Res Sim Glossary

Glossary of Terms
CONTENTS
1
GLOSSARY OF COMMON TERMS AND

CONCEPTS IN RESERVOIR SIMULATION
AND FLOW THROUGH POROUS MEDIA
1.1
Some General Definitions
1.2
Reservoir Fluid Properties
1.3
Single Phase Rock Properties
1.4
Multi-Phase Rock/Fluid Properties
1.5
Wettability and Fluid Displacement
Processes
1.6
Oil Recovery Methods, Waterflood Patterns
and Sweep Efficiency
1.7
Terms Used in Numerical Reservoir
Simulation
1.8
Numerical Solution of the Flow Equations
in Reservoir Simulation
1.9
Pseudo-Isation and Upscaling
1.10 Numerical Simulation of Flow in Fractured
Systems
1.11 Miscellaneous - Vertical Equilibrium,
Miscible Displacement and Dispersion
Glossary of Terms
1 GLOSSARY OF COMMON TERMS AND CONCEPTS IN

RESERVOIR SIMULATION AND FLOW THROUGH POROUS
MEDIA
1.1 Some General Definitions
Oilfield Units volumes in oilfield units are barrels (bbl or B);
1 bbl = 5.615 ft3 or 0.159 m3.
A stock tank barrel (STB) is the same volume defined at some surface standard
conditions (in the stock tank) which are usually 60oF and 14.7 psi.
A reservoir barrel (RB) is the same volume defined at reservoir conditions which can
range from ~ 90oF and 1500 psi for shallow reservoirs to > 350oF and 15,000 psi for
very deep (high temperature - high pressure, HTHP) reservoirs
Oil Types: Dry gas; Wet gas; Gas Condensate; Volatile oil; Black oil; Heavy
(viscous) oil; Tar - see Table below.
2500
o
eP
in t
De
w
C1
l
bb 80%
Bu
Po
i
B2
D
2000
40%
20%
1500
u
Liq
m
olu
dV
10%
5%
A2
A1
0%
B3
of Pr
oducti
on
B1
1000
Figure 1
Pressure Temperature
Phase Diagram of a
Reservoir Fluid
Critical
Point
Single Phase
Gas Reservoirs
A
Path of Reservoir Fluid
nt
Reservoir Pressure, PSIA
3000
Tc
= 127 F
3500
Dew Point
or
Retrograde
Gas-Condensate
Reservoirs
Path
Bubble Point
or
Dissolved Gas
Reservoirs
Cricondentherm = 250 F
4000
500
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
Reservoir Temperature, F
Institute of Petroleum Engineering, Heriot-Watt University
Reservoir
Fluid
Surface
Appearance
GOR
Range
API
Gravity
Typical Composition, Mole %
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6+
Dry gas
Colourless gas
Almost no liquids
100
Wet gas
Colourless gas -
>100 Mscf/bbl
some clear or
straw-coloured
liquid
60o -70o
96
2.7
0.3
0.5
0.1
0.4
Condensate
Colourless gas significant amounts

of light coloured
liquid
3-100
Mscf/bbl
(900-18000 m3/m3)
50o-70o
87
4.4
2.3
1.7
0.8
3.8
3000
scf/bbl
3 3
(500 m /m )
40o-50o
64
7.5
4.7
4.1
3.0
16.7
Volatile or
Brown liquid high shrinkage various yellow, red,
oil
or green hues
Black or
low shrinkage
oil
Dark brown
to black viscous
liquid
100- 2500
scf/bbl
(20 - 450 m3/m3)
30 -40
49
2.8
1.9
1.6
1.2
43.5
Heavy oil
Black viscous liquid
Almost no gas
in solution
10o-25o
20
3.0
2.0
2.0
12.0
71
Tar
Black substance
No gas
viscosity >
10,000cp
< 10o
90+
Component
Black Oil
Volatile Oil
Gas-Condensate
Dry Gas
Gas
C1
C2
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7+
48.83
2.75
1.93
1.60
1.15
1.59
42.15
64.36
7.52
4.74
4.12
2.97
1.38
14.91
87.07
4.39
2.29
1.74
0.83
0.60
3.80
95.85
2.67
0.34
0.52
0.08
0.12
0.42
86.67
7.77
2.95
1.73
0.88
....
....
100.00
225
625
34.3
Greenish
Black
100.00
181.00
2000
50.1
Medium
Orange
100.00
112
18,200
60.8
Light
Straw
100.00
157
105,000
54.7
Water
White
100.00
....
Inf.
....
Mol. Wt. C7+

GOR, SCF/bbl
Tank gravity,
0
API Liquid
color
1.2 Reservoir Fluid Properties

Phase: A chemically homogeneous region of fluid which is separated from another
phase by an interface e.g. oleic (oil) phase, aqueous phase (mainly water), gas
phase, solid phase (rock). There is no particular symbol but frequently subscripted
o, w, g; phases are immiscible.
Table 1
Describing various oil types
from dry gas to tar.
Table 2
Mole Composition and
Other Properties of Typical
Single-Phase Reservoir
Fluids.
Glossary of Terms
Component: A single chemical species that may be present in a phase; e.g. in the
aqueous phase there are many components - water (H2O), sodium chloride (NaCl),
dissolved oxygen (O2) etc.; in the oil phase there can be hundreds of components hydrocarbons based on C1, C2, C3, etc.
Viscosity: The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the (frictional) energy dissipated
when it is in motion resisting an applied shearing force; dimensions [force/area.time]
and units are Pa.s (SI) or poise (metric). The most common unit in oilfield
applications is centiPoise (cP or cp). Typical example are:- water viscosity at
standard conditions, w ~ 1 cP; typical light North Sea oils have o ~ 0.3 0.6 cP at reservoir conditions (T ~ 200oF ; P ~ 4000 - 6000 psi); at reservoir
conditions, medium viscosity oils have o ~ 1 - 6 cP; moderately viscous oils
have o ~ 6 - 50 cP; very viscous oils may have o ~ 50 - 1000s cP and tars
may have o ~ up to 10000 cP.
Formation Volume Factor: The factor describing the ratio of volume of a phase
(e.g. oil, water) in the formation (i.e. reservoir at high temperature and pressure)
to that at the surface; symbols Bw, Bo etc. For oil, a typical range for Bo is ~1.1
- 1.3 since, at reservoir conditions, it often contains large amounts of dissolved gas
which is released at surface as the pressure drops and the oil shrinks; oilfield units
[reservoir barrels/stock tank barrel (RB/STB)].
Gas Solubility Factors (or Solution Gas/Oil Ratios): These factors describe the
volume of gas (usually in standard cubic feet, SCF) per volume of oil (usually stock
tank barrel, STB); symbol, Rso and Rsw; units SCF/STB.
Compressibility: The compressibility (c) of a fluid (oil, gas, water) or rock
formation can be defined in terms of the volume (V) change or density ()
change with pressure as follows:
c =
1 V 1
=
V P P
Note that this quantity is normally expressed in units of psi-1.

Typical ranges of compressibilities are presented below (from Craft & Hawkins
(Terry revision), 1991):
Compressibilities (units of 10-6 psi-1)
Formation rock
Water
Undersaturated Oil
Gas at 1000psi
Gas at 5000psi
3
2
5
900
50
10
4
100
1300
200
Compressibilities are used in reservoir engineering for Material Balance

Calculations.
Material Balance Equations: Material Balance applied to a reservoir is simply a

volumetric balance. It may be expressed as an equation which relates:
The quantities of oil, gas and water produced.
The reservoir (average) pressure.
The quantity of water influx (e.g. from the aquifer).
The initial oil and gas content of the reservoir.
Essentially the material balance equations described how the energy of expansion
and influx drive production in the reservoir. If there is a sufficiently low (or zero)
fluid influx, the reservoir pressure will decline. One form of the Material Balance
Equation is given below where each term on the left-hand side described a mechanism
of fluid production (from Craft & Hawkins (Terry revision), 1991):
N .( Bt Bti ) +
c .S + c f
N .m. Bti
.( Bg Bgi ) + (1 + m). N . Bti . w wi
Bgi
1 Swi
.p + We
= N p . Bt + ( Rp Rsoi ). Bg + Bw .Wp
Where the terms have the following meaning:
N = initial reservoir oil, STB;
Np = cumulative produced oil, STB
Boi = initial oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bgi = initial gas formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bg = gas formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Bw = water formation volume factor, bbl/STB
Rsoi = initial solution gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
Rp = cumulative produced gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
Rso = solution gas-oil ratio, SCF/STB
We = water influx into the reservoir, bbl
Wp = cumulative produced water, bbl
cw = water isothermal compressibility, psi-1
crock = formation isothermal compressibility, psi p = change in average reservoir pressure, psi
Swi = initial water saturation
m = (Initial hydrocarbon vol. of gas cap)/(Initial hydrocarbon vol. of oil)
In practice the material balance equation is often applied in the linear form of
Havlena and Odeh (J. Pet. Tech., pp896-900, Aug. 1963; ibid, pp815-822, July 1964);
see discussion in Craft & Hawkins (Terry revision, 1991).
In the above formulation of the Material Balance Equation, the various terms
have the following interpretation.
Glossary of Terms
Left-Hand Side of the Material Balance Equation
The following terms account for the expansion of any oil and/or gas zones
that may be present in the reservoir:
N .(Bt Bti ) +
N.m.Bti
.(Bg Bgi )
Bgi
The following term accounts for the change in void space volume which is
the expansion of the formation and the connate water:
c .S + c f
(1 + m). N . Bti . w wi
1 Swi
.p
The next term is the amount of water influx that has occurred into the
reservoir:
We
Right-Hand Side of the Material Balance Equation
The first term of the RHS represents the production of oil and gas:
= N p . Bt + ( Rp Rsoi ). Bg
The second term of the RHS represents the production of water:

Bw.Wp
1.3 Single Phase Rock Properties
Permeability: The conducting capacity of a rock; symbol k ; units Darcy (D) or

milliDarcy (mD); dimensions -> [L]2. Permeability can be anisotropic and show
tensor properties (see below) - denoted k . Probably the most important quantity
from the point of view of the reservoir engineer since its distribution dictates
connectivity and fluid flow in a reservoir. Timmerman (p. 83, Vol. 1, Practical
Reservoir Engineering, 1982) presents the rule:
Classification
poor to fair
moderate
good
very good
excellent
Permeability Range (mD)

1
- 15
15 - 50
50 - 250
250 - 1000
> 1000
Porosity: the fraction of a rock that is pore space; common symbol, Porosity varies
from 0.25 for a fairly permeable rock down to 0.1 for a very low permeability
rock; there may be an approximate correlation between k and .
Pores & pore throats: The tiny connected passages that exist in permeable rocks;
typically of size 1m to 200 m; easily visible in s.e.m. (scanning electron microscopy).
Pores may be lined by diagenetic minerals e.g. clays. The narrower constrictions
between pore bodies are referred to as Pore Throats. See Figure 2:
illite
illite
quartz
quartz
10mm
~1mm
Figure 2
k/ Correlations:
It has been found in many systems that there is a relationship
between permeability, k, and porosity, . This is not always the case and much scatter
can be seen in a k/ crossplot. Broadly, higher permeability rocks have a higher
porosity and some of the relationships reported in the literature are shown below.
Some examples of k/ correlations which have appeared in the literature are shown
in figure 3:
100.0
50.0
Core Permeabilty (md)
10.0
5.0
1.0
0.5
0.1
0.05
0.01
6
10,000
1,000
md)
10
12
14
16
Core Porosity (%)
18
20
22
Figure 3
Permeability/Porosity
Correlation for Cores from
the Bradford Sandstone
0.1
0.05
Glossary of Terms
0.01
8
10
12
14
16
Core Porosity (%)
18
20
22
10,000
Core Permeabilty (md)
1,000
100
10
Figure 4
Permeability/Porosity
Correlation for Cores from
the Brent Field
1
0
10
20
30
Core Porosity (%)
Darcys Law: Originally a law for single phase flow that relates the total volumetric
flow rate (Q) of a fluid through a porous medium to the pressure gradient (P/x) and
the properties of the fluid ( = viscosity) and the porous medium (k = permeability;
A = cross-sectional area); can be used to define permeability:
k.A P
Q =

x
Darcy Velocity: This is the velocity, u, calculated as, u = Q/A; this may be
expressed as,
u=
k P
Q
=
A
x
Pore Velocity: This is the fluid velocity, v, given by,
v=
Q
u
=
A.
Q
L
Q = .
Figure 5
Schematic of the Single
Phase Darcy Law
k.A P
.
L
Permeability Anisotropy: Since permeability can be directional, then it is possible

for kx ky kz in a given system. This is often seen in practice when comparing the
horizontal permeability, (kh), with the vertical permeability, (kv) - usually as the ratio,
(kv/kh). It is often found (kv/kh) < 1, i.e. there is more resistance to vertical flow than
horizontal flow. The value of (kv/kh) must be evaluated with respect to the scale of
the sample or system. The value of this quantity will be different in a core plug or
in a large simulator grid block in which the core plug was a small part. The origin
of the anisotropy may be quite different in each case.
At the small (core plug) scale, anisotropy may come from fabric anisotropy at
the grain level or from lamination at the slightly larger scale (laminaset scale).
At the larger scale (grid block), the anisotropy may arise from larger scale
heterogeneity, even though locally the component rock facies are completely
isotropic. This is illustrated in figure 6.
Core Plug
Small Scale
Fabric Anistropy
kh
kv
Hi k lamina
Rock Grains
Lo k lamina
Lamination
Grid Block Scale (100's m)

kv
kh
For Whole System
Heterogeneity
Anisotropy
Low Perm Lenses
or Shales
(kv/kh) = 1
High Perm Sand

(kv/kh) = 1
1.4 Multi-Phase Rock/Fluid Properties
Saturation: The saturation of a phase (oil, water, gas) is the fraction of the pore
space that it occupies (not of the total rock + pore space volume); symbol Sw, So
10
Figure 6
Permeability anistropy at
different scales
Glossary of Terms
and Sg ; it is a fraction, where Sw + So + Sg = 1. Multi-phase flow functions such

as relative permeability and capillary pressure (see below) depend strongly on the
local fluid saturations.
Residual Saturation: The residual saturation of a phase is the amount of that phase
(fraction pore space) that is trapped or is irreducible; e.g. after many pore volumes of
water displace oil from a rock, we reach residual oil saturation, Sor; the corresponding
connate (irreducible) water level is Swc (or Swi); the related trapped gas saturation is
Srg; at the residual or trapped phase saturation the corresponding relative permeability
(see below) of that phase is zero. Strictly, we should refer to the phases in terms of
wetting and non-wetting phases - the residual phase of non-wetting phase is trapped
in the pores by capillary forces. Typically, in a moderately water wet sandstone, Sor
~ 0.2 - 0.35. The amount of trapped or residual phase depends on the permeability
and wettability of the rock and a large amount of industry data is available on this
matter: For example, the relationship for k vs. Swc (or Swi) is shown for a range of
reservoir formations, figure 7.
10,000
5,000
Air Permeability (mD)
1,000
3
500
12
13
100
10
50
11
10
11A
5
4
1.0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90 100
% Connate water
Figure 7
Correlation between (air)
permeability and the
connate water (Swc) for a
range of reservoir rocks
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Hawkins
Magnolia
Washington
Elk Basin
Tangely
Creole
Synthetic Alundum
Lake St John
10 =
11 =
11A =
12 =
13 =
Louisiana Gulf Coast

Miocene Age-Well A
Ditto-Wells Band C
North Belridge California
North Belridge California
Core Analysis Data
Dominguez Second Zone
Ohio Sandstone
Relative Permeability: A quantity (fraction) that describes the amount of

impairment to flow of one phase on another. It is defined in the two phase Darcy
law (see notes); depends on the Saturation of the phase; e.g. in two phase flow ->
krw and kro depend on Sw (since Sw + So = 1).
Capillary Pressure: The difference in pressure between two (immiscible) phases;
defined as the non wetting phase pressure minus the wetting phase pressure; depends
11
on the saturation - for two phases capillary pressure, Pc(Sw) = Po- Pw (for a water wet
porous medium). The following figures show schematic figures for Capillary Pressure
(Pc(Sw)) and Relative Permeability (krw(Sw) and kro(Sw)) for a water wet system:
Capillary Pressure
Swc
Relative Permeability
Sor
Swc
Pc
Sor
krel
kro
krw
Sw
Sw
Figure 8
Schematics of capillary
pressure and relative
permeability for a water-wet
system
A schematic of the Two Phase Darcy Law showing the definition of Relative
Permeability is presented in figure 9.
At steady-state flow conditions, the oil and water flow rates in and out, Qo
and QwAt
, are
the same:
steady-state
flow conditions, the oil and water flow rates in and out, Qo and Qw
are the same
Po
Qw
Qo
Pw
Qw
Qo
The two-phase Darcy Law is as follows:

k.k rw .A . Pw
Qw =
w L
k.k ro .A . Po
Qo =
o L
Scematic of relative permeability,

krw and kro
1
kro
Rel.
Perm.
0
krw
Sw
The two-phase Darcy Law is as follows:

Where:
Qw and Qo = volumetric flow rates of water and oil

Where:
= cross-sectional area
A
Qw and QoL = Volumetric
flow rates of water and oil;
= system length
A
=
Cross-sectional
w and o
= system lengtharea;
k
= absolute
permeabilities
L
= System
length;
Pw and Po = the pressure drops across the water and oil phases at
w and o
= Watersteady-state
and oil viscosities;
flow conditions
k
= kro Absolute
permeabilities;
krw and
= the water
and oil relative permeabilities
Pw and Po = The pressure drops across the water and oil phases at
NB the Units for the
two-phase Darcy
are exactly the same as those in Figure 2
steady-state
flowLaw
conditions
krw and kro
= The water and oil relative permeabilities
12
Figure 9
The two-phase Darcy Law
and relative permeability
Glossary of Terms
NB the Units for the two-phase Darcy Law are exactly the same as those in Figure
2 chapter 2.
Mobility and Mobility Ratio: the mobility of a phase (e.g. w or o) is defined as
the effective permeability of that phase (e.g. kw = k . krw ; ko = k . kro) divided by the
viscosity of that phase;
k.k rw
k.k ro
w =
; o =
w
o
Mobility ratio, M, is given by:
M=
o k ro . w
=
w k rw . o
Fractional Flow: The Fractional Flow of a phase is the volumetric flow rate
of the phase under a given pressure gradient, in the presence of another phase.
The symbols for water and oil fractional flow are fw and fo and they depend
on the phase saturation, Sw:
fw =
Qw
Q
; fo = o ; where Q T = Q o + Q w
QT
QT
The fractional flows play a central part in Buckley-Leverett (B-L) theory of linear
displacement which starts from the conservation equation:
Sw
f
= w ;
t
x
So
f
= o
t
x
Buckley-Leverett Theory: This mathematical theory of viscous dominated

water oil displacement is based on the fact that the velocity, vSw, of a fixed
saturation value Sw is given by:
f
vSw = v. w
Sw
where v is the fluid velocity, v = Q/(A) and (dfw/dSw) is the slope of the fractional
flow curve. The relationship between the fractional flow and Buckley Leverett theory
is illustrated in Figure 10.
13
Fractional Flow
Welge Tangent
Fractional
Flow
of Water,
"Buckley-Leverett" Saturation Profile
Sor
fw
Sw
Flood Front
Height
Sor
Swf
Swc
Length, (x/L)
Swc
Swf
Water Saturation, Sw
1.5 Wettability and Fluid Displacement Processes
Wettability: This is a measure of the preference of the rock surface to wetted by a

particular phase - aqueous or oleic or some mixed or intermediate combination. The
Wettability of a porous medium determines the form of the relative permeabilities
and capillary pressure curves; a very complex subject which is still the subject of
much research. We refer to: Water wet, Oil wet and Intermediate wet systems in the
following definitions.
Water-Wet: Water-wet formation: Where water is the preferential wetting phase.
Water occupies the smaller pores and forms a film over all of the rock surface - even
in the pores containing oil. A Waterflood in such a system would be an imbibition
process (see below). Water would spontaneously imbibe (see below) into a core
containing mobile oil at Sor, displacing the oil.
Oil-Wet: Oil wet formation: Where oil is the preferential wetting phase. Oil
occupies the smaller pores and forms a film over all of the rock surface - even in
the pores containing water. A Waterflood in such a system would be a drainage
process (see below). Oil would spontaneously imbibe into a core containing mobile
water at Swr, displacing the water.
Intermediate-Wet: An Intermediate wet formation is where some degree of water
wetness and oil wetness is shown by the same rock. Some different types of
intermediately wet system have been identified known as Mixed wet and Fractionally
wet. Both water and oil may spontaneously imbibe (see below) into such a
system to some degree and indeed this forms the basis for certain Wettability
Tests known as the Amott Test and the USBM Test (USBM => United States
Bureau of Mines).
Drainage: A Drainage displacement process is when the non-wetting phase
is increasing. For example, in a water wet porous medium, drainage would be
oil displacing water. The drainage and imbibition capillary pressure curves and
relative permeabilities are different since these petrophysical functions depend
on the saturation history.
14
Figure 10
Relationship between the
fractional flow function and
the Buckley-Leverett front
height
Glossary of Terms
Qo
Qo
Oil Injection
Water Wet Core

at 100% Water
Oil Injection
Water Wet Core
Qo
at 100% Water
Figure 11
Drainage.
Imbibition: An Imbibition displacement process is when the wetting phase is

increasing. For example,
in a water Water
wet porous
medium, drainage would be water
Oil Injection
Wet Core
displacing oil. The drainage and imbibition
at 100%capillary
Water pressure curves and relative
permeabilities are different since these petrophysical functions depend on the
saturation history. Q
w
Water Wet Core

at sor
Water Wet Core
Water Injection
at sor
Qw
Water Injection
Q
w
Figure 12
Imbibtion.
Water Injection
Water Wet Core
Spontaneous Imbibition: This process occurs

at sorwhen a wetting phase invades a porous
medium in the absence of any external driving force. The wetting fluid is sucked
in under the influence of the surface forces. For example, if we have a water wet
core at irreducible water saturation, Swr, then water may spontaneously imbibe and
displace the oil.
Oil
Examples: Showing Spontaneous Imbibition and the observed behaviour in a

Oil
system of
Intermediate
Wettability.
Core
at s
wc
Core at swc
Core at swc
Oil
Water
Water
Figure 13
Spontaneous Imbibition.
Figure 14
Intermediate wettability.
Both water and oil may
spontaneously imbibe into
the core displacing the other
phase. Shows both water wet
and oil wet character.
Water
Water imbibes into

core displacing
Water imbibes
oil-water
wet or into
core displacing
intermediate
wet
oil-water wet or
system
intermediate
wet
Water
imbibes
into
system
core
displacing
oil-water wet or
intermediate wet
system
Core at swc
Core at sor
Oil
Water
Primary and Secondary Recovery Processes: Primary and Secondary processes

refer to the stage in the fluid displacement when one phase displaces another. For
example, in a water wet porous medium (--> means displaces) :
Drainage and Imbibition Drainage (d) and Imbibition (i)
Capillary Pressure
Relative Permeabilities
Swc
Sor
15
Core at swc
Core at sor
Oil
Primary drainage: is oil --> water from a core at 100% water saturation to Swr.
Secondary imbibition: is water --> oil
from a core at Swr and mobile oil to Sor.
Water
Examples: The figures 15 and 16 show schematics of typical Drainage and Imbibition
capillary pressure (Pc) and relative permeability (krw and kro) curves for a water wet
system. Primary Drainage (oil --> water from core at 100% water) and Secondary
Imbibition (water --> oil from core at Swr) processes are illustrated:
Drainage and Imbibition
Capillary Pressure
Drainage (d) and Imbibition (i)

Swc
Sor
krel
Pc
Drainage
kro
Imbibition
krw
Sw
Sw
Figure 15
Relative Permeability, %
100
80
60
Drainage
40
Imbibition
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Wetting Phase Saturation, %PV
Examples: Further examples of experimental capillary pressures and relative

permeabilities in cores are shown for various processes (Drainage and Imbibition)
and wettability conditions (Water wet and Intermediate wet) in figure 17,18,19
and 20 on the following pages.
16
Figure 16
Drainage and imbibition
relative permeability
characteristics
Glossary of Terms
80
80
60
60
OilOil
Figure 17
Typical water-oil relative
permeability characteristics,
strongly water-wet rock
Relative
Relative
Permeability,
Permeability,
Fraction
Fraction
100
100
40
40
20
20
0
00
0
Water
Water
20
40
60
80
20Water 40
60 %PV
80
Saturation,
Water Saturation, %PV
100
100
1.0
1.0
0.01
0.01
WaWtearter
Relative
Relative
Permeability,
Permeability,
Fraction
Fraction
il il
O O
Figure 18
strongly water-wet rock
0.1
0.1
0.001
0.001
0.0001
0.0001 0
0
20
40
60
80
20 Saturation,
40
60 %PV
80
Water
100
100
80
60
Wa
te
Oil
Figure 19
strongly oil-wet rock
Relative Permeability, Fraction
100
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
1.0
il
O
100
17
r
Wa
te
Relative Permeabilit
Oil
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
1.0
100
Wate
r
il
0.1
0.01
0.001
Figure 20
0.0001
20
40
60
80
100
Examples: Experimental Capillary Pressures in cores for various processes (Drainage

and Imbibition) and wettability conditions (Water wet, Oil Wet and Intermediate
Wet). Figure 21.
18

strongly oil-wet rock
Glossary of Terms
Water Wet
Venango core VL-2
k = 28.2 md
Capillary Pressure - Cm of Hg
40
32
24
16
2
8
0
0
20
40
60
80
Water Saturation - %
40
Capillary Pressure Characteristics,

Strongly Water-Wet Rock.
Curve 1 - Drainage
Curve 2 - Imbibition
24
16
20
32
16
24
8
4
0
20
40
60
80
100
Drainage Capillary Pressure Characteristics,

(After Ref. 30)
20
40
60
80 100
Oil Saturation - %
Oil-Water Capillary Pressure Characteristics,

Ten-Sleep Sandstone, Oil-Wet Rock
(After Ref. 29).
Curve 1 - Drainage
Curve 2 - Imbibition
32
0
0
100
12
Oil Wet
48
48
Intermediate Wet
16
1
8
0
-8
-16
-24
20
40
60
80
100
Oil-Water Capillary Pressure Characteristics,

Intermediate Wettability.
Curve 1 - Drainage
Curve 2 - Spontaneous Imbibition
Curve 3 Forced Imbibition
Figure 21
19
Examples: Relative Permeabilitites

Examples of experimental relative permeabilities in cores for Water Wet and Oil
Wet systems. Figure 22.
100
40
20
0
Water
20
40
60
80
60
40
20
0
100
Typical Water-Oil Relative Permeability

Characteristics,
Strongly Water-Wet Rock
Wa
te
60
80
Oil
80
Oil
100
20
40
60
80
100

Characteristics,
Strongly Oil-Wet Rock
1.0
1.0
O
il
0.001
0.0001
0.01
0.001
0.0001
20
40
60
80
100

Characteristics,
Strongly Water-Wet Rock
20
0.1
Wate
r
0.01
Water
il
O
0.1
20
40
60
80
100

Characteristics,
Strongly Oil-Wet Rock
Figure 22
Glossary of Terms
EXAMPLES: Relative Permeabilitites

Summary of the characteristics of Water Wet and Oil Wet systems.
WATER WET
Swc
OIL WET
mostly > 20%
Sw where
krw = kro
(Point A on figure 23)
krw at Sor
< 15% (Often < 10%)
Sw > 50%
Sw < 50%
krw < 0.3
krw > 0.5 (approaching 1)
This is shown schematically in the following figures (see figure 23):

100
100
Water-Wet
Reservoir
80
Oil-Wet
Reservoir
80
Relative Permeability,
% of Air Permeability
Oil
60
40
40
20
Figure 23
Influence of wettability on
relative permeability (after
Fertl, OGJ, 22 May 1978)
Oil
60
Swi
20
r
Wate
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %
20
Swi
Wa
100
20
te
40
60
80
Water Saturation, %
In Water-Wet System
Sw mostly > 20%
In Oil-Wet System
Sw < 15%
At Point A: kro = krw ; Sw > 50%

krw at Sor / kro at Swi < 30%
At Point A: kro = krw ; Sw < 50%

krw at Sor / kro at Swi > 50%
100
1.6 Oil Recovery Methods, Waterflood Patterns and Sweep Efficiency

Here we refer to the method used to develop the reservoir as follows:
Primary Depletion - allowing the reservoir to produce under the original

reservoir energy i.e. by natural expansion. If the pressure falls below the bubble
point (Pb), then gas appears and the primary depletion process is known as solution
gas drive;
Secondary Recovery - where reservoir pressure is supported by injection usually of water in waterflooding but early gas injection may be considered
also as secondary recovery In addition to supporting the pressure (maintaining
reservoir energy), water or gas injection also displaces oil directly;
Tertiary Recovery or Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) or Improved

Oil Recovery (IOR) - this refers to a range of methods which are designed to
recover additional oil that would not be recovered by either Primary or Secondary
Recovery.
21
Such methods include:

Thermal Methods
Gas Injection
Chemical Methods
Microbial Methods
- steam, in-situ combustion,..

- N2, CO2, hydrocarbon gas injection (usually after a waterflood)
- surfactant, polymer, alkali,..
- using bugs to recover oil !
Waterflood Pattern: On-land Waterflooding is often carried out with the producers
and injectors in a particular pattern. This is known as pattern flooding and examples
of such patterns are: Five Spot, Nine Spot, Line Drive etc.. as shown schematically
in the figure 24
.
Injection Well
Production Well
Pattern Boundary
Two-Spot
Regular Four-Spot
Five-Spot
Three-Spot
Normal Nine-Spot
Skewed Four-Spot
Seven-Spot
Direct Line Drive
Inverted Nine-Spot
Inverted Seven-Spot
Staggered Line Drive
Areal Sweep Efficiency: The Areal Sweep Efficiency refers to the fraction of
areal reservoir that is swept at a given pore volume throughput of displacing fluid.
For example, the Areal Sweep Efficiency at Breakthrough for various processes
(Waterflooding, Gas Displacement and Miscible flooding) is shown as a function of
mobility ratio in the figure 26:
22
Figure 24
Examples of areal patterns
of injectors and producers
(pattern flooding)
Glossary of Terms
Injector (I)
Injector (I)
Injector (I)
Figure 25
Schematic of areal sweep
efficiency
Injector (I)
High Areal Sweep Producer (P)
Poor Areal Sweep Producer (P)
Poor Areal Sweep Producer (P)
High Areal Sweep Producer (P)
Breakthrough Areal Sweep

Efficiency, %
100
Figure 26
Areal sweep efficiency at
breakthrough in a five spot
pattern for various
displacement processes
Breakthrough Areal Sweep

Efficiency, %
100
90
80
90
80
70
70
60
50
0.1
60
50
0.1
WaterOil
GasOil
Miscible
1.0
Mobility Ratio
1.0
10.0
10.0
Mobility Ratio
WaterOil The Vertical Sweep Efficiency refers to the fraction of
Vertical Sweep Efficiency:
vertical section (orGasOil
cross-section) of reservoir that is swept at a given pore volume
Miscible
throughput of displacing fluid. This is function of the heterogeneity of the system
(e.g. stratification), the fluid displacement process (e.g. waterflooding, gas injection)
and the balance of forces (e.g. importance of gravity). Figure 27.
23
P
I
Good Vertical Sweep
Poor Vertical Sweep

(By gravity over-ride or the presence
of a high-k streak in this case)
1.7 Terms Used in Numerical Reservoir Simulation

Black Oil Model: Different types of formulation of the transport equations for
multiphase/multicomponent flow are used to simulate the various recovery processes;
by far the most common is the Black Oil Model which can simulate primary
depletion and most secondary recovery processes. A black oil simulation model is
one of the most common approaches to modelling three phase (o, w, g) flow in porous
media; it treats the phases rather like components; it does not model full compositional
effects; instead, it allows the gas to dissolve in the other two phases (described by
Rso and Rsw); however, no oil is allowed to enter the gas phase.
Grid Structure: This refers to the geometry of the grid being used in the numerical
simulation of the system. This grid may be Cartesian, radial or distorted and may be
1D, 2D or 3D (see notes).
24
Figure 27
Schematic showing vertical
sweep efficiency
Glossary of Terms
Producer
Water Injector
Figure 28
A 3D Cartesian grid for
reservoir simulation
z
(Variable)
2D Areal Grid: This is a 2D grid structure which is imposed looking down onto
the reservoir. For a Cartesian system, it would divide up the x and y directions in
the reservoir into increments of x and y.
y
W1
W2
W3
Figure 29
Perspective view of a 2D
areal (x/y) reservoir
simulation grid: W = well.
x
y
Just 1 x z-block in 2D Areal Grid
2D Cross-Sectional Model: This is a 2D grid structure which is imposed on a

vertical slice down through the reservoir. For a Cartesian system, it would divide up
the x and z directions in the reservoir into increments of x and z. Cross-sectional
calculations are carried out to asses the effects of vertical stratification in the system
and to generate pseudo-function for upscaling. (Figure 30)
25
Injector
Producer
Figure 30
Transmissibility: The transmissibility between two grid blocks is a measure of how

easily fluids flow between them. The mathematical expression for two phase flow
between grid blocks i and (i+1) is (for water):
(i+1/2) Boundary
Block i
Sw i
Block i+1
Qw
krw i (kA)i
Sw i+1
krw i+1 (kA) i+1
Figure 31
k
(P Pi )
Q w = ( kA )i +1/ 2 rw
. i +1
x
w Bw i +1/ 2
where the inter-grid block quantities are averages at the interfaces. The single phase
Transmissibility, Ti+1/2 , is given by:
Ti +1/ 2 =
( kA)i +1/ 2
x
and the full Water Transmissibility, Tw,i+1/2, between the two grid blocks is given
by:
Tw, i +1/ 2 =
( kA)i +1/ 2 k rw
x
k
= Ti +1/ 2 . rw
w Bw i +1/ 2
w Bw i +1/ 2
Therefore, we may write:
Qw = Tw, i +1/ 2 ( Pi +1 Pi )
The water transmissibility is clearly made up of two parts each of which is an
average between the blocks. The single phase part is (k.A)av and the two phase part
is [krw/(w.Bw)]av
26
Glossary of Terms
(k.A)av - a Harmonic Average between blocks is taken for the single phase part of
the transmissibility.
[krw/(w.Bw)]av - this term is more complicated. For the average relative permeability
term, [krw]av an Upstream Weighting is used; For [(w.Bw)]av the Arithmetic Average
between blocks is taken. (See notes on this topic)
Spatial Discretisation: This is the process of dividing the grid in space into divisions
of x, y and z. In reservoir simulation, we always chop up the reservoir into
blocks as shown in the gridded examples above and then we model the block
block flows.
Temporal Discretisation: This is the process of dividing up the time steps into
divisions of t.
Numerical Dispersion: The spreading of a flood front in a displacement process
such as waterflooding, which is due to numerical effects, is known as Numerical
Dispersion. It is due to both the spatial (x) and time (t) discretisation or truncation
error that arises from the gridding. This spreading of flood fronts tends to lead to
early breakthrough and other errors in recovery. How bad the error is depends
on several factors including the actual fluid recovery process being simulated e.g.
waterflooding, water-alternating-gas (WAG) etc.
Grid Orientation: The Grid Orientation problem arises when we have fluid flow both
oriented with the principal grid direction and diagonally across this grid. Numerical
results are different for each of the fluid paths through the grid structure. This
problem arises mainly due to the use of 5-point difference schemes (in 2D) in the
Spatial Discretisation. It may be alleviated by using more sophisticated numerical
schemes such as 9-point schemes (in 2D). Figure 32.
Figure 32
Flow arrows show the fluid
paths in oriented grid and
diagonal flow leading to
grid orientation errors
I = Injector
P = Producer
Mass Conservation: This is a general principle which is used in many areas of

computational fluid dynamics. It says that:
(mass flow rate into a block) - (mass flow rate out)
= (the rate of mass accumulation in that block)
27
A reservoir simulation model (for 1, 2 or 3 phases) is basically: A mass conservation

equation combined with Darcys law.
Local Grid Refinement: Local Grid Refinement is when the simulation grid is
made fine in a region of the reservoir where (LGR) quantities (such as pressure or
saturations) are changing rapidly. The idea is to increase the accuracy of the simulation
in the region where it matters, rather than everywhere in the reservoir. E.g. LGR ==>
close to wells or a in a flood pilot area but coarser grid in the aquifer.
Hybrid Grid LGR: Hybrid Grids are mixed geometry combinations of grids which
are used to improve the modelling of flows in different regions. The most common
use of hybrid grids are Cartesian/Radial combinations where the radial grid is used
near a well. Hybrid Grid LGR can be used in a similar way to other LGR scheme.
Examples: A simple example of LGR and Hybrid Grid structure is shown in figure
33.
Injector
Producer
Coarse Grid
in Aquifer
Hybrid Grid
Distorted Grids: A Distorted Grid is a grid structure that is bent to more closely
follow the flow lines or the system geometry in a particular case.
Corner Point Geometry: In some simulators (e.g. Eclipse), the option exists to
enter the geometry of the vertices of the grid blocks. This allows the user to define
complex geometries which better match the system shape. This option is known as
Corner Point Geometry and it requires that the block block transmissibilities are
modified accordingly.
The idea of Corner Point Geometry is illustrated schematically in figure 34:
28
Figure 33
Schematic of local grid
refinement (LGR).
Glossary of Terms
Corner Point Geometry

Coordinates of
Vertices ( ) Specified
Block ( ) centres
Highly Distorted Grid Blocks
Block <-> Block

Transmissibilty
Fault
L1
L2
L3
L1
L2
L3
L4
L4
Figure 34
Grid structures for Faults
and Distorted Grids
Distorted Grid
29
1 Extented Refinement
2 Imbedded Refinement (Rectangular)
3 Variable Refinement (Radial)
4 Hybrid (Radial in Rectangular) Local Grid Refinement

Around Vertical Wells
5 Hybrid Local Grid Refinement (Horizontal Wells)
Figure 35
Types of local Grids
30
Glossary of Terms
(a)
1.0
3600
3400
0.8
Final Match
Pressure (psi)
3000
Watercut
0.6
0.4
5
7
Time, Days x 10
2600
2400
2200
0
6 7
Year
9 10 11 12
(b)
Observed Data
1
2800
2000
First Trial
0.2
0.0
0
Calculated
Field Data
3200
3600
11
3400
Calculated
Field Data
3200
Pressure (psi)
3000
Initial and Final Matches of WOR of a Well in a

Highly Stratified Reservoir
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
0
6 7
Year
9 10 11 12
(c)
3600
3400
Calculated
Field Data
3200
Pressure (psi)
3000
2800
2600
2400
2200
2000
0
Figure 36
6 7
Year
9 10 11 12
Final Pressure Matches of Typical Khursaniyah Field Wells:

(a) Reservoir AB
(b) Reservoir C
(c) Reservoir D (MP)
History Matching: History Matching in numerical simulation is the process of

adjusting the simulator input in such a way as to achieve a better fit to the actual
reservoir performance. Ideally, the changes in the simulation model should most
closely reflect change in the knowledge of the field geology e.g. the permeability
of a high perm streak, the presence of sealing faults etc. The observables which
are commonly matched are the field and individual well cumulative productions,
watercuts and pressures.
Examples: Examples of history matching of pressure and water-oil-ratio (WOR)
in two reservoirs are Figure 36. Note that in the WOR match the first pass was
very inaccurate but that eventually a suitable match was found. A vitally important
point is that a good history match must be obtained for the right reason. It may be
possible to get a satisfactory match for the wrong reason i.e. by adjusting a variable
that is not the primary cause of the mis-match (indeed, this is very often the case).
However, such a model will eventually have very poor predictive properties.
1.8 Numerical Solution of the Flow Equations in Reservoir Simulation

Finite Differences: When the derivative in a differential equation is approximated
as a difference equation as follows:
31
S (Si Si 1 )

x i
x
then this is referred to as a Finite Difference approximation. In this example, which
is illustrated below, (S/x)i is the derivative of Saturation (S) with respect to x at grid
point i ; Si and Si-1 are the discrete values of S at grid points i and i-1, respectively;
x is the size of the spatial grid.
Si-1
Slope = s
x
S(x,t)
Si
Si+1
x
x ....
i-1
i+1
Figure 37
Linear Equations: When finite difference methods are applied to the differential
equations of reservoir simulation, a set of linear equations results. These have the
form:
A. x = b
where A is a matrix of coefficients, x is the vector of unknowns and b is the (known)
right hand side. Expanded up, this set of linear equations has the form:
a11 x1
a21 x1
a31 x1
a41 x1
+
+
+
+
a12 x2
a22 x2
a32 x2
a42 x2
+
+
+
+
a13 x3 ....
a23 x3 ....
a33 x3 ....
a43 x3 ....
............
an1 x1 + an2 x2 + an3 x3 ....
+ a1n xn =
+ a2n xn =
+ a3n xn =
+ a4n xn =
b1
b2
b3
b4
+ ann xn = bn
Direct Solution Of Linear Equations: A Direct Solution method is when the linear
equations are solved by an algorithm which has a fixed number of operations (given
N, the number of linear equations [unknowns]). If the equations have a solution,
then, in principle, a direct method will give the exact answer, x(true), to the machine
accuracy. E.g. Gaussian Elimination
Iterative Solution Of Linear Equations: An Iterative Solution method is when the
linear equations are solved by an algorithm which has a variable number of operations.
A first estimate of the solution vector x(0) is made and this is successively refined to
converge to the true solution. In a convergent iterative method, then x(v) x(true) as
v . It is because of this iterative process that a variable number of steps may
be required depending on how accurate the answer must be. Normally, the iterative
32
Glossary of Terms
method would be carried out until:

| x(v) - x(true)| < Tol.
where Tol. is some small pre-specified tolerance. E.g. Line Successive Over-relaxation
(LSOR)
Grid Ordering Schemes: When the simulation grid blocks are ordered in various
ways, the structure of the non-zeros in the sparse matrix, A, is different. Advantage
can be taken of the precise structure when solving these equations. E.g. Schemes
known as D2 and D4 ordering.
Fine Grid Layered Model

High Sw
Low Sw
Oil
Upscaling or Pseudo-Isation
Coarse Grid Layered Model
Fine Grid
Coarse Grid
% OOIP
Oil Recovery
Figure 38
Basic idea of upscaling
Time
1.9 Pseudo-Isation and Upscaling
Upscaling: The process of reproducing the results of a calculation which is carried out
on a fine grid on a coarser grid is known as Upscaling. The basic idea of upscaling
33
is shown schematically in the figures on the following pages. The input properties at
the coarser scale must take into account the flow effects of the smaller scale structure.
These coarser scale properties then become pseudo-properties.
Pseudo-Property: This refers to the value of a property or function (e.g. permeability,
relative permeability..) which is an average or effective value at a certain scale usually the grid block scale. For example, we might put the value kx = 150 mD in a
simulator grid block which is 200 ft x 200 ft x 30 ft; clearly, this incorporates a large
amount of geological substructure and permeability may vary very significantly in
different parts of this block.
Pseudo-Relative Permeability: This is probably the most important pseudo-property
that is used in reservoir simulation. It refers to the effective relative permeability in
the simulation model at the grid block scale. It must incorporate the effects of all the
smaller scale geological heterogeneity, the balance of forces (viscous/capillary/gravity)
and certain numerical effects (numerical dispersion). Methods for calculating the
Pseudo-rel perm include: Jacks et al, Kyte and Berry, Stone etc. Newer methods are
based on tensor pseudo-relative permeabilities (Pickup and Sorbie, 1994).
Geopseudos: When the fluid flow upscaling is performed in the correct context of
the sedimentary structure up from the lamina, laminaset, bedform.. scales, then the
approach is known as the Geopseudo Methodology. This has been developed in
work at Heriot-Watt which has extended more conventional approaches by putting
in the geology.
Examples: The above concepts are illustrated schematically on the following pages.
The next page shows an example of a cross-sectional grid used in the generation of
dynamic pseudofunctions in the field. A schematic of the Geopseudo approach as it
has been applied to the Rannoch facies (North Sea) is also shown on the following
pages.
34
Glossary of Terms
Fine Grid Layered Model

High Sw
"Rock"
krel
Low Sw
Sw
Oil
Upscaling or Pseudo-Isation
Pseudo-Relative
Permeabilities
krel
Sw
Coarse Grid Layered Model
Fine Grid
Coarse Grid
% OOIP
Oil Recovery
Figure 39
Basic idea of upscaling or
pseudo-isation
Time
Water Flow
Rel Perms.
Sor
Sw
Swc
No Water Flow
Sor
Figure 40
A simple example of a
pseudo relative permeability
krw
kro
Sw
Rel Perms.
kro
Sw
krw
Swc
Sw
35
A simple example of a pseudo relative permeability (figure 40) showing holdup of

fluid. How could we adjust the relative permeability to stop the apparently mobile
water from leaving the grid block ?
1.10 Numerical Simulation of Flow in Fractured Systems
Fractured System: In this context, we imply systems (such as in many carbonate

reservoirs) where small scale conductive fractures occur but most of the oil is in the
rock matrix. In certain non-porous fractured rock reservoirs (e.g. fractured volcanics),
it is possible to have all the oil in the fractures but these are less common.
Typically, in porous fractured systems: fracture porosity, f = 0.1 - 1% of bulk
volume
Features of Fracture Geometry: The main geometric features of fractures which
are thought to affect fluid flow are the: Fracture Orientation, Width, Conductivity,
Connectivity and Spacing. The interface between the fracture and the matrix will also
play a very important role in multiphase flow and fluid displacement processes.
Transfer Function: The function which describes the oil flow rate between the matrix
and the fractures is known as the Transfer Function. Approximate analytical equations
for this function have been suggested by Birk, Boxerman and Ahronovsky.
Stylolites: Stylolites are frequently found in limestones. They are laterally extensive
features formed by grain-to-grain sutured contact caused by the phenomenon of
pressure solution. These features may significantly reduce vertical permeability thus
causing systems containing them to have very low (kv/kh) ratios (at certain scales).
Vugs: Vugs are dissolution holes in a carbonate rock caused by diagenetic
reactions.
Dual Porosity Models: These are the most widely used simulation models for
modelling flow in fractured systems. They have separate conservation/flow equations
for the matrix and the fractures and matrix fracture flow is represented by Transfer
Functions. They are most frequently used to model multiphase flow in fractured
carbonates.
Variants of this model allow for; (i) flow only in fractures and (ii) flow in both
fractures and matrix.
Discrete Models of Fracture Systems: A more recent approach to flow in fractured
systems tries to represent the fractures explicitly as oriented planes with various
shapes in 3D. Single phase (tracer) flow models of this type are used to model radionuclide transport in fractured media. However, multi-phase models of this type are
not commercially available at present.
Sudation: When oil is recovered from the matrix blocks in a fracture by a combination
of gravity and capillary forces, the recovery mechanism is referred to as Sudation.
1.11 Miscellaneous-Vertical Equilibrium, Miscible Displacement and
36
Glossary of Terms
Dispersion
Vertical Equilibrium: The concept of Vertical Equilibrium (VE) is quite widely

used in reservoir engineering. It takes several forms, two of which are listed below
(and illustrated schematically in figure 62:
A: the pressure gradients in a particular direction (x, say), P/x, are all equal locally
in a long system.
B: there is virtually instant crossflow vertically - nearly infinite - compared with the
horizontal flow.
This assumption is often made in order to simplify the mathematical analysis of
certain fluid flow problems in reservoir engineering.
Vertical Equilibrium (VE) is known to apply in long thin systems (where x >>
z, below). More accurately, the VE limit is approached as the scaling group, RL
; where:
x k
R L = . z
z k x
1/ 2
and kz and kx are the vertical and horizontal permeabilities, respectively. In practice,
if RL is > 10, then VE is a very good assumption.
A: Equality of Layer Pressure Gradients (Where x >> z)
Layer 1
Layer 2
Layer 3
x
P P P
x
x
x
2
3
1
B: Instantaneous/Infinite Vertical Crossflow
Figure 41
Schematic views of vertical
equilibrium
Miscible Displacement: Whereas oil and water are immiscible fluids (i.e. they do not
mix and are separated by an interface), some fluids are fully Miscible (i.e. they mix
freely in all proportions). When a gas (or other fluid) is injected into an oil reservoir
and the fluids are miscible, this is referred to as a Miscible Displacement. When a
miscible solvent (s) displaces an oil (o), the pressure in each and the local pressure
37
gradients are the same (there is no capillary pressure since there is no interface).
The mixing between the solvent and the oil can occur locally by Dispersion and by
Fingering (see Viscous Fingering in Glossary). The displacement is described by
a generalised Convection-Dispersion Equation where the mixing viscosity, (c) is
a function of the concentration of the solvent, c (or oil). Often, the solvent viscosity
is below that of the oil (i.e. s < o) which tend to cause an instability to develop in
the displacement known as Viscous Fingering.
The Miscible Flow Equations: These comprise of a Pressure Equation and a Transport
Equation. The pressure equation is derived by inserting Darcys Law (with a viscosity
dependent on solvent concentration) into the continuity equation. The transport
equation is a generalised convection-dispersion (or convection-diffusion) equation.
Continuity equation:
.u = 0 (assuming incompressible flow)

Darcy Equation:
u=
k
.P
( c)
where u is the Darcy velocity, c is the miscible solvent concentration and v is the
permeability tensor.
The pressure equation is then given by:
.u = .
.P = q
(c )
or
k
.P = q
.
(c )
where q represent any source/sink terms

The transport equation is the generalised convection-dispersion(diffusion)
equation:
c
= .(D.c) v.c
t
where D is the dispersion tensor and v is the pore velocity ( v =
u
).
Dispersion and Dispersivity: Hydrodynamic dispersion in a porous medium at the

small (core) scale is a frontal spreading or mixing which is due to various flow paths
38
Glossary of Terms
which the fluid can flow along at the pore scale. This mixing is a diffusive process
since the growth of the mixing zone, Lf , tend to vary as t varies. In a tracer core flood
experiment, the Dispersion Coefficient, D, may be measured by fitting the effluent
profile to an analytical solution of the Convection-Dispersion Equation (see figure
42). Units of D (cm2/s - at lab scale).
Dispersive mixing behaviour can also be seen from the mixing effect of
heterogeneities at larger scales in a porous medium. D, has been found to depend
linearly on velocity through the relationship: D = . v; where is the Dispersivity
and has dimensions of length. Dispersion is actually a tensor in rather the same way
that permeability ( v ) in its general form is a tensor.
Dispersive
Mixing Zone
C(x,t1)
Lf
Ce 1
Effluent
Concentration
Ce(1,t)
C
0
Figure 42
Schematic illustration of
dispersion and the
convection-dispersion
equation for simple tracer
flow
1
time (pv)
In situ concentration profile at time, t1; C(x,t1)

2
Described by Convection Dispersion Equation: C = D C2 - V C

x
t
x
C = Dimensionless Concentration (C/Co)
D = Dispersion Coefficient
V= Pore Velocity (Q/A)
Viscous Fingering: When a high mobility (low viscosity) fluid displaces a low
mobility (high viscosity) fluid, a type of instability may develop known as Viscous
Fingering. For such a displacement, the Mobility Ratio (see above) is high and the
process may be observed in either miscible or immiscible displacements, although
it occurs more readily in miscible systems. Results from an experiment are shown
below where the dark fluid is high viscosity and the light fluid is low viscosity.
Clearly, viscous fingering leads to a poorer sweep efficiency in such floods.
Example: Experimental demonstration of Viscous Fingering. (Figure 43).
39
Figure 43
Viscous Fingering
40
Glossary of Terms
41

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Glossary of Terms

GLOSSARY OF COMMON TERMS AND

1 GLOSSARY OF COMMON TERMS AND CONCEPTS IN

Path of Reservoir Fluid

Reservoir Pressure, PSIA

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Typical Composition, Mole %

Colourless gas significant amounts

Black viscous liquid

Mol. Wt. C7+

1.2 Reservoir Fluid Properties

Note that this quantity is normally expressed in units of psi-1.

Compressibilities are used in reservoir engineering for Material Balance

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Material Balance Equations: Material Balance applied to a reservoir is simply a

Left-Hand Side of the Material Balance Equation

The second term of the RHS represents the production of water:

1.3 Single Phase Rock Properties

Permeability: The conducting capacity of a rock; symbol k ; units Darcy (D) or

Permeability Range (mD)

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Core Permeabilty (md)

Core Permeabilty (md)

Core Porosity (%)

Pore Velocity: This is the fluid velocity, v, given by,

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Permeability Anisotropy: Since permeability can be directional, then it is possible

Grid Block Scale (100's m)

For Whole System

High Perm Sand

1.4 Multi-Phase Rock/Fluid Properties

and Sg ; it is a fraction, where Sw + So + Sg = 1. Multi-phase flow functions such

Air Permeability (mD)

Louisiana Gulf Coast

Relative Permeability: A quantity (fraction) that describes the amount of

The two-phase Darcy Law is as follows:

Scematic of relative permeability,

The two-phase Darcy Law is as follows:

Qw and Qo = volumetric flow rates of water and oil

Mobility ratio, M, is given by:

Buckley-Leverett Theory: This mathematical theory of viscous dominated

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"Buckley-Leverett" Saturation Profile

1.5 Wettability and Fluid Displacement Processes

Wettability: This is a measure of the preference of the rock surface to wetted by a

Water Wet Core

Imbibition: An Imbibition displacement process is when the wetting phase is

Water Wet Core

Water Wet Core

Spontaneous Imbibition: This process occurs

Examples: Showing Spontaneous Imbibition and the observed behaviour in a

Water imbibes into

Primary and Secondary Recovery Processes: Primary and Secondary processes

Drainage (d) and Imbibition (i)

Examples: Further examples of experimental capillary pressures and relative

Relative Permeability, Fraction

Relative Permeability, Fraction

Examples: Experimental Capillary Pressures in cores for various processes (Drainage

Typical water-oil relative

Capillary Pressure Characteristics,

Drainage Capillary Pressure Characteristics,

Oil-Water Capillary Pressure Characteristics,

Oil-Water Capillary Pressure Characteristics,

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