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Computer Networks
Computer network connects
two or more autonomous
computers.
The computers
geographically
anywhere.
can be
located
Applications of Networks
Resource Sharing
Hardware (computing resources, disks, printers)
Software (application software)
Information Sharing
Easy accessibility from anywhere (files, databases)
Search Capability (WWW)
Communication
Email
Message broadcast
Remote computing
Distributed processing (GRID Computing)
Network Topology
The network topology
defines the way in which
computers, printers, and
other
devices
are
connected. A network
topology describes the
layout of the wire and
devices as well as the
paths used by data
transmissions.
Bus Topology
Commonly referred to as a
linear bus, all the devices
on a bus topology are
connected by one single
cable.
Ring Topology
A frame travels around the ring,
stopping at each node. If a node wants
to transmit data, it adds the data as
well as the destination address to the
frame.
The frame then continues around the
ring until it finds the destination node,
which takes the data out of the frame.
Single ring All the devices on the
network share a single cable
Dual ring The dual ring topology
allows data to be sent in both
directions.
Mesh Topology
The
mesh
topology
connects
all
devices
(nodes) to each other for
redundancy and fault
tolerance.
It is used in WANs to
interconnect LANs and for
mission critical networks
like those used by banks
and financial institutions.
Implementing the mesh
topology is expensive and
difficult.
Network Components
Physical Media
Interconnecting Devices
Computers
Networking Software
Applications
Networking Media
Networking media can be
defined simply as the
means by which signals
(data) are sent from one
computer
to
another
(either by cable or wireless
means).
Networking Devices
HUB,
Switches,
Wireless
Access
Modems etc.
Routers,
Points,
Applications
E-mail
Searchable Data (Web Sites)
E-Commerce
News Groups
Internet Telephony (VoIP)
Video Conferencing
Chat Groups
Instant Messengers
Internet Radio
Network Architecture
Provides a general, effective, fair, and robust connectivity of
computers
Provides a blueprint
Types
OSI Architecture
Internet Architecture
OSI ARCHITECTURE
Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference model developed
by ISO (International Organization for Standardization) in 1984
OSI model defines the communications process into Layers
Provides a standards for communication in the
network
Primary architectural model for inter-computing and Inter networking
communications.
network communication protocols have a structure based on OSI Model
OSI Architecture
Link Layer
Framing
Error Detection
Reliable Transmission (ARQ protocols)
Medium Access Control:
Link Technologies
Cables:
Leased Lines:
Copper based: T1 (1.544Mbps), T3 (44.736Mbps)
Optical fiber: STS-1 (51.84Mbps), STS-N (N*51.84Mbps)
Link Technologies
Last-Mile Links:
POTS (56Kbps), ISDN (2*64Kbps)
xDSL: ADSL (16-640Kbps, 1.554-8.448Mbps), VDSL (12.96Mbps55.2Mbps)
CATV: 40Mbps downstream, 20Mbps upstream
Wireless Links: Cellular, Satellite, Wireless Local Loop
FRAMING
An efficient data transmission technique
It is a message forwarding system in which data packets, called
frames, are passed from one or many start-points to one
Approaches
Byte oriented Protocol(PPP)
BISYNC
Binary Synchronous Communication
DDCMP
Digital Data Communication Message Protocol
SYH
SOH
Header
STX
ETX
Body
Address
Control
Protocol
Payload
Flag
CRC
SYN
SYN
Class
Count
Header
Body
CRC
Collection of Bits
1.HDLC
High-Level Data Link Control
2.Closed Based Framing(SONET)
Synchronous Optical Network
Header
Body
CRC
Bit Stufffing
After 5 consecutive 1s insert 0
Next bit is 0 stuffed removed
Next bit is 1 end of frame or erorr
Ending
sequence
9 rows
90 columuns
ERROR DETECTION
Detecting Errors In Transmission
Electrical Interference, thermal noise
Approaches
Two Dimensional Parity
Internet Checksum Algorithm
Cyclic Redundancy Check
Number of 1s
even
odd
0000000 (0)
00000000
100000000
1010001 (3)
11010001
01010001
1101001 (4)
01101001
11101001
1111111 (7)
11111111
01111111
Reliable Transmission
Deliver Frames Reliably
Accomplished by Acknowledgements and Timeouts
ARQ-Automatic Repeat Request
Mechanism:
Stop and Wait
Sliding Window
Concurrent Logical Channels
Receiver
Sender
Timeout
Timeout
Fram
e
ACK
ACK
Timeout
Fram
e
(a)
Sender
Receiver
Sender
Receiver
Fram
e
Timeout
Timeout
ACK
(c)
Fram
e
ACK
Fram
e
Timeout
Fram
e
Timeout
Time
Fram
e
Receiver
ACK
ACK
(b)
(d)
Sender
Receiver
Sender
Receiver
Timeout
imeout
Timeout
imeout
Timeout
Timeout
imeout
Sender
(c)
(d)
(e)
Sliding Window
LAR
LFS
LFR
LFA
Ehernet
local-area network (LAN) covered by the IEEE
802.3.
two modes of operation:
half-duplex
full-duplex modes.
.
Wireless
The process by which the radio waves are propagated through air
and transmits data
Wireless technologies are differentiated by :
Protocol
Connection typePoint-to-Point (P2P)
SpectrumLicensed or unlicensed
Types
Infrared Wireless Transmission
Types
Connectionless
each packet is labeled with a connection ID rather than
an address.
Example:Datagram packet switching
connection-oriented
each packet is labeled with a destination address
Example:X.25 vs. Frame Relay
Star Topology
Source Routing
0 Switch 1
3
1
2 Switch 2
2
3 0 1
1
2
1 3 0
0
Host A
0 1 3
0 Switch 3
3
2
Host B
2
5
Analogy: phone
call
Each switch
maintains a VC
table
3
11
2 Switch 2
1
0
Host A
7
1
0 Switch 3
3
4
2
Host B
Datagram Switching
No connection setup phase
Each packet forwarded independently
Sometimes called connectionless
model
Host D
Analogy: postal
system
Each switch
maintains a
forwarding
(routing) table
3
Host C
Host E
0 Switch 1
1
2
Host F
2 Switch 2
1
0
Host A
Host G
1
0 Switch 3 Host B
3
2
Host H
Datagram Model
There is no round trip delay waiting for connection setup; a
host can send data as soon as it is ready.
Source host has no way of knowing if the network is capable of
delivering a packet or if the destination host is even up.
Since packets are treated independently, it is possible to route
around link and node failures.
Since every packet must carry the full address of the
destination, the overhead per packet is higher than for the
connection-oriented model.
C
Port 1
Bridge
Port 2
A
B
B3
C
B5
D
B2
B7
K
F
B1
G
B6
B4
I
J
Algorithm Details
Bridges exchange configuration messages
id for bridge sending the message
id for what the sending bridge believes to be root bridge
distance (hops) from sending bridge to root bridge
Each bridge records current best configuration message for
each port
Initially, each bridge believes it is the root
Algorithm Details
Bridges exchange configuration messages
id for bridge sending the message
id for what the sending bridge believes to be root bridge
distance (hops) from sending bridge to root bridge
Each bridge records current best configuration message for
each port
Initially, each bridge believes it is the root
Thank U
CODED BY: M.KASI RAJAN AP / CSE
Computer networks
Internetworking
An internetwork is a collection of individual networks, connected by
intermediate networking devices, that functions as a single large
network.
different kinds of network technologies that can be interconnected
by routers and other networking devices to create an internetwork
Types
Local-area networks (LANs)enabled multiple users in a relatively small
geographical area to exchange files and messages, as well as access
shared resources such as file servers and printers.
Wide-area networks (WANs) interconnect LANs with geographically
dispersed users to create connectivity.
technologies used for connecting LANs include T1, T3, ATM, ISDN,
ADSL, Frame Relay, radio links, and others.
ETH
TOS
Ident
TTL
Protocol
Length
Flags
Offset
Checksum
SourceAddr
Destination Addr
Options(variable)
Pad(variable)
Data
Datagram Delivery
Packet Format
Routing
Router
A router is a device that determines the next network point
to which a packet should be forwarded toward its
destination
Allow different networks to communicate with each other
A router creates and maintain a table of the available
routes and their conditions and uses this information to
determine the best route for a given packet.
A packet will travel through a number of network points
with routers before arriving at its destination.
There can be multiple routes defined. The route with a
lower weight/metric will be tried first.
Routing
Routing
Routing
Routing Protocols
Static Routing
Dynamic Routing
IGP (Interior Gateway Protocol): Route data within an Autonomous System
RIP (Routing Information Protocol)
RIP-2 (RIP Version 2)
OSPF (Open Shortest Path First)
IGRP (Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
EIGRP (Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing Protocol)
IS-IS
Iskra Djonova-Popova
6
Cycle
B
4
5
D
E
Node
Initial
(., )
(., )
(., )
(., )
(1, 1)
(2, 2)
(3, 1)
(4, 2)
Iskra Djonova-Popova
5
D
Iskra Djonova-Popova
From A to
B
C
D
E
Link Cost
1
1
1
2
3
1
1
2
Advantages
simple to implement
low requirement in processing and memory
at the nodes
suitable for small networks
Iskra Djonova-Popova
Disadvantages
Slow convergence
Bouncing effect
Counting to infinity problem
Iskra Djonova-Popova
Slow Convergence
2
A
XXX
link 1 breaks
5
When a link breaks the routers are supposed to reestablish the routing tables
Iskra Djonova-Popova
XXX
5
D
XXX
5
D
XXX
Links 1 and 6
break.
Subnets
Each organization assigns IP addresses to
specific computers on its networks
IP addresses are assigned so that all
computers on the same LAN have similar
addresses
Each of these lans is known as a TCP/IP subnet
Any portion of the IP address can be
designated as a subnet using a subnet mask*
* Subnet masks tell computers what part of an IP address is to be used to
determine whether a destination is on the same or a different subnet
Subnet Addressing
Figure 5-6
Subnet Addressing
Example 1
Suppose that the first two bytes are the subnet indicator with addresses
of the form 131.156.x.x
Then, 131.156.29.156 and 131.156.34.215 would be on the same
subnet.
The subnet mask would be 255.255.0.0, which corresponds to
11111111.11111111.00000000.00000000, where 1 indicates that
the position is part of the subnet address and a 0 indicates that it
is not.
Subnet Addressing
Example 2
Partial bytes can also be used as subnets.
For example, consider the subnet mask 255.255.255.128, which is
11111111.11111111.11111111.10000000.
Here, all computers with the same first three bytes and last byte from
128 to 254 would be on the same subnet.
Providing Addresses
Providing addresses to networked
computers
Static addressing
Dynamic addressing
Static Addressing
Each computer is given an address through a
configuration file
Stored on individual computers
Problems
Moves, changes, adds and deletes
Individuals could change their own IP address
Network renumbered
Dynamic Addressing
Server supplies a network layer address
automatically
Each time user logs in
For a specific lease period
Dynamic Addressing
Bootp and DHCP
Software installed on the client instructs the
client to contact the server using data link layer
addresses
Message asks server to assign the client a
unique network layer address
Server runs corresponding software that sends
the client its network address and subnet mask
Leasing
Bootp or DHCP server can either:
Assign the same network layer address to the
client each time the client requests it (bootp)
Lease the network address from the next
available on a list of authorized addresses for
as long as the client is connected or for a
specified amount of time -- common with isps
and dial-up users (DHCP)
Address Resolution
The process of:
Translating an application layer address to a
network address (server name resolution)
Translating the server name address to a data
link layer address (data link layer address
resolution)
Address Resolution
Server name resolution
Accomplished by the use of domain name
service (DNS)
Computers called name servers provide these
DNS services
Address data base includes: server names and their
corresponding IP address
DNS Request
Client
computer
DNS Server
sol.acs.unt.edu
137.90.2.122
LAN
DNS Request
DNS Response
Root DNS Server
for .EDU
domain
Internet
DNS Request
DNS Server
netmgr.cso.niu.edu
131.156.1.11
LAN
DNS Response
Figure 5-7
Address Resolution
Data link layer address resolution
Broadcast message is sent to all computers in
its subnet
if your IP address is xxx.Yyy.Zzz.Ttt, please send
your data link layer address
Uses address resolution protocol (ARP)
Network Routing
The process of determining the route a
message will take through the network
Centralized
Decentralized
Static routing
Dynamic routing
Broadcast or multicast routing
Connectionless
Connection-oriented routing
G
A
Computer B
Destination
Route
A
C
D
E
F
G
A
C
A
E
E
C
Internet Routes
WSU
Canada
Other destinations
UEN
Asia
Europe
West Coast
WSU
Destination
Route
UEN
Utah
Oxford
Europe
U of Toronto
Canada
U of Singapore Asia
UC Stanford
West Coast
Other
Other
Types of Routing
Centralized routing
Static routing (decentralized)
Dynamic routing (adaptive and
decentralized)
Distance vector
Link state
Other types
Broadcast routing
Multicast routing
Centralized Routing
All routing decisions are made by one computer
Main routing for star and mesh topologies
Routing tables located on each computer
Central computer sends updated tables as needed
Routing table tells the device where to send
messages
Decentralized Routing
Each of the following types of routing fall under the
heading of decentralized routing
Each device makes its own routing decisions with the use
of a formal routing protocol
Routing protocols are self-adjusting
Can automatically adapt to changes in the network configuration
Drawbacks
Slows down the network with status messages
Requires more processing by each computer
Static Routing
Routing table developed by the network
manager or some type of committee
Initial table sent to each computer which then
updates the routing table as needed
Reroutes as needed with down or removed
circuits
Updated when new devices announce their
presence
Used in relatively static networks that have few
routing options
Disadvantages
Requires more processing by each computer
Wastes network capacity
Routing Protocols
RIP, IGP, OSPF, EGP, BGP
Distance vector routing protocols (RIP,
Appletalk,IPX, IGRP)
Routers inform neighboring routers of table
Closest router is used to route packets
Routing Protocols
Border Gateway Protocol
Internet Control Message Protocol
Routing Information Protocol
Open Shortest Path First
Enhanced Interior Gateway Routing
Protocol
Routing Protocols
Internet protocols
BGP (border gateway protocol)
Exchanges information between autonomous systems
about the condition of the internet
Complex, hard to administer, exterior routing protocol
Routing Protocols
OSPF (open shortest path first)
Link state interior routing protocol used on the internet
Counts number of computers, network traffic, network error
rates to select the best route
Doesnt broadcast to all devices just to routing devices
Preferred TCP/IP, but also used by IPX/SPX
Broadcast Routing
Sends the message to all computers on the
network
Only computer with correct address
processes the message
Used only in bus networks
Wastes network bandwidth
Multicasting
Similar to broadcasting
Only works within one LAN or subnet
Messages sent from one computer to another on the network
is called a unicast message
Messages sent to a group of computers is called a multicast
message
Targeting a specific work group
IGMP (internet group management protocol)
Sends an IGMP multicast request to the routing computer
Assigned a special class D IP address to identify the group
The routing computer sets the data link layer address
All participating machines will process messages sent to this
address
Sends a IGMP message notifying of end of session
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CODED BY: M.KASI RAJAN AP / CSE
Computer networks
TCP Overview
Segment format
Connection establishment
Simple demultiplexor
Caused By
the shortage of buffer space.
slow links.
slow processors
Possible solutions
Host B
lout
unlimited shared
output link buffers
Scenario 2: Retransmits
one router, finite buffers
sender retransmission of lost packet
Host A
Host B
lin : original
data
l'in : original data, plus
retransmitted data
lout
Q: what happens as
and lincrease ?
in
Host A
Host B
lout
in
Network-assisted congestion
control:
routers provide feedback to end
systems
single bit indicating
congestion (SNA, DECbit,
TCP/IP ECN, ATM)
explicit rate sender should
send at
Roughly,
CongWin
Bytes/sec
CongWin is dynamic,
RTT function of
rate =
TCP AIMD
multiplicative decrease: cut
CongWin in half after
loss event
congestion
window
24 Kbytes
16 Kbytes
8 Kbytes
time
Host B
RTT
time
Refinement (more)
Q: When should the
exponential increase
switch to linear?
A: When CongWin gets to
1/2 of its value before
timeout.
Implementation:
Variable Threshold
At loss event, Threshold is set to
1/2 of CongWin just before loss
event
State
Commentary
ACK receipt
for
previously
unacked
data
Slow Start
(SS)
CongWin = CongWin +
MSS,
If (CongWin > Threshold)
set state to Congestion
Avoidance
Resulting in a doubling
of CongWin every RTT
ACK receipt
for
previously
unacked
data
Congestio
n
Avoidance
(CA)
CongWin = CongWin+MSS
* (MSS/CongWin)
Additive increase,
resulting in increase of
CongWin by 1 MSS
every RTT
Loss event
detected by
triple
duplicate
ACK
SS or CA
Threshold = CongWin/2,
CongWin = Threshold,
Set state to Congestion
Avoidance
Fast recovery,
implementing
multiplicative decrease.
CongWin will not drop
below 1 MSS.
Timeout
SS or CA
Threshold = CongWin/2,
CongWin = 1 MSS,
Set state to Slow Start
Duplicate
ACK
SS or CA
Mechanisms
router-centric: DECbit and RED Gateways
host-centric: TCP Vegas
DECbit
DECbit
Add binary congestion bit to each packet header
Router
monitors average queue length over last busy+idle cycle
set congestion bit if average queue length greater than 1 w
hen packet arrives
attempts to balance throughput against delay
DECbit
End Hosts
destination echos bit back to source
source records how many packets resulted in set bit
if less than 50% of last window's worth had bit set, then increase C
ongestionWindow by 1 packet
if 50% or more of last window's worth had bit set, then decrease C
ongestionWindow by 0.875 times
147
UDP datagram
16
Source Port
31
Destination Port
UDP Length
UDP Checksum
Data
Figure 8.16
UDP pseudoheader
0
16
31
Source IP Address
Destination IP Address
00000000
Protocol = 17
UDP Length
149
Figure 8.17
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CODED BY: M.KASI RAJAN AP / CSE