Everything you need to know about science

Plant and animal systems:

Plant system:
- A plant system is made up of different parts of plants working
together. Each
Plant part has its own function:
Flowering plant system:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Leaves
Roots
Stems
Flowers
Fruit
seeds

Leaves:
Leaves grow out from stem
Main function is to make food during PHOTOSYNTHESIS.
Usually are flat, broad and green - it allows them to absorb
more sunlight and produce more food.
Have openings to let out waste substances (Stomata)
produced during food production.

Leaf Structure: It is made up of layers of different types of

cells.

Stomata:
Tiny opening found mostly underside of the leaf
Singular is Stoma
Controls the water movement and
Exchange of the gases in the leaf
Transpiration -- is the process of losing water through the
open Stomata in the leaf.
Cuticle:
It is a protective layer on the outer surface of the cells. It
prevents dehydration (Losing too much water).
Leaf Stalk:
A thin structure that joins main body of leaf to the stem.
Each leaf has a leaf stalk
Veins:
A leaf has veins

Central Vein called MIDRIB

It is an Extension of the leaf stalk
Midrib branches off into numerous smaller veins.
Altogether they form a Vein system - called VENATION or
Vein pattern
There are two types of Leaf vein patterns
o Net - Spreads out within a leaf
o Parallel - Runs parallel to the edge of the leaf

Photosynthesis: It is the process of using carbon dioxide and

water in the presence of light to make food in green plants. It
takes place in the two or three layers of cells found on the
upper surface of leaf.
Photo ---- > Light
Synthesis ---> to make
Carbon dioxide and water are converted into sugar and
oxygen.
Plants are able to make food because their leaves contain
a green pigment called Chlorophyll which can trap light.
Carbon dioxide + water
Chlorophyl
l Sunlight

Sugar + Oxygen

Leaf Shapes, edges and surface characteristics:

Simple - Made up of a single leaf blade. Ex - Papaya,
Balsam and frangipani.
Compound - Made up of small leaf blades called
"Leaflets". Leaflets grow from one central leaf stalk. ExFlame of the forest, Angsana and rubber trees.

Leaf Edges:
Entire-Edge - Where there is no indentation of any kind on
the leaf.
Jagged-Edge - There are tiny jagged teeth around the
edges of the leaf
Lobed - Edge - There are sections along the edge of the
leaf.

Leaf Surface:
Smooth Waxy surface - These will not lose water easily
Hairy surface

Roots:

Roots usually grow downwards into the ground

The main function is to absorb minerals and water
Also anchor the plant into soil and hold it firmly to the ground
Root has
o Root hairs - small hair like extensions from the root
o absorb minerals and water
o these increases the surface area of the root and enable the
root to absorb more water (water is used in photosynthesis to
make food, minerals are important for the proper growth of
the plant)

Types of roots
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Tap roots
Storage roots
Fibrous roots
Aerial roots
Prop roots
Clasping roots

Tap roots

Main roots or the primary roots

largest structures
Many smaller roots that grow out of main root.
Smaller roots are called secondary or lateral roots
Vegetables like - carrots & radish have tap roots

Storage root:

These store food

These are swollen
Carrot is a tap root as well as storage root
Ex- Radish, turnip, tapioca
Fibrous Roots:

These are equal in size and each produces smaller lateral

roots
There is no main root
These do not grow deep into the ground but spread
horizontally.
Plants such as - grass and many shrubs are example.

Aerial Roots:

These grow above ground

Also called breathing roots
These can absorb moisture from air
The mangrove tree has roots that stick out of the swampy
grounds

Prop Roots:
These grow outwards from the stem and hang in the air
They reach out for the ground and grow into the ground to
provide additional support to the plant
Heavy plants like banyan tree have prop roots

Clasping Roots:
Plants with weak stems sometimes have roots that grow
from the stem and cling on to supports, so that they get
enough light for photosynthesis.
Money plant & orchid

STEM:
Is the main trunk of a plant with buds and shoots
developing.
Provides structure and support for the leaves, flowers and
fruit.
Carries nutrients and water to various parts of the plant.
In some plants, the stems store food.
Generally upright and above the ground, there are some
stems that grow underground or creep along the ground.
E.g.: Corms, Bulbs, Rhizomes, Runners, tubers, Climbers.
Easily recognized as they contain buds and sometimes
leaves.
Outer covering of stem is known as the epidermis or bark.
Epidermis It is a single layer of covering found on
herbaceous stems whereas the bark is a multi-layered
woody covering found on woody stems.

INSIDE A STEM
A major function of the stem is to transport water,
nutrients and food through the plant.
The internal tubes in the stems act like the water pipes in
a house or the blood vessels in a body. This system is
called the vascular system.
The tube that transports food is called the phloem.
The tube that transports water and minerals is called
the xylem.
Xylem - It transports water and minerals from the roots
to the other parts of the plant such as the stem and the
leaves

Cambium:
It is the growth tissue of the plant
Two Types
o Vascular
o Cork
Phloem
- It transports
food that
is made
the leaves
Cambium
in buds produces
tissue
that in
increases
theto
other
parts
the
plant. They transport the food upwards
length
ofof
the
stem.
to
andcovering
fruit and the
downwards
to the roots.
the
Corkflowers
cambium
stem increases
the
thickness.
For some plant, any injury to the cambium layer can kill
the entire plant.

For Ex - Trees can be

killed if the cambium
layer, located just
inside the bark is
damaged.
The vascular cambium
is found between the
phloem and xylem

Stem Variations:

E.g. - Potatoes and asparagus

These stems are swollen as they store food
Animals and humans eat them as food
The roots are sometimes called - as they grow in the soil
There are usually new shoots or buds growing on it.

Other forms of variation like Tubers and Bulbs are sold in

dormant form for planting later.
E.g. - Dahlia tubers and tulip bulbs

Rhizomes are the underground stems that spread itself

horizontally.

It is also swollen as it stores food.

It is also edible
E.g. are - ginger and turmeric
Shrubs and trees have woody stems that enable the plant
to stand upright to reach out for more sunlight.

Creepers or climbers:

 Creepers have weak stems, e.g. - sweet potato,

strawberry, carpet grass and mimosa will creep along
the ground.
Climbers will climb on to supports using their modified
plant
A morning
glory plant twines around a support, a grapevine
parts
climbs on to supports using tendrils and a money plant has
clasping roots to hold on to supports.

Flowers, Fruits and seeds:

Flowers:
Flowers are the seed producing parts of a plant
Function of flower is for plant reproduction (this ensures
continuity of their own kind)

 Pistil is the female part of the flower

o It includes - Stigma - the surface that captures and
holds pollen grains
o The Style - the connection between the stigma and
the ovary.
Stamen is the male part of the flower
o It includes - Filament - which holds the Anther.
o Anther - is where the pollen grains are formed and
held until released.
A flower that has both male and female parts is called
Complete or Bisexual.
The flowers that have only male or only female parts are
called Incomplete or Imperfect or asexual.
The other parts of flower are Sepals and Petals
o Sepals They are usually green in colour.
Protect the bud of a young flower.
o Petals These are brightly coloured so as to attract
insects such as butterflies and birds to pollinate
them.
Flowers may also contains sweet aromatic
Substances such as nectar to attract insects and
Birds for pollination.
After pollination, the ovules in the ovary are
fertilised and a fruit is formed.
The ovary of the flower develops into a fruit and
the ovules develop into the seed of the fruits.
The fruit protects the seeds and helps to disperse the seeds
far away from the parent plant.

Fertilisation:
Fertilisation is the process that happens after pollination
In this process the pollen grains fuses with the ovule to form
a fertilised egg.
After fertilisation, part of the flower dry up and fall off.
These parts are the sepals, petals, stamens and top parts of
the pistil
The base of the pistil, the ovary, grows and swells and
develops into a fruit.
The seeds develop from the ovules (containing fertilised egg
cells) which are located in the developing fruit.
Functions of the parts of a seed:
The seed in a fruit contains three main parts
o seed coat - protects the embryo until conditions are
favourable for germination
o endosperm (stored food) - will nourish the embryo as
it develops into a seedling and is large enough to
make its own food by photosynthesis
o Embryo

Seed Germination:
Germination happens when conditions are favourable i.e.
warmth, water and air (oxygen)
Some seeds are also able to germinate even after
exposed to extreme conditions - freezing or passing
through digestive system that breaks down the seed coat
Germination stimulates the plant embryo to begin cell
division.

 The embryo first develops the first root (radicle). Then the
cotyledons - often called seed leaves emerge.

As the seedling does not have green leaves - it gets its food
from seed leaf.
The seed leaf does not make its own food, rather uses its
supply of stored food.
After the stored food in the seed leaf is used up, it withers.
Then the first true leaves appear and the young plant is
ready to make its own food through photosynthesis.

Functions of the Fruits:

Store food made by leaves

Protect the seeds
Help to disperse the seeds for growth into plant
Succulent Fruits: Fruits that have Tasty, thick and fleshy
layers.
o Succulent fruits are usually dispersed by animals by
attracting the animals to eat them.

o Succulent fruits have either too big seeds - which are

hard to eat, or small seeds that cannot be digested
and will be passed out as waste from animals
digestive system.

Human Systems:
A system is a group of organs that work together to
perform a particular function/job.
It is also the final part of the progression from cells to
tissues to organs to systems.
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Systems
A system rarely works alone

 A system works with other systems to allow body to

maintain a stable internal environment conducive for
survival
Organs are part of a system
All systems in an organism are interconnected
Example of systems working together in our body

Organs
Perform specific functions
For e.g. - sense organs like nose (smell), eyes (see), ears
(hear), tongue (taste) and skin (touch).
Organs take in information and send to brain for
processing.
Each sense organ collects information about the world and
detects changes in the surrounding.

All senses depend on the working Nervous system.

Our sense organs start to work when something stimulates
the special nerve cells called receptors in a sense organ.
Once stimulated, the receptors send nerve impulses along
sensory nerves to the brain.
The brain then tells what the stimulus is.

 How
o
o
o

do we see?
Eyes are made up of lenses, retina and nerves.
Light enters through the lens.
Lens focuses the light onto a point on the retina (found
at the back of the eye).
o The nerves attached to the retina will send messages to
the brain about the images seen by the eye.

Digestive system

 Digestion is the process of breaking down food into smaller

pieces.
It involves the mixing of food, its movement through the
digestive tract and the chemical break down of the large
molecules into smaller molecules.

Why is digestion important?

The food (bread, meat, vegetables) we eat is not in
a form that the body can use as nourishment;
therefore digestion is the process by which food is
broken down into smaller molecules of nutrients
for absorption by blood.
Movement of food through the system
o Mouth Saliva It makes the food mushy, easy to swallow.
Moistens the food so it slides down the throat. It
also breaks down starch into simple sugars.
Tongue it helps to push the food around while
chewing with the teeth and when ready to swallow
it pushes the mushed-up food called bolus,
towards the back of your throat (into the
oesophagus/gullet).
Teeth It helps to grind / chew the big pieces of
food into smaller parts.
o Oesophagus (Gullet)
Stretchy pipe about 25 cm long.
Moves food from back of throat to stomach
When mushed up food is swallowed, a special flap
called epiglottis flops down over the opening of
the wind pipe to ensure the food enters
oesophagus only.

 Muscles in the oesophagus moves in a wave like

manner to slowly squeeze the food through the
pipe, it takes 2 to 3 sec.

Stomach
Stretchy sack attached to the end of the
Oesophagus.
Three important functions
It stores the swallowed food and liquid
It breaks down the food into liquid mixture
It empties the liquid mixture into the small
intestine.
Stomach is like a mixer, churning and mashing
together the small balls of food that came down
the gullet into smaller pieces.
It does this with the help of strong muscles in the
walls of stomach and gastric juices that come from
stomach walls.
In addition to breaking food, gastric juice also
helps to kill bacteria that might be in the eaten
food.
o Small Intestine
Long tube (around 7 m long) with 3.5 to 5 cm
diameter.
It breaks down the food mixture further so that the
body can absorb all vitamins, minerals, proteins,
carbohydrates and fats.
The food is digested in the small intestine and
dissolved in the juices from pancreas, liver and gall
bladder.
These juices help to digest food and allow the body
to absorb the nutrients.
o

 Pancreas

Juices from pancreas help the body to digest fats and

protein.

Liver

The juice called BILE helps to absorb fats into blood

stream

Gall Bladder

Serves as a storehouse for Bile, storing it until the

body needs it.

Food spends 4 hrs in small intestine and will turn

into watery thin mixture.
Finally, the nutrients from the food will be passed
into the blood.
The waste products of this process include
undigested parts called Fibre is moved into the
large intestine.
o Large Intestine
Last stop in digestive system, 7 to 10cm in
diameter, 1.5mt in length and is fatter than small
intestine.
Appendix part of digestive tract but serves no
purpose.
After nutrients are removed, the left over waste
has to be passed out of the body.
Before waste leaves the body, it passes through
the colon.
Colon
Part of large intestine
Here the water and some left over minerals
are absorbed into the blood streams
After water is removed, the waste gets harder as it
moves along and is called stool / Faeces.
The large intestine pushes the stool into the
rectum, the very last stop of the digestive tract,
from where it is pushed out through Anus.

MUSCULAR SYSTEM
600 muscles in human body.
Helps us to do almost everything, like-walking, running,
pumping blood through the body.
Muscles are made up of a type of elastic tissue that allows
them to expand or contract.
3 types of muscleso Smooth also called involuntary muscles. You cannot
control these types of muscles. Your brain and body
control these muscles without you even thinking
about them. EX-bladder, stomach.
o Cardiac like smooth muscles, cardiac muscles work
by themselves without our control. Heart is made up
of cardiac muscles.
o Skeletal these are voluntary muscles. You can
control what they do. These make up the

musculoskeletal system combination of muscles

and skeleton/bones. They work together to give the
body the strength and the ability to move.
In most cases, skeletal muscle is attached to one end of a
bone. It stretches all the way across a joint and then
attaches again to another bone.

Skeletal muscles are held to the bone with tendons.

Tendons are cords made of tough tissues; they work as
special connectors between bone and muscles.
Muscles work in pairs
Muscles cannot push but can only pull. So they often work
in pairs.
You need another muscle to pull them back to their
original position.
For e.g. bending your arm at the elbow requires both the
biceps and the triceps muscles in your arms.

Major Skeletal muscles found in human body

Muscle
Deltoid

Where it is found
Shoulders

Pectoralis (pecs)

Each side of upper

chest

Uses
Help to move
shoulders such as
swinging a softball
bat and shrugging
shoulders
When boys reach
puberty, their
pectoral muscles

Rectus abdominus
(abdominals)

Below the
pectorals, down
under the rib cage.

Quadriceps (quads)

On the front of your

thighs

Gluteus maximus

Under the skin and

fat on your
buttocks.

become larger.
Many athletes and
body builders have
large pecs too.
Responsible for
flexing lumbar
spine during sit
ups.
Many people who
run, bike or play
sports develop
large, strong quad.
It is involved in
jumping and going
upstairs.

Skeletal system
Protect delicate organs and provides support.
Skeletal system work closely with the muscular system to
help you move.

 Bone creates a framework to which muscles and organs

can connect.
Skull protects brain; ribs protect internal organs from
impact.
Skeletal system is made up of bones, ligaments and
tendons.
Ligaments- connect bones to bones and tendons- connect
bones to muscles.
Most bones are hollow and contain marrow cells.
The marrow tissues in the cavity of the bones produce red
blood cells and white blood cells.

Bones are hollow making them strong and light.

It is in the centre of many bones that bone marrows make
new RBC and WBC.
RBC ensures oxygen is distributed to all parts of body
WBC ensures that body is able to fight germs and diseases.
What is Bone Marrow?
It is a special, spongy, fatty tissue that houses stem cells.
These stem cells change into RBC and WBC and platelets.
Platelets help to clot blood to stop bleeding if there is open
wound.
Only skull, sternum, ribs, pelvis and femur bone contain bone
marrow.

Axial Skeleton and Appendicular Skeleton

Skeleton is divided into Axial and Appendicular
Appendicular

o Consists of arm bone, leg bone and girdles.

o Girdles are collection of bones that connects limbs to
the rest of the skeleton

Axial
o Consists of skull, back bone (vertebrae), ribs and
breast bone (sternum).
Bone
Skull
Backbone (vertebrae)

Ribcage
Pelvic (Hip)

Functions
Give shape to the head
Protects the brain
Connects the skull to the
pelvis
Protects the spinal cord
Supports the skull
Keeps the body upright
Protects the heart and lungs
Supports the body mass
Protects organs in the lower
abdomen

Joints:
Places where bones meet
Most joints are movable while few are fixed like those
between the bones in your skull
The human body has around 100 joints. Lubricated with an
oily liquid called synovial fluid so that they can bend and
move freely without friction.
Three main types of joints
o Movable joints
o Ball and socket joints allows freedom of movement
in several directions, it can be found at the shoulder
joint
o Hinge and pivot joints

 Hinge joint
Allows movement in single plane. E.g. joint
in your knee.
Pivot joint
The degree of freedom of movement
allowed by a pivot joint lies somewhat
between that of ball and socket and hinge
joints. E.g. joint in your wrist, ankles and
between the top two vertebrae.
o Smooth and slippery cartilage covers the ends of the
bones to reduce friction during movements.

Circulatory Systems
It is the transportation system of the body
It carries substance like nutrients, oxygen, water to all
parts of the body
It also carries waste products created by body, out of it.
The system is connected to all the cells of the body so that
it can transport oxygen efficiently
During breathing the circulatory system carries oxygen
to your cells and carries dissolved carbon dioxide back to
the lungs
The main components are heart, blood and blood vessels
The heart is the pump a muscular organ. Unlike other
muscles, it never gets tired.
The heart is divided into four chambers
As blood is pumped from the heart, it passes through a
system of arteries, arterioles and capillaries.

Capillaries

o These vessels allow most of the transfer of substances

and dissolved gases.
o They are very small and have thin walls to allow easier
passage of compounds including nutrients, glucose,
carbon dioxide and waste products.
After the capillaries, blood passes through venules and veins.
The veins lead the blood back to the heart.
Blood carries substances around the body
It helps to fight germs, heal wounds and control body
temperature.
Blood is made up of RBC and WBC and platelets in pale
yellow liquid called plasma.
Blood vessels:
o Tubes in the body to carry blood. Three types arteries,
veins, capillaries
o Arteries Strong blood vessels that carry blood from
heart to other parts of the body
o Veins that carries blood back to the heart from various
parts of the body
o Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels only one
cell thick so that oxygen and other substances needed
by the body can pass through easily.
Arterioles :
o When artery branches into smaller and smaller arteries,
until it is hard to see. Those are called arteriole or
microscopic arteries
o The arterioles continue to branch into tiniest blood
vessels which are capillaries
Venules :
o Capillaries fuse into larger vessels, the venules. These
continue to fuse together into larger and larger vessels,
until they eventually form the veins.

Blood circulation:
Blood passes through heart twice during one complete
circulation of the body

 First, blood is pumped from the right side of the heart to

the lungs.
At the lungs, blood picks up fresh oxygen which has been
breathed in.
This blood then returns to the left side of the heart.
The oxygen rich blood is then pumped to the rest of the
body to deliver oxygen.
The level of oxygen becomes low this deoxygenated
blood returns to the heart to begin the whole cycle again.

Respiratory Systems

 It is made up of nose, mouth, a tube called pharynx

(throat), another tube called the trachea (wind pipe),
and the lungs
There are two lungs where the exchange of gases
between circulatory and respiratory systems takes
place.
The purpose of respiratory system is to bring oxygen
into the body and get rid of the carbon dioxide
produced by the body
The human respiratory system also interacts with the
digestive system mouth and pharynx are both used
for swallow and breath.
The branching point the epiglottis directs the food
to stomach and air to lungs
Respiratory system is connected to the nervous
system in your nose where smelling takes place
Alveoli These are rich in blood vessels. If the walls
of the alveoli of both lungs is opened and spread out,
it will cover a surface area of 56 to 93 meter square (
a 4 room HDB flat)