Solar System Lecture Series

Lecture 2: Solar System
05 August 2013
12:43
Lecture 2
Chapter 7 Our Planetary System
Text Sections: 7.1 and 7.2
Specific Objectives - after studying this chapter you should be able to:
describe the main features of the planetary orbits
identify the differences between terrestrial and gas giant planets
Solar System
Sun is a yellow main sequence G2 star. It contains 99.8% of the solar system's mass.
All the planets lie in the ecliptic plane, to within 6 degrees.
All the planets go around the Sun in the same direction

Most moons go around primaries in the same direction
Most moons spin the same direction as well
Most planets spin in the same direction (Venus spins opposite way and Uranus has an
almost horizontal spin)
Beyond the planets

Heliopause: (150 AU) the pressure of the solar winds = pressure of interstellar gas
Termination shock: (100AU) where the solar winds start slowing down
Bow Shock: (~300AU) possible area due to movement of sun through interstellar medium
The Solar System Page 1
Orbits
Various people including Copernicus, Kepler and newton proved that the planets moved
around the sun.
Kepler's Three Laws

The orbits of the planes are ellipses with the sun at one focus
A line from a planet to the sun sweeps out equal areas in equal intervals of time
A planets orbital period squared is proportional to its average distance from the sun cubed.
Periphelion means closest to the sun, aphelion is furthest away from the sun
Definition of Planet
1. A planet is a celestial body that
a. Is in orbit around the sun
b. Has sufficient mass for its self gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes
hydrostatic equilibrium shape (round)
c. Has cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit
2. A dwarf planet is a celestial body that
(a) is in orbit around the Sun
(b) has sufficient mass for its self-gravity to overcome rigid body forces so that it assumes a
hydrostatic equilibrium (nearly round) shape
(c) has not cleared the neighbourhood around its orbit
(d) is not a satellite.
(d) is not a satellite.

3. All other objects except satellites orbiting the sun shall be referred to collectively as "small
solar-system bodies"
The terrestrial planets

The terrestrial planets are the four planets of the inner solar system: Mercury, Venus, Earth, and
Mars. (Terrestrial means "Earth-like.") These planets are relatively small and dense, with rocky
surfaces and an abundance of metals in their cores. They have few moons, if any, and no rings.
The Jovian Planets

The Jovian planets are the four large planets of the outer solar system: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, and
Neptune. (Jovian means "Jupiter-like.") The Jovian planets are much larger in size and lower in
average density than the terrestrial planets. They have rings and numerous moons. Their
compositions are also quite different from those of the terrestrial worlds. They are made mostly of
hydrogen, helium, and hydrogen compounds-compounds containing hydrogen, such as water (H20),
ammonia (NH3), and methane (CH4).
Lecture 3: How to form a Solar System

05 August 2013
13:08
Lecture 3
Chapter 8 Formation of the Solar System
Text Sections: 8.1 8.5
identify the evidence for the age of the solar system
identify the evidence related to the formation of the solar system
describe the main stages in the formation of the solar system and formation of the planets
describe the hypotheses explaining the vastly different compositions and masses of the terrestrial and
giant planets
Characteristics of a Solar system which must be explained

Planetary and major satellite orbits close to circular path and in same plane
Generally common direction of revolution and rotation
3 types of objects
Rocky-terrestrial planets
Gaseous (low density0 gas and ice giants)
Icy- moons, comets, KBOs
Composition- similarities/differences
Surface features- similarities differences
Larger objects round and differentiated - heavy materials in core (e.g. Planets)
Rings and moons around giant planets
Debris-asteroids, comets and meteors
Asteroid Belt, Kuiper belt and Oort cloud
Common age?
Only one star
How old is the solar system?: 4.5 billion years old
Can use radiometric dating
Such as U238-->206Pb, with 1/2 life = 4.5 Gyr
K-40 decaying to Argon-40 with half-life of 1.25 Gyr
Making a solar system

Close Encounter hypothesis (discarded)
The planets formed from 'blobs' of gas that were gravitationally pulled out from the sun by another star.
Discarded because it did not account for observed orbital motions of the planets or the two categories of
planets
Nebula hypothesis
Formation of the Sun and Structure of the Solar system
1. Ingredients: Fragment of an interstellar cloud. H (71%), He (27%), rest (~2%) by mass. Initially cold gas
2. External trigger: Supernova? Gravitational disturbance? Causes collapse
3. Collapse: R ~ 5-10,000 AU to R ~ 700,000 km in 10^6 years. (only a million years to form the Protosun) Central
density increases fastest, so the centre collapses fastest. Thus Sun forms in centre, where density and
temperature is highest.
4. Heating: Cloud collapse releases gravitational PE. Gas pressure eventually balances gravity.
5. Spin: Conservation of angular momentum. Velocity increases with collapse until it reaches orbital speeds
(neglecting viscous forces within the gas).
6. Flattening: From a cloud to a disk
a. Natural consequence of particles in a spinning cloud
This process is seen in other currently forming solar systems through the observation of IR caused by heating. Other
forming stars also appear to be ejecting jets outwards perpendicular to their disks.
Formation of the planets

7. Condensation: clumping of material.
Temperatures in different parts of the disk restrict what

materials will condense at which locations (and times)
Formation of the planets

7. Condensation: clumping of material.
Temperatures in different parts of the disk restrict what

materials will condense at which locations (and times)
Determines the make-up of objects in those regions.
Between Mars and Jupiter is the Ice line: distance where
it is cool enough for ices to condense
8. Accretion of dust grains forms planetesimals km across.

Collapse into the thin disk, while dust may not.
Disk fragments small clouds. Lots of collisions, therefore only larger planetsimals could survive
Coalesce in 100 km diameter objects and then protoplanets.
9. Giant planets: When 15 M(earth), gravitational collapse attracts MORE gas to form the most massive
planets. The giant planets create their own accretion disks. T~10 Myr, before sun blows away the nebula.
10. Terrestrial planets form in ~30 Myr. Since temperatures are much hotter, most of the gases are expelled
(kinetic energy) The terrestrial planetismals collide and accrete resulting in the planets we see today
As shown in the table above, only metals and rocks would condense in the hotter regions close to the sun. The
Jovian planets initially had metals rock and ice, and were much more massive. Unlike the smaller planets they
were able to capture Hydrogen and Helium
11. Differentiation: Driven by heat from collapse and radioactivity.
a. Hot in the centre due to collapse, hot enough for dense objects to sink
12. Outgassing forms atmospheres.
a. Gas that was trapped in the planets is released and captured through volcanic activity
Solar System complete in ~100 Myr
13. Clearing of Solar System by radiation pressure, solar wind, heavy bombardment, ejection. Because the sun
'turns on', blowing away lighter particles such as light gas and dust. The sun also loses its angular momentum
by ejection of particles
14. Heavy bombardment: Larger debris which is not blown away will be attracted to planets.
a. Leads to craters because large objects are gathering mass
b. Late Heavy Bombardment cleared much of the debris
Anomaly Explanations
It seems unlikley that Uranus and Neptume would form under this model, at their current distance
Thus it means that it is most likely that the orbits change
1. Giant planets formed 15-20 AU with a disk of planetismals further out
2. Orbits Slowly Expand until after 900 Myr Saturn ends up in a 2:1 gravitational resonance with Jupiter and
pushes the other planets out.
3. This can scatter planetismals towards inner solar system, producing late heavy bombardment
4. Neptunes orbit may also govern Kuiper belt objects (causing orbit to expand)
This means that the outer planets may not have formed where they currently are.
Lecture 4: Terrestrial (Rocky) Planets

11 August 2013
11:06
Chapter 9 Planetary Geology: Earth and the other Terrestrial Worlds

describe the process of differentiation

describe and explain the correlation between size of a planet and its present level of geologic activity
describe the evidence that the Earth has a molten core
relate cratering to the history of the solar system and the level of activity of a planetary surface
describe the formation of the Moon and the evolution of the lunar surface
compare the mean densities of the terrestrial planets
describe and compare the surfaces and geological activity of the terrestrial planets
describe the evidence for the existence of water on the surface of Mars
describe and compare the evolution and current composition of the atmospheres of the terrestrial
planets
Geological Activity
Comes from the interior of the planet.
1. Heat of Accretion
2. Heat from differentiation; as dense material sinks to the bottom friction causes heat
3. Heat from radioactive decay
Large planets will keep this heat insulated for longer because the extra rock acts as insulation
The Earth (Direct observation)

Rigid thin crust broken into places
Surface is young (average <100Myr) and shaped by plate tectonics, volcanism and weathering
Therefore not many craters seen
Mostly lowland basaltic plains (i.e. Ocean floors)
Water in all phases covering 75%
Plates (Measurement of current motion and matching of rock types)
Moving plates- continental drift
Leads to mountain building, volcanic/tectonic activity
Thus new crust being created.
Interiors (Information from seismology, measure the arrival of wave at different locations)
P and S waves are sent through the Earth, and will change in speed depending on the density of the
insides. Some waves will travel through liquid core and some won't.
Dense Fe-Ni core, partly liquid which is the origin of magnetic field
Plastic (liquid) Si-O-Mg-Al mantle.
Thin crust broken into plates
Atmosphere (Direct observation and modelling)
Only 100-200 km thick
Weather is under 15 km
O2 is unique in the atmosphere (compared to other planets) while nitrogen should be explained
LIFE on Earth drives oxygen and uses Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere
Some oxygen is tied up in rocks
Lack of CO2 because it was fixed it in carbonate rocks and dissolved in ocean, thus mild greenhouse effect
Oceans due to H2O which could condense in Earth temperatures (but Venus is too hot)
Magnetosphere (direct observation and modelling)
Dynamo in liquid core generates magnetic field
This magnetic field protect surface from solar wind
Comparative Planetology
The Moon
The Moon
Too small to retain heat of formation (therefore less volcanic activity)
Tidally locked to the Earth
The flooding of large impact basins caused by large impacts, puncturing the surface and producing mare.
(large flat lava plains)
This is because the near side has a thinner crust and is more easily punctured.
The mare was flooded late and thus there is 'saturation cratering' on highlands
Mars sized planetesimals collided with protoearth, thus creating the moon.
The moon has similar composition to the outside rocky layer of Earth and does not contain any
vaporizable material such as water
Cratering:
A meteorite approaches and hits. It is deformed heated and vaporised, forming a round crater.
Can bounce back in the centre forming a central peak.
Mare Imbrium:
An impact forms a large multi-ringed basin which continues to be impacted
More impacts form a few large craters, and about 3.8 bya lava flows into low regions
Repeated lava flow covers most of the inner ring and merge with the other flows
More impacts continue to form younger craters such as Copernicus
Mercury
Also too small to retain head of formation, thus the crust is winkled by shrinking during cooling
Causes steep cliffs
No large dark flooded impact basins
Partially flooded Caloris basin
Tidally coupled to the sun, 3 Rotations for 2 orbits.
Extreme surface temperatures because no atmosphere
Lost geological activity after 1 billion years, similar to moon
Relatively large metallic core, core shouldn't be liquid but produces weak magnetic field (unexplained)
Venus
(Information from spacecraft down on the surface, and radar altimetry)
Some mountains but mostly low lands
Clear evidence of large volcanoes, due to larger size
Dark grey basalts on the surface
Dark grey basalts on the surface

The water that would have initially formed would be too hot to condense, and instead by broken down by
UV radiation into Hydrogen which will escape.
Only slightly more craters than Earth, so approx. 300 Myr old
Spins the opposite way and extremely slowly, possibly due to a large collision
No Magnetic field (possibly due to slow rotation)
Mars:
Half ancient cratered terrain~2-3 Gyr old and half smoother flood plains with relatively few craters
These Northern lowlands have had their craters erased by geological processes
Large shield volcanoes supported by thick crust
Polar caps of H2O and CO2
Small core- no magnetic field
Increasing evidence for surface water in the past
Atmosphere too thin at the moment to allow liquid water
Tied up as permafrost under the surface
Gullies and channels carved by liquid flows
Rounded pebbles
Polar ice caps
Summary and Trends

Interiors
Mean Density: Earth>Venus>Mercury>Moon>Mars
Atmospheres
Mercury and moon have virtually no atmosphere

because they do not have the mass to hold an
atmosphere
Venus
Venus has 90x Earth's atmospheric density
where as Mars has only 0.01x Earth's
atmospheric density
Lots of CO2. Earth has a similar amount but it
is tied up in rocks
Little water as too hot for vapour to
condense, thus will eventually be broken
down and released as Hydrogen. A
consequence of runaway greenhouse effect
High H2SO4 Clouds, Severe Greenhouse effect
Atmosphere rotates in only 4 days
Earth
Carbon Dioxide outgassed by volcanism was
dissolved in large oceans, unlike other planets
Nitrogen produced by outgassing, since water
ended up in the ocean and carbon dioxide in
rocks
Molecular Oxygen is a product of life
Mars
Only 0.01x density of Earth's atmosphere
Molecular Oxygen is a product of life

Mars
Only 0.01x density of Earth's atmosphere
Magnetospheres
Venus and Mars have very small magnetic fields due to their motion and size respectively
Mercury has a noticeable magnetic field possibly due to its large metallic core
If Mars was initially hotter, it would have had a magnetosphere which would allow for a thicker
atmosphere (because it is protected by solar winds.)
Aging of the planet causes core to cool, reducing the magnetosphere and exposing it to solar wind
This would allow UV light to penetrate and break down water molecules as welll
Lecture 5: Giant Planets

12 August 2013
14:19
Chapter 11 Jovian Planet Systems

Text Sections: 11.1 - 11.3
Specific Objectives emphasising the comparative properties and histories of the giant planets - after studying
outline the formation of the gas giants, and contrast this with the formation of the terrestrial planets
compare the sizes, masses and compositions of the giant planets
identify the cloud layers in the giant planets atmospheres
describe the belt and zone circulation in Jupiter's atmosphere
These planets initially all started beyond the ice line (where it was cold enough for hydrogen compounds to
condense) as ice-rich planetesimals about 10x the mass of Earth. They then accreted Hydrogen and Helium until
the solar winds blew the nebula away. The closer planets would be able to capture more.
Jupiter (Gas Giant)

Strong opposite winds to rotation
Stable dark belts and bright zones
Cloud tops rise in a zone (and are lighter) and drop in a belt (and are darker)
Difference in colour is due to trace components within the hydrogen and helium such as S,P and C
Long lived bright spots and ovals, as there are no landforms to dampen them.
Great Red Spot has been observed for at least 300 years
Gravitational compression makes Jupiter a higher density that expected
Saturn (Gas Giant)

More flattened than Jupiter
Stable belts and zones like Jupiter
Less colourful despite similar composition
Clouds also form at same temperature but that is much deeper in Saturn's atmosphere
Higher wind speeds
Uranus (Ice Giant)
Small featureless blue-green disk

Cold Hydrogen rich atmosphere contains methane that absorbs red photons
Few high clouds of methane ice
NO excess heat from core, therefore no atmospheric movement (don't know why)
Inclination of 98 degrees
Neptune (Ice Giant)
Extremely blue- partly explained by methane absorbing photons

More active cloud formation than Uranus
Radiates twice as much heat as it gets from the sun-driving weather activity
Fastest winds in the Solar System
Comparison
Atmosphere comparison
Jupiter has ammonia ice layer with water ice close under
Saturn has ammonia layer
Ice is further down because it is colder
Uranus has ammonia layer but cannot see further down
Neptune has ammonia layer
Interiors
Since Jovian planets were bigger during formation of solar system, they can pull in the Hydrogen which escapes
from smaller planets such as Earth.
Jupiter
Visible Clouds then gaseous, liquid and metallic hydrogen in Jupiter
Hydrogen mantle is conductive material and will form the magnetic field
Internal heat may be a result of ongoing contraction
Saturn
Visible Clouds then gaseous, liquid and metallic hydrogen as well
Hydrogen mantle is conductive material and will form the magnetic field
Saturn is not as big and thus there is not as much metallic hydrogen
Internal heat may be a result of helium rain which can condense; thus differentiation
Uranus and Neptune
In Uranus and Neptune, not large enough to compress hydrogen down into a solid (metallic) state.
Gaseous Hydrogen, Water with Rocky centre
Less extreme temperatures allow interiors to differentiate
Magnetic fields
Jupiter: enormous field and magnetosphere

Saturn: 5% strength of Jupiter and aligned with rotation axis
Uranus: titled by 59 and offset by 30% of radius
Neptune: tilted by 47 and offset by at least 55% of radius
Aurora
Occurs on Jupiter and Saturn due to their magnetospheres
Jupiter observed to emit radio waves due to charged particles hitting Jupiter and magnetic environment.
Rings
Rings structures are governed by moons and gravitational resonances.
Saturn
Poorly understood- extremely thin (<1km)
Thin rings suggests small, icy objects (bright)
Dirtier rings are closer to Saturn
Rings are not stable, lose angular momentum due to the small embedded moon
Brightness suggests they are quite young, as solar winds will darken rings
Origin
Likely: Disruption by tidal forces, Moon goes too close to planet and gets ripped apart
Impact from comet and spraying material off
Small moons losing material from the sun and occasionally being ripped apart constantly replenishes rings
Division in rings ; Governed by gravitational resonances
Caused by: Moon orbiting in the division; causing density waves
Moon in orbital resonance
Braided ring have Shepard moons on either side, causing particles of the ring to stay together in a tight ring
Jupiter
Dark and reddish rings (not bright) because it is too close to the sun to be an icy structure
Densest near the inner moons, therefore probably blasted off these moons
Uranus and Neptune
Extremely dark, due to methane ice being broken down
Very narrow rings due to Shepard moons
Not too old since particles are blasted from moons
Clumpiness suggests too young to have reached steady state
Lecture 6: Moons
15 August 2013
15:25
describe the surfaces and compositions of the Galilean satellites in particular

explain how the composition of moons can be inferred from mean density
describe tidal heating of Io
identify the composition and dynamics of planetary rings
describe formation scenarios for planetary ring systems
Inner planets form moons

through collisions. (Earth) Hence
such big moons
Jovian planets form many moons,
due to excess debris. Excess
debris forms a disk, where objects
start forming
Small moons are often
captured asteroids which
lose energy due to friction
with accretion disks and
then are caught
Jupiter: The Galilean moons

Io, Europa and Ganymede locked in
an orbital resonance (8:4:2) and
Callisto will join in a few hundred
Myr
Large regular moons in
prograde (same direction as
planet rotation) elliptical
orbits (due to their orbital
resonance)
Small captured asteroids most in
planet rotation) elliptical

orbits (due to their orbital
resonance)
Small captured asteroids most in
retrograde orbits
Io
Most volcanically driven active object in
the solar system- due to resonances
that cause orbit to be slightly elliptical
Tidal locking to Jupiter.

Tidal force of Jupiter varies due to slightly elliptical orbit
Extremely volcanic due to repeated flexing in different directions, melting some of the interior and
heating due to friction
Driven by sulfur, hence yellow appearance
Virtually no craters, therefore relatively young
Density suggests Fe/S core
Europa
Tidal heating effect exists but is much
smaller. It must exist because older
craters are erased
Smoothest object in the Solar System
Ice crust hiding deep ocean, heated
by mantle
Criss-crossing bands 20-40 km wide
and thousands of km long are
fractures filled by water that froze,
coloured because of contaminants
Has a magnetic field which responds
to changes in Jupiter's. Thus Europa
must have a liquid layer of conducting
material.
Activity driven by tidal heating
Ganymede
Largest moon in the solar system
Moon like ice surface
Some regions are dark and densely cratered while others are light coloured with very few
Some regions are dark and densely cratered while others are light coloured with very few
craters (indicating upwelling of liquid)
Limited tidal heating because far away from Jupiter, thus perhaps combination of tidal heating and
radioactive decay (larger mass) cause a water interior
Callisto
Heavily cratered ice ball
White spots are craters from large impacts which have blasted out 'clean' ice from underneath
Saturn: Icy Moons

62 moons and counting.
Moonlets within rings, Has shepherd moons, co-orbitals, inner large moons and outer large moons
Titan
Second largest moon in the Solar System
Big and far enough from heat to have an atmosphere
Thick smog denser than our atmosphere:
Mostly Nitrogen, methane and traces of organic compounds
Janus, Epimetheus
Two moons which have a Co-orbital: orbital radii differ by <50 km
Due to gravitational attraction, moons trade orbits periodically
Neptune
Triton
Very unusual terrain, intense geological activity despite being so far away
Ice volcanoes, nitrogen geysers
Only major moon to have a retrograde orbit and at a high inclination to Neptune's equator
One of two moons to have an atmosphere
Possibly explains Neptune's odd spin and orbit after Triton was captured
Moons show enormous variety in their structure.
Lecture 7: Asteroids, KBOs and Comets

26 August 2013
13:07
Chapter 12 Asteroids, Comets and Dwarf Planets: Their Nature, Orbits and Impacts
identify the locations and nature of the asteroid belt, Kuiper belt and the Oort cloud
describe how meteorites are related to asteroids and comets
sketch the structure of a comet
describe their formation and roles in supplying long and short period comets to the inner solar system
describe the nature of Pluto, Eris and other Kuiper Belt objects
discuss the danger of asteroid impacts on Earth
Asteroid Belt
The leftover of rocky planetesimals of the inner solar system.
Preferred orbits governed by the gravitational influence of Jupiter.
Bands of gaps which are in resonance with Jupiter.
About 100,000km away from each other
Most are extremely dark; Variety of compositions: C, S, Metal etc.
33 main asteroid belts approx. 200km across
Meteors and Meteorites

Meteor
Flash of light when a particle burns up in the atmosphere
Typically no larger than a pea or a grain
Meteorite
Meteorite: When it actually hits the ground
Origins
Mostly from asteroids, Two types; Primitive vs. Processed
Primitive: Asteroid appears to be condensed straight out of the solar nebular (with no differentiation)
Processed: Different compositions because they have come from different places after differentiation. A
larger object which was differentiated has been broken down.
Some from the moon and Some from Mars (ejected volcanically, or from giant impacts)
Easiest to find on pristine uniform background; Antarctica etc.
Kuiper Belt Objects

First found through group of objects called Centaurs, after observing object with an eccentric orbit between Saturn
and Uranus. Ice-rich leftovers of planetesimals of the outer solar system
Belt past Neptune between 30 and 50 AU
Forms short period comets
Mostly constrained to the plane of the solar system
Gravitational Resonance: The inner and outer edge is sculpted by Neptune
35% are Plutinos (or resonant KBOs) which form a band at 39 AU
in resonance with Neptune (3 Neptune orbits to 2 Plutino orbits) have similar orbit to Pluto (35%)
Most are between classical 42-48 AU
Scattered KBOs form large donut orbits (3-4%)
Largest known trans-Neptunian objects

Eris (another dwarf planet) may be bigger than Pluto and is an example of a scattered orbit
The asteroid belt and the Kuiper belt are protected regions from gravitational influence.
This is why asteroids are not everywhere from the formation of the solar system
Large objects such as Jupiter cause objects to be thrown out into scattered orbits
The Oort Cloud and Comets

Unconstrained to the plane of the solar system, thought to be spherical, stretching extremely far out
10,000 to 100,000 AU (halfway to nearest star)
Appear to come from all directions
Produces long period comets
Comets (remember some comets are short period comets from Kuiper Belt)
When they enter the inner solar system their icy layer starts melting forming the coma, which surrounds it.
Ion tail points away from sun due to radiation pressure
Dust tail because it is heavier, is less affected by radiation pressure
Halley's Comet
Periodic visits every 75-76 years
Comet Nuclei
Big ball of ice mixed with some dust
Marked on surface due to impacts
Comet Shoemaker Levy 9
Comet broke up into sub comets and then collided with Jupiter
Impacts on Jupiter caused chemical changes in its surface
Lecture 8: Review on Planets

26 August 2013
13:07
Sun will become red giant and things may start warming up
Earth has atmosphere and signs of an impact indicate the past when the moon was formed
A sharp large shadow indicates a small planet, Jupiter and other planets are too big and too far
away from their moons
Uranus is facing side on however moons still orbit in the same plane
Brown dwarfs will have a slight glow
Lecture 9: Exoplanets
26 August 2013
13:07
Lecture 9
Chapter 13 Other Planetary Systems: Their Nature, Orbits and Impacts
identify the evidence for the existence of other planetary systems

describe the differences between our solar system and other planetary systems
How do we detect Exoplanets?

Stars are bright but Planets shine off reflected light
Planets are much smaller
Direct detection is very hard
Solutions
A star will wobble back and forth as the star and planets orbit the common centre of mass
Planets can block light from stars
Planets also gravitationally bend light
Methods
Radial Velocity: The Doppler Effect
Star will orbit around the barycentre of a solar system
The light will be red shifted and blue shifted by different amounts due to the effects of the planet.
This tells us the periodic variation in velocity which indicates an unseen planet.
Transits and Eclipses

As a planet transits across its parent star there will be a dip in starlight
Slight dip in sunlight for systems which are edge on only
When the planet is eclipsed there will be an even smaller dip
Kepler- (Revolutionised the transit method)

Aiming to discover Earth Sized Planets
Finding planets within the habitable zone
Microlensing
When a planet is directly in front of light from a distant star it can bend the light and focus it.
The light will be magnified first by the star in the solar system and then again by the planet
However can only happen once and does not occur regularly and thus is not as useful
Direct Imaging
Reducing the intensity until objects can be seen around
the star. Light is subtracted from an image
Hard to achieve
Pulsar Timing
Measuring changes in velocity of a pulsar
Detection Bias
We are not necessarily seeing 'typical' solar systems
Radial velocity: favours close in, massive planets. (because they have a bigger effect on the star)
Transit: favours large, close in, short period planets. (Larger planets will cause a bigger change in intensity)
Typical observing campaigns favour shorter periods (days or months). (Because planets are not observed
for years at a time)
for years at a time)
Conclusions
Three important results from Kepler
More smaller planets (almost down to size of Earth) than planets such as Jupiter and Neptune
Many solar systems found where two more planets transit across star (thus in same plane)
Indicates same Nebula Hypothesis explanation of a flattened disc of gas and dust around the young
star
At least 500 million (1%) of planets in the habitable zone
Lecture 10: The sun

26 August 2013
13:33
Lecture 10
Chapter 14 Our Star
Text Sections: 14.2 and 14.2
explain the balance between gravity and pressure

describe the processes of energy transport in stars (radiation and convection)
identify that energy in main sequence stars comes from nuclear reactions (proton-proton chain and
CNO
cycle)
identify the relevant fundamental particles (proton, neutron, electron, positron, neutrino, gamma ray
photon)
H-Alpha- A particular signature colour of Hydrogen.
Basic Properties
Radius = 696,000 km (109 x Earth) = 1R
Mass=2 x 1030 kg (300,000 x Earth) = 1M
Luminosity = 3.8 x 1026 Watts = 1
Rotation = 25 days at equator (slow)
Surface temperature = 5770 K (Sunspots = 4000 K, core = 15 million )
Age: 4.6x10^9 Years
Inside the sun:
Core: High density core which provides energy through nuclear reactions
Radiative zone: Where photons of light travel through radiation, photons are continually deflected
randomly and gradually move out through radiative diffusion
Convective Zone: Since gas is cooler here, photons can be absorbed. Thus it starts to boil and convection
begins. Lumps of hot gas start to rise up, like boiling water.
The Stars Page 23
Photosphere-Where the gas peters out. The place where on average, a photon will escape (visible layer)
Granulation Pattern- The 'bubbling' layer on the surface of the sun.
Sunspots- Areas that are cooler with intense magnetic fields. Indicate active regions. Occur in a 22
year cycle
Solar maximums have high periods
of solar activity (and more sunspots)
and occur on an 11 year basis.
Furthermore the magnetic field will
flip every 11 years as well. Thus
forming a 22 year cycle. (to flip back
to normal)
Chromosphere is where temperature increases with altitude and most of the UV light is emitted
Corona forms outer layer, which is significantly hotter than photosphere
Corona is usually observed in Xrays and is the outer layer, most easily in seen in solar eclipses
Shows material being thrown out from sun
Not very dense but extremely hot
Sunspots and Magnetic Fields

Sunspots are relatively cooler regions on the sun's surface and in order for these to exist (and be cooler than
their surroundings) they must be magnetic fields preventing hot plasma from entering them.
Sunspots are regions with strong magnetic fields
This is found through studying the absorption spectrum and seeing splitting of spectral lines
(Zeeman effect)
The strong magnetic field prevent surrounding plasma from entering the sunspot
Tend to occur in pairs joined by a magnetic field. This creates prominences which occur when gas in the
sun's chromosphere gets trapped in these loops
Magnetic fields can undergo sudden change and cause solar flares
This information comes from:
1. Helioseismology (study of pressure waves)
Pressure waves are used to measure the properties inside the sun
The sun rotates on a slowly rotating inner cylinder and an outer cylinder (at equator) which rotates faster.
Therefore Equator rotates faster that the poles
2. Mathematical Models
The Stars Page 24
2. Mathematical Models
3. Solar Neutrinos
Predicted to be formed and also detected
Initially not enough were detected, but then it was found that nuetrino's can decay into different
types
What makes the sun shine?

Cannot be a chemical reaction because simply not enough energy
Nuclear Reactions: E=mc2
The Proton-Proton Chain

First step requires overcoming electrostatic repulsion (Thus high enough energy)
Dominates in sun like stars
Small amount of mass is lost, which is converted into energy.
The CNO cycle

Requires hotter conditions
Same net reaction, but different process with heavier element catalysts
Dominant in much heavier stars
Stars will eventually run out of Hydrogen.
The Stable Sun

For the sun to shine steadily it must have a way of keeping its core hot and dense. It maintains these condition
through a natural balance between two competing forces; gravity pulling inwards and radiation pressure
pushing outwards. This is called gravitational equilibrium or hydrostatic equilibrium
Suppose the core temperature rose slightly and as a result, fusion rate also rose slightly. This would increase
the radiation pressure in the core and cause the sun to expand and col a little, thus causing the fusion rate to
drop back down.
Triple Alpha Process: Burns helium into carbon

Requires more temperature
This allows helium burning when Hydrogen is running low
Heavier elements are successively burned till Iron. However after Iron and fusion REQUIRES energy.
Solar Neutrinos
Extremely hard to detect, but expected to be produced by the sun
Initially could not detect as many as predicted
Realised that neutrinos have mass, and can thus decay.
The Stars Page 25
Lecture 11: Studying the Stars

28 August 2013
12:45
Lecture 11
Chapter 5 Light and Matter
Text Sections: 5.4
describe and explain the formation of emission and absorption spectra

describe the Doppler effect and its use for determining velocity
Chapter 15 Surveying the Stars
Text Sections: 15.1
define luminosity and explain how it is determined

define parallax and explain how it is used to determine distances to stars
explain why the surface temperature of a star is related to its colour
describe the blackbody radiation spectrum from a hot body and its relationship to the
temperature of the body
Brightness and size in a picture do not indicate the size of a star

Red glowing gas- Indicates hydrogen, gas cloud, and possibly large stars
Alpha Centauri- One of Two pointer stars to southern cross (actually is a binary star system)
Beta Centauri- 2nd Pointer star to southern cross (100x further away, 10000 times brighter)
Cluster- Stars that were made around the same time. (spacing tends to be much closer)
Planetary Nebula: Layers have puffed off the star, and continue to glow
Groups of Stars
Stars occur singly or in groups- Most stars are born in groups
Binary/multiple systems
Stars that are gravitationally bound
Stellar Associations
Young stars that are not gravitationally bound
Star Clusters
Can stay together for hundreds or millions of years (or more)
Open Clusters (galactic Star clusters)
Not gravitationally bound so disperse
over time
Less tightly packed
Associated with the spiral arms and
disk of our galaxy
The diagram below shows the
The Stars Page 26
Associated with the spiral arms and

disk of our galaxy
The diagram below shows the
Pleiades cluster. The HR diagram
shows no O stars, but still has B. This
main sequence turn off point indicates
it is around 100 years old
Globular star clusters
Extremely old, densely packed

Found in the halo around our galaxy
Gravitationally bound and more spherical
The main sequence turn off point of this
globular cluster indicate an age of about 10
billion years.
Measuring Distance
Trigonometric Parallax
One method uses trigonometric parallax
Uses baseline of the earth's orbit (6 months apart)
Moves approx. 1 arc second
D(pc)= 1/parallax (arc seconds)
Nearest star is 1.3pc away
1 pc = 3.26 ly = 3.08x10^13 km
Other methods of measuring distance

Methods based on motion
Methods based on surface brightness of stars
E.g. In an eclipsing binary
Methods based on stellar properties
Spectroscopic parallax, uses properties of star and use HR diagram
Using properties of galaxies
Apparent Magnitudes
Apparent Magnitudes (m) are brightness's as seen from the earth measured relative to a set of
standard stars
mA mB = 2.50log10 (fA/ fB)
Correspondence
Sun's apparent magnitude: -26.7
The Stars Page 27
Absolute Magnitudes
Apparent magnitude if the star was placed at a distance of 10 pc
Other magnitudes
Flux from a star will vary with wavelength
U Effective 365 nm,
bandwidth ~ 70 nm
B effective- 440 nm,
bandwidth ~ 100 nm
V effective 550 nm,
bandwidth ~ 90 nm
The Stars Page 28
Lecture 12: Spectra

Monday, 9 September 2013
12:20 PM
explain why the surface temperature of a star is related to its colour

describe the blackbody radiation spectrum from a hot body and its relationship to the
temperature of the
body
The structure of Atoms

Rutherford:
Dense positively charged nucleus, surrounded by electrons
Accelerating charged particles should radiate energy and spiral into the nucleus
Bohr Model
Only certain orbits are allowed for electrons
Electrons can only gain or lose energy in discrete steps by jumping from/to these allowed orbitals
The Balmer series
The Balmer series is a series of possible electron transitions for the hydrogen atom which emits
photons of light in the visible to UV range. Electrons end on the n=2 level.
This is one of a series of emission lines which depend on the final level.
Includes the H alpha line which is the transition from 3 to 2. This usually indicates the presence
of Hydrogen, but it is the pattern that confirms Hydrogen's presence
Absorption and Emission

An atom can go from energy E2 to E1 by emitting a single photon of energy. Many of these photons
will produce an emission spectral lines
Similarly photons can be absorbed, and thus will to a higher energy orbital
This will produce an absorption spectral line
Happens with hot, thin gas.
Continuum Emission
Blackbody/Plank curves depict ideal hot emitting objects. Any object that is hot enough can emit a
black body curve, usually relatively high density.
As the temperature increases:
Peak shifts towards blue wavelengths (wiens)
Intensity Increases very fast. The total energy radiated per unit area, is given by
F=T4(Stefan Boltzmann)
The 6000 K object will appear yellow to the

human eye, because it is more sensitive to
those wavelengths.
The Stars Page 29
The 6000 K object will appear yellow to the

human eye, because it is more sensitive to
those wavelengths.
What happens in a Star

Dense core of the star produces rainbow spectrum, but cooler less dense outer layers absorb certain
wavelengths of light.
The rainbow spectrum is produced because two hot atoms close together will interact with one another.
Thus instead of producing stronger spectral lines, they will become blurred.
Interpreting Spectra
Since energy levels are quantised, a given transition will always be a precise wavelength
Different atoms/molecules will have different characteristic transitions
What we see will depend on the background continuum emission. And thus we can get information about
stability of each energy level, density, temperature, velocities and strength of magnetic and electric fields.
The Stars Page 30
Lecture 13: Spectral and Luminosity Classes and the HR

diagram
09 September 2013
14:38
Chapter 15 Surveying the Stars

describe the classification of stars into spectral types

describe how stellar spectra can provide information on surface temperature, density, composition
and velocity
define luminosity classes
describe the Hertzsprung-Russell (H-R) diagram and identify main sequence stars, red dwarfs, giants
and white dwarfs
identify the frequency of stellar types
explain how the ages of open clusters and globular clusters are determined from their H-R diagrams
Spectral Catalogues
Produced the Henry Draper Catalogue
Balmer lines of H
Strength of H lines is proportional to:
The number of atoms with electrons available
Too cool means not enough electrons would START in the number 2 level (all in number 1)
Too hot means not enough electrons would FINISH in the number 2 level (all at higher levels
or not in the atom)
i.e. Even though the sun has lots of hydrogen. It is too cool for the optimum Hydrogen transitions.
Thus the temperature of the star determines what elements are going to show up strongly.
Line strength mainly reflects temperature sensitivity, not abundance.
i.e2. Titanium Oxide will break down in stars that are too hot but have lines in stars that are cooler
Spectral Classes
Since spectral lines depend on temperature. Stars began to be classified, depending on their temperature.
Brown dwarfs (core temp is too low to sustain H fusion) have new classes: (L and T)
Lots of spectral lines represent lots of metal lines.
The Stars Page 31
Lots of spectral lines represent lots of metal lines.

Hotter stars tend to have spectral lines at lower wavelengths
Spectral Line Widths

Temperature mostly governs the strength of absorption lines, however line width is affected by different
factors.
Natural Broadening: spectral lines are very thin
Thermal Doppler broadening
Since the gas is hot, gas particles move and thus cause spectral broadening
Non thermal Doppler broadening
Pulsation, Rotation, Orbital Motion (would cause shifting)
Collision/Pressure Broadening
If tightly packed gas particles will interact with one another and broaden the line
In Supergiants, gas density is low thus less broadening. Stars like the sun have comparatively
high density, and thus will exhibit spectral broadening.
Zeeman broadening
Magnetic fields cause spectral broadening, depending on the field strength
Luminosity Classes
Luminosity classes are based on the width of spectral lines. (They indicate how big the star is)
This diagram indicates 3
stars of the same spectral
class (temperature).
However, they are all of
different luminosity.
1.The top star has thin
spectral lines. This is
because it is giant, with a low
gas density. Thus limited
broadening
The 2nd and 3rd stars are
The Stars Page 32
gas density. Thus limited

broadening
The 2nd and 3rd stars are
indicated by wider spectral
lines because they have a
higher density. This density
causes pressure broadening.
Thus stars can be

classified by spectral and
luminosity class.
i.e. Sun is G2V star
HR Diagrams
Plots Luminosity
Or Absolute Magnitude
Against Temperature
Or Spectral Type
Or Colour Index
Properties
On the main sequence , increasing temperature means increasing luminosity
The Stars Page 33
Therefore for the main sequence, spectral classes also sequence in mass
Spectral effects
M dwarfs are very common but are usually invisible
O dwarfs are rare but are visible as naked eye dwarfs to 1000 pc
The Stars Page 34
Lecture 14: Star Formation

16 September 2013
14:06
Lecture 13
Chapter 16 Star Birth
describe the main stages of star formation

describe the concept of a pressure-temperature thermostat operating inside stars
Interstellar Dust
In dense gas clouds, blue light is scattered away by interstellar dust, until gradually all the light is blocked out.
(Thus stars on the border of the star will appear redder, called interstellar reddening) Since the dust absorbs
longer wavelengths, short wavelengths such as infrared can allow us to see through molecular clouds.
These dark clouds are places where star formation is likely to occur.
1. Molecular Cloud
Giant molecular clouds are the primary place for star formation. Should be cold and dense. Cold
temperatures are due to interstellar dust which radiate away thermal energy
UV light cannot break up molecules deep inside the cloud (as they are protected by the outside)
Cold temperatures are needed so that Gravity can overcome thermal pressure of gas clouds
Gas particles in molecular clouds remove thermal energy by emitting photons
Clouds occupy 1% of volume but contain 90% of mass of ISM (interstellar medium)
2. Cloud Collapse
If conditions are right the clouds may collapse
Nearby supernova or galactic spiral density wave
Clouds collapse under self-gravity if they exceed the jeans mass
The colder the cloud is, and the denser the cloud is; the more likely it is that it's going to collapse
Collapse is uneven-> Core collapses faster than outer layers and approaches equilibrium while outer
layers still free fall inwards. This forms the protostar in the centre
The Stars Page 35
Rapid rotation of gas prevents it from going

straight into the star. Instead it may settle into a
protostellar disk, from which gas will gradually
spiral inwards.
Another effect of the protostars rotation are jets
which can come outwards of its axis.
3. Protostar
Density starts increasing and thus the radiation gets trapped and absorbed -> Protostar heats up
Forms a pre-main sequence star
Pre-Main sequence stars

A pre main sequence star has had its surrounding gases blown away by solar winds and jets
It will continue to contract and thus heat up till it can fuse hydrogen
Lower mass stars arrive lower down on the main

sequence, but also take a longer time to form than
higher mass stars.
The Stars Page 36
The birth line marks the

emergence of the stars from
surrounding cloud. This is
the point when they become
visible.
Max~ 120-150 M
Min= 0.8 M
Explaining the curvy end of path on HR diagram:
Beings very luminous but cool due to its large surface area
After surface temperature rises to about 3000 convective contraction causes protostar to contract
without increasing in temperature, thus decreasing in luminosity.
Then radiative contraction increases temperature and luminosity slightly
Stellar Structure
Tells us about the lifetimes of Main Sequence stars
Hydrostatic Equilibrium: Gravity vs. Pressure
Equation of state: Ideal Gas, gas molecules don't interact (How the gas behaves)
Energy generation: Fusion
Energy Transport: Radiation, Convection.
These things help us understand the lifetimes of stars on the main sequence.
The Stars Page 37
Lower main sequence

PP chain dominates in core.
For M < 0.26 M, star is cool & opacity of the gas is high
entire star is convective & completely mixed (cannot use radiation)
all H eventually burns into He
very slow evolution
For 0.26 M< M<1.5 M
Fusion is spread over a large region in the core
Small temperature gradient means energy is transported in the core by radiation
No mixing , therefore not all H will be consumed
Outer layers are cooler and thus undergo convection
Upper main sequence
For M > 1.5 M
CNO cycle is dominant
Fusion concentrated at core, making temperature gradient high (thus no radiation)
Convection is necessary for energy transport around the core
Therefore core is mixed
Outer layers have low opacity; Radiative. (so no granulation patterns)
The Stars Page 38
Lecture 15: Stars Life and Death

16 September 2013
14:06
identify that the evolution of a star is determined by its initial mass
describe the evolution of a low-mass star into a red giant, a planetary nebula and a white
dwarf
identify that fusion of elements heavier than hydrogen requires higher temperatures
The MS life of a star

As Hydrogen fuel is used up temperature and density will increase to maintain fusion rate (due to the core
collapsing)
4 Hydrogen's are being converted into 1 helium and thus the core will contract. But the hydrostatic
equilibrium pushes up the fusion rate to counteract gravity
Radius and luminosity increase, surface T drops slightly
MS star will move slowly up and to the right

i.e. The sun is currently 5% bigger and brighter 200
K warmer than ZAMS. This will accelerate over next
5 billion years
Evolution to a Red Giant

When H abundance <1%, core begins to contract faster
Collapse heats core by release of gravitation potential energy
This heat ignites H shell around stable He core. This causes an increase in energy output and the
following effects.
Evidence for this is in star clusters. Young clusters have larger stars on the main sequence. Old clusters have no
large stars.
The Stars Page 39
Star will migrate on HR diagram because:

Star size increases
Luminosity Increases
Surface Temperature falls
Helium Flash
1. Helium begins to build in the core from hydrogen fusion in the shell.
a. Instead of the fusion being able to be regulated by expanding and cooling in a MS star, the new helium
causes further contraction.
b. This causes the helium core to rise in temperature
2. When the temperature of the star is high enough (100million K) Helium burning begins in the core. (triple
alpha process He->C)
3. The onset of helium fusion heats core rapidly without expansion (because degeneracy pressure, not
thermal, was holding the inert helium core before)
4. This causes a massive increase in luminosity in core, called helium flash
5. As temperature rises
due to He burning in
core and H burning in
shell: radius and
luminosity will drop
(even though two types
of fusion), but
temperature will
increase; thus changing
colour from red back to
yellow.
6. The weaker pull of
gravity will also cause
the release of mass in
stellar winds
It will now be on the
main sequence of He
burning
Final Evolution of 1M Star

Similar to first rise up the giant branch but with He and H burning shell
Triple alpha process: has extreme temperature dependence, and thus the star will expand and
contract, because it is unstable
Thermal pulses every few thousand years, until star develops a superwind, which blows in gusts and
removes the outer envelope to reveal the core as a white dwarf, surrounded by a planetary nebula.
The Stars Page 40
White Dwarfs (size of earth, mass of the sun)

Core is supported by electron degeneracy pressure
Larger white dwarfs will be made of heavier elements as they have fused more elements
They will also be smaller because greater gravity
Maximum theoretical mass: 1.4 solar masses (Chandrasekhar limit)
Shine by radiating thermal energy, no fusion
White dwarfs in close binary systems undergo a few different mechanisms.
They accrete mass from their companion star to form a hot accretion disc (which would provide UV/X-rays)
Temperature will rise in a shell surrounding the dwarf, blazing to life suddenly due to H burning on
accumulated shell.
This produces a very bright nova (100,000 times luminosity of sun)
Some white dwarfs can keep increasing in mass past the 1.4Msun limit and their temperature rises enough
for Carbon fusion to begin. This causes an explosion called a white dwarf supernova (a class of type 1
supernovae)
These supernovae can be identified by a lack of Hydrogen lines
Planetary nebulae (few tenths of mass of sun)

The super wind from the AGB (asymptotic giant branch) removes outer layers to form a 'planetary' nebula.
The radiation from the hot remnant core will ionise the gas in the expanding shell, making it hlow
This nebula will disappear within a few million years
Final Evolution of a 5M star

The evolution of a 5 solar mass star will be the same as the sun, just significantly quicker (<100 million years)
The Stars Page 41
Final evolution of Massive stars. (Greater than 8 solar masses)

Stars below 8 Solar masses will blow away enough mass to be below the Chandrasekhar limit before they die.
In a massive star, elements will successively burn in the core till iron
The iron core is created briefly, but is inert
Death
Cannot fuse iron together, so gas pressure drops and gravity takes over
Core Collapse in less than 1 second (electron degeneracy pressure cannot hold)
Collapse rebounds from a superdense state and Blows off the outer layers as a supernova explosion
(10 billion times the luminosity of our sun)
Ejecta produces a supernova remnant.
This can produce a shockwave of fast moving gas which sweeps out from the supernova
Heavier elements are generated during a supernova via neutron capture
Leaves behind a neutron star (which may collapse into a black hole)
Supernova remnant
These are expanding clouds of debris which are left after a supernova
The Stars Page 42
Lecture 16: Pulsars and Black Holes

12:54 PM

describe the main features of white dwarfs, neutron stars and pulsars
The core remnant of massive stars after a supernova.
Neutron Stars
Mass of 1.5-3 solar masses. (but 10-20 km across)
Supported by neutron degeneracy pressure
Spinning very fast due to conservation of angular momentum, thus very strong magnetic field spinning
around, causes narrow beams of radio waves.
Discovered as: PULSARS (magnetized rotating neutron stars)

These pulsars have a rapid rotation, and produce a regular pulse.
This can happen because the rotation axis is usually different to the magnetic axis
Will eventually slow down due to loss of energy by emitting EMR
X-Ray Binaries
When in a binary system accretion disks can form which are much more luminous than the accretion disc
around a white dwarf
These pulsars will speed up over time unlike normal
Can result in X-Ray bursts after spontaneous fusion of material accreted from its companion star
Pulsars allow for the probing of the interstellar medium, due to their regular sharp pulses. High frequency pulsars
will arrive faster than low frequency pulsars.
Black Holes
Core mass exceeds 3 solar masses

Collapses to a singularity, surrounded by event horizon where not even light can escape from
Event horizon lies at the Schwarzchild radius
Intense source of gravity. Have mass, spin and nothing else
Proof
Know of binaries (also X-ray binaries) where one companion MUST be a black hole
Evidence for super-massive black holes in cores of galaxies
The Stars Page 43
Lecture 17: Milky Way

4:50 PM
Chapter 19 Our Galaxy

describe the orbits of the stars in the Galactic disc and bulge
sketch the major structural components of the Galaxy
describe the composition of interstellar gas
identify the phases of the interstellar medium
identify the effects of intervening dust on the properties of stars
define HII regions, reflection nebulae and molecular clouds
The Milky Way appears in the sky as a faint band of light. Obscured by dusty gas clouds, which are part of the
interstellar medium. This cosmic dust mostly comes from supernovas and solar winds from red giants and is part of
interstellar medium.
X rays are observed from
hot gas above and below
the disk.
21cm radio waves
emitted by atomic
Hydrogen shows gas
across the disc
Radio emission from CO
shows locations of
molecular clouds.
Long wavelength IR
emission shows where
young stars are heating
dust grains.
Gamma Rays shows
where cosmic rays from
supernovae collide with
atomic nuclei in gas
clouds.
The Components of the Galaxy
The main components of the galaxy. Are the bulge, the disc and the halo.
Orbits of stars in the Disc

Stars in the disc, move around in
the plane of the disc. They have a
small up and down motion
If they go below the disc,
the gravitational pull of the
disc will pull it up, and vice
The Milky Way Page 44
small up and down motion

If they go below the disc,
the gravitational pull of the
disc will pull it up, and vice
versa.
Halo stars, bulge stars, globular
clusters; have chaotic orbits. If
disturbed, their orbits change
dramatically
The orbit of our sun (in the disc)
tells us the mass of the galaxy
within that orbit (1x10^11 Solar
masses)
The interstellar Medium

The interstellar medium has varying regions of density and temperature. Most of the ISM would be warm atomic gas.
Gas: Mostly Hydrogen (70%), helium (28%) and CO (1%)
Dust: Carbon, Silicates
Multiphase
Typical states of Gas in the Interstellar medium
Proof of the ISM (how do we see this gas since it's not hot enough to be part of a star or emit xrays?)
Interstellar spectral absorption lines from the visible light from stars
The 21 cm emission from H can be observed all across the galaxy.
This arises from the spin of the electron and proton. When the spin flips, a 21 cm emission line will be emitted
Mapping HI can be done by telescopes such as the Parkes telescope. Since this is an emission line, velocities can also
be determined.
Nebulae
Can range from small globules to Giant Molecular Clouds
Emission Nebulae:
UV light from hot young stars ionises hydrogen to form a HII
region- causing them to emit visible light (esp. red H line)
Are found near short-lived, high mass stars, signifying active
star formation.
Reflection Nebulae:
In these star forming regions starlight is reflected from dust grains
produces a blue colour.
This is because blue is more easily scattered by interstellar dust
Reflection Nebulae:
In these star forming regions starlight is reflected from dust grains
produces a blue colour.
This is because blue is more easily scattered by interstellar dust
Dark Nebulae:
Dense clouds leading to reddening, with no starlight passing through
Molecules
OH and CO are easy to see at radio wavelengths
H2 is hard to see at UV wavelengths so, CO is used as a tracer for H2 .
These molecules are easily destroyed by UV photons from hot stars, and thus can only survive within
dense, dusty clouds where they are protected
Lecture 18: Milky Way 2

26 September 2013
15:01
sketch the rotation curve of the Galaxy and explain how it constitutes evidence for dark matter
describe the global cycle of star formation and chemical enrichment of interstellar gas that occurs in the
Galaxy
identify the relative contributions of low and high mass stars to the total luminosity, mass and chemical
enrichment of the interstellar medium
define metallicity, and explain how the metallicity of the interstellar medium evolves with time
describe the trends in the spatial variation of metallicity within the Galaxy
describe the various ways in which star formation may be triggered
identify objects that trace spiral arms
explain the winding problem for spiral arms
describe the density wave theory of spiral structure
define population I and II objects, and identify several examples of each
The Global Cycle of Star Formation + Enrichment
Stars: Make elements beyond hydrogen by nuclear fusion and return this gas to interstellar gas
Lower mass stars return gas through stellar winds and planetary nebula
High mass stars have strong stellar winds
Supernovas:
As supernova remnant will cool and begin to emit visible light as it expands.
The new elements made by supernova will mix into the interstellar medium. (heavier elements are
made during explosions though neutron capture)
Multiple supernovae can create hot bubbles that can blow out of the disk of the galaxy. This
produces a galactic fountain. The gas will escape to a certain distance up, then cools and comes back.
As time goes on the ISM will become enriched with heavier elements. However with each new generation of stars,
despite recycling some gas will be tied up in brown dwarfs and stellar corpses. Thus there is only a finite amount of
gas
The Formation of Stars:

The Formation of Stars:

Atomic hydrogen gas forms as hot gas cools
Then molecular clouds form next and eventually gravity forms star out of the gas in molecular clouds
When these stars start nuclear fusion they will break down the molecular dust
Sites of star formation

We believe that the stars in the halo formed first then star formation stopped. Bulged stars formed early as well,
but then disc stars formed later and kept on forming
Population I: Disc and Arm Stars

Disc stars: ionization nebulae, BLUE stars and 2% heavy elements
Includes stars like our sun
Absorption at nearly all wavelengths due to chemical enrichment. (remember that stars will produce
elements as continue through their life)
Youngest will be in the spiral arms
Population II: Bulge Stars

No evidence for new star formation in the halo
Mostly old, RED stars
No ionization nebulae (places where H gas is glowing), no blue stars
Only old stars: 02% heavy elements
Only a few weak absorption lines because it is not chemically enriched
Population III:
Proposed earliest generations of star with ZERO metal content (because even population 2 have SOME
metals such as Iron, which must have come from supernovae)
These exploded in supernovae
The spiral arms

Lots of star formation in the disc happens in the spiral arms
Contain lots of Emission Nebulae due to glowing hydrogen gas, and also lots of dust
The spiral arms is simply a pattern, they DO NOT SPIN FASTER than stars further in (not like a spinning top)
Spiral arms are waves of star formation
Spiral Density waves- work by a similar mechanism to a Mexican wave, the stars themselves do not
move. Instead these waves cause gas to be more tightly packed, thus forming the spiral arms. This
wave will move through the galaxy without carrying the matter along with it
Star formation will stimulate more star formation
The winding problem
It seems like spiral arms should move with the stars, but as seen above, this is not the case. The reason is that stars
near the centre of the galaxy complete an orbit in much less time than stars far away from the centre. Thus the
inner stars would orbit in less time than the outer and this would result in the spiral arms winding or tightening.
inner stars would orbit in less time than the outer and this would result in the spiral arms winding or tightening.
(and we don't see this)
Lecture 19: Mapping the Milky Way

Monday, 14 October 2013
12:23 PM
Lecture 19
Chapter 19 Our Galaxy
Text Sections: 19.2
sketch the rotation curve of the Galaxy and explain how it constitutes
evidence for dark matter
identify objects that trace spiral arms
explain the winding problem for spiral arms
describe the density wave theory of spiral structure
The milky way is a barred spiral galaxy with diameter ~100,000 light years and a mass ~1012 solar masses, much
of it invisible!
Mapping the Milky Way

Strategies
Selecting bright objects that are seen throughout the galaxy and trace their directions and distances. (like
candles which are further away)
Using a photographic plate to collect information from suns. The 1900s predicted an incorrect view of the
milky way. Because:
They had no idea the milky way was full of dust
Stars were much too faint
Observe objects at other wavelengths, and catalogue their directions and distances (because of the
presence of dust)
Trace the orbital velocities of objects in their different directions relative to our position
Globular Clusters
Approximately 200 known in the halo. Quite bright because so many stars
Clustered around the centre of the galaxy
Shows sun isn't the near the centre of the galaxy

OB associations
Groups of stars highlighted by O and B types. They formed together and move together
Distances are found using Cepheid variables. These vary in brightness
Distances are found using Cepheid variables. These vary in brightness

Cepheid Variables: Allow us to measure distances inside and beyond galaxy (provided an absence of dust)
Change in brightness periodically (between
1-60 days)
Lie on instability strip on HR diagram
Obey period luminosity law that allows the
distance of a Cepheid to be determined by
observing its period to determine the stars
absolute magnitude.
Henrietta Leavitt studied Large Magellenic
cloud (stars which are all approx. same
distance, without dust because different
galaxy). Realized that the brightest Cepheid's
have the longest periods and dimmest had
the shortest period.
Penetrating the Dust of the Milky Way
Infrared
Can use infrared light since dust absorbs visible but remits infrared.
Radio Observations
Radio frequency allows the detection of neutral hydrogen (21 cm emission line) concentrated in SPIRAL
ARMS. Modern measurements also allow detection of CO
Overlap (due to our viewpoint) can be disentangled by radial velocity measurements. (doppler shift)
Multiple arms all in one plane with different velocities.
IR observations of stars and dust reveal a CENTRAL BAR across the bulge.
Gas density increases as you move inwards, peaking in a collection of clouds called the molecular
ring.
Dark Matter
99% of the mass of the solar system is the Sun so orbital velocity decreases with distance as expected, however
this is not the case for galaxies.
Rotation curve of Spiral Galaxies

Even though light is concentrated towards the centre; rotational velocity does NOT drop with distance in
the outer regions
Total mass in the disk is ~200 billion solar

masses, but requires ~ 1 trillion solar masses.
Most of the mass is not concentrated in the
center.
Therefore, most of the mass is invisible- dark
matter.
This matter is thought to be in the halo
surrounding the milky way.
HI gas as a probe of Dark Matter

Hydrogen gas beyond the stars (cannot see this normally) can be observed using the HI emission line.
Studying the rotational velocity of the gas shows that even extremely far out the velocity is still
increasing
It shows that dark matter increases as the radius increases; there is a lot in the outskirts of the galaxy.
Lecture 20: The Centre of the Galaxy

14 October 2013
14:07
describe the evidence for a massive black hole at the Galactic centre
outline a scenario for the formation of the Galaxy
The Centre of the Milky Way

Taken by Radio imaging because
dust blocks visible light
Strong jets of emission suggest
they are controlled by Magnetic
fields
Most other features are super
nova remnants or star forming
regions
Radio image of SgrA demonstrates a spiral surrounding SgrA*.

IR image shows a high concentration of stars near the centre (because IR can reach us, unlike visible
light)
Stars appear to be orbiting something massive but
invisible... Black Hole (4 million star masses)
The motion of stars can be measured and used
to make calculations
Stars accelerate when the come towards the
centre
Thus we can do a calculation and know
that there must be an extremely
massive object in a tiny area of space
Black Holes
Milky Way's black hole is believed to be about 4 million solar masses
When stars fall in into a rotating black hole, they are torn apart and release X rays.
Unlike most black holes, Sgr A* does not continually emit X-rays. Thus we can assume that it does not have
an accretion disk, possibly because matter falls into it in big chunks instead of a smooth swirling flow of an
accretion disk.
How did the galaxy form?

Traditional: Oversimplified
This model explains many features of our galaxy, but upon further inspection it does not explain the heavy
This model explains many features of our galaxy, but upon further inspection it does not explain the heavy
element proportions
1. Galaxy forms a giant gas cloud
2. Halo stars form first as gravity caused the cloud to contract
3. Remaining gas settles into a spinning disk
4. Stars continuously form in the disk as the galaxy grows older
Current Picture
1. Halo stars formed in smaller clumps (protogalactic clouds) then later merged
2. Accretion of smaller satellite galaxies continues
3. Gas in the milky way's disk is replenished from outside
Accretion of Dwarf Galaxies (step 2)
Dwarf galaxies leave behind a long filament of stars trailing in its path around the galaxies, which will
eventually merge with halo stars
This is something that continues today
Lecture 21: Galaxies

14 October 2013
14:07
Specific Objectives
describe the various types of galaxies
contrast the stellar populations and gas content of irregular, spiral and elliptical Galaxies
Edwin Hubble
Proposed: The more remote a nebula is, the faster it appears to be moving away from the observer
Introduced the concepts of elliptical and spiral galaxies
Types of Galaxies
Classified by appearance of stellar population. (Though sometimes there is no clear division)
Elliptical:
regular appearance, no obvious disk
Dominant stellar population is old (with little or no recent star formation)
Type 0-7 according to eccentricity
Red-yellow colour suggests older population (though some may have regions of new)
Both giants and dwarfs
This particular galaxy is surrounded by 10,000
globular clusters. Thus thought that many of
these clusters were formed in cataclysmic event.
Especially since they are quite young
Interstellar gas is mainly hot, gaseous corona
often seen in X-Rays. (therefore cannot form
gas)
Lenticular Galaxy:
Intermediate between spiral and elliptical
Has disc shape but doesn't have dust or spiral arms
Full of older stars
Thought to be spiral galaxies that are not making new stars
Multiphase interstellar medium, mainly cold neutral gas in disk and spiral arms
Sombrero galaxy is in between elliptical and spiral. Spiral like shape is due to a ring of captured gas, around much older stars in
the centre. This may have happened when an initially spiral galaxy was dragged through the hot gas in the centre of a cluster;
stripping its own gaseous disk away.
Spiral:
Extra-Galactic Astronomy Page 55
Spiral:
regular appearance, obvious disk, selection effect (70%) because of bright O/B stars
Old stars (Pop II) in halo, younger stars (Pop I) in disc
Classified into a b and c according to tightness of arms, size of bulge and amount of gas
Multiphase interstellar medium with cold neutral gas
Barred spiral galaxy

Has a bar of stars across the bulge. Probably a transition stage
Irregular:
irregular/asymmetric in appearance.
Blue white colour indicates ongoing star formation (in the case of the magellanic cloud)
Various origins; result of collisions and mergers
Usually dwarf galaxy satellites
Extremely faint
Diverse population, some galaxies are rich in cold neutral gas others have zero
Spectroscopic Classification of Galaxies
Spiral galaxies are the brightest

Elliptical are the most massive
Lecture 22: Extra Galactic Distances and Clusters of

Galaxies
21 October 2013
14:07
explain how to determine distances to galaxies using observations of distance indicators (Cepheids and type Ia
supernovae)
describe the Hubble law and how it can be used to determine distance
identify the Local Group
describe the expansion of the universe and the interpretation of redshift
Distance Ladder and the different methods

We can use the distance ladder to help measure a distance as accurately as possible. There variety of different
rungs gives a method of checking each other.
Moving Cluster
Parallax- Using the
space motion of a
nearby cluster of stars
Cepheids using the
period luminosity
relationship to
determine their
brightness.
Type 1a supernovae
are the explosions of
white dwarfs in binary
systems and are very
bright.
Tully fisher- relates
rotation curve and
luminosity
Most of these methods are standard candle techniques, which figure out the true luminosity, compare it to
apparent magnitude and work out the distance.
Redshift
Redshift is an observation which can be used to measure distances for galaxies extremely far away
The spectrum is shifted and the shifting of a particular wavelength is measured

Quasars have emission lines which allow us to show distance
Very close galaxies are not redshifted.
Everything outside our local group is redshifted (with very large redshifts)
Hubble's Law
By observing relatively nearby galaxies he plotted their apparent velocity (from redshift) against known
distance (from other methods)
More modern methods allow plotting of galaxies which are much further away
This demonstrates a relationship between Velocity and distance
This demonstrates a relationship between Velocity and distance

Velocity=H0 x Distance
H0 ~72km/s/Mpc
This law extended over vast distances and was predicted by Einstein's theory of relativity
The inverse of the Hubble constant tells us the age of the universe.
Cosmological Redshift
This is cosmological redshift, and not Doppler redshift.
It is caused by the expansion of space itself, and not due to the motion of galaxies through space
Thus the universe will appear the same from any point
Recession velocities can be greater than c. Since it is the expansion of space itself
What Redshift means
Redshift converts directly to a scaling factor of the universe
Conversion to distance, look back time or recession velocity depends on model of the universe
Galaxy Group Classification

Rich clusters- 1000 or more galaxies diameter of ~ 3 Mpc, condensed around a large, central galaxy
Poor Clusters- Less than 1,000 galaxies, diameter of a few Mpc, generally not condensed towards the
center
Groups- Typically~20 galaxies
Spiral galaxies are often found in small groups (up to a few dozen galaxies per group).
For example the Milky Way is a small group with only 3 MAIN spiral galaxies.
Elliptical galaxies are much more common in rich clusters of galaxies (hundreds to thousands of galaxies)
Galaxy Collisions
Since the distances between galaxies is relatively small, galaxy collisions DO occur.
The galactic nuclei will merge
Stars will not collide that often to due large distances, so essentially it is gas clouds colliding
Immediate burst of intense star formation (starburst) then supernovae and stellar winds blow away
mass, leaving no new stars to form
Stars die out leading to the formation of a large elliptical galaxy
Super clusters and voids
Local groups such as ours form
part of larger clusters and super
clusters such as the Virgo super
cluster
Maps of galaxies reveal voids and
super clusters which probably
started off as regions of varying
density
Galaxies cluster together in
throughout the universe in a non
uniform fashion when you are
observing on a big scale
Lecture 23: Galaxy Formation and Dark Matter

Monday, 28 October 2013
12:58 PM
describe the models for the formation of galaxies
explain what is meant by dark matter and dark energy
describe methods to determine the masses of galaxies (rotation curve, velocities within a cluster)
describe the evidence for dark matter in galaxies and clusters
explain the gravitational lens effect
Histories of Galaxies
When looking at galaxies extremely far away, we see how galaxies are when they are young. Around this time
galaxy shapes were much less distinct. There must have been low level irregularity for the formation of galaxies.
Note: Before 300,000 years all we can see is the cosmic microwave background radiation. Light was scattered
during this time. We see low level structure, but at this point there were no galaxies.
We assume:
Matter (mainly dark matter)
originally filled all of space almost
uniformly
Gravity of denser regions pulled in
surrounding matter
This picture shows the positions of
galaxies in the universe.
Why do galaxies themselves differ?

Remember that the composition of gas in these galaxies would NOT contain any metals.
Denser regions contracted, forming protogalactic clouds.
H and He gases in these clouds formed the first stars.
These stars would have been more massive than present stars due to their different composition
(which we cannot achieve)
Supernova explosions from first stars kept much of the gas from forming stars.
Enriched the formation of new stars with metals
Leftover gas settled into a spinning disk.
Spin: The initial angular momentum of the protogalactic cloud is thought to determine the size of the resulting
disc
Density: Elliptical galaxies could have come from very dense protogalactic clouds that were able to cool and form
stars before gas settled into a disc.
This is because once a star forms it is able to keep its orbit, whereas gas would keep collapsing
Collisions: It has been observed that galaxies at great distances look violent disturbed, most likely due to
collisions.
Milky Way
Star formation occurs at high redshift (early galaxies) in high mass galaxies in dense environments. At low
redshift (closer to present) these dense environments have little star formation activity.
Formation
The Milky Way is a typical spiral galaxy. It has evolved (as most spirals) in moderately over dense regions, but
not dense clusters.
not dense clusters.

Gravity caused tiny irregularities in dark matter distribution to grow including the one that now
surrounds the Milky Way (the roughly spherical halo of mass ~10^12 solar masses) and a multitude of sub
halos all the way down to the mass of Earth.
Inside the halo was a thin haze of primordial hydrogen and helium gas pulled along by the dark matters
gravity.
After a few hundred million years, this gas cooled enough to start forming stars
Contracting mass spun faster and flattened into a thin disk where gravitational interactions caused
the density waves that formed spiral arms
The larger dark-matter sub-halos would have pulled in enough gas to form stars and become dwarf
galaxies.
Formation of galaxy continued with gas and dwarf galaxies swirling inwards towards an accumulating
mass of gas and stars at the dark-matter halo's centre:
The Milky Way should have thousands of dwarf galaxies in orbit around it but observers have found only ~20.
Possibly extremely faint because they are dominated by dark matter
Continued star formation

Since the milky way turns gas into stars at a few solar masses per year, it should have used up all the available
gas
Matter cycles back and forth between stars and interstellar gas
They may be an outside reservoir: a halo of hot ionised hydrogen gas
Dark Matter
In Individual Galaxies
1. We expect orbital velocities of stars to reach a peak then decrease.
(as they do in the solar system)
Spiral Galaxies
tend to have flat
rotation curves;
indicate large
amounts of dark
matter
Rotation curve
comes from red
and blue shift.
The visible portion of a

galaxy lies deep in the
heart of a large halo of
dark matter. The
luminosity tells us how
many stars there are,
and using information
from the 21 cm H we
can determine velocity
to get a rotation curve.
2. In elliptical galaxies, the broadening of spectral lines tells us how fast the stars are orbiting (due to
Doppler shift). More broadening means broader lines. This high velocity is also explained by dark matter
In clusters of Galaxies
1. Orbits of galaxies in clusters: found that galaxies have much greater masses than their luminosity would
suggest
2. Clusters contain large amounts of X-Ray emitting hot gas which fills the space between galaxies. The
temperature of hot gas tells us the cluster mass.
85% dark matter
13% hot gas
2% stars
3. Can also be seen through gravitational lensing. The bending of light rays by gravity can also be used to
determine a cluster's mass. This method is important as it uses a different method to using newton's law of
gravitation
To get the amount of gravitational lensing
observed, more mass is required than can be
To get the amount of gravitational lensing

observed, more mass is required than can be
observed.
Once again this can only be explained by dark
matter.
Evidence
All three methods (velocities, hot gas and lensing) indicate similar amounts of dark matter.
Thus either:
1. Dark matter really exists and we are observing the effects of its gravitational attraction
2. Or something is wrong with our understanding of gravity, causing us to mistakenly infer the existence of
dark matter
Types of Dark Matter (candidates)
Baryonic Matter (normal matter) - Things like brown dwarfs or planets etc. Could make up some of the
dark matter- collectively called massive compact halo objects (MACHOs).
Weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPS, the common view)- More exotic particles like axions
Lecture 24: Active Galactic Nuclei

28 October 2013
14:07

describe the observed properties of quasars and the evidence that they lie at great distances
describe the observed properties of radio galaxies and Types I & II Seyfert galaxies
describe the unified model of active galaxies and explain how it explains their observed
properties
Active Galactic Nuclei

If the centre of a galaxy is unusually bright, we call it an active galactic nucleus. The brightest AGN are known as
quasars.
Something brighter than can be

explained by stars alone.
Every wavelength is emitted
Often have jets coming out from
the centre
Quasars- Quasi Stellar Objects

Things which look like a star, but are not
Quasi Stellar Objects are extremely distant (highly red shifted) but luminous examples of Active Galactic
Nuclei
Composite Quasar Spectrum: Formed by taking all quasar spectrum and adding together
The difference between Quasars and Normal Galaxies

Much brighter (and especially so in blue/ultraviolet light)
Their optical brightness often varies quite rapidly
The clear signal we receive energy comes from a region smaller than the solar system
Their optical spectrum is dominated by lines from ionised gas (not stars, since the galaxy is far below the
Their optical spectrum is dominated by lines from ionised gas (not stars, since the galaxy is far below the
bright light)
Radiate over a wide range of
wavelengths, indicating they
contain matter with a wide
range of temperatures
Brightness and distance imply luminosities that can be greater than 10 12 Lsun
Galaxies around quasars often show evidence of mergers/interactions
Quasars were more common at previous

times but not anymore.
(This is thought to be because the merger
rate was higher in the pass, thus boosting the
accretion rate on to the black hole.)
Examples of Optical SpectraWhere most AGN show

emission lines. Sometimes
emission lines are narrow and
some are broad. Broad lines
means gas that is moving at high
velocity, these are the ones that
vary.
Broad lines hold the clues about

what is going on in AGN
Radio Galaxies
Radio galaxies were observed to be objects which emit unusually strong radio waves. (from pairs of radio
Radio galaxies were observed to be objects which emit unusually strong radio waves. (from pairs of radio
lobes). Quasars and radio galaxies are thought to be the same object viewed in different ways.
AGN shoots out jets of high energy particles directed by a twisting magnetic field. These strike the intergalactic medium to create the radio emitting lobes. Now these lobes give off radio waves
The radio waves are coming from relativistic electrons moving at near light speed (synchrotron emission)
These jets are thought to come

from the twisting of a magnetic
field in the inner part of the
accretion disk.
Radio Lobes
Trails of plasma can be radio imaged. Emissions from jets pointing towards us are enhanced compared to the jet
moving in the other direction.
This can reveal many things such as how AGN can shoot out blobs of plasma moving at nearly the speed of light (it
can appear as super luminal motion) Material in the jet is 'chasing' the light it emits.
Seyfert Galaxies
Have active galactic nuclei which are less powerful
Variability ~50% over a few months
Probably what a Quasar looks like in its old age (much less luminous)
Properties and Explanation of AGN
We must explain how Quasars

can produce so much luminosity,
and this can only be explained by
a supermassive black hole.
The power source

Accretion of gas onto a supermassive black hole appears to be the only way to explain all the properties of AGN.
The gravitational potential energy of matter falling into a black hole turns into kinetic energy.
Friction in the accretion disk turns kinetic energy into thermal energy (heat).
Heat produces thermal radiation (photons).
Radio galaxies don't appear as quasars because dusty gas clouds block our view of the accretion disk.
Black holes in galaxies
Remember that many nearby galaxies (perhaps all) have supermassive black holes in their centres- measured by the
orbital speed and distance of gas orbiting them. These black holes may seem to be dormant active galactic nuclei.
orbital speed and distance of gas orbiting them. These black holes may seem to be dormant active galactic nuclei.
All galaxies may have passed through a quasar-like stage earlier in time
The mass of a galaxys central black hole is closely related to the mass of its bulge - implying that the
development of a central black hole must somehow be related to galaxy evolution.
The unified model for AGN

Some galaxies appear to
have broad and some
have narrow emission
lines. (hence two types)
The broad lines are
always there but
sometimes they are
obscured by slowly
moving gas. (when you
are looking through the
donut)
This is confirmed by
using infrared to look
through dust
The unified model helps explain the properties of AGN by viewing angles. The black hole will create an accretion disk
and jets of material will be streamed out from this black hole at high velocities. However these broad emission lines
will only be seen at a certain angle, and when seen in the plane they are obscured by slower moving gas.
Lecture 25: The Big Bang

Tuesday, 29 October 2013
6:57 PM
describe the assumptions of cosmology
describe and explain Olbers' paradox
describe and explain the primordial background radiation in the context of the big bang theory
explain how the abundances of elements supports the big bang theory
identify the main stages in the history of the universe according to standard big-bang theory of
cosmology, including recombination
Assumptions in Cosmology
The Location Principle: It unlikely that we occupy a special place in the universe.
Universality: that all the laws of physics are the same everywhere in the universe
The Cosmological principle: Considering the largest scales in the universe, we make the following
fundamental properties
Homogeneity: On the largest scales, the universe has the same physical properties everywhere
Isotropy: On the largest scales, the local universe looks the same in any direction that one observes
The Anthropic Principle

Talks about how the universe is fine-tuned to our existence.
Fine tuning of gravity
Smoothness of big bang
Masses of sub atomic particles
Strength of the strong nuclear force
Magnitude of the cosmological constant
Olber's Paradox
Why is the sky dark at night?
If the universe is infinite then every line of sight should end on the surface of a star at some point. (the night should
be as bright as the surface of stars)
Therefore this implies there is only a finite number of stars/galaxies that have light which had time to travel to us,
because the universe began at a particular moment.
Cosmology and General Relativity

Relates mass energy and space time. The curvature of space-time, in turn, is determined by the distribution of mass
and energy in the universe.
and energy in the universe.
General relativity predicts different possible histories of the universe: Cosmology studies which model we
live in
i.e. Negative curvature- infinite space
Flat models - infinite space
Positive Curvature- finite space
Evidence for the Big Bang

1. The Expansion of the Universe
Initially the two theories to explain were this were the big bang or steady state theory. The steady state
theory stated that space is expanding but new atoms are being created in these gaps. This theory advocated
an infinitely old universe that continued to grow.
On a large scale galaxies are moving apart with velocity proportional to distance
Space itself is expanding, carrying galaxies along (galaxies themselves are not expanding)
The more distant objects we observe, the further back into the past we are looking
2. The cosmic microwave background

The radiation from the very early phase of the universe is detectable today as the Cosmic Microwave
Background.
This is the arrival of photons arriving at Earth from the end of the era of nuclei. It was at this point (380,000
years) that neutral atoms could remain stable and free electrons would not block photons.
This is a perfect thermal radiation spectrum which has been shifted into the microwave region
This essentially ruled out the steady state theory, however it brought the problem of uniformity which will be
explained by the inflation theory next
3. The abundance of light elements

The observed number of light elements such as deuterium matches the predicted amounts
During the era of nucleosynthesis protons and neutrons were constantly being converted. However as the
temperature cooled down, the more favourable neutron to proton reaction was favoured. Thus there would
be more protons (7:1) which should lead to a 75% hydrogen 25% helium ratio; and this is what is observed.
Heavier elements were not produced because by the time stable helium nuclei formed, there was not enough
energy for more fusion
History of the Universe
History of the Universe
The Epoch of Recombination

The Epoch of Recombination (dotted vertical line) is the time that after which photons could travel freely through
space. This is because protons and electrons recombine to form atoms. The wavelength of photons will be
stretched by cosmic expansion.
The Epoch of Reionisation
The formation of the first stars.
These stars will emit photons whichh ionise surrounding hydrogen (and it becomes more transparent)
The fate of the universe

The expansion of the universe should be slowed down the mutual attraction of the galaxies.
The fate of the universe should depend on the matter density in the universe.
Thus there is effort to find the mass of the universe since we know the critical density which is just enough to
slow the cosmic expansion to a halt at infinity.
If our density is more

that the critical density,
the universe will
expand forever. If it
equals the density then
the universe will be flat.
If it's less than the
critical density, the
universe will collapse
Lecture 26: Cosmology and the Early Universe

Thursday, 14 November 2013
12:11 PM

explain how inflation theory resolves some of the outstanding issues that cannot be explained by the
original big bang theory
Text Sections: 23. 4
describe the evidence for acceleration of the universe
describe the accepted (concordance) model of the universe
Cosmic Microwave Background Measurements

Has an imprint of the physics of the early universe and an imprint of what is going to happen after
If the universe was flat the CMB would have fluctuations about 1 degree across
And if it was open fluctuations would be less than one degree across
These Observations led to evidence for a 'flat' geometry universe (as opposed to open or closed)
Long duration balloon experiment in the South Pole showed angular scale which agreed with what was
predicted for a flat universe.
This creates problems for a simple Big Bang
1. The Flatness Problem
The universe could have been any way it wanted to, why would it be flat? i.e. Why is the density of the
universe so close to the critical density
2. The isotropy of Cosmic Background Radiation
Why is Cosmic Background Radiation so uniform, if it travels through the universe at the speed of light;
then the structure should not be correlated over large angular scales
3. Structure
Where does structure come from? The Big Bang must have somehow produced slight density
enhancements, but how did they exist when the universe was 380,000 years old
Inflation (the most like explanation)

A period of sudden expansion during
the very early evolution of the universe.
Triggered by the sudden energy
released from the decoupling of the
strong and electroweak forces.
The GUT is the Grand Unified Theory
where all the forces were together
How does inflation explain our observations?

Inflation is essentially able to explain
the uniformity . For example two
Inflation is essentially able to explain

the uniformity . For example two
objects close to each before inflation
would be spread apart after inflation,
so they would be able to on opposite
sides in space but still have the same
characteristics.
It is also able to explain structure by inflation increasing the wavelength of quantum fluctuations, called
quantum ripples. This would cause density enhancements which would explain the structure of the
universe (density enhancements without inflation are too small)
It is also able to explain the flatness of the universe because the enormous expansion would have
flattened any curvature that the universe may have previously had
Dark Matter (another factor)
Is dark matter some kind of normal matter? However the density of baryonic matter is only 4% of the critical
density and thus most dark matter must be non baryonic.
However even with dark matter observations show that the total density of matter is only about 25% of
the critical density
The Accelerating Flat Universe

By observing type I supernovae astronomers measured the Hubble relation at large distance.
They expected that they would measure a deceleration of the universe, but they measured an increase.
This is explained by the existence of dark energy.
Dark Energy
Dark energy can curve space time in the same way as dark matter. Calculations show that the amount of dark
energy required for acceleration of the universe is very similar to the amount needed for the observed flat
universe.
This dark energy Is thought to exert a repulsive force that causes the expansion of the universe to
accelerate with time
Revision Lecture
14 November 2013
14:08
Unified model of the active galactic nucleus

-> Viewing angles on AGN
Spectral lines are dependent on temperature
Don't need to remember specific details like names of stars. Should know names of moons of
jupiter+ saturn.
Lectures Page 74
Special Lecture 1: Constellations, Stars and Celestial

Sphere
05 August 2013
12:44
Special Lecture 1
Chapter 2 Discovering the Universe for Yourself
Text Sections: 2.1
explain the significance of the constellations
describe how the sky moves from different parts of the Earth
Distances in the Sky

Measured in degrees, arc minutes and arc seconds
Constellations
Constellations are random patterns of stars, usually with no physical association between
them
Represent mythological figures but are now well-defined patches of sky.
Star names
Typically only the brightest stars are named (Arab names) but can have many names in
different cataogues
I.e. Betelguese is called Ori.
Magnitudes
Apparent magnitudes: A 1st magnitude star is 100x brighter than a 6th magnitude star.
Difference of 5 magnitudes means factor 100 brighter
therefore 1 magnitude is 2.512
Special Lectures Page 75
Motion of the Sky

The Earth is turning and thus the Sky appears to moving around the South celestial pole
Special Lecture 2: Coordinates and Eclipses

06 August 2013
13:16
Special Lecture 2
Chapter S1 Celestial Timekeeping and Navigation
Text Sections: S1.1 and S1.2
Explain the concepts of days, months and years
Describe celestial coordinate systems
Chapter 2 Discovering the Universe for Yourself
describe the origin and significance of precession
explain the origin of the seasons
explain the phases of the moon
describe and explain lunar and solar eclipses
describe the annual motion of the sun and planets
Chapter 4 Making Sense of the Universe
Text Sections: 4.5
explain the origin of lunar tides
Coordinate Systems
Altazimuth coordinate system
Specifies a position as seen from a particular location and time
Equatorial coordinate grid
Fixed relative to the stars

Lines of Declination (horizontal)
Lines of right ascension (vertical)
The ecliptic crosses the celestial equator at the Vernal equinox (Sun spends 12 hours above
the horizon)
Movement of Earth around Sun
As the Earth moves, the Sun appears to move against the background of stars. This traces out
a path around the celestial sphere called the ecliptic
During Summer Solstice, Sunlight is spread over less area. Thus it is hotter as there is more
energy per square meter. It is also when the Sun appears directly overhead
Procession
Over a 26,000 period the Earth wobbles around and tilts its axis (changes completely every
13,000 years); called procession
The moon
Phases of the moon
The moon is tidally locked to the earth. So the same point is always pointing towards the
earth.
It rotates once, in the same time that it orbits the Earth
Tides
Gravitational force of the moon on the Earth varies on either side of the Earth. This causes a
tidal force, 'stretching' the Earth and explaining High Tide (like a rubber band)
Low Tides occurs at the places in between the tidal bulge
Tidal bulges are slightly tilted in the direction of the Earth's rotation
Lunar Eclipses
When the Earth moves in front of the moon
Solar Eclipse
The shadow of the Earth on sun. Since the moon is moving further away this will not happen in the
distant future
Special Lecture 3: Telescopes

Sunday, 17 November 2013
1:21 PM
Special Lecture 3
Chapter 5 Light and Matter
Text Sections: 5.2
describe light as part of the electromagnetic spectrum

identify that the wavelength of light determines the colour we see
define photon and identify that light also behaves as a particle
Chapter 6 Telescopes: Portals of Discovery
describe in general terms the principles behind the operation of a telescope

describe the effect of the Earth's atmosphere on incoming radiation of different wavelengths
Telescopes
Most telescopes at many wavelengths are basically similar
Important factors are:
Configuration- Lens, mirror, paraboloids, prime focus, casse grain, grazing incidence
Surface materials- glass, metal sheet, chicken wire
Surface accuracy- 'diffraction limited' optics that are too small for a large wavelength will be unable to
observe them. Needs to be correct down to 1/8th of the wavelength
The bigger the mirror the smaller the diffraction pattern is
Radio telescopes such as the park telescope do not have to have as accurate a surface as a visible light
telescope
Magnification is not very important
Collecting area- light gathering power (sensitivity)
Sensitivity
Is effected by
Atmospheric transmission- must choose wavelength
Collecting area
Collecting area
System throughput- energy lost in the system, such as through an inefficient mirror
Detector quantum efficiency
Observing time
Background - e.g. scattered light. As well as natural sources, man-made pollution is a major problem for
astronomy. At optical wavelengths for example.
Resolution
We need to overcome the diffraction problem
The bigger the angle, the smaller the diffraction effect
In practice, this is limited (for optical, IR) by seeing - practical limit is 0.3 ~ 1.0 arcsec.
At visible light wavelengths the earth's atmosphere will blur the image
At radio wavelengths, telescope size is the limiting factor.
We can improve resolution
Using:
Adaptive and Active Optics-which sharpen up the image
And Interferometry- which combines telescopes working together to create a larger base diameter

Solar System Lecture Series

Cargado por

Información del documento

Descripción original:

Título original

Derechos de autor

Formatos disponibles

Compartir este documento

Compartir o incrustar documentos

Opciones para compartir

¿Le pareció útil este documento?

¿Este contenido es inapropiado?

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Solar System Lecture Series

Cargado por

Copyright:

Formatos disponibles

Lecture 2: Solar System

All the planets go around the Sun in the same direction

Beyond the planets

The Solar System Page 1

Kepler's Three Laws

(d) is not a satellite.

The terrestrial planets

The Jovian Planets

The Solar System Page 3

Lecture 3: How to form a Solar System

Characteristics of a Solar system which must be explained

Making a solar system

Formation of the planets

Temperatures in different parts of the disk restrict what

The Solar System Page 4

Formation of the planets

Temperatures in different parts of the disk restrict what

8. Accretion of dust grains forms planetesimals km across.

The Solar System Page 5

Lecture 4: Terrestrial (Rocky) Planets

Chapter 9 Planetary Geology: Earth and the other Terrestrial Worlds

describe the process of differentiation

The Earth (Direct observation)

Dark grey basalts on the surface

Summary and Trends

Mean Density: Earth>Venus>Mercury>Moon>Mars

Mercury and moon have virtually no atmosphere

The Solar System Page 8

Molecular Oxygen is a product of life

The Solar System Page 9

Lecture 5: Giant Planets

Chapter 11 Jovian Planet Systems

Jupiter (Gas Giant)

Saturn (Gas Giant)

Uranus (Ice Giant)

Small featureless blue-green disk

Neptune (Ice Giant)

Extremely blue- partly explained by methane absorbing photons

The Solar System Page 10

The Solar System Page 11

Jupiter: enormous field and magnetosphere

The Solar System Page 12

describe the surfaces and compositions of the Galilean satellites in particular

Inner planets form moons

Jupiter: The Galilean moons

planet rotation) elliptical

Tidal locking to Jupiter.

Saturn: Icy Moons

The Solar System Page 15

Lecture 7: Asteroids, KBOs and Comets

Meteors and Meteorites

Easiest to find on pristine uniform background; Antarctica etc.

Kuiper Belt Objects

The Solar System Page 16

Largest known trans-Neptunian objects

The Oort Cloud and Comets

The Solar System Page 17

The Solar System Page 18

Lecture 8: Review on Planets

The Solar System Page 19

identify the evidence for the existence of other planetary systems

How do we detect Exoplanets?