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0 User Manual
Revision: 5.0.055
Contents
Summary
Introduction
Background ....................................................................................................................................9
Realistic Modelling with APSDS...................................................................................................11
Material Modelling..............................................................................................................12
Modelling of Multiple Wheels and Axle Groups .................................................................14
Nature of Damage Pulses..................................................................................................15
Overview
17
33
Introduction...................................................................................................................................33
Creating, Opening and Saving Files ............................................................................................34
Creating and Editing Input Data ...................................................................................................34
Database Approach ...........................................................................................................35
Running the Analysis and Plotting Results ..................................................................................35
Run Analysis ......................................................................................................................35
Damage Calculation Details...............................................................................................36
Plot Results ........................................................................................................................37
Options .........................................................................................................................................37
ii
Contents
39
49
Introduction...................................................................................................................................49
Units ...................................................................................................................................49
Sign Convention.................................................................................................................50
Overview of Database Approach .......................................................................................52
The "Layered System" and "Materials" Databases ......................................................................54
Overview of Layered System and Material Properties ......................................................54
Creating a new Layered System........................................................................................56
Defining the Layer properties.............................................................................................57
Duplicating a Layered System ...........................................................................................58
Adding a new Performance Criterion.................................................................................59
Example: Asphalt tensile strain relationship ........................................................... 59
Example: Log-linear performance relationship ....................................................... 61
Adding a new Elastic Material............................................................................................63
Adding a new Material Type ..............................................................................................65
The "Loads" and "Traffic Spectrum" Databases ..........................................................................66
Introduction ........................................................................................................................66
Aircraft Specifications ........................................................................................................67
Automatic Updates for the Standard Aircraft Library.............................................. 67
Adding Aircraft Specifications................................................................................. 68
Defining Load Locations (i.e. Wheel positions) ...................................................... 71
Traffic Spectrums...............................................................................................................72
Creating a new Traffic Spectrum ............................................................................ 72
Defining Gross Weight Distributions....................................................................... 74
Duplicating a Traffic Spectrum ............................................................................... 75
Wander Options .................................................................................................................76
Coordinates for Results................................................................................................................79
81
Appendices
93
Contents
iii
Summary
APSDS (Airport Pavement Structural Design System) is for the mechanistic analysis and
design of flexible pavements subjected to the extremely heavy wheel loads associated with
large aircraft. It is designed to conveniently model each combination of aircraft model and
takeoff weight and to combine the damage using the Cumulative Damage Factor concept.
APSDS 5.0 is based on CIRCLY 5.0 and HIPAVE 5.0. CIRCLY was first released in 1977.
APSDS 3.0 was first released in 1995 and APSDS 4.0 in 2000.
APSDS has unique features to expedite pavement design projects
a standard aircraft model library - that can be automatically updated from our webserver;
APSDS takes account of lateral aircraft wander at a more fundamental level than earlier
methods. Lateral aircraft wander is the statistical variation of the paths taken by successive
aircraft movements relative to lane centrelines. Increased wander reduces pavement
damage by different amounts that depend upon the pavement thickness.
A Parametric Analysis feature can loop through a range of thicknesses for one or two layers,
while simultaneously designing the thickness of another layer. This feature will optimise up to
three layers. Combining this with a Cost Analysis feature, allows for fine-tuning of layer
thicknesses to minimize construction and maintenance costs.
APSDS has many other powerful features, including selection of
(c) Whilst APSDS may be used by persons without a detailed knowledge of computers,
APSDS is designed to be used by persons who have a detailed knowledge of, without
limitation:
(i) the applicable Pavement engineering standards; and
(ii) All appropriate legislation and other relevant instruments, including, without limitation the
relevant industry recognised engineering design guides;
(d) They shall manually check all results provided by APSDS for any anomalies; and
(e) They shall obtain professional advice in relation to all results provided by APSDS.
21.2 APSDS is licensed on the basis set out in this Agreement on the understanding that to
the extent permitted by law Mincad is not responsible for the results of any actions taken,
either by Customer or a third party relying on figures supplied or not supplied by APSDS.
22. Indemnity
Customer warrants that any materials supplied to Mincad by Customer do not infringe
Intellectual Property Right of any person.
To the extent permitted by law, Customer shall fully indemnify and keep indemnified Mincad,
its officers, employees and agents, against any loss, costs, expenses, demands, taxes or
liability whether direct or indirect arising out of:
(a) use of APSDS;
(b) a breach of this agreement by Customer; or
(c) any wilful, unlawful or negligent act or omission of Customer.
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
Background
APSDS (Airport Pavement Structural Design System) is for the mechanistic analysis and
design of flexible pavements subjected to the extremely heavy wheel loads associated with
large aircraft. It is designed to conveniently model each combination of aircraft model and
takeoff weight and to combine the damage using the Cumulative Damage Factor concept.
APSDS has unique features to expedite pavement design projects
a standard aircraft model library - that can be automatically updated from our webserver;
APSDS takes account of lateral aircraft wander at a more fundamental level than earlier
methods. Lateral aircraft wander is the statistical variation of the paths taken by successive
aircraft movements relative to lane centrelines. Increased wander reduces pavement
damage by different amounts that depend upon the pavement thickness. The important
unique feature in APSDS is that the total damage at any point includes contributions from all
the wheels in all their wandering positions. This contrasts with previous methods which
computed single maximum values of the damage indicators. It is this feature that eliminates
the need for the pass-to-coverage concept and allows the designer to specify any degree of
wander. Successive aircraft movements have been observed to be normally distributed
about the pavement centreline. The standard deviation (SD) for a taxiway is typically taken
as 773 mm and for a runway as 1546 mm (Ho Sang, 1975). These correspond to wander
widths of 1778 mm (70 inches) and 3556 mm (140 inches) where wander width is defined as
the zone containing 75% of the aircraft centrelines. For a docking bay, a SD of the order of
200 mm may be appropriate.
APSDS has a user-friendly menu-driven interface that runs under Microsoft Windows.
Databases are used for material properties and loadings, thus eliminating the need to
constantly re-key information. Results can be obtained in tabular form or as report-quality
plots on any printer or plotter supported by Microsoft Windows. Results can be easily
exported to other application packages such as spreadsheets for further processing.
As well as the usual isotropic properties, cross-anisotropic material properties can also be
considered. A cross-anisotropic material is assumed to have a vertical axis of symmetry.
Anisotropies of this type have been observed in soil and rock deposits due to processes
involved in their formation. The interfaces between the layers can be either fully continuous
(rough) or fully frictionless (smooth), or a combination of both types.
10
In practice, loads may be applied to soil or rock pavement layers in the form of vertical wheel
loads, horizontal wheel loads due to traction and braking, torsional wheel loads due to
cornering, and the "gripping" load developed by pneumatic tyres on pavements. The
program allows all of these load types to be simulated for a circular loaded shape. APSDS
can also model non-uniform contact stress distributions.
APSDS is based on integral transform techniques and offers significant advantages over
other linear elastic analysis techniques, such as the finite element method. Input data for the
program is much simpler than that required for most finite element programs. For most
problems the program uses less computer time than a finite element program.
A Parametric Analysis feature can loop through a range of thicknesses for one or two layers,
while simultaneously designing the thickness of another layer. This feature will optimise up to
three layers. Combining this with a Cost Analysis feature, allows for fine-tuning of layer
thicknesses to minimize construction and maintenance costs.
This Australian designed system has been developed by the Melbourne company, MINCAD
Systems. APSDS 5.0 is based on APSDS 4.0, CIRCLY 5.0 and HIPAVE 5.0. CIRCLY has
been in regular use in Australia and worldwide for more than two decades, proving its worth
in thousands of design applications. CIRCLY was first released in 1977 and handled
polynomial type radial variations in contact stress and multiple loads which provide a much
closer representation of the actual loading conditions (Wardle 1977). APSDS 3.0 was first
released in 1995 and APSDS 4.0 in 2000.
In 2007 Mincad Systems and Pioneer Road Services released the Heavy Duty Industrial
Pavement Design Guide (Mincad Systems and Pioneer Road Services, 2007).
The Guide has been developed to assist users of the APSDS and HIPAVE software.
Although the main emphasis of the Guide is on container terminal pavements, all of the
concepts are directly applicable to the airport pavement design. The Guide is a collaborative
effort currently involving Dr. Leigh Wardle of Mincad Systems, Ian Rickards (Pioneer Road
Services Pty Ltd, Melbourne, Australia), John Lancaster (VicRoads, Australia) and Dr. Susan
Tighe (Dept. Civil Engineering, University of Waterloo, Canada).
The Guide presents the authors attempts to reflect best practice in the design of new
construction and rehabilitation of industrial pavements. The Guide steers the designer
through all necessary design considerations and suggests external sources for research
updates.
The Guide is a living document that will be regularly updated to reflect advances in
pavement technology and made freely available via the Internet at no charge.
For further details see http://www.mincad.com.au/hdipdg/.
Chapter 1 Introduction
11
12
Material Modelling
APSDS is an open system that will accommodate material properties and transfer functions
for any pavement design methodology. But research has shown that highway pavement
design methods such as Austroads (2008) are not applicable to the higher loadings typically
applied to heavy duty pavements used at airports (Wardle et al., 2003).
The process of establishing a performance relationship entails assigning moduli values to
unbound basecourse and sub-base materials in accordance with a particular system of sublayering. Care should be taken to ensure that the sub-layering system used to establish the
performance relationship is also used when analysing or designing pavement structures.
Unless this is done, the empirical connection between the test data and the new design is
broken. For example, using the Austroads design method for container handling equipment
where the loads can be 20 tonnes per wheel has been shown to lead to grossly underdesigned pavements (Rodway and Wardle, 1998).
Because each failure criterion is derived in the context of its own detailed design procedure,
it will only produce sensible pavement designs when used as part of that same procedure. If
a failure criterion is used in conjunction with a different design procedure, the vital empirical
link between the design and the original performance data used to calibrate the criterion is
broken. This issue is discussed in more detail by Wardle et al. (2003).
The material performance characteristics recommended for use in APSDS are based on
calibrations developed from airport pavement research.
The subgrade strains are converted to damage using a performance relationship of the form:
Chapter 1 Introduction
where
is a material constant
13
The preferred subgrade performance relationship for heavy duty airport pavements was
developed by Wardle and Rodway (2010). This performance relationship was established by
calibrating pavement designs using APSDS against designs based on the US Army Corps of
Engineers CBR method (Method S77-1, Pereira 1977). The methodology also incorporates
recent ICAO recommendations that impact designs for new generation large aircraft
including the Boeing 777 and Airbus A380-800.
The relationship was developed using a range of different aircraft with masses varying from
74 tonnes to 560 tonnes (i.e. Airbus A380-800) and subgrade strengths varying from CBR =
3% to CBR = 15%.
The resulting performance parameters k and b depend on the subgrade modulus (E) and on
the number of wheels on each gear.
This calibration gives more reliable predictions for designs involving new generation large
aircraft including the Boeing 777 and Airbus A380-800.
For full details see Wardle and Rodway (2010).
More complex performance relationships can be accommodated by the program if required,
for example the log-linear relationship shown below is used by European designers for
cement-treated materials:
14
Chapter 1 Introduction
15
multiple distinct short pulses resulting from each axle, for shallow depths
a single longer pulse that reflects the overall loading on the gear, for large depths
The reservoir method, as used in bridge design to handle complex loadings, is used by
APSDS 5.0 to ensure a smooth transition between the two extremes.
17
CHAPTER 2
Overview
APSDS has many features to facilitate pavement analysis and design.
18
Aircraft Model B
Chapter 2 Overview
19
20
APSDS can also generate graphs that show the variation of the damage factor with each
aircraft model / gross weight combination, as shown below:
Note that there is a data point for each combination of aircraft model and gross weight.
Chapter 2 Overview
21
Elastic Properties
The elastic material in each layer of the pavement structure is assumed to be homogeneous
and of cross-anisotropic or isotropic symmetry.
A cross-anisotropic material has an axis of symmetry of rotation, which is assumed to be
vertical, i.e., the elastic properties are equivalent in all directions perpendicular to the axis of
symmetry (in horizontal, radial directions). In general, these properties are different from
those in the direction parallel to the axis, whereas isotropic materials have the same elastic
properties in both the vertical and horizontal directions.
For further background on the elastic properties see Cross-anisotropy and isotropy in
pavement materials (on page 106).
The Cumulative Damage Factor (CDF) for the parameter is given by summing the damage
factors over all the loadings in the traffic spectrum:
where:
22
The system is presumed to have reached its design life when the cumulative damage
reaches 1.0. If the cumulative damage is less than 1.0 the system has excess capacity and
the cumulative damage represents the proportion of life consumed. If the cumulative
damage is greater than 1.0 the system is predicted to fail before all of the design traffic has
been applied.
The procedure takes account of
This approach allows analyses to be conducted by directly using a mix of aircraft models. It
is not necessary to approximate passes of different aircraft or axles to passes of an
equivalent standard load or "design aircraft".
Material Performance
Generally most performance models may be represented graphically by a plot of tolerable
strain versus load repetitions (generally by a straight line of 'best fit' on a log-log plot).
Usually the models are represented in the form:
where N
is a material constant
Chapter 2 Overview
23
24
Chapter 2 Overview
25
If you now click on the Load Components and Locations tab, you will see more details for the
currently selected Airdraft Model:
26
Coordinate System
The Figure below shows the coordinate system that is used.
This global coordinate system is used to define load locations, the layered system geometry
and the points at which results are required. The global coordinate system is also used to
describe the resultant displacements and stress and strain tensors.
The X axis is taken as the direction transverse to the runway or taxiway axis. To ensure
consistency between results for different aircraft types it is recommended that X=0
corresponds to the runway or taxiway centreline. The Y axis is parallel to the centreline (and
the direction of travel of the aircraft!).
The Z axis is vertically downwards with Z=0 on the pavement surface.
Chapter 2 Overview
Centreline of Aircraft
Direction of Travel
O
X
27
28
multiple distinct pulses resulting from each axle, for shallow depths; and
a single pulse that reflects the overall loading on the axle group, for large depths.
For shallow pavement depths compared to axle spacing one pulse per axle is selected.
APSDS then computes the damage beneath that axle due to the strain contributions for all
wheels of the aircraft, then multiplies the computed damage by the number of axle rows (i.e.
the number of axles seen from one side of the aircraft).
APSDS relies on you specifying one set of axles at Y=0 [see Defining Load Locations (i.e.
Wheel positions) (on page 71)].
However, for large depths relative to the axle spacing the maximum strain will generally
occur under the centroid of the gear. In this case you specify 'combined pulse for gear' and
APSDS will automatically shift the load coordinates so that the origin is at the centroid of the
gear as shown on Automatic shift of Y-coordinates for 'combined pulse for gear' case
(on page Error! Bookmark not defined.). APSDS then computes the damage pulse
beneath the centroid of the gear due to the strain contributions for all wheels of the aircraft,
and ignores the number of axles in the group.
Chapter 2 Overview
29
The reservoir method, as used in bridge design to handle complex loadings, is used by
APSDS 5.0 to ensure a smooth transition between the two extremes.
APSDS automatically shifts the position of the load coordinates if you specify 'combined
pulse for gear'.
For compatibility with legacy projects, you can still choose the method to be used to calculate
the damage - either multiple distinct pulses for each axle, for shallow depths; or a single
combined pulse for large depths.
30
Chapter 2 Overview
31
Cost Calculation
The unit costs for the materials laid and constructed in the layers can be specified using a
combination of both a volumetric (or weight) component and an areal component. The areal
component lets you take account of costs that are primarily a function of area, such as
surface treatments, subgrade stabilization and the like. The areal component can also be
used in circumstances where the relationship between total layer cost and thickness has a
non-zero component for zero thickness.
32
33
CHAPTER 3
34
Jobname.sds
Jobname.clo
Jobname.prn
Jobname.dam
Jobname.dmx
All of these files are text files that can be opened by standard text editors.
Three icons on the toolbar allow you to create, open and save job files.
Icon
Description
Closes the current job, prompting you to save any changes; then creates
a new job.
Closes the current job, prompting you to save any changes; then opens
an existing job.
Updates the current job file.
You can also save your job under a different name by clicking on the File Menu, then clicking
Save As.
35
Database Approach
Some of the input data items are entered using very simple input forms. Most of the input
data is handled using a relational database approach. This is designed to eliminate re-entry
of data for design loads and material properties. You can tailor each of the databases to
contain specific sets of regularly used data.
The relational database approach gives maximum flexibility in data preparation. For
example, the data for a commonly used material need only be entered into the system once.
If this data is subsequently modified, all Layered systems that use that material and
subsequently all Jobs that use those layered systems will automatically access the modified
material properties.
36
button.
When operating in 'calculate damage factors' mode, the key features on the screen (the
numbers refer to the screenshot above) are:
This table is a summary of the layered system including material titles and current
thicknesses. Also the current Cumulative Damage Factors (CDFs) will be shown if the
problem has been run previously. The current thickness of any layer can be changed from
this screen.
This table is a summary of the properties for those layers that have a performance
criterion. Typically, between one layer (the subgrade) and three layers (asphalt surfacing,
cement-stabilised layer and subgrade) will have performance criteria associated with them.
37
Plot Results
The
icon will generate a graph of the results. Usually, this command will produce a
graph of the damage contribution from each aircraft type and the overall total (damage
contribution from all the traffic). This graph option shows the variation of the CDF as a
function of X, the distance from the centreline of the pavement (i.e. X=0 corresponds the
centrelines of the aircraft). Optionally you can graph the maximum CDF as a function of
Aircraft Gross Weight.
Alternatively, as an option you can produce a graph of a selected displacement, stress or
strain component at your chosen Z-values (i.e., vertical distances/depths below the surface
of the pavement) and results can be plotted for a selected displacement, stress or strain
component (see Calculate Selected Results at User-defined Z-Values (see "Calculating
Selected Results at User-defined Z-values (depths)" on page 108)).
Options
The Options screen allows specification of the following folder:
39
CHAPTER 4
40
Click on the
button.
Click on the
When the analysis starts you will see a blue "progress bar" at the bottom left corner of the
screen.
When the analysis is complete the results for the damage factor (CDF) will be transferred to
the top table on the screen, as shown below.
3.
41
Click on the
This graph option shows the variation of the CDF for the subgrade as a function of X, the
distance from the centreline of the pavement (i.e. X=0 corresponds the centrelines of the
aircraft). Note that the results for the different aircraft Gross Weights have been aggregated.
Optionally you can graph the maximum CDF as a function of Gross Weight. Click on the Plot
Type combo box then click on CDF vs. Gross Weight.
42
This graph option shows the maximum CDF for each Aircraft Model and Gross Weight:
43
As can be seen from the graph there is one result point for each combination of Aircraft
Model and Gross Weight.
The two graphs give results for the subgrade layer. If your layered system has other layers
that have a performance relationship you can switch to the CDF for the other layers by
clicking on the combo box in the top left-hand corner.
You can print a copy of the chart by clicking on the Print icon
on the toolbar.
You can also copy the graph to the clipboard and then paste into another application such as
Microsoft Word or Powerpoint. You do this via the context-sensitive graph menu that drops
down when you right click with the mouse pointer anywhere on the graph as shown below:
44
Then click on 'Export Dialog'. The 'Export Dialog' lets you export to a variety of formats, but
for most purposes select 'Metafile' to ensure that the graphics are scalable.
45
46
A grid of points with uniform spacing in both the X-direction and the Y-direction.
Direction of Travel
Xmin
Xdel
Xmax
Results points
47
Ymax
Ydel
Ymin
X
Xmin
Direction of Travel
Xdel
Xmax
Results points
49
CHAPTER 5
Units
Length,
Displacement
mm
Elastic modulus,
Pressure
MPa
Weight
tonne
Force
Moment
N.mm
Strain
mm/mm
50
Sign Convention
Compressive direct stresses and strains are considered to be positive. Positive shear
stresses are defined on the basis that both the stress and strain tensors obey the right hand
rule. Displacements in negative coordinate directions are considered to be positive. Hence
a load causing a positive stress acts in the positive coordinate direction. The sign
conventions used in the rectangular coordinate system and cylindrical local coordinate
system are illustrated below.
51
52
Elastic Materials Properties data must be entered before the Layered System
Components data;
Load Group data must be entered before the Traffic Spectrum Components data.
3 Define each of the Materials and thicknesses for each of the Layers using the Layered
System Components database.
Worked examples in the following sections show how you can create new data.
53
54
Layer No. 1
Layer No. 2
Layer No. NL
Rough rigid
base
Smooth rigid
base
Semi-infinite
base
55
56
button.
Now you can define the details of the layers in your layered system.
57
A list of available materials will now appear. Select the required material by clicking on the
appropriate line, then click on the OK button.
A new record will be added at the bottom of the table and the cursor will be positioned in the
Thickness column. Enter the layer thickness. You repeat this process to add as many layers
as you require. The subgrade will extend to an infinite depth if you enter the thickness
as 0.0.
As explained in Overview of Layered System and Material Properties, interfaces between the
layers can be either fully continuous (rough) or fully frictionless (smooth), or a combination of
both types. You can specify any interfaces as fully frictionless. The fully continuous case is
always assumed for pavement design.
58
By default, all interfaces are assumed to be rough. You can change the condition for
the interface at the bottom of a given layer by clicking in the 'Interface Type' cell. You can
then click on the down arrow at the right of the cell to select a 'Smooth' interface. Note that
for a semi-infinite subgrade both 'Rough' and 'Smooth' are equivalent.
Then click the Duplicate button. You will then see a form that will let you define the ID and
Title of the newly duplicated Layered System:
59
The ID and Title that are provided are based on the original Layered System - make sure that
you modify the Title.
After you click the OK button you will be taken to the Layered System Components table so
that you can make your changes.
(1)
where N
is a material constant
60
For this example, assume VB = 12.9 and Smix = 1600 MPa, so that the above equation
simplifies to:
N = [ 5889 / ]5
To enter this data click on the
button.
A record will be added to the table and you can type in the relevant data as follows:
The cursor will now be in the component field.
Here you specify the particular displacement, stress or strain component to be used. You
can select the component from a dropdown list by clicking on the
button. If there are
more entries than will fit in the listbox, there will be a slider bar on the right hand side. You
can move down the list by clicking on the down arrow or by dragging the slider down. For
this example select the Max. Horizontal Tensile Strain (maximum horizontal tensile strain).
The Location field defines the location (relative to a layer of this material) at which the
criterion is to be applied. Click on the
button to choose between Top and Bottom. For
this example Location should be 'Bottom'.
The entries for the remaining two parameters define the fatigue relationship N = [5889 / ]5.
61
Note carefully that strains in APSDS must be specified in dimensionless units (i.e.,
length/length, mm/mm). As APSDS assumes that the fatigue relationship is of the form N =
[k / ]b , the parameter (micro) must be replaced by 10-6 giving:
N = [k / ]b
So Constant (k) will be 0.005889 and Exponent (b) will be 5.0.
The new record should be identical to the bottom row in the figure below:
button.
Click on the New button. Now type in your ID (index) field of up to 20 characters and the Title
(up to 72 characters). For this example type in 'CTB15000' for the ID. Type in 'CTB,
E=15000MPa' for the Title. Click the OK button.
A record will be added to the table and you can type in the relevant data as follows:
62
Here you specify the particular strain or stress component to be used (in this example it will
be the maximum horizontal tensile strain. You select the component from the drop-down list by
clicking on the
button. If there are more entries than will fit in the list box there will be a
slider bar on the right hand side. You can move down the list by clicking on the down arrow
or by dragging the slider down.
Select the entry Max. Horizontal Tensile Strain.
The location field defines the location (relative to a layer of this material) at which the
relationship is to be applied.
Click on the
63
button.
Click on the New button. A dialog box will appear, as shown below. You should now type in
your ID (index) field of up to 20 characters. As you can see from the example below, the ID
is used to sort the data. For this example, you can type in 'Asph1600'. Type in 'Asphalt- 1600
MPa, Vb=12.9%' for the Title. Click the OK button.
64
A new record will be added to the table. Type in the modulus and Poisson's ratio as follows:
E = 1600
= 0.4
The new record should be as shown below:
65
button.
You will now be given an opportunity to select a Sub-Layering scheme. To select a SubLayering scheme, click the checkbox next to use sub-layering, then click on the appropriate
sub-layering scheme. Click on the OK button.
66
Traffic Spectrum;
Load Groups;
Load Locations;
Depending on whether or not the components you need already exist, the steps required are
described in the following sub-sections.
Aircraft Specifications
The APSDS aircraft library consists of so-called "Standard" aircraft specifications that are
provided by Mincad Systems and "Custom" aircraft that you can define.
You can browse the aircraft specifications as follows.
Click on the
button.
icon. You will then see a status screen like the one below.
The status screen shows the number of Aircraft records that have been imported/updated.
67
68
button.
Make sure you make the correct choices for the Type and Manufacturer combo boxes, as
shown below:
Contact Mincad Systems for a Library Update if the combination of Type and Manufacturer that
you want to use is not available.
Click on the New button. A dialog box will appear as shown below. You should now type in
your ID (index) field of up to 20 characters and a descriptive title (up to 72 characters).
For this example you can type in 'B787-8 example' as the ID and 'B787-8 example' as the
Title. Click the OK button.
Now type 'B787-8 example' as the Plot Label and 228.40 as the Gross Weight:
69
70
Now click on the Load Components and Locations tab. This will bring up a form that lets you
specify the axle load characteristics and wheel positions.
Aircraft are assumed to have equal loads on each axle on the main gears. In this case the
loading characteristics are specified in terms of the proportion of gross weight on a single
gear, the number of axle rows (i.e. the number of axles seen from one side of the aircraft),
the total number of wheels on the gear and the tyre pressure.
For this example, assume the following values:
Number of Axle Rows
Tyre Pressure
1.52 MPa
0.475
After you enter these axle load characteristics the screen will look like this:
71
button.
Click on the Load Components and Locations tab. Check the descriptive title above the table to
make sure that you are referring to the correct aircraft model. If it is not the one you have
just defined, click on the Load Groups tab, click on the appropriate record within the Aircraft
Models table and click on Load Components and Locations tab again.
Only one main gear (Gear 1) is included in the model, as discussed in Interaction effects of
multiple gears.
Click New for each wheel and enter the gear number (1), and the X and Y coordinates of
each wheel. See the note Important Note about Axle Locations below for special information
about defining axle locations.
The scaling factor is normally 1.0- other values allow for a variation in contact pressure from
wheel to wheel.
72
Theta is only used to define the force or moment direction for non-standard loads such as
braking loads. Theta corresponds to LOAD see Coordinate System for Loads.
Traffic Spectrums
APSDS is designed to let you conveniently specify a Traffic Spectrum in terms of a mix of
different aircraft models. For each aircraft in the spectrum you specify the number of
movements and the gross weight distribution. For each load case the wheel loads are
automatically calculated from the aircraft characteristics and the gross weight.
For an overview of the concepts see How APSDS handles Traffic Distributions (on page
18).
button.
73
You can browse by clicking on the Type and Manufacturer combo boxes.
You can move the highlight to the aircraft model that you wish to use by positioning the
mouse pointer on it and clicking once. If there are more entries than will fit in the listbox there
will be a slider bar on the right. You can move down the list by clicking on the down arrow or
by dragging the slider down. You finally select the aircraft model by double clicking on it.
For this example, choose the Boeing 737-600 Max 63t. A new record will be added at the
bottom of the table and the cursor will be positioned in the Movements column.
Enter the number of movements (or passages) over the desired design life. For this
example, enter 100,000 movements.
The Graph Label is an optional string of up to 20 characters that is appended to the Aircraft
Model Plot Label used for the Legend when plotting the results. This is useful when you
need to have more than one Spectrum Component that uses the same Aircraft Model, for
example your spectrum may include the same model twice, each with a different Gross
Weight.
74
button.
Count
50
50
For each row in the table, click the New button and enter the % Maximum Gross Weight and
Count. Enter the % Maximum Gross Weight in the form of a number less than 1, i.e. 50% is
entered as 0.5.
After you enter the last row of data, the screen should look like this:
75
As shown above, values in some of the columns are grey - these values are calculated from
other values. The values in the Gross Weight column are calculated from the Maximum
Gross Weight cell for the currently selected Aircraft Model given in the Spectrum Component
table above. Values in the columns that are labelled Normalized Movements and Actual
Movements are calculated from the values in the Count column. The Normalized
Movements are given by normalizing the values of Count - so that the sum of the Normalized
Movements values is 1.0. The Actual Movements values are scaled so that the total
matches the total number of movements (1.25E+06 in this example) defined for the current
Spectrum Component.
The absolute magnitude of the Count values is not important, as they are normalized (i.e.
scaled so that they add up to 1.0) when you run a APSDS analysis. This gives you a lot of
flexibility in how you define your Count values - for example they could be based on historical
data or could be simply actual movements.
The calculated columns are not updated while you type the data on a particular row - but are
updated when you press the Enter key when in the Count cell.
76
Then click the Duplicate button. You will then see a form that will let you define the ID and
Title of the newly duplicated Traffic Spectrum:
The ID and Title that are provided are based on the original Traffic Spectrum - make sure
that you modify the Title.
After you click the OK button you will be taken to the Traffic Spectrum Components table so
that you can make your changes.
Wander Options
If the Traffic Spectrum screen is not already active, click on the
Click on the Wander tab.
You should now see the alternative Wander options:
button.
77
If the Wander varies with the Aircraft Model, you specify the Wander in the Spectrum
Components table (accessed by clicking on the Spectrum Components tab):
The wander is assumed to follow the bell-shaped frequency distribution given by the Normal
(or Gaussian) distribution. The degree of wander is given by the Standard Deviation. Some
additional parameters define the numerical approximation used to model the effects of
Wander. Normally the default values of these can be used.
78
The parameter XWDEL is used to subdivide the wander distribution. For acceptable accuracy
XWDEL must be no greater than 100 mm. The parameter XWMAX sets the limiting value used to
approximate the Normal distribution. For acceptable numerical accuracy XWMAX needs to be
2.7 times the maximum Standard Deviation of wander, or greater.
4500
4000
3000
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
0
20
0
40
0
60
0
80
0
10
00
12
00
14
00
16
00
18
00
20
00
22
00
24
00
26
00
28
00
30
00
0
-8
00
-6
00
-4
00
-2
00
0
-1
00
0
-1
20
0
-1
40
60
80
-1
-1
0
00
20
-2
-2
0
40
-2
-2
60
0
80
-2
00
0
-3
Movements in Slot
XWMAX
(=3000 mm)
79
button.
This screen has fields for specifying the locations for which results are to be computed and
the method for treating damage pulses.
Two alternative formats are available for specifying the points to be used for results
calculation:
A grid of points with uniform spacing in both the x-direction and the y-direction.
The section labelled Assumed number of damage pulses per movement lets you define how
APSDS will calculate the damage from gears with multiple axles (see Methods for handling
Damage Pulses (on page 28)). The recommended choice is to use the Reservoir Method.
The other two options are provided for compatibility with legacy projects: either multiple
distinct pulses for each axle, for shallow depths; or a single combined pulse for large depths.
81
CHAPTER 6
The thickness design capability is invoked by clicking on the checkbox that is labelled
'Design thickness of layer highlighted below'.
You select the layer you wish to design by moving the mouse pointer to the
appropriate layer and clicking the mouse button once. The layer selected will be highlighted
in blue.
By default, the design will use the maximum damage factor (CDFmax) from all the
layers that have a performance criterion. The design involves bringing the maximum
damage factor to 1.0 by varying the thickness of the highlighted layer.
In some circumstances, it may be necessary to ignore one or more layers when
calculating the maximum damage factor.
Here a tick (
) denotes that the layer will be included in the
maximum damage factor calculation.
The tick-box can be toggled on and off by clicking on it.
82
Minimum and maximum thicknesses can be specified for each layer, or these fields can be
left blank, so that no constraints are applied. If a specified maximum or minimum thickness
limit prevents attainment of a CDF of 1.0, the CDF for the thickness limit will be computed.
Cost Calculation
Calculation of Total Cost
APSDS can automatically calculate Total Cost for a pavement from the unit costs of
materials in each layer.
Click on the
83
Material Costs
The unit costs for the layers can be specified using a combination of both a volumetric (or
weight) component and an areal component. The areal component lets you take account of
costs that are primarily a function of area such as surface treatments, subgrade stabilization,
etc. The areal component can also be used in circumstances where the relationship
between total layer cost and thickness has a non-zero component for zero thickness.
Cost/Volume, or
84
Click to switch on Parametric Analysis. This will bring up the following form:
1
2
3
4
This combo box lets you specify the number of Independent Variables (i.e. the number
of Layers for which you are varying the thickness):
1. One Independent Variable, or
2. Two Independent Variables.
This lets you choose which layer (thickness) is to be used as the first Independent
Variable.
Here you specify the range of thicknesses to be used for that layer:
2
3
4
This section gives the additional details for the second Independent Variable
Here you specify which layer (thickness) is to be used as the second Independent
Variable
Here you specify the range of thicknesses to be used for that layer:
85
86
ExampleCost Optimization
In this example you will use the Automatic Parametric Analysis feature to automatically loop
through a range of thicknesses for one layer (Layer 3) and to determine which thickness has
the minimum Total Cost. For each Layer 3 thickness, you will get APSDS to automatically
design the thickness of Layer 2.
Step 1.
Open the sample file "Example for Cost Optimization".
Step 2.
Click the Parametric Analysis check-box. This will bring up the following form:
This combo box lets you specify the number of Independent Variables (i.e. the
number of Layers for which you are varying the thickness).
For this example you will use the default, One Independent Variable.
This section gives the details of the Independent Variable, the thickness of Layer 3.
87
88
This lets you choose which layer (thickness) is to be used as the first Independent
Variable.
For this example change this to "3". (as you are varying the thickness of Layer 3).
For this example, you will let Layer 3 vary in thickness from 400 mm to 1000 mm in steps
of 20 mm.
Enter the following values:
Minimum: 400, Maximum: 1000, Step: 20.
Step 3.
Now set the automatic thickness design feature to Layer 2.
Click on the "Summary" tab (left of the "Variables" tab).
Click in the "Minimum Thickness" cell on this row and enter 100 (mm).
Now click on
This plot shows the Minimum Total Cost condition for Layer 3 thickness is 660 mm (to a
resolution of 20 mm).
Step 5- Plot the CDF (for Layer 4, Subgrade) vs. Layer 3 thickness.
Click on the Parameter combo box.
89
90
Note that as the thickness of layer no. 3 becomes greater than 660 mm, the CDF becomes
less than 1.0 as we have constrained the minimum thickness of layer no. 2 to 100 mm.
Step 6- Plot the Layer 2 thickness (Design Layer) vs. Layer 3 thickness.
Click on the Parameter combo box.
Select Thickness (Layer used for Thickness Design).
Note that the thickness of layer no. 2 asymptotes to 100 mm as the thickness of layer no. 3
exceeds 660 mm as we have constrained the minimum thickness of layer no. 2 to 100 mm.
91
93
CHAPTER 7
Appendices
95
CHAPTER 8
97
Overview
If you have used APSDS 4.0, you will find many improvements in APSDS 5.0. These
improvements include new features to make designing pavements easier and more efficient.
This section gives a quick overview of the new and improved features in APSDS 5.0. Crossreferences to the rest of the manual show you where to look for information about most
topics.
APSDS 5.0 draws on the features that are in HIPAVE 5.0 and CIRCLY 5.0.
98
New to APSDS 5.0 is the way you can define a gross weight distribution for each aircraft
model in your traffic spectrum, as shown below:
In addition to the usual graphs of damage versus distance, APSDS 5.0 generates spectral
damage graphs like this:
Here there is a data point for each combination of aircraft model and gross weight.
These graphs let you check the sensitivity of designs to assumptions made about the gross
weight distributions.
Appendices
99
Reservoir Method
The pattern of strains at subgrade level experienced during the passage of a multiple axle
gear primarily depends on the pavement depth. The two extremes are:
multiple distinct short pulses resulting from each axle, for shallow depths
a single longer pulse that reflects the overall loading on the gear, for large depths
The reservoir method, as used in bridge design to handle complex loadings, is used by
APSDS 5.0 to ensure a smooth transition between the two extremes.
100
Cost Optimization
A Parametric Analysis feature can loop through a range of thicknesses for one or two layers,
while simultaneously designing the thickness of another layer. This feature will optimise up to
three layers. Combining this with a Cost Analysis feature, allows for fine-tuning of layer
thicknesses to minimize construction and maintenance costs.
For example, for the pavement structure shown below, you can automatically determine the
thicknesses of the Base and Subbase that will minimize the total cost.
Appendices
101
This automatically generated graph shows you the pavement configuration that corresponds
to minimum total cost:
102
You can also copy the graph to the clipboard and then paste it into another application such
as Microsoft Word or Powerpoint. Numerical values can also be exported via the clipboard.
Appendices
103
104
Wander Statistics
Field observations (HoSang, 1975) show that the lateral distribution of aircraft wheel paths
can be represented by a theoretical normal (bell-shaped) distribution.
HoSang's results can be summarised as follows:
Standard Deviation
Appendices
Pavement Type
Minimum
mm (ft)
Maximum
mm (ft)
Runways
1800
(6.0)
3400
(11.2)
Taxiways
800
(2.5)
1800
(6.0)
Runway Exits
2400
(8.0)
3200
(10.5)
105
In much of the design literature the term wander width is used. This is defined as the width
of the zone over which the centreline of aircraft traffic is distributed 75% of the time. If the
normal distribution is used it can be shown that (Pereira, 1977):
Wander width = 2.30 x Standard deviation of wander
The U.S. Army/Air Force Design Manual Flexible Pavement Design for Airfields (Elastic
Layered Method) (Army TM 5-825-2-1, Air Force AFM 88-6, Chap. 2, Section A) uses the
following wander statistics:
Pavement Type
Wander Width
mm (in.)
Standard Deviation
mm (in.)
Taxiways
First 300 m (1000 feet) of
runway ends
1800
(70)
770
(30)
Runways
3600
(140)
1550
(60)
106
(1/Eh) (xx
yy =
(1/Eh) (- h xx + yy - hv zz)
zz =
(1/Ev) (- vh xx - vh yy + zz)
xy =
((1+h)/Eh) xy
xz =
(1/f) xz
yz =
(1/f) yz
- h yy - hv zz)
The moduli and Poisson's ratios are related by the following equation:
vh/Ev = hv/Eh
The condition that the strain energy must be positive imposes restrictions on the values of
the elastic constants:
Eh > 0
Ef > 0
v
>
0
1 > h > -1
1-h-2hvnvh > 0
Appendices
107
To be able to model a cross-anisotropic material you need to specify five constants: the
vertical Elastic modulus (Ev), the horizontal Elastic modulus (Eh), the Poissons ratio (vh), the
Poissons ratio (h) and the Shear modulus (f).
Data values for all five constants are rarely available.
The Austroads Pavement Design Guide uses the following simplifications to model subgrade
and unbound granular materials:
Eh = 0.5 Ev
vh = h =
f = Ev/(1+)
In this case, the material is defined simply by the vertical Elastic modulus, Ev, and a single
Poisson's ratio, .
For isotropic materials, only the Elastic modulus and Poissons ratio need to be entered, as
they are assumed to be the same in all directions.
108
2
3
4
5
Appendices
109
This option is invoked by clicking the button that is labelled 'Calculate selected results
at user-defined Z-values'.
You can choose the component that is to be plotted by first clicking on the
'Component type' tab. You can then define the component type (e.g. displacement, strain
etc.) by clicking on the down arrow on the right hand side of the 'component type' combo
box. This will invoke this drop down list:
The actual component (e.g., vertical, etc.) is specified by clicking on the down arrow
on the right hand side of the 'Component' combo box. A drop down list of alternatives will
appear:
4
6
Now you can define the Z-values. Each Z-value is added by clicking the New button
.
You can delete any entry by clicking on it and then clicking the Delete button.
When a Z-value coincides with the interface between two layers, you can specify
which side of the interface is to be used (i.e. above the interface, or below the interface).
111
References
Austroads (1992). Pavement Design A Guide to the Structural Design of Road Pavements.
Austroads Publication No. AP-17/92.
Austroads (2008). Guide to Pavement Technology - Part 2: Pavement Structural Design.
Austroads Publication No. AGPT02/08.
Barker, W. and Brabston, W. (1975). Development of a structural design procedure for
flexible airport pavements. Report No. S-75-17. US Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways
Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.
British Ports Association/Interpave (1996). The Structural Design of Heavy Duty Pavements
for Ports and other Industries, 3rd ed., Interpave, Leicester.
HoSang, V.A. (1975). Field survey and analysis of aircraft distribution on airport pavements.
Report No. FAA-RD-74-36. U.S. Federal Aviation Administration.
Mincad Systems and Pioneer Road Services (2007). Heavy Duty Industrial Pavement Design
Guide. (Web: http://www.mincad.com.au/hdipdg/).
Pereira, A. T. (1977). Procedures for development of CBR design curves. Instruction Report
S-77-1, US Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, Miss.
Rodway, B. (1995a). Design Of Flexible Pavements For Large Multiwheeled Aircraft. Int.
Conf. on Road & Pavement Technology, Singapore, 27-29 September, 1995.
Rodway, B. and Wardle, L.J. (1998). Layered Elastic Design of Heavy Duty and Industrial
Pavements. Proc. AAPA Pavements Industry Conf., Surfers Paradise, Australia.
Rodway, B., Wardle, L.J. and Wickham, G. (1999). Interaction between wheels and wheel
groups of new large aircraft. Airport Technology Transfer Conference, Atlantic City, U.S.A.,
April 1999, Federal Aviation Administration.
Wardle, L.J. (1977). Program CIRCLY Users Manual. CSIRO Australia. Division of Applied
Geomechanics, Geomechanics Computer Program. No. 2.
Wardle, L.J. (2004). Program CIRCLY Theory and Background Manual. Mincad Systems,
Australia.
Wardle, L.J. and Rodway, B. (1998). Recent Developments in Flexible Aircraft Pavement
Design using the Layered Elastic Method. Third Int. Conf. on Road and Airfield Pavement
Technology, Beijing, April 1998.
Wardle, L.J. and Rodway, B. (2010). Calibration of Advanced Flexible Aircraft Pavement
Design Method. to be published.
112
Wardle, L.J., Rodway, B. and Rickards, I. (2001). Calibration of Advanced Flexible Aircraft
Pavement Design Method to S77-1 Method. in Advancing Airfield Pavements, American
Society of Civil Engineers, 2001 Airfield Pavement Specialty Conference, Chicago, Illinois, 58 August 2001 (Buttlar, W.G. and Naughton, J.E, eds.), pp. 192-201.
Wardle, L.J., Youdale, G. and Rodway, B. (2003). Current Issues For Mechanistic Pavement
Design. in 21st ARRB and 11th REAAA Conference, Cairns, Australia, 18 - 23 May, 2003,
Session S32, ARRB Transport Research.