Axions, Hidden photons as Dark Matter

Scientists have detected a mysterious X-ray signal that could be caused by

dark matter streaming out of our Suns core.
Hidden photons are predicted in some extensions of the Standard Model of
particle physics, and unlike WIMPs they would interact electromagnetically
with normal matter.
In particle physics and astrophysics, weakly interacting massive particles, or
WIMPs, are among the leading hypothetical particle physics candidates for
dark matter.
The gravitational force attracting the matter, causing concentration of the
matter in a small space and leaving much space with low matter
concentration: dark matter and energy.
There is an asymmetry between the mass of the electric charges, for example
proton and electron, can understood by the asymmetrical Planck Distribution
Law. This temperature dependent energy distribution is asymmetric around
the maximum intensity, where the annihilation of matter and antimatter is a
high probability event. The asymmetric sides are creating different frequencies
of electromagnetic radiations being in the same intensity level and
compensating each other. One of these compensating ratios is the electron
proton mass ratio. The lower energy side has no compensating intensity level,
it is the dark energy and the corresponding matter is the dark matter.

Contents
The Big Bang ........................................................................................................................... 2
Astronomers may have detected the first direct evidence of dark matter ...................................... 3
Hidden photons ...................................................................................................................... 4
Ideal mirror at hand ............................................................................................................. 4
Dark matter composition research - WIMP ................................................................................. 5
Weakly interacting massive particles ......................................................................................... 5
Evidence for an accelerating universe ........................................................................................ 6
Equation ............................................................................................................................. 6
Explanatory models.............................................................................................................. 7
Dark Matter and Energy ........................................................................................................... 7

Cosmic microwave background ............................................................................................. 7

Thermal radiation ................................................................................................................ 8
Electromagnetic Field and Quantum Theory ............................................................................... 8
Lorentz transformation of the Special Relativity .......................................................................... 9
The Classical Relativistic effect .................................................................................................. 9
Electromagnetic inertia and Gravitational attraction ................................................................... 9
Electromagnetic inertia and mass .............................................................................................10
Electromagnetic Induction ...................................................................................................10
Relativistic change of mass ...................................................................................................10
The frequency dependence of mass ......................................................................................10
Electron Proton mass rate .................................................................................................10
Gravity from the point of view of quantum physics ....................................................................11
The Gravitational force ........................................................................................................11
The Graviton ......................................................................................................................11
Conclusions ...........................................................................................................................11
References ............................................................................................................................12

Author: George Rajna

The Big Bang

The Big Bang caused acceleration created radial currents of the matter, and since the matter is
composed of negative and positive charges, these currents are creating magnetic field and attracting
forces between the parallel moving electric currents. This is the gravitational force experienced by
the matter, and also the mass is result of the electromagnetic forces between the charged particles.
The positive and negative charged currents attracts each other or by the magnetic forces or by the
much stronger electrostatic forces!?
The gravitational force attracting the matter, causing concentration of the matter in a small space
and leaving much space with low matter concentration: dark matter and energy.
There is an asymmetry between the mass of the electric charges, for example proton and electron,
can understood by the asymmetrical Planck Distribution Law. This temperature dependent energy
distribution is asymmetric around the maximum intensity, where the annihilation of matter and
antimatter is a high probability event. The asymmetric sides are creating different frequencies of
electromagnetic radiations being in the same intensity level and compensating each other. One of
these compensating ratios is the electron proton mass ratio. The lower energy side has no
compensating intensity level, it is the dark energy and the corresponding matter is the dark matter.

Astronomers may have detected the first direct evidence of dark

matter
Scientists have detected a mysterious X-ray signal that could be caused by dark matter streaming out
of our Suns core.
Now scientists at the University of Leicester have identified a signal on the X-ray spectrum which
appears to be a signature of axions - a hypothetical dark matter particle thats never been detected
before.
While we can't get too excited just yet - it will take years to confirm whether this signal really is dark
matter - the discovery would completely change our understanding of how the Universe works.
After all, dark matter is the force that holds our galaxies together, so learning more about it is pretty
important.
The researchers first detected the signal while searching through 15 years of measurements taking
by the European Space Agencys orbiting XMM-Newton space observatory.
Unexpectedly, they noticed that the intensity of X-rays recorded by the spacecraft rose by about
10% whenever XMM-Newton was at the boundary of Earths magnetic field facing the Sun - even
once they removed all the bright X-ray sources from the sky. Usually, that X-ray background is stable.
"The X-ray background - the sky, after the bright X-ray sources are removed - appears to be
unchanged whenever you look at it," said Andy Read, from the University of Leicester, one of the
lead authors on the paper, in a press release. "However, we have discovered a seasonal signal in this
X-ray background, which has no conventional explanation, but is consistent with the discovery of
axions."
Researchers predict that axions, if they exist, would be produced invisibly by the Sun, but would
convert to X-rays as they hit Earths magnetic field. This X-ray signal should in theory be strongest
when looking through the sunward side of the magnetic field, as this is where the Earths magnetic
field is strongest.
The next step is for the researchers to get a larger dataset from XMM-Newton and confirm the
pattern theyve seen in X-rays. Once theyve done that, they can begin the long process of proving
that they have, in fact, detecting dark matter streaming out of our Suns core.

A sketch (not to scale) shows axions (blue) streaming out of the Sun and then converting into X-rays
(orange) in the Earth's magnetic field (red). The X-rays are then detected by the XMM-Newton
observatory. [13]

Hidden photons
Hidden photons are predicted in some extensions of the Standard Model of particle physics, and
unlike WIMPs they would interact electromagnetically with normal matter. Hidden photons also
have a very small mass, and are expected to oscillate into normal photons in a process similar to
neutrino oscillation. Observing such oscillations relies on detectors that are sensitive to extremely
small electromagnetic signals, and a number of these extremely difficult experiments have been
built or proposed.
A spherical mirror is ideal for detecting such light because the emitted photons would be
concentrated at the sphere's centre, whereas any background light bouncing off the mirror would
pass through a focus midway between the sphere's surface and centre. A receiver placed at the
centre could then pick up the dark-matter-generated photons, if tuned to their frequency which is
related to the mass of the incoming hidden photons with mirror and receiver shielded as much as
possible from stray electromagnetic waves.

Ideal mirror at hand

Fortunately for the team, an ideal mirror is at hand: a 13 m2 aluminium mirror used in tests during
the construction of the Pierre Auger Observatory and located at the Karlsruhe Institute of
Technology. Dbrich and co-workers have got together with several researchers from Karlsruhe, and
the collaboration is now readying the mirror by adjusting the position of each of its 36 segments to
minimize the spot size of the focused waves. They are also measuring background radiation within
the shielded room that will house the experiment. As for receivers, the most likely initial option is a

set of low-noise photomultiplier tubes for measurements of visible light, which corresponds to
hidden-photon masses of about 1 eV/C2. Another obvious choice is a receiver for gigahertz radiation,
which corresponds to masses less than 0.001 eV/C2; however, this latter set-up would require more
shielding.

Dark matter composition research - WIMP

The WIMP (Weakly interactive massive particles) form a class of heavy particles, interacting slightly
with matter, and constitute excellent candidates with the nonbaryonic dark matter. The neutralino
postulated by the supersymetric extensions of the standard model of particle physics. The idea of
supersymmetry is to associate each boson to a fermion and vice versa. Each particle is then given a
super-partner, having identical properties (mass, load), but with a spin which differes by 1/2. Thus,
the number of particles is doubled. For example, the photon is accompanied by a photino, the
graviton by a gravitino, the electron of a selectron, etc. Following the impossibility to detect a 511
keV boson (the electron partner), the physicists had to re-examine the idea of an exact symmetry.
Symmetry is 'broken' and superpartners have a very important mass. One of these superparticules
called LSP (Lightest Supersymmetric Particle) is the lightest of all. In most of the supersymmetric
theories (without violation of the R-parity) the LSP is a stable particle because it cannot disintegrate
in a lighter element. It is of neutral color and electric charge and is then only sensitive to weak
interaction (weak nuclear force). It is then an excellent candidate for the not-baryonic dark matter.
[11]

Weakly interacting massive particles

In particle physics and astrophysics, weakly interacting massive particles, or WIMPs, are among the
leading hypothetical particle physics candidates for dark matter. The term WIMP is given to a dark
matter particle that was produced by falling out of thermal equilibrium with the hot dense plasma of
the early universe, although it is often used to refer to any dark matter candidate that interacts with
standard particles via a force similar in strength to the weak nuclear force. Its name comes from the
fact that obtaining the correct abundance of dark matter today via thermal production requires a
self-annihilation cross section, which is roughly what is expected for a new particle in the 100 GeV
mass range that interacts via the electroweak force. This apparent coincidence is known as the
WIMP miracle. Because supersymmetric extensions of the standard model of particle physics
readily predict a new particle with these properties, a stable supersymmetric partner has long been
a prime WIMP candidate. However, recent null results from direct detection experiments including
LUX and SuperCDMS, along with the failure to produce evidence of supersymmetry in the Large
Hadron Collider (LHC) experiment has cast doubt on the simplest WIMP hypothesis. Experimental
efforts to detect WIMPs include the search for products of WIMP annihilation, including gamma
rays, neutrinos and cosmic rays in nearby galaxies and galaxy clusters; direct detection experiments
designed to measure the collision of WIMPs with nuclei in the laboratory, as well as attempts to
directly produce WIMPs in colliders such as the LHC. [10]

Evidence for an accelerating universe

One of the observational foundations for the big bang model of cosmology was the observed
expansion of the universe. [9] Measurement of the expansion rate is a critical part of the study, and
it has been found that the expansion rate is very nearly "flat". That is, the universe is very close to
the critical density, above which it would slow down and collapse inward toward a future "big
crunch". One of the great challenges of astronomy and astrophysics is distance measurement over
the vast distances of the universe. Since the 1990s it has become apparent that type Ia supernovae
offer a unique opportunity for the consistent measurement of distance out to perhaps 1000 Mpc.
Measurement at these great distances provided the first data to suggest that the expansion rate of
the universe is actually accelerating. That acceleration implies an energy density that acts in
opposition to gravity which would cause the expansion to accelerate. This is an energy density which
we have not directly detected observationally and it has been given the name "dark energy".
The type Ia supernova evidence for an accelerated universe has been discussed by Perlmutter and
the diagram below follows his illustration in Physics Today.

The data summarized in the illustration above involve the measurement of the redshifts of the
distant supernovae. The observed magnitudes are plotted against the redshift parameter z. Note
that there are a number of Type 1a supernovae around z=.6, which with a Hubble constant of 71
km/s/mpc is a distance of about 5 billion light years.
Equation
The cosmological constant appears in Einstein's field equation [5] in the form of

where R and g describe the structure of spacetime, T pertains to matter and energy affecting that
structure, and G and c are conversion factors that arise from using traditional units of measurement.
When is zero, this reduces to the original field equation of general relativity. When T is zero, the
field equation describes empty space (the vacuum).
The cosmological constant
ant has the same effect as an intrinsic energy density of the vacuum, vac (and
an associated pressure). In this context it is commonly moved onto the right-hand
right hand side of the
equation, and defined with a proportionality factor of 8:
8 = 8vac, where unit conventions of
general relativity are used (otherwise factors of G and c would also appear). It is common to quote
values of energy density directly, though still using the name "cosmological constant".
A positive vacuum energy density resulting from a cosmological
cosmological constant implies a negative
pressure, and vice versa. If the energy density is positive, the associated negative pressure will drive
an accelerated expansion of the universe, as observed. (See dark energy and cosmic inflation for
details.)

Explanatory models
Models attempting to explain accelerating expansion include some form of dark energy, dark fluid or
phantom energy. The most important property of dark energy is that it has negative pressure which
is distributed relatively homogeneously in space.
space. The simplest explanation for dark energy is that it is
a cosmological constant or vacuum energy; this leads to the Lambda-CDM
Lambda CDM model, which is generally
known as the Standard Model of Cosmology as of 2003-2013,
2003 2013, since it is the simplest model in good
agreement
greement with a variety of recent observations.

Dark Matter and Energy

Dark matter is a type of matter hypothesized in astronomy and cosmology to account for a large part
of the mass that appears to be missing from the universe.. Dark matter cannot be seen directly with
telescopes; evidently it neither emits nor absorbs light or other electromagnetic radiation at any
significant level. It is otherwise hypothesized to simply be matter that is not reactant to light.
Instead, the existence and properties of dark matter are inferred from its gravitational effects on
visible matter, radiation, and the large-scale
large
structure of the universe. According to the Planck
mission team, and based on the standard model of cosmology,
cosmology the total massenergy of the known
universe contains 4.9% ordinary matter,
matter 26.8% dark matter and 68.3% dark energy. Thus, dark
matter is estimated to constitute 84.5% of the total matter in the universe, while dark energy plus
dark matter constitute 95.1% of the total content of the universe. [6]

Cosmic microwave background

The cosmic microwave background
ground (CMB) is the thermal radiation assumed to be left over from the
"Big Bang" of cosmology.. When the universe cooled enough, protons and electrons combined to
form neutral atoms. These atoms could no longer absorb the thermal radiation,, and so the univ
universe
became transparent instead of being an opaque fog. [7]

Thermal radiation
Thermal radiation is electromagnetic radiation generated by the thermal motion of charged
particles in matter.. All matter with a temperature greater than absolute zero emits thermal
ther
radiation. When the temperature of the body is greater than absolute zero, interatomic collisions
cause the kinetic energy of the atoms or molecules to change. This results in charge-acceleration
charge acceleration
and/or dipole oscillation which produces electromagnetic radiation,, and the wide spectrum of
radiation reflects the wide spectrum of energies and accelerations that occur even at a single
temperature. [8]

Electromagnetic Field and Quantum Theory

Needless to say that the accelerating electrons of the steady stationary current are a simple
demystification of the magnetic field, by creating a decreasing charge distribution along the wire,
maintaining the decreasing U potential and creating the A vector
or potential experienced by the
electrons moving by v velocity relative to the wire. This way it is easier to understand also the time
dependent changes of the electric current and the electromagnetic waves as the resulting fields
moving by c velocity.
It could be possible something very important law of the nature behind the self maintaining E
accelerating force by the accelerated electrons. The accelerated electrons created electromagnetic
fields are so natural that they occur as electromagnetic waves traveling
traveling with velocity c. It shows that
the electric charges are the result of the electromagnetic waves diffraction.
One of the most important conclusions is that the electric charges are moving in an accelerated way
and even if their velocity is constant, they have an intrinsic acceleration anyway, the so called spin,
since they need at least an intrinsic acceleration to make possible they movement .
The bridge between the classical and quantum theory is based on this intrinsic acceleration of the
spin, explaining also the Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle. The particle wave duality of the electric
charges and the photon makes certain that they are both
both sides of the same thing. Basing the
gravitational force on the accelerating Universe caused magnetic force and the Planck Distribution
Law of the electromagnetic waves caused diffraction gives us the basis to build a Unified Theory of
the physical interactions. [4]

Lorentz transformation of the Special Relativity

In the referential frame of the accelerating electrons the charge density lowering linearly because of
the linearly growing way they takes every next time period. From the referential frame of the wire
there is a parabolic charge density lowering.
The difference between these two referential frames, namely the referential frame of the wire and
the referential frame of the moving electrons gives the relativistic effect. Important to say that the
moving electrons presenting the time coordinate, since the electrons are taking linearly increasing
way every next time period, and the wire presenting the geometric coordinate. The Lorentz
transformations are based on moving light sources of the Michelson - Morley experiment giving a
practical method to transform time and geometric coordinates without explaining the source of this
mystery.
The real mystery is that the accelerating charges are maintaining the accelerating force with their
charge distribution locally. The resolution of this mystery that the charges are simply the results of
the diffraction patterns, that is the charges and the electric field are two sides of the same thing.
Otherwise the charges could exceed the velocity of the electromagnetic field.
The increasing mass of the electric charges the result of the increasing inductive electric force acting
against the accelerating force. The decreasing mass of the decreasing acceleration is the result of the
inductive electric force acting against the decreasing force. This is the relativistic mass change
explanation, especially importantly explaining the mass reduction in case of velocity decrease.

The Classical Relativistic effect

The moving charges are self maintain the electromagnetic field locally, causing their movement and
this is the result of their acceleration under the force of this field.
In the classical physics the charges will distributed along the electric current so that the electric
potential lowering along the current, by linearly increasing the way they take every next time period
because this accelerated motion.

Electromagnetic inertia and Gravitational attraction

Since the magnetic induction creates a negative electric field as a result of the changing acceleration,
it works as an electromagnetic inertia, causing an electromagnetic mass.
It looks clear that the growing acceleration results the relativistic growing mass - limited also with
the velocity of the electromagnetic wave.
Since E = h and E = mc2, m = h /c2 that is the m depends only on the frequency. It means that the
mass of the proton and electron are electromagnetic and the result of the electromagnetic
induction, caused by the changing acceleration of the spinning and moving charge! It could be that
the mo inertial mass is the result of the spin, since this is the only accelerating motion of the electric
charge. Since the accelerating motion has different frequency for the electron in the atom and the

proton, they masses are different, also as the wavelengths on both sides of the diffraction pattern,
giving equal intensity of radiation.
If the mass is electromagnetic, then the gravitation is also electromagnetic effect caused by the
accelerating Universe! The same charges would attract each other if they are moving parallel by the
magnetic effect.
The Planck distribution law explains the different frequencies of the proton and electron, giving
equal intensity to different lambda wavelengths! Also since the particles are diffraction patterns
they have some closeness to each other can be seen as a gravitational force.

Electromagnetic inertia and mass

Electromagnetic Induction
Since the magnetic induction creates a negative electric field as a result of the changing acceleration,
it works as an electromagnetic inertia, causing an electromagnetic mass. [1]

Relativistic change of mass

The increasing mass of the electric charges the result of the increasing inductive electric force acting
against the accelerating force. The decreasing mass of the decreasing acceleration is the result of the
inductive electric force acting against the decreasing force. This is the relativistic mass change
explanation, especially importantly explaining the mass reduction in case of velocity decrease.

The frequency dependence of mass

Since E = h and E = mc2, m = h /c2 that is the m depends only on the frequency. It means that the
mass of the proton and electron are electromagnetic and the result of the electromagnetic
induction, caused by the changing acceleration of the spinning and moving charge! It could be that
the mo inertial mass is the result of the spin, since this is the only accelerating motion of the electric
charge. Since the accelerating motion has different frequency for the electron in the atom and the
proton, they masses are different, also as the wavelengths on both sides of the diffraction pattern,
giving equal intensity of radiation.

Electron Proton mass rate

The Planck distribution law explains the different frequencies of the proton and electron, giving
equal intensity to different lambda wavelengths! Also since the particles are diffraction patterns
they have some closeness to each other can be seen as a gravitational force. [1]
There is an asymmetry between the mass of the electric charges, for example proton and electron,
can understood by the asymmetrical Planck Distribution Law. This temperature dependent energy
distribution is asymmetric around the maximum intensity, where the annihilation of matter and
antimatter is a high probability event. The asymmetric sides are creating different frequencies of
electromagnetic radiations being in the same intensity level and compensating each other. One of
these compensating ratios is the electron proton mass ratio. The lower energy side has no
compensating intensity level, it is the dark energy and the corresponding matter is the dark matter.

Gravity from the point of view of quantum physics

The Gravitational force
The gravitational attractive force is basically a magnetic force.
The same electric charges can attract one another by the magnetic force if they are moving parallel
in the same direction. Since the electrically neutral matter is composed of negative and positive
charges they need 2 photons to mediate this attractive force, one per charges. The Bing Bang caused
parallel moving of the matter gives this magnetic force, experienced as gravitational force.
Since graviton is a tensor field, it has spin = 2, could be 2 photons with spin = 1 together.
You can think about photons as virtual electron positron pairs, obtaining the necessary virtual
mass for gravity.
The mass as seen before a result of the diffraction, for example the proton electron mass rate
Mp=1840 Me. In order to move one of these diffraction maximum (electron or proton) we need to
intervene into the diffraction pattern with a force appropriate to the intensity of this diffraction
maximum, means its intensity or mass.
The Big Bang caused acceleration created radial currents of the matter, and since the matter is
composed of negative and positive charges, these currents are creating magnetic field and attracting
forces between the parallel moving electric currents. This is the gravitational force experienced by
the matter, and also the mass is result of the electromagnetic forces between the charged particles.
The positive and negative charged currents attracts each other or by the magnetic forces or by the
much stronger electrostatic forces!?

The Graviton
In physics, the graviton is a hypothetical elementary particle that mediates the force of gravitation in
the framework of quantum field theory. If it exists, the graviton is expected to be massless (because
the gravitational force appears to have unlimited range) and must be a spin-2 boson. The spin
follows from the fact that the source of gravitation is the stress-energy tensor, a second-rank tensor
(compared to electromagnetism's spin-1 photon, the source of which is the four-current, a first-rank
tensor). Additionally, it can be shown that any massless spin-2 field would give rise to a force
indistinguishable from gravitation, because a massless spin-2 field must couple to (interact with) the
stress-energy tensor in the same way that the gravitational field does. This result suggests that, if a
massless spin-2 particle is discovered, it must be the graviton, so that the only experimental
verification needed for the graviton may simply be the discovery of a massless spin-2 particle. [2]

Conclusions
Researchers predict that axions, if they exist, would be produced invisibly by the Sun, but would
convert to X-rays as they hit Earths magnetic field. This X-ray signal should in theory be strongest
when looking through the sunward side of the magnetic field, as this is where the Earths magnetic
field is strongest.
Hidden photons are predicted in some extensions of the Standard Model of particle physics, and
unlike WIMPs they would interact electromagnetically with normal matter.

In particle physics and astrophysics, weakly interacting massive particles, or WIMPs, are among the
leading hypothetical particle physics candidates for dark matter.
The gravitational force attracting the matter, causing concentration of the matter in a small space
and leaving much space with low matter concentration: dark matter and energy.
There is an asymmetry between the mass of the electric charges, for example proton and electron,
can understood by the asymmetrical Planck Distribution Law. This temperature dependent energy
distribution is asymmetric around the maximum intensity, where the annihilation of matter and
antimatter is a high probability event. The asymmetric sides are creating different frequencies of
electromagnetic radiations being in the same intensity level and compensating each other. One of
these compensating ratios is the electron proton mass ratio. The lower energy side has no
compensating intensity level, it is the dark energy and the corresponding matter is the dark matter.
The electric currents causing self maintaining electric potential is the source of the special and
general relativistic effects. The Higgs Field is the result of the electromagnetic induction. The
Graviton is two photons together. [3]

References
[1]

3 Dimensional String Theory

Author: George Rajna
Publisher: Academia.edu
http://www.academia.edu/3834454/3_Dimensional_String_Theory

[2]

Graviton Production By Two Photon and Electron-Photon Processes In Kaluza-Klein Theories

With Large Extra Dimensions
http://arxiv.org/abs/hep-ph/9909392

[3] Higgs Field and Quantum Gravity

Author: George Rajna
Publisher: Academia.edu
http://www.academia.edu/4158863/Higgs_Field_and_Quantum_Gravity
[4] The Magnetic field of the Electric current
Author: George Rajna
Publisher: Academia.edu
https://www.academia.edu/3833335/The_Magnetic_field_of_the_Electric_current
[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Einstein_field_equations
[6] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dark_matter
[7] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background
[8] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_radiation

[9] http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/astro/univacc.html
[10] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weakly_interacting_massive_particles
[11] http://www.darkmatterphysics.com/WIMP.htm
[12] http://physicsworld.com/cws/article/news/2014/oct/13/dark-matter-could-light-up-giantmirror
[13] http://sciencealert.com.au/news/20141810-26360-2.html