atmosphere that controls the movement of high and low
pressure systems and associated fronts. Wind speeds can reach 380 km or higher in certain
cases. Jet streams are usually found at 30 to 40 000 ft above the surface. It owes it existence
to the large temperature contrast between the polar and equatorial regions.
K
Knot
Unit of speed used in aviation and marine activities to measure the speed of the wind. It is
equal to about 1.15 statue mile ore 1.84 km per hour.
L
Land Breeze
A coastal breeze blowing from land to sea., caused by temperature difference when the sea
surface is warmer than the adjacent land. Normally occurs in the early mornings.
La Nina
La Nina is characterised by unusually cold ocean temperatures in the eastern equatorial
Pacific. It is the opposite of El Nino. La Nina is associated with above normal rain over the
summer rainfall areas of South Africa.
M
Mesoscale
Dimensions of an atmospheric layer that ranges from a few kilometres to some tens of
kilometres horizontally and, vertically from the ground to the top of the friction layer.
N
Numerical Forecasting
The forecasting of the behavior of the atmospheric disturbances by the numerical solution of
the governing fundamental equations of hydrodynamics, subject to observed initial
conditions;computers and sophisticated computational models are required.
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O
Orographic Lifting
The lifting of an air current caused by its passage up and over mountains or escarpments.As
the air is forced upwards it cools and if moist enough clouds can form and additional cooling
results in rain. It can cause extensive cloudiness and increased amounts of precipitation in
higher terrain.
Ozone
A nearly colourless(but faintly blue) gaseous form of oxygen, with a characteristic odour like
that of weak chlorine. It is usually found in trace amounts in the atmosphere, but is primarily
found at 30 000 to 150 000 feet. Its production results from photochemical process involving
ultraviolet radiation. Because it absorbs harmful ultraviolet radiation at those heights, it is a
beneficial gas.
P
Precipitation
Any or all of the forms of water particles, whether liquid or solid, that fall from the atmosphere
and reach the ground.
Q
Quasi-stationary Front
A front which is stationary or nearly so.
R
Radiation Fog
It is fog that form over land due to heatloss through radiation during the night and resulting in
the cooling of the air to below its dewpoint.This fog generally form in the early morning and
dissipate when the sun is warms up the ground.
Rainbow
An arc that exhibits the concentric bands of colours of the spectrum and is formed opposite
the sun by refraction and reflection of the sun's rays in raindrops.
Rainshadow
Areas on the leeward side of a mountain or mountain range which often receive less rain than
the windward side. The Klein Karoo is a good example of this.
Relative humidity
The ratio of the amount of moisture in the air to the amount which the air could hold at the
same temperature and pressure if it were saturated; usually expressed in percent.
Ridge
An elongated area of high pressure in the atmosphere: the opposite of a trough.
Roll Cloud
A turbulent cloud formation that resembles a roller. This cloud can be found in the lee of
some mountains. The air in the cloud rotates around a axis parallel to the range of mountains.
It is also sometimes found along the leading edge of a thunderstorm, formed by the rolling
action in the wind shear region between cool downdrafts and warm updrafts.
S
Severe Thunderstorm
A thunderstorm that produces either of the following: damaging winds of 93 km/h or greater,
hail 1.9 centimetre in diameter or larger, or a tornado. Severe thunderstorms can result in the
loss of life and property.
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Sleet
Describes the solid grains of ice formed by the freezing of raindrops or the refreezing of
largely melted snowflakes.
Smog
A natural fog contaminated by industrial pollutants, literally, a mixture of smoke and fog.
Snow
A steady fall of snowflakes for several hours over the same area.
Southern Oscillation
A periodic, large scale atmospheric oscillation of the large scale distribution of sea level
pressure, and air and water temperature that originates over the southern hemisphere.
Consequently, there is an associated change in the surface winds, and some storms become
stronger than normal. This oscillation is on the scale of a year or a few years, and has global
implications such as widespread drought or flooding. Oceanic fishing is also disrupted.
Squall Line
A broken or solid line of thunderstorms that may extend across several hundred kilometres
Subsidence
A descending motion of air in the atmosphere, usually with the implication that the condition
extends over a rather broad area.
T
Thermal
A relatively small-scale, rising air current produced when the earth's surface is heated.
Thermals are a common source of low level turbulence for aircraft.
Tornado
A violently rotating column of air, usually pendant to a cumulonimbus, with circulation
reaching the ground. The visible cloud may not reach the ground, but if the lower circulation,
marked by dust, dirt, and/or debris, reaches the ground, it is classified as a tornado. It nearly
always starts off as a funnel cloud and may be accompanied by a loud roaring noise.
Tornadoes are classified into 3 main groups: weak- wind speeds up to 170 km/h: strong- wind
speeds of 170- 330 km/h; violent- wind speeds of 340 to perhaps 500 km/h.
Tropical Cyclone
A cyclone originating over tropical or subtropical waters with organized convection and a
definite cyclonic surface wind circulation. Tropical cyclones are large and span areas of 1000
of kilometres. They can causes a great deal of damage when they make landfall. A lot of
damage is caused by the storm surge that result in widespread flooding Tropical cyclones get
their energy from the warm oceans and therefore dissipate rapidly as they move in over land.
Tropical or Subtropical Depression
Cyclones that have maximum sustained winds of 33 knots or less. These are referred to as
low pressure systems in public advisories and statements.
Tropical Disturbance
An area of organized convection which originates in the tropics or subtropics and maintains it
identity for 24 hours or more. In successive stages of intensification, it may be subsequently
classified as a tropical wave, tropical depression, tropical storm or tropical cyclone
Tropical Storm
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Tropical cyclone that has maximum sustained winds from 34 to 63 knots inclusive.
Trough
An elongated area of low pressure in the atmosphere, the opposite of a ridge
U
Upper-Level Disturbance
A disturbance of the flow pattern in the upper atmosphere, which is usually associated with
clouds and precipitation.. This disturbance is characterised by distinct cyclonic flow, a pocket
of cold air; and sometimes, a jet streak. These features make the air aloft more unstable and
conducive to clouds and precipitation.
UVB
A biologically effective portion of solar ultraviolet radiation that reaches the earth's surface; in
the wavelength range of 280 to 320 nanometres; responsible for sunburn and skin cancers.
V
Virga
Wisps or streaks of rain or snow falling out of a cloud, but evaporating before reaching the
ground.
W
Waterspout
Very similar to a tornado with the difference that a waterspout occurs over a body of open
water.
Wet Bulb Temperature
The temperature an air parcel would have if cooled to saturation at a constant pressure by
evaporation of water into it
Wind Chill
An apparent temperature that describes the combined effect of wind and low air temperature
on exposed skin.
Z
Zonal flow
The flow of air along a latitude circle; more specifically the latitudinal(east or west)
component of existing flow.
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QUESTIONS
SYNOPTIC CHART QUESTIONS
1.
2.
The isobars on a synoptic chart indicate that the winds at a place on the coast
of SA should blow in a westerly direction. If clear skies prevail, the day time
wind may be expected to have a:
a)
b)
c)
3.
4.
1011.4hPa.
1011.0hPa.
1001.7hPa.
Station model no. 024 ( East of Windhoek ) is indicating a cloud base of:
a)
b)
c)
2 000 to 3 000
3 000 to 5 000
6 000 and above.
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5.
220
070
280
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6.
Station model no. 112 (W of Cape Town) is indicating 8 oktas cloud cover.
This is a result of:
a)
b)
c)
7.
8.
Port St. Johns ( station model no. 674 ) is reporting low cloud as follows:
a)
b)
c)
10.
16km.
1 600m.
1 600.
9.
Based on the synoptic situation, the temperate cyclone will reach Cape Town(chart
below):
a)
b)
c)
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11.
The QNH at Durban (Chart below) three hours preceding the time of observation
is:
a)
b)
c)
1018 hPa
1016 hPa
1017.1 hPa
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TAF/METAR QUESTIONS
1.
2.
3.
4.
CAVOK means:
a)
Viz. greater than 10000. cloud base greater than 5000, no
thunderstorms, no fog, no significant wx.
b)
Viz. greater than 10 000m, cloud base greater than 10 000
or more, no Cb, no fog. no significant wx.
c)
Viz. greater than l0 000m, no cloud below 5000 or min. sector
altitude, no Cb, no fog. no significant wx.
5.
6.
7.
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9.
10.
RVR is:
a)
Improving.
b)
Deteriorating.
c)
Not reported.
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ATP MET
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Annex A
Sample Exams
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Sample Paper 1
1.
When the lifting action ceases in unstable conditions the raising air will:
a)
b)
c)
2.
The characteristics of rime ice and conditions most favourable for its formation
are:
a)
b)
c)
3.
Precipitation
Clouds
poor
good
good
steady
showers
steady
stratus;
cumulus:
stratus.
The saturated adiabatic lapse rate is less than the dry adiabatic lapse rate
because:
a)
b)
c)
7.
Visibility
6.
a)
b)
c)
5.
The rate at which the atmospheric pressure decreases with height is:
a)
b)
c)
4.
The most common cooling process associated with cloud formation is:
a)
b)
c)
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8.
9.
If the wind blows across a mountain range, mountain waves and turbulence can
always be anticipated on the lee side of the mountain if the:
a)
b)
c)
10.
11.
The air ahead of the warm front is colder than the air behind the overtaking
cold front at:
a)
b)
c)
12.
13.
On a particular flight in the southern hemisphere the winds at 5000 feet AGL are
north-easterly while the surface winds are easterly The difference in wind direction is
primarily due to:
a)
b)
c)
14.
15.
When crossing a cold front at a high altitude the change in the temperature and
wind direction will be:
a)
b)
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c)
16.
17.
Cumulus clouds are always associated with severe icing due to:
a)
b)
c)
23.
22.
21.
23,4 F;
-12,3 F;
-29,2 F.
20.
19.
When crossing a cold front in the southern hemisphere from the warm to the
cold sector, there will be:
a)
b)
c)
18.
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24.
25.
26
a trade winds;
monsoon winds;
doldrums.
When the reported pressure indicates a more or less continuous fall, the
following type of weather can be anticipated:
a)
b)
c)
30.
on the equator;
between 2 degrees and 5 degrees from the equator;
between 5 degrees and 25 degrees from the equator.
The winds that blow from opposite directions in the summer and winter in
certain regions of the tropics are called:
a)
b)
c)
29.
an anabatic wind;
a katabatic wind;
a berg wind.
28.
27.
the aircraft is flying through rain and the temperature is below 0 degrees C:
it is descending from an altitude where the outside temperature was above
freezing into cold moist air;
the aircraft is parked outside on a fine clear might and the temperature drops
below 0 degrees C.
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31.
TAF FAJS 260615 04008KT 9999 SCT020 BKN080 BECMG 0810 33013KT SCT045
BKN080 BECMG 1013 SCT045CB SCT045 BKN080 TEMPO 1315 5000 TSRA =
Rain showers are expected at FAJS :
a)
b)
c)
32.
The expected WX on the route between FAJS and Alexander Bay (SIG WX2) at
FL160 is:
a)
b)
c)
33.
34.
020/10 Kts;
310/l0Kts;
350/l4Kts
37.
TAF FABL 050615 02010KT 9999 SCT040CB BECMG 0810 35014KT SCT040
BKN100 TEMPO 1215 4000 TSRA SCT030CB =
The expected surface wind at FABL at 0900 on the 05th, is:
a)
b)
c)
36.
1012 hPa:
1108 hPa
1008 hPa.
35.
to the left;
to the right:
none.
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38.
FAPE 110615 14015KT SCT010 OVC020 PROB30 TEMPO 0615 6000 RA BKN006
BECMG 1113 09020G30KT=
During the forecast period, the visibility at PORT ELIZABETH (FAPE) will be:
a)
b)
c)
39.
TAF FAGG 260609 260609z 11010KT 9999 SCT010 OVC025 PROB30 TEMPO
0609 4000 RA=
The term 0609 as used in the TAF for George Airport (FAGG), means:
a)
b)
c)
40.
c)
44.
The type and height of the clouds that will be encountered on a flight from
KEETMANSHOOP to JAN SMUTS (SIGNIFICANT WX 2) will be
a)
b)
43.
220/25
300/30
150/30
42.
The tops of the clouds will be between 6000 and 9000 feet above means sea
level;
a temporary change in the visibility will occur between 0600 and 0900;
The temperature at 0600 at the airport will be 09 C.
41.
TAF FAAB 060600 060615 VRB05KT 9999 SCT005 PROB30 TEMPO 0607 1000FG
BKN002 FM08 13012KT CAVOK BECMG 0912 21015KT=
The expected landing conditions at FAAB at 0630 will be:
a)
b)
c)
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45.
TAF FAJS 060615Z 04008KT 9999 SCT020 BKN080 BECMG 0810 33013KT
SCT045 BKN080 BECMG 10131 SCT045CB SCT045 BKN080 TEMPO 1315 5000
TSRA=
During the thunderstorm at FAJS, the visibility is expected
to drop to:
a)
b)
c)
46.
47.
Temp 15C/DP7C;
Temp 28C/DP7C;
Temp 28C/DP unknown.
52.
No significant weather;
Thunderstorms;
Sky obscured.
51.
50.
49.
48.
9900 metres;
10km;
5000 metres.
1010.4 hPa,
1008.2 hPa
1012.6 hPa.
-2C to -15 C;
0C to -15 C;
0C to -10 C.
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Chart 1 / Synop 1
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Sig Wx 1
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Sig Wx 2
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Wind A
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The rotational flow of air around high and low pressure systems is primarily caused
by:
a)
b)
c)
2.
A Fohn or Chinook wind is associated with one of the following geographical features:
a)
b)
c)
3.
7.
If you were flying through a front in the Southern Hemisphere and you wished to
maintain your track, you would:
a)
b)
c)
6.
Backing;
Veering in the Northern Hemisphere and Backing in the Southern Hemisphere;
Veering.
In the Southern Hemisphere the surface wind at an inland aerodrome during the
morning will tend to:
a)
b)
c)
5.
A cool ocean;
Mountain range;
A valley.
A changing wind direction from 320 degrees through to 017 degrees is called:
a)
b)
c)
4.
Cyclostrophic forces;
Coriolis force;
Buys Ballots Law.
The West;
The right;
The left.
Surface winds tend to flow across the isobars at an angle rather than parallel to the
isobars. This is due to:
a)
b)
c)
Coriolis force;
Cyclostrophic force;
Surface friction.
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8.
9.
Under which of the following conditions does advection fog not form:
a)
b)
c)
10.
Stratus-type cloud;
A temperature inversion;
Unstable air.
16.
Stratocumulus cloud;
Stratus-type cloud;
A temperature inversion
15.
Stratus;
Altocumulus;
Cumuloform type cloud.
14.
Monsoons;
Westerlies;
Trade winds.
With reference to Trigger Action, the type of cloud which is formed is:
a)
b)
c)
13.
Altostratus;
Cirrostratus;
Stratocumulus.
12.
11.
Thunderstorms;
Stratus cloud with drizzle;
Low lying fog.
Natal midlands;
South West coastal belt;
Eastern Transvaal escarpment.
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17.
When the visibility is less than 1000 metres, the weather phenomena is known as:
a)
b)
c)
18.
Mist;
Haze;
Fog.
Forecast winds:
270/20
315/5
20.
Unstable air;
Stable air;
Thunderstorms.
Saturated air that is forced to rise up a mountain will cool at the rate of:
a)
b)
c)
24.
23.
4000 ft;
4900 ft;
8800 ft.
22.
At what height AGL would you expect the base of cumuloform cloud to form if the
surface temperature is 24 degrees centigrade and the dew point is 12 degrees
centigrade:
a)
b)
c)
21.
Jet streams;
Heaving icing conditions;
Strong turbulence.
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25.
26.
Which of the following weather phenomena is always associated with the passage of
a frontal system:
a)
b)
c)
27.
High cloud;
Middle cloud;
Clouds of vertical development.
In which environment is aircraft icing most likely to have the highest rate of
accumulation:
a)
b)
c)
29.
Which groups of clouds are least likely to produce or contribute to aircraft icing:
a)
b)
c)
28.
Become stable;
Become unstable;
Will cause poor surface visibility.
c)
31.
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32.
The layer that corresponds to that of ISA with a constant temperature of -56.5 C is
found in:
a)
b)
c)
33.
An aircraft is at FL220 with the altimeter set. The pilot omits to reset the altimeter for
landing. The destination airfield has an elevation of 580m, with a QNH of 1026.1 hPa.
After landing, the altimeter reads:
a)
b)
c)
34.
You are flying at an indicated height of 2000 feet from a high pressure to a low
pressure system. If you maintain the indicated height your true height will:
a)
b)
c)
38.
absolute humidity;
relative humidity;
specific humidity.
37.
101
59
0
36.
2 285
1 517
1 900
35.
The Stratosphere.
The Troposphere.
The Stratopause.
increase
stay the same
decrease.
The earths weather changes are primarily due to one of the following:
a)
b)
c)
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39.
The amount of water vapour which may be held in suspension in the atmosphere
depends largely on the following:
a)
b)
c)
40.
41.
An aircraft flying at a constant flight level from an area of high temperature to an area
of low temperature will experience:
a)
b)
c)
46.
1023 hPa.
1017 hPa.
1003 hPa.
45.
Wind velocity.
Temperature
Rainfall.
44.
32C=0F
C= 5/9(F-32)
F=5/9(C-32)
43.
ISA -20C
ISA-15C
ISA+17C
42.
On the equator.
Between 5 and 15 from the equator.
Between 5 and 25 from the equator.
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47.
Tropical cyclones would be expected to develop over the southern Indian Ocean:
a)
b)
c)
July - November
June - November
December - April
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TAF;
METAR;
SPECI.
In a TAF printout, if a change is expected to take place lasting less than 1 hour
of duration, then the word used is:
a)
b)
c)
TEMPO;
INTER;
BECMG.
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1000 feet;
Unknown;
10 000 feet.
8000 feet;
8000 metres;
more that 10 km.
10. What is the temporary change that will take place at 1200 HRS:
a)
b)
c)
a wind change;
Icing will occur;
Visibility will drop because of a thunderstorm.
1019 hPa;
1016 hPa;
1017 hPa.
19 000 feet;
900 feet;
9 000 feet and above.
4 octas;
6 octas;
8 octas.
1016.0 hPa;
1015.3 hPa;
101
7.4 hPa.
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16.
radiation fog;
upslope fog;
advection fog.
18.
19.
c)
23.
surface heating;
trough of low pressure extending south of Angola;
high pressure to the east, advecting moist air from the north.
22.
21.
17 C and 18 C;
21 C and 18 C;
21 C and 17 C.
Thunderstorms are present in the WINDHOEK area Station No. 4 (to the
north of Windhoek). The cloud base is:
a)
b)
c)
20.
The atmospheric pressure at Station No. 3 north east of CAPE TOWN is:
a)
b)
c)
1013.9 hPa;
1016.1 hPa;
1011.3 hPa.
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24.
An aircrafts track is 355 (T), wind 090/20 kts, flight level 90.
would:
a)
b)
c)
25.
26.
31.
With reference to SIG WX 1. The tops of the clouds in the FAJS area are:
a)
b)
c)
30.
FAPE area;
FADN area;
FAJS area.
With reference to SIG WX 1. The base of the clouds in the FAGG area are:
a)
b)
c)
29.
With reference to SIG WX 1. The freezing level in the FACT area is:
a)
b)
c)
28.
27.
start to over-read;
start to under-read;
remain constant.
The altimeter
1 km;
1000 feet;
9999m or more
With reference to WIND A. The wind at FL 150 on the Natal North coast is:
a)
b)
c)
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32.
With reference to WIND A, the temperature at FL 100 (Natal North Coast) is:
a)
b)
c)
33.
34.
c)
37.
36.
The structure and formation of different cloud types which form as a result of air
that is forced to rise, depends on:
a)
b)
c)
35.
minus 8 C;
plus 7 C;
plus 8 C.
Buys ballot Law states that: If you stand with your back to the wind in the southern
hemisphere, the low pressure area will be:
a)
b)
c)
on your left;
in front of you;
on your right.
38 An ELR value which falls between those of the SALR and the DALR indicates:
a)
b)
c)
39.
absolute stability;
absolute instability;
conditional instability.
rime ice;
rain ice;
hoar frost.
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40.
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Revision: 1/1/2001
Synop Chart 1
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ATP DOC 9
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Wind A
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ATP DOC 9
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Sig Wx 1
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ATP DOC 9
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ATP DOC 9
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Annex B
Answers
ATP MET
ATP DOC 9
Revision 1/1/2001
Chapter 1
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Chapter 2
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Chapter 3
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Chapter 4
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Chapter 5
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ATP DOC 9
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ATP DOC 9
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Chapter 6
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Chapter 9
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Chapter 11
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ATP DOC 9
Revision 1/1/2001
Chapter 13
Synoptics
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