What are the Basic Principles of the Human Rights

Framework?
The human rights framework protects civil, political,
economic, social and cultural rights. But no matter what kind
of right is at issue, there are basic principles that are always
part of human rights standards and implementation. These
principles include:

Non-Discrimination: Human rights must be guaranteed

without discrimination of any kind. This includes not only
purposeful discrimination, but also protection from policies
and practices which may have a discriminatory effect.

The Philippine Bill of Rights is in Article III of the 198

Constitution of the Republic of the Philippines.

Universality: Human rights must be afforded to everyone,

Article III. Bill of Rights

without exception. The entire premise of the framework is

Section 1. No person shall be deprived of life, liberty,

or property without due process of law, nor shall any
person be denied the equal protection of the laws.

that people are entitled to these rights simply by virtue of

being human.
Indivisibility: Human rights are indivisible and
interdependent, which means that in order to guarantee civil
and political rights, a government must also ensure
economic, social and cultural rights (and visa versa). The
indivisibility principle recognizes that if a government violates
rights such as health, it necessarily affects peoples ability to
exercise other rights such as the right to life.
Participation: People have a right to participate in how
decisions are made regarding protection of their rights. This
includes but is not limited to having input on government
decisions about rights. To ensure human rights, governments
must engage and support the participation of civil society on
these issues.
Accountability: Governments must create mechanisms of
accountability for the enforcement of rights. It is not enough
that rights are recognized in domestic law or in policy
rhetoric, there must actually be effective measures put in
place so that the government can be held accountable if
those rights standards are not met.
Transparency: Transparency means that governments must
be open about all information and decision-making
processes related to rights. People must be able to know and
understand how major decisions affecting rights are made
and how public institutions, such as hospitals and schools,
which are needed to protect rights, are managed and run.

Section 2. The right of the people to be secure in

their persons, houses, papers, and effects against
unreasonable searches and seizures of whatever
nature and for any purpose shall be inviolable, and
no search warrant or warrant of arrest shall issue
except upon probable cause to be determined
personally by the judge after examination under oath
or affirmation of the complainant and the witnesses
he may produce, and particularly describing the
place to be searched and the persons or things to be
seized.
Section 3. (1) The privacy of communication and
correspondence shall be inviolable except upon
lawful order of the court, or when public safety or
order requires otherwise as prescribed by law.
(2) Any evidence obtained in violation of this or the
preceding section shall be inadmissible for any
purpose in any proceeding.
Section 4. No law shall be passed abridging the
freedom of speech, of expression, or of the press, or
the right of the people peaceably to assemble and
petition the government for redress of grievances.
Section 5. No law shall be made respecting an
establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free
exercise thereof. The free exercise and enjoyment of
religious profession and worship, without
discrimination or preference, shall forever be
allowed. No religious test shall be required for the
exercise of civil or political rights.

Section 6. The liberty of abode and of changing the

same within the limits prescribed by law shall not be
impaired except upon lawful order of the court.
Neither shall the right to travel be impaired except in
the interest of national security, public safety, or
public health, as may be provided by law.
Section 7. The right of the people to information on
matters of public concern shall be recognized. Access
to official records, and to documents and papers
pertaining to official acts, transactions, or decisions,
as well as to government research data used as basis
for policy development, shall be afforded the citizen,
subject to such limitations as may be provided by
law.
Section 8. The right of the people, including those
employed in the public and private sectors, to form
unions, associations, or societies for purposes not
contrary to law shall not be abridged.
Section 9. Private property shall not be taken for
public use without just compensation.
Section 10. No law impairing the obligation of
contracts shall be passed.
Section 11. Free access to the courts and quasijudicial bodies and adequate legal assistance shall
not be denied to any person by reason of poverty.
Section 12. (1) Any person under investigation for
the commission of an offense shall have the right to
be informed of his right to remain silent and to have
competent and independent counsel preferably of his
own choice. If the person cannot afford the services
of counsel, he must be provided with one. These
rights cannot be waived except in writing and in the
presence of counsel.
(2) No torture, force, violence, threat, intimidation, or
any other means which vitiate the free will shall be
used against him. Secret detention places, solitary,
incommunicado, or other similar forms of detention
are prohibited.
(3) Any confession or admission obtained in violation
of this or Section 17 hereof shall be inadmissible in
evidence against him.

(4) The law shall provide for penal and civil sanctions
for violations of this section as well as compensation
to the rehabilitation of victims of torture or similar
practices, and their families.
Section 13. All persons, except those charged with
offenses punishable by reclusion perpetua when
evidence of guilt is strong, shall, before conviction,
be bailable by sufficient sureties, or be released on
recognizance as may be provided by law. The right to
bail shall not be impaired even when the privilege of
the writ of habeas corpus is suspended. Excessive
bail shall not be required.
Section 14. (1) No person shall be held to answer for
a criminal offense without due process of law.
(2) In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall be
presumed innocent until the contrary is proved, and
shall enjoy the right to be heard by himself and
counsel, to be informed of the nature and cause of
the accusation against him, to have a speedy,
impartial, and public trial, to meet the witnesses face
to face, and to have compulsory process to secure
the attendance of witnesses and the production of
evidence in his behalf. However, after arraignment,
trial may proceed notwithstanding the absence of the
accused provided that he has been duly notified and
his failure to appear is unjustifiable.
Section 15. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus
shall not be suspended except in cases of invasion or
rebellion when the public safety requires it.
Section 16. All persons shall have the right to a
speedy disposition of their cases before all judicial,
quasi-judicial, or administrative bodies.
Section 17. No person shall be compelled to be a
witness against himself.
Section 18. (1) No person shall be detained solely by
reason of his political beliefs and aspirations.
(2) No involuntary servitude in any form shall exist
except as a punishment for a crime whereof the
party shall have been duly convicted.
Section 19. (1) Excessive fines shall not be imposed,
nor cruel, degrading or inhuman punishment

inflicted. Neither shall death penalty be imposed,

unless, for compelling reasons involving heinous
crimes, the Congress hereafter provides for it. Any
death penalty already imposed shall be reduced to
reclusion perpetua.
(2) The employment of physical, psychological, or
degrading punishment against any prisoner or
detainee or the use of substandard or inadequate
penal facilities under subhuman conditions shall be
dealt with by law.
Section 20. No person shall be imprisoned for debt or
non-payment of a poll tax.
Section 21. No person shall be twice put in jeopardy
of punishment for the same offense. If an act is
punished by a law and an ordinance, conviction or
acquittal under either shall constitute a bar to
another prosecution for the same act.
Section 22. No ex post facto law or bill of attainder
shall be enacted.
CEDAW

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of

Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), adopted in 1979
by the UN General Assembly, is often described as an
international bill of rights for women. Consisting of a
preamble and 30 articles, it defines what constitutes
discrimination against women and sets up an agenda for
national action to end such discrimination.
The Convention defines discrimination against women as
"...any distinction, exclusion or restriction made on the basis
of sex which has the effect or purpose of impairing or
nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or exercise by women,
irrespective of their marital status, on a basis of equality of
men and women, of human rights and fundamental
freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural, civil or
any other field."
By accepting the Convention, States commit themselves to
undertake a series of measures to end discrimination against
women in all forms, including:

to incorporate the principle of equality of men and

women in their legal system, abolish all
discriminatory laws and adopt appropriate ones
prohibiting discrimination against women;

to establish tribunals and other public institutions to

ensure the effective protection of women against
discrimination; and

to ensure elimination of all acts of discrimination

against women by persons, organizations or
enterprises.

The Convention provides the basis for realizing equality

between women and men through ensuring women's equal
access to, and equal opportunities in, political and public life
-- including the right to vote and to stand for election -- as
well as education, health and employment. States parties
agree to take all appropriate measures, including legislation
and temporary special measures, so that women can enjoy
all their human rights and fundamental freedoms.
The Convention is the only human rights treaty which affirms
the reproductive rights of women and targets culture and
tradition as influential forces shaping gender roles and family
relations. It affirms women's rights to acquire, change or
retain their nationality and the nationality of their children.
States parties also agree to take appropriate measures
against all forms of traffic in women and exploitation of
women.
Countries that have ratified or acceded to the Convention
are legally bound to put its provisions into practice. They are
also committed to submit national reports, at least every four
years, on measures they have taken to comply with their
treaty obligations.

CONVENTION ON RIGHTS OF A CHILD

THE CONVENTION ON THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD
Guiding principles: general requirements for all rights
Definition of the child (Article 1): The Convention
defines a 'child' as a person below the age of 18,
unless the laws of a particular country set the legal
age for adulthood younger. The Committee on the
Rights of the Child, the monitoring body for the
Convention, has encouraged States to review the age
of
majority if it is set below 18 and to increase the level
of protection for all children under 18.
Non-discrimination (Article 2): The Convention
applies to all children, whatever their race, religion or
abilities; whatever they think or say, whatever type
of family they come from. It doesnt matter where

children live, what language they speak, what their

parents do, whether they are boys or girls, what their
culture is, whether they have a disability or whether
they are rich or poor. No child should be treated
unfairly on any basis.
Best interests of the child (Article 3): The best
interests of children must be the primary concern in
making decisions that may affect them. All adults
should do what is best for children. When adults
make
decisions, they should think about how their
decisions will affect children. This particularly applies
to
budget, policy and law makers.
Right to life, survival and development (Article 6):
Children have the right to live. Governments should
ensure that children survive and develop healthily.
Respect for the views of the child (Article 12): When
adults are making decisions that affect children,
children have the right to say what they think should
happen and have their opinions taken into account.
This does not mean that children can now tell their
parents what to do. This Convention encourages
adults to listen to the opinions of children and involve
them in decision-making -- not give children
authority over adults. Article 12 does not interfere
with parents' right and responsibility to express their
views on matters affecting their children. Moreover,
the Convention recognizes that the level of a childs
participation in decisions must be appropriate to the
child's level of maturity. Children's ability to form and
express their opinions develops with age and most
adults will naturally give the views of teenagers
greater weight than those of a preschooler, whether in
family, legal or administrative decisions
III. THE RIGHT TO BE HEARD: A RIGHT OF THE
INDIVIDUAL
CHILD AND A RIGHT OF GROUPS OF CHILDREN
9. The general comment is structured according to
the distinction made by the Committee
between the right to be heard of an individual child
and the right to be heard as applied to a
group of children (e.g. a class of schoolchildren, the
children in a neighbourhood, the children of
a country, children with disabilities, or girls). This is a
relevant distinction because the
Convention stipulates that States parties must assure
the right of the child to be heard according
to the age and maturity of the child (see the
following legal analysis of paragraphs 1 and 2 of

article 12).
10. The conditions of age and maturity can be
assessed when an individual child is heard and
also when a group of children chooses to express its
views. The task of assessing a childs age
and maturity is facilitated when the group in question
is a component of an enduring structure,
such as a family, a class of schoolchildren or the
residents of a particular neighbourhood, but is
made more difficult when children express
themselves collectively. Even when confronting
difficulties in assessing age and maturity, States
parties should consider children as a group to be
heard, and the Committee strongly recommends that
States parties exert all efforts to listen to or
seek the views of those children speaking
collectively.
11. States parties should encourage the child to form
a free view and should provide an
environment that enables the child to exercise her or
his right to be heard.
12. The views expressed by children may add
relevant perspectives and experience and should
be considered in decision-making, policymaking and
preparation of laws and/or measures as
well as their evaluation.
13. These processes are usually called participation.
The exercise of the childs or childrens
right to be heard is a crucial element of such
processes. The concept of participation emphasizes
that including children should not only be a
momentary act, but the starting point for an intense
exchange between children and adults on the
development of policies, programmes and
measures in all relevant contexts of childrens lives.
14. In section A (Legal analysis) of the general
comment, the Committee deals with the right
to be heard of the individual child. In section C (The
implementation of the right to be heard in
different settings and situations), the Committee
considers the right to be heard of both the
individual child and children as a group
A. Legal analysis
15. Article 12 of the Convention establishes the right
of every child to freely express her or his
views, in all matters affecting her or him, and the
subsequent right for those views to be given
due weight, according to the childs age and
maturity. This right imposes a clear legal obligation

on States parties to recognize this right and ensure

its implementation by listening to the views of
the child and according them due weight. This
obligation requires that States parties, with
respect to their particular judicial system, either
directly guarantee this right, or adopt or revise
laws so that this right can be fully enjoyed by the
child.
16. The child, however, has the right not to exercise
this right. Expressing views is a choice for
the child, not an obligation. States parties have to
ensure that the child receives all necessary
information and advice to make a decision in favour
of her or his best interests.
17. Article 12 as a general principle provides that
States parties should strive to ensure that the
interpretation and implementation of all other rights
incorporated in the Convention are guided
by it.3
18. Article 12 manifests that the child holds rights
which have an influence on her or his life,
and not only rights derived from her or his
vulnerability (protection) or dependency on adults
(provision).4
The Convention recognizes the child as a subject of
rights, and the nearly universal
ratification of this international instrument by States
parties emphasizes this status of the child,
which is clearly expressed in article 12.
1. Literal analysis of article 12
(a) Paragraph 1 of article 12
(i) Shall assure
19. Article 12, paragraph 1, provides that States
parties shall assure the right of the child to
freely express her or his views. Shall assure is a
legal term of special strength, which leaves no
leeway for State parties discretion. Accordingly,
States parties are under strict obligation to
undertake appropriate measures to fully implement
this right for all children. This obligation
contains two elements in order to ensure that
mechanisms are in place to solicit the views of the
child in all matters affecting her or him and to give
due weight to those views.
2. Steps for the implementation of the childs right to
be heard
40. Implementation of the two paragraphs of article
12 requires five steps to be taken in order

to effectively realize the right of the child to be heard

whenever a matter affects a child or when
the child is invited to give her or his views in a formal
proceeding as well as in other settings.
These requirements have to be applied in a way
which is appropriate for the given context.
(a) Preparation
41. Those responsible for hearing the child have to
ensure that the child is informed about her
or his right to express her or his opinion in all matters
affecting the child and, in particular, in
any judicial and administrative decision-making
processes, and about the impact that his or her
expressed views will have on the outcome. The child
must, furthermore, receive information
about the option of either communicating directly or
through a representative. She or he must be
aware of the possible consequences of this choice.
The decision maker must adequately prepare
the child before the hearing, providing explanations
as to how, when and where the hearing will
take place and who the participants will be, and has
to take account of the views of the child in
this regard.
(b) The hearing
42. The context in which a child exercises her or his
right to be heard has to be enabling and
encouraging, so that the child can be sure that the
adult who is responsible for the hearing is
willing to listen and seriously consider what the child
has decided to communicate. The person
who will hear the views of the child can be an adult
involved in the matters affecting the child
(e.g. a teacher, social worker or caregiver), a decision
maker in an institution (e.g. a director,
administrator or judge), or a specialist (e.g. a
psychologist or physician).
43. Experience indicates that the situation should
have the format of a talk rather than a
one-sided examination. Preferably, a child should not
be heard in open court, but under
conditions of confidentiality.
(c) Assessment of the capacity of the child
44. The childs views must be given due weight,
when a case-by-case analysis indicates that
the child is capable of forming her or his own views.
If the child is capable of forming her or his
own views in a reasonable and independent manner,
the decision maker must consider the views
of the child as a significant factor in the settlement of
the issue. Good practice for assessing the
capacity of the child has to be developed.

(d) Information about the weight given to the views

of the child (feedback)
45. Since the child enjoys the right that her or his
views are given due weight, the decision
maker has to inform the child of the outcome of the
process and explain how her or his views
were considered. The feedback is a guarantee that
the views of the child are not only heard as a
formality, but are taken seriously. The information
may prompt the child to insist, agree or make
another proposal or, in the case of a judicial or
administrative procedure, file an appeal or a
complaint.
) Complaints, remedies and redress
46. Legislation is needed to provide children with
complaint procedures and remedies when
their right to be heard and for their views to be given
due weight is disregarded and violated.7

ARTICLE XIII: WOMEN

Section 14. The State shall protect working women
by providing safe and healthful working conditions,
taking into account their maternal functions, and
such facilities and opportunities that will enhance
their welfare and enable them to realize their full
potential in the service of the nation.
Republic Act 9208
An Act to institute policies to eliminate trafficking in
persons especially women and children, establishing
the necessary institutional mechanisms for
protection and support of trafficked persons,

7
See the Committees general comment No. 5 (2003)
on general measures of implementation of
the Convention on the Rights of the Child, para. 24.
CRC/C/GC/12
page 14

providing penalties for its violations and for other.

Republic Act 7192 of 1992
An Act known as the Women in Development and
Nation Building Act, promotes the integration of
women as full and equal partners of men in

Children should have the possibility of addressing an

ombudsman or a person of a comparable
role in all childrens institutions, inter alia, in schools
and day-care centres, in order to voice
their complaints. Children should know who these
persons are and how to access them. In the
case of family conflicts about consideration of
childrens views, a child should be able to turn to
a person in the youth services of the community.
47. If the right of the child to be heard is breached
with regard to judicial and administrative
proceedings (art. 12, para. 2), the child must have
access to appeals and complaints procedures
which provide remedies for rights violations.
Complaints procedures must provide reliable
mechanisms to ensure that children are confident
that using them will not expose them to risk of
violence or punishment.

development and nation building.

Republic Act 8353
An Act known as the Anti-Rape Law of 1997.
Contains answers to commonly asked questions
about the law and rape as a public crime. Also
contains contact details of agencies and
organizations that rape victims may approach for
help.
Republic Act 7610
An Act providing for stronger deterrence and special
protection against child abuse, exploitation and

PHILIPPINE LAWS OF WOMEN RIGHTS PROTECTION

discrimination, and for other purposes

Republic Act 9262

The Philippine Constitution

An Act Defining Violence Against Women and Their

Children, providing for protective measures for
victims, prescribing penalties therefore, and for other

RA 7192 (December 11, 1991)

An Act Promoting the Integration of Women as Full and
Equal Partners of Men in Development and Nation Building
and for Other Purposes

purposes. Otherwise known as the Anti-Violence

Against Women and Their Children Act of 2004.

Republic Act 8972

An Act providing for benefits and priviledges to solo
parents and their children, appropriating funds
therefore and for other purposes

RA 7322 (March 30, 1992)

An Act Increasing Maternity Benefits in Favor of Women
Workers in the Private Sector, Amending for the Purpose
Section 14-A of Republic Act No. 1161, as Amended and for
Other Purposes

Also known as the Solo Parents Welfare Act of

2000

Magna Carta of Women

The Magna Carta of Women is a comprehensive
womens human rights law that seeks to eliminate

RA 7600 (June 17, 1992)

An Act Requiring All Government and Private Health
Institutions with Obstetrical Services to Adopt Rooming-in
and Breastfeeding Practices and for Other Purposes

discrimination against women by recognizing,

protecting, fulfilling and promoting the rights of
Filipino women, especially those in the marginalized
sectors

RA 6725 (April 27, 1989)

An Act Strengthening the Prohibition on Discrimination
Against Women with Respect to Terms and Conditions of
Employment, Amending for the Purpose Article One Hundred
Thirty-Five of the Labor Code, As Amended

RA 6972 (November 23, 1990)

An Act Establishing a Day Care Center in Every Barangay
Instituting Therein a Total Development and Protection of
Children Program, Appropriating Funds Therefor, and for
Other Purposes

RA 7688 (March 3, 1994)

An Act Giving Representation to Women in Social Security
Commission Amending for the Purpose Section 3(A) of
Republic Act 1161, as Amended

RA 7822 (February 20, 1995)

An Act Providing Assistance to Women Engaging in Micro
and Cottage Business Enterprises, and for Other Purposes

RA 8353 (September 30, 1997) this includes marital rape

An Act Expanding the Definition of the Crime of Rape,
Reclassifying the Same as a Crime Against Persons,
Amending for the Purpose Act No. 3815, as Amended,
Otherwise Known as the Revised Penal Code, and for Other
Purposes

RA 8369 (October 28, 1997)

An Act Establishing Family Courts, granting Them Exclusive
Original Jurisdiction Over Child and Family Cases,
Amending Batas Pambansa No. 192, as Amended,
Otherwise Known as the Judiciary Reorganization Act of
1980, Appropriating Funds Therefor and for Other Purposes

Sec. 9. Right of Students in School. In addition to

RA 9262 (March 8, 2004)

An Act Defining Violence Against Women and Their Children,
Providing Protective Measures for Victims, Prescribing
Penalties Therefor and for Other Purposes

1. The right to receive, primarily through competent

other rights, and subject to the limitation prescribed

by law and regulations, and student and pupils in all
schools shall enjoy the following
rights:chanroblesvirtuallawlibrary

instruction, relevant quality education in line with

national goals and conducive to their full
development as person with human dignity.
2. The right to freely chose their field of study subject
to existing curricula and to continue their course
therein up to graduation, except in cases of

Statutes of giving rights

academic deficiency, or violation of disciplinary

regulations.
3. The right to school guidance and counseling

Sec. 8. Rights of Parents. In addition to other

services for decisions and selecting the alternatives

rights under existing laws, all parents who have

in fields of work suited to his potentialities.

children enrolled in a school have the following

rights:chanroblesvirtuallawlibrary chanrobles virtual
law library

4. The right of access to his own school records, the

confidentiality of which the school shall maintain and
preserve.
5. The right to the issuance of official certificates,

1. The right to organize by themselves and/or with

diplomas, transcript of records, grades, transfer

teachers for the purpose of providing a forum for the

credentials and other similar documents within thirty

discussion of matters relating to the total school

days from request. chanrobles virtual law library

program, and for ensuring the full cooperation of

parents and teachers in the formulation and efficient
implementation of such programs.

6. The right to publish a student newspaper and

similar publications, as well as the right to invite
resource persons during assemblies, symposia and

2. The right to access to any official record directly

other activities of similar nature. chanrobles virtual

relating to the children who are under their parental

law library

responsibility.

7. The right to free expression of opinions and

suggestions, and to effective channels of

communication with appropriate academic channels

3. The right to establish, join and maintain labor

and administrative bodies of the school or institution.

organizations and/or professional and self-regulating

8. The right to form, establish, join and participate in

organizations and societies recognized by the school
to foster their intellectual, cultural, spiritual and

organizations of their choice to promote their welfare

and defend their interests. chanrobles virtual law
library

physical growth and development, or to form,

4. The right to be free from involuntary contributions

establish, join and maintain organizations and

except those imposed by their own organizations.

societies for purposes not contrary to law.

Sec. 11. Special Rights and/or Privileges of Teaching

9. The right to be free from involuntary contributions,

or Academic Staff Further to the rights mentioned

except those approved by their own he organizations

in the preceding Section, every member of the

or societies.

teaching or academic staff shall enjoy the following

rights and/or privileges:

Sec. 10. Rights of all School Personnel. In addition

to other rights provided for by law, the following
rights shall be enjoyed by all school
personnel:chanroblesvirtuallawlibrary

1. The right to be free from compulsory assignments

not related to their duties as defined in their
appointments or employment contracts, unless
compensated therefor, conformably to existing law.
2. The right to intellectual property consistent with
applicable laws.

1. The right to free expression of opinion and

suggestions, and to effective channels of
communication with appropriate academic and
administrative bodies of the school or institution.
chanrobles virtual law library
2. The right to be provided with free legal service by
the appropriate government office in the case of
public school personnel, and through the school
authorities concerned in the case of private school

3. Teachers shall be deemed persons in authority

when in the discharge of lawful duties and
responsibilities, and shall, therefore, be accorded due
respect and protection.
4. Teachers shall be accorded the opportunity to
choose alternative career lines either in school
administration, in classroom teaching, or others, for
purposes of career advancement.

personnel, when charged in an administrative, civil

Sec. 12. Special Rights of School Administration.

and/or criminal proceedings by parties other than the

School administrators shall, in accordance with

school or regulatory authorities concerned for actions

existing laws, regulations and policies of the Ministry

committed directly in the lawful discharge of

of Education, Culture and Sports, be accorded

professional duties and/or in defense of school

sufficient administrative discretion necessary for the

policies. chanrobles virtual law library

efficient and effective performance of their functions.

chanrobles virtual law library

1. The right of their governing boards or lawful

authorities to provide for the proper governance of
the school and to adopt and enforce administrative

School administrators shall be deemed persons in

or management systems. chanrobles virtual law

authority while in the discharge of lawful duties and

library

responsibilities, and shall therefore be accorded due

respect and protection.
chanrobles virtual law library
Sec. 13. Rights of Schools. In addition to other
rights provided for by law, schools shall enjoy the
following:chanroblesvirtuallawlibrary

2. The right for institutions of higher learning to

determine on academic grounds who shall be
admitted to study, who may teach, and what shall be
subjects of the study and research. chanrobles virtual
law library