Pembekalan Siswa SMA Peserta Olimpiade Kebumian 2008

Tingkat Nasional

Materi:
Magmatisme, Volkanisme dan
Batuan Beku
(Magmatism, Volcanism and Igneous
Rocks)
Dr. Lucas Donny Setijadji
Yogyakarta, 29 Oktober 2008

Structure of Contents:
1. Overview
2. Magmatisme dan volkanisme
3. Batuan beku non-fragmental
4. Batuan beku fragmental

1. Overview

Rocks are made of Minerals

(Minerals in Granite)

ROCK AND MINERAL TYPES

Minerals are chemical compounds, sometimes specified by
crystalline structure as well as by composition, which are found
in rocks
Rocks consist of one or more Minerals, and fall into three main
types depending on their origin and previous processing history:
Igneous rocks are ones which have solidified directly from a
molten state, such as volcanic lava.
Sedimentary rocks are ones which have been remanufactured from previously existing rocks, usually from
the products of chemical weathering or mechanical erosion,
without melting.
Metamorphic rocks are ones which result from processing,
by heat and pressure (but not melting), of previously existing
sedimentary or igneous rocks.

Rock Identification is based on:

Composition
What minerals make
up the rock?

Texture
What is the shape, size
and orientation of the
mineral grains that
make up the rock?
Major Difference:
Crystalline vs. Clastic

Rock Cycle
Deposition

Sediment

Lithification

Transport

Sedimentary Rocks
Erosion
Metamorphism
Weathering

Igneous Rocks

Crystallization

Metamorphic Rocks

Melting

Magma

The Rock Cycle

Interior of the Earth

Proportions of Rock Types on the Earth

igneous & metamorphic rocks = crystalline rocks

2. Magmatisme dan Volkanisme

Schematic
volcanomagma
system

Formation of Igneous Rocks

Divergent and convergent plate margins

Comparison
number of historic
eruptions and
mass of annual
global volcanic
production

Major Plates and Volcanoes

Magma
Magma is molten matter of silicate
composition
Magma is generated by partial melting of
rocks in the Earths mantle or, in much
smaller amounts, in the lower crust

Magma Source: Partial Melting

Hypothetical Solid Rock:
Intermediate Composition
Mineral

Temperature = 500C

Melting
Temp

A (Mafic)

1200C

B (Int)

1000C

C (Felsic)

800C

Magma Source : Partial Melting

Mineral

Intermediate Magma
(All Minerals Melt)

Melting
Temp

A (Mafic)

1200C

B (Int)

1000C

C (Felsic)

800C

Temperature = 1400C

Magma Source : Partial Melting

Mineral

Temperature = 900C

Melting
Temp

A (Mafic)

1200C

B (Int)

1000C

C (Felsic)

800C

Magma

Magma Separates

Felsic

Mineral

Remaining Rock:

More Mafic
Temperature = 900C

Melting
Temp

A (Mafic)

1200C

B (Int)

1000C

C (Felsic)

800C

Magma

Bottom Line on Partial Melting

Partial Melting produces a magma that is

more felsic than the parent rock
Rock
Ultramafic
Mafic
Intermediate
Felsic

Magma from Partial Melting

Mafic
Intermediate
Felsic
(more) Felsic

Composition: Magma Source

Mafic

Intermediate

Felsic

Ultramafic mantle
Source: Partial Melting of ultramafic mantle at
Divergent Zones and

Composition: Magma Source

Mafic

Intermediate

Felsic

Source: Partial Melting of ultramafic mantle at

Divergent Zones and Hot Spots

Composition: Magma Source

Mafic

Intermediate

Felsic

Source: Partial Melting of mantle, ocean crust and continent at

Subduction Zones

Composition: Magma Source

Mafic

Intermediate

Felsic

Source: Partial melting felsic continent above

Hot Spots & Subduction Zones

Extrusive
(Volcanic)
Surface

Magma
Rises
and Cools
Magma
Chamber
Intrusive
(Plutonic)

Why Do Magmas Rise?

Their lower density compared to surrounding

rocks
Because the boundary between mantle and
crust has a density jump from 3.3 to ca. 2.8
gr/cm3, the buoyancy of basaltic magmas is
strongly reduced

Igneous Environments
Extrusive Igneous Rock.
Produced when lava erupts onto the surface.
The lava freezes on exposure to air or water.
Crystal grains lack time for growth and are mostly
invisible.
Intrusive Igneous Rock.
Produced by the crystallization of magma while still
underground.
The magma freezes because of the gradual loss of
heat to the country rock.
Crystal grains have time to grow and are mostly
visible.

Intrusive and Extrusive

Fine
Grained

Coarse
Grained

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

I. PENDAHULUAN

Batuan metamorf merupakan batuan hasil malihan dari

batuan yang telah ada sebelumnya, ditunjukkan dengan
adanya perubahan komposisi mineral, tekstur, dan struktur
batuan yang terjadi pada fase padat (solid state) akibat
adanya perubahan temperatur, tekanan, dan kondisi kimia di
kerak bumi (Ehlers & Blatt, 1982).
Macam metamorfosa (Jackson, 1970) :
1. Metamorfosa isokimia (sistem tertutup); tidak melibatkan
atau hanya sedikit melibatkan perubahan komposisi kimia
batuan.
2. Metamorfosa allokimia (sistem terbuka); melibatkan
perubahan komposisi kimia batuan secara nyata, tipe
metamorfosa ini sering disebut metasomatisme.

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Faktor penyebab terjadinya metamorfosa : perubahan temperatur,
tekanan dan adanya aktifitas kimia fluida atau gas (Huang, 1962).
Perubahan temperatur dapat terjadi karena pemanasan
akibat intrusi magmatik dan perubahan gradien
geothermal.
Tekanan yang menyebabkan terjadinya suatu
metamorfosa bervariasi besarnya.
Fluida aktif yang banyak berperan adalah air,
karbondioksida, asam hidroklorik, dan hidrofluorik;
umumnya bertindak sebagai katalis atau solven serta
bersifat membantu reaksi kimia dan penyetimbangan
mekanis (Huang, 1962).

TABLE 1: FOLIATED (banded) ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Metamorphic
Environment

50-300C

300-450C

Above 450C

Metamorphic
Grade

Low

Intermediate

High

SLATE

SCHIST

GNEISS

Minerals not visible

with the naked eye or
with a hand lens,
rock shows slaty
cleavage, is usually
dark-colored. A
product of low-grade
metamorphism of
shale or mudstone.

Rock is medium to
coarse grained
with visible grains
of mica or other
metamorphic
minerals. Often
shiny due to
reflection of mica
on foliation
planes. Product of
intermediate grade
metamorphism of
shale, slate,
phyllite, basalt or
granite.

Rock is coarse
grained and
usually banded
with alternating
layers of light and
dark minerals.
Foliation bands
may be folded.
Product of high
grade
metamorphism of
shale, schist,
granite or many
other rock types.

Rock Name

Rock
Description

TABLE 2.

NONFOLIATED (not banded) ROCK CLASSIFICATION

Mineral(s)
Description

MARBLE

QUARTZITE

ANTHRACITE
COAL

calcite
Coarse-grained
recrystallized
limestone or
dolomite.
Typically harder
than the
protolith. May
have dark bands
due to organic
impurities.

quartz
Rock has
intergrown
quartz grains,
thus is massive
and hard.
Protolith is
sandstone.
Intermediate to
high grade
metamorphism.

crystalline
carbon
Hard, black shiny
coal; product of
low-grade
metamorphism of
bituminous coal.

METAMORPHISM
AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS
II. TIPE METAMORFOSA

Macam metamorfosa berdasarkan tatanan

geologinya (Bucher & Frey, 1994) :
II.1. Metamorfosa Regional/Metamorfosa
Dinamothermal
Terjadi pada daerah yang sangat luas, dibedakan menjadi :
a. Metamorfosa orogenik
b. Metamorfosa burial
c. Metamorfosa dasar samudera (ocean-floor)

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

II.2. Metamorfosa Lokal

Terjadi pada daerah yang sempit berkisar antara beberapa
meter sampai kilometer saja, dibedakan menjadi :
a. Metamorfosa kontak
b. Pirometamorfosa/metamorfosa optalic/kaustik/thermal
c. Metamorfosa kataklastik/dislokasi/kinematik/dinamik
d. Metamorfosa hidrothermal/metasomatisme
e. Metamorfosa impact
f. Metamorfosa retrograde/diaropteris

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
Alters rocks over a large geographic region.
Appalachians of New England
North Cascades of Washington-British Columbia

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
BURIAL METAMORPHISM
Occurs deep in sedimentary basins.
Requires depths > 10 km
At these depths and greater, lithostatic pressure and
geothermal heat drive metamorphic reactions and
recrystallization.
Does not require a tectonic process.
Does not create mountain belts.
Generally no foliation because no directed pressure.

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
BURIAL METAMORPHISM

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
DYNAMOTHERMAL METAMORPHISM
Affected by pressure (squeezing) and heat (magma).
Occurs when converging plates squeeze rock caught
between the plates.
Crust generally thickens.
Surface rocks get taken deep into the Earth.
Rocks are subjected to high temperatures, lithostatic
pressure and directed pressure.
Rocks become foliated.

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

REGIONAL METAMORPHISM
DYNAMOTHERMAL METAMORPHISM
Produced metamorphic rocks found in the Alps,
Himalaya, and Appalachian Mountains.
Also produced the greatly eroded metamorphic rocks
in the Great Lakes region.
These rocks are exposed by uplift (faulting) and rapid
erosion.
The process doesnt reverse itself.

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

OTHER TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

HYDROTHERMAL METAMORPISM
Chemical alteration of pre-existing rocks by hot water.
Occurs primarily beneath ocean floor near divergent
plate boundaries.
Creates water-rich minerals.
Includes serpentine, talc, and chlorite
In addition, when steam hits ocean water and cools
rapidly, valuable metals such as Cu, Ni, Fe and
Pb are precipitated.

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

OTHER TYPES OF METAMORPHISM

FAULT ZONE METAMORPISM
Produced by rocks grinding past each other at a fault.
Produced by directed pressure and frictional heat.

METAMORPHISM AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS

III. MINERALOGI

Mineral-mineral yang terdapat pada batuan metamorf :

1.
Mineral yang umumnya terdapat pada batuan beku dan metamorf,
ex. kuarsa, feldspar, muskovit,dll.
2.
Mineral yang umumnya terdapat pada batuan sedimen dan
metamorf, ex. mineral-mineral lempung, kalsit, dolomit,dll.
3.
Mineral indeks batuan metamorf, ex. garnet, andalusit, kianit,
silimanit,dll.

Major Metamorphic Rock Types

Temp C

Temp F

Coal

Limestone

Sandstone

Basalt

Shale

Index
Minerals

Slate

Chlorite

Phyllite

Biotite

Schist

Garnet

Lignite
Bituminous

300

500

Anthracite

600

Graphite

Marble

700
800
500

1100
1200

700

Quartzite

900
1000

600

Greenstone

Amphibolite

Staurolite
Gneiss

Kyanite
Sillimanite
Melting
Begins

Major Metamorphic Rock Types

Temp C

Temp F

Coal

Limestone

Sandstone

Basalt

Shale

Index
Minerals

Slate

Chlorite

Phyllite

Biotite

Schist

Garnet

Lignite
Bituminous

300

500

Anthracite

600

Graphite

Marble

700
800
500

1100
1200

700

Quartzite

900
1000

600

Greenstone

Amphibolite

Staurolite
Gneiss

Kyanite
Sillimanite
Melting
Begins

Major Metamorphic Rock Types

Temp C

Temp F

Coal

Limestone

Sandstone

Basalt

Shale

Index
Minerals

Slate

Chlorite

Phyllite

Biotite

Schist

Garnet

Lignite
Bituminous

300

500

Anthracite

600

Graphite

Marble

700
800
500

1100
1200

700

Quartzite

900
1000

600

Greenstone

Amphibolite

Staurolite
Gneiss

Kyanite
Sillimanite
Melting
Begins

Major Metamorphic Rock Types

Temp C

Temp F

Coal

Limestone

Sandstone

Basalt

Shale

Index
Minerals

Slate

Chlorite

Phyllite

Biotite

Schist

Garnet

Lignite
Bituminous

300

500

Anthracite

600

Graphite

Marble

700
800
500

1100
1200

700

Quartzite

900
1000

600

Greenstone

Amphibolite

Staurolite
Gneiss

Kyanite
Sillimanite
Melting
Begins

Major Metamorphic Rock Types

Temp C

Temp F

Coal

Limestone

Sandstone

Basalt

Shale

Index
Minerals

Slate

Chlorite

Phyllite

Biotite

Schist

Garnet

Lignite
Bituminous

300

500

Anthracite

600

Graphite

Marble

700
800
500

1100
1200

700

Quartzite

900
1000

600

Greenstone

Amphibolite

Staurolite
Gneiss

Kyanite
Sillimanite
Melting
Begins

What About Other Rocks?

Polymorphism

Al2SiO5
Andalusite
Kyanite
Sillimanite
Ice - 6 high pressure
forms
Diamond - Graphite

Calcite - Aragonite
Quartz - Tridymite Cristobalite (increasing
temperature)
- Coesite - Stishovite
(increasing pressure)

Metamorphic Facies
Depth\Temp

300C

400C

5 km

Zeolite

Contact Metamorphism - Andalusite forms

10 km - 3 kb

Greenschist
Blueschist Chlorite,
Biotite form
Slate
Greenstone
Quartzite
Marble

Amphibolite
Garnet,
Staurolite,
Kyanite form
Schist
Amphibolite
Quartzite
Marble
Gneiss

Not Found

Eclogite (Mantle)

15 km
20 km - 6 kb
25 km
30 km - 9 kb

500 C

600 C

35 km
40 km - 12 kb

700 C

800 C

Granulite
Sillimanite forms
Muscovite breaks
down to Kfeldspar
Partial Melting
Gneiss

Mantle Rocks

IV. FASIES METAMORFIK

Diperkenalkan oleh Eskola, 1915 (Bucher & Frey,

1994).
Sebuah fasies metamorfik merupakan kelompok
batuan yang termetamorfosa pada kondisi yang sama
yang dicirikan oleh kumpulan mineral yang tetap.
Tiap fasies metamorfik dibatasi oleh tekanan dan
temperatur tertentu serta dicirikan oleh hubungan
teratur antar komposisi kimia dan mineralogi dalam
batuan.

V. STRUKTUR BATUAN METAMORF

V.1. Struktur Foliasi

Terjadi karena adanya penjajaran mineral menjadi lapisanlapisan (gneissosity), orientasi butiran (schistosity), permukaan
belahan planar (cleavage) atau kombinasi dari ketiga hal
tersebut (Jackson, 1970).
a. Slaty cleavage, batuannya disebut slate (batusabak)
b. Phylitic, batuannya disebut phylite (filit)
c. Schistosic, batuannya disebut schist (sekis)
d. Gneissic/Gneissose, batuannya disebut gneis

V.2. Struktur Non Foliasi

Terbentuk oleh mineral-mineral equidimensional
dan umumnya terdiri dari butiran-butiran
(granular).
a.
b.
c.
d.

Hornfelsic/Granulose, batuannya disebut hornfels

(batutanduk).
Cataclastic, batuannya disebut cataclasite
(kataklasit)
Mylonitic, batuannya disebut mylonite (milonit)
Phyllonitic, batuannya phyllonite (filonit)

VI. TEKSTUR BATUAN METAMORF

Tekstur merupakan kenampakan batuan yang berdasarkan

pada ukuran, bentuk dan orientasi butir mineral individual
penyusun batuan metamorf (Jackson, 1970).

Dull - passes "tink test"

Slate

Foliated, shiny due to increased

size of micaceous minerals
(almost see them)

Phyllite

Foliated - medium to
coarse grain

Individual mineral grains

visible. Major mineral(s)
included as name modifiers

Schist

Color banded

Alternating layers of light

(felsic)
and dark (mafic) minerals

Gneiss

Distinct layering often highly folded and

contorted

Alternating layers of felsic

igneous rock (light) and mafic
gneiss (dark)

Migmatite

Soft - passes fizz test

Marble

Hard - fails fizz test

Quartzite

Interlocking hornblende
crystals

Amphibolite

Foliated, very fine

grained-no visible
minerals

METAMORPHIC
ROCKS
Interlocking nonhomogenous
crystalline texture commonly with a
preferred
orientation to the
mineral grains

Non-foliated with nonoriented grains

(ex. Mica Schist)

Metamorphic textures
are either granular or
foliated. Here we examine
only the foliated types.
Foliation - any planar set
of minerals, or banding of
mineral concentrations,
especially the planar
structure that results from
flattening of the mineral
grains, like micas.

Slaty cleavage- a pervasive, parallel foliation (layering) of fine-grained platy

minerals (chlorite) in a direction perpendicular to the direction of maximum
stress. Produces the rocks slate and phyllite.
Scistosity - the layering in a coarse grained, crystalline rock due to the parallel
arrangement of platy mineral grains such as muscovite and biotite. Other
minerals present are typically quartz and feldspar, plus a variety of other
minerals such as garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite.
Mineral Banding (Gneiss) - The layering in a rock in which bands or lenses of
granular minerals (quartz and feldspar) alternate with bands or lenses in which
platy (mica) or elongate (amphibole) minerals predominate.

Slaty Cleavage

A pervasive, parallel foliation (layering) of fine-grained platy minerals (chlorite)

in a direction perpendicular to the direction of maximum stress. Found in the
rocks slate and phyllite.

During the earliest stages of low grade metamorphism, most pressure is from the weight of
overlying rock. Therefore the new sheet structure minerals, such as clay, tend to parallel the
bedding planes of the sedimentary rock being metamorphosed. With folding the sedimentary clay
layering folds with the rock so that the layering still runs parallel with the bedding planes. At this
point the rock is still sedimentary.
With deeper burial or under the influence of compression, metamorphism begins. The
sedimentary clay minerals are converted into the mineral chlorite, that has flat basal cleavage like
a mica. But the chlorite is growing in a stress field that is not always running parallel to the
bedding. In the drawing to the right we can clearly see the bedding, but the parallel lines running
vertically is the slaty cleavage. In the link to slaty cleavage we can see how the cleavage does not
run parallel to the bedding.
Low grade metamorphic rocks are so fine-grained that the new mineral grains are not visible
with the unaided eye. Under a polarizing light microscope, the foliation can be seen. However, the
slaty cleavage produces a very distinct layering in the rock that often runs at an angle to the
bedding. Practically we see this in the rock slate, often used as roof shingles or as paving stones.
The slate easily splits into thin sheets with smooth, flat surfaces.

Schistosity
The layering in a coarse grained,
crystalline rock due to the parallel
arrangement of platy mineral grains such
as muscovite and biotite. Other minerals
present are typically quartz and feldspar,
plus a variety of other minerals such as
garnet, staurolite, kyanite, sillimanite.
At intermediate and high grades of
metamorphism the chlorite breaks down
and recrystallizes to form quartz,
feldspar, and mica. The grain size also
increases and individual mineral grains
can be seen with the unaided eye.
Foliation in coarse grained metamorphic
rocks is called SCHISTOSITY. In a hand
sample the foliation can be easily seen,
and ususally runs planar through the
rock; that is, it all runs the same
direction. In larger specimens, however,
the foliation may be folded. Schistosity is
derived from the Latin schistos meaning
cleaves easily. Schistosity differs from
slaty cleavage in both grain size and
mineral content.

Gneissic Mineral Banding

The layering in a rock in which bands
or lenses of granular minerals
(quartz and feldspar) alternate with
bands or lenses in which platy (mica)
or elongate (amphibole) minerals
predominate.
The most intense form of foliation
is mineral banding. At the highest
grades of metamorphism, minerals
begin to segregate into separate
bands. The micaceous minerals
separate from the quartz and
feldspars.

Migmatite
A rock in which metamorphic textures (schistosity or mineral banding) are intermixed with
igneous textures (coarse grained igneous rocks).

At this stage we are leaving the realm of metamorphism and entering the realm of igneous
rocks. Only the rock has not yet completely melted - it has fractionally melted. Click image
for more explanation.

VII. PENAMAAN DAN KLASIFIKASI

BATUAN METAMORF

Didasarkan pada kenampakan struktur dan teksturnya.

Dipergunakan kata tambahan yang menunjukkan ciri khusus
batuan:
keberadaan mineral pencirinya, ex. sekis klorit.
nama batuan beku yang mempunyai komposisi yang
sama, ex. granite gneiss.
mineral penyusun utamanya, ex. kuarsit.
fasies metamorfiknya, ex. granulit

METAMORPHIC MINERALS
Metamorphic Rocks
Amphibolite
Blueschist
Eclogite
Gneiss
Granulite
Greenschist
Greenstone
Hornfels
Marble - limestone
Marble - dolomite
Migmatite
Phyllite
Quartzite
Schist
Serpentinite
Slate
Soapstone

Special Metamorphic
Minerals
Actinolite
Chlorite
Corundum
Epidote
Garnet
Graphite
Kyanite
Serpentinite
Sillimanite
Staurolite
Talc

Common Metamorphic
Minerals
Quartz
Orthoclase
Plagioclase
Amphibole
Pyroxene
Biotite
Muscovite
Chlorite

Metamorphic Agents and Changes

Temperature: typically the

most important factor in
metamorphism

Figure 1-9. Estimated ranges of

oceanic and continental steadystate geotherms to a depth of
100 km using upper and lower
limits based on heat flows
measured near the surface. After
Sclater et al. (1980), Earth. Rev.
Geophys. Space Sci., 18, 269311.

Metamorphic Agents and Changes

Deviatoric stresses come in three principal types:

Tension
Compression
Shear

Tension: 3 is negative, and the resulting strain is

extension, or pulling apart
strain
original shape

ellipsoid

1
3

Figure 21-2. The three main types of deviatoric stress with an example of possible resulting structures. a. Tension, in which one
stress in negative. Tension fractures may open normal to the extension direction and become filled with mineral precipitates.
Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.

Compression: s1 is dominant, folding or more

homogenous flattening

Figure 21-2. The three main types of deviatoric stress with an example of possible resulting structures. b. Compression, causing
flattening or folding. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.

 Foliation is a common result, which allows us to

estimate the orientation of 1

s1 > s2 = s3 foliation and no lineation

s1 = s2 > s3 lineation and no foliation
s1 > s2 > s3 both foliation and lineation

Figure 21-3. Flattening of a ductile homogeneous sphere (a) containing randomly oriented flat disks or flakes. In (b), the matrix
flows with progressive flattening, and the flakes are rotated toward parallelism normal to the predominant stress. Winter
(2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.

Metamorphic Agents and Changes

Shear motion occurs along planes at an angle to 1

Figure 21-2. The three main types of deviatoric stress with an example of possible resulting structures. b. Shear, causing slip
along parallel planes and rotation. Winter (2001) An Introduction to Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology. Prentice Hall.

INTRODUCTION
Three Rock Types:
Igneous, Sedimentary, Metamorphic rocks
Sedimentary rocks : rocks formed at the surface of the earth under lowtemperature and low-pressure, result from the accumulation and solidification
of sediments, material transported in water, air or ice (Raymond, 1995).
Origin of sedimentary rocks:
- Formation of source rocks/sediment source :
intrusion, metamorphism, volcanism, tectonic uplift
- Weathering :
physical and chemical breakdown of source rocks
- Erosion and Transportation
agent of transportation : water, wind, ice
- Deposition
material is deposited within depositional basins
- Diagenesis
sediment is covered by successive layer of younger sediment; increased
temperature and pressure leading to consolidation and lithification of the
sediment into sedimentary rocks

INTRODUCTION
Sedimentary rocks are characterized by :
-Presence of layers
-Presence of transported grains
-Sedimentary structures
-Fossils

Types of Sedimentary Rocks: (Tucker, 1991)

Siliciclastic (fragmental) : - Conglomerates & breccias
- Sandstones
- Mudrocks
Biogenic, biochemical and organic :
- limestones & dolomites
- cherts
- phosphates
- coal
- oil shale
Chemical
: - evaporites
- ironstones
Volcaniclastic
: (e.g.) ignimbrites, tuffs, hyaloclastites

Sedimentary rocks

Clastic (siliciclastic) rocks (80-85% of the stratigraphic

record)
Carbonate sediments and rocks (10-15% of the
stratigraphic record)
Volcaniclastic sediments and rocks
Others (< 5% of the stratigraphic record) :
- Organic (carbonaceous) sediments and rocks
- Evaporites

SILICICLASTIC SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

Clast (from the Greek klastos, meaning broken) is the technical term for broken
fragment within sedimentary rocks. It is also called as terrigenous grains

Because most terrigenous grains are composed in part of silica, they are
often referred to as siliciclastic grains.
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are composed by clasts that originated from
transportation and deposition of pre-existing rocks within depositional environments.
Mechanism involved in the transportation include the wind, glaciers, river currents,
waves, tidal currents, debris flow and turbidity currents (Tucker, 1991).
Two important features of siliciclastic sediments related to depositional processes
and diagenesis are sedimentary textures and structures.
DESCRIPTION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS (Prothero & Schwab, 2005):
-Color
-Sedimentary textures
-Sedimentary structures
-Composition
-Fossil contents
-Geometry of sedimentary rocks

Basic components of
siliciclastic sedimentary rock are :
-clasts or fragments
-matrix
-cements

Color
-Color usually reflects some aspect of the rocks composition (bulk color can
reflect the color of major mineralogical components)
-Color of rock controlled by color of clast, matrix and cement
-Color is not treated as an independent property, however, but as an aspect
of sedimentary rock composition

Sedimentary textures
Textures refers to the size, morphology, and arrangement
(fabric) of siliciclastic grains that make up a sedimentary
rock.

Grain size
-Grain or siliciclastic particles range in size from clay to
boulder
-The grade scale most widely used by sedimentologist is
the Udden-Wenthworth scale
-The Udden-Wentworth grain-size scale is based on factors
of two: = -log2 d ; where d is grain size in mm
- It extends from <1/256 mm (0.0039) to >256 mm and is
divided into four major size categories (clay, silt, sand, and
gravel) that can be further subdivided

Mud

Udden-Wenthworth
grain-size scale for
sediments and the
equivalent phi scale

Grain size parameters : mean, sorting, skewness, kurtosis

Grain-size (particle-size, granulometric) analysis
The old-fashioned way: direct measurement (gravel) and sieve/pipette
analysis (sand and mud)
The modern technology: laser particle sizing (sand and mud)

Grain size parameters

Graphical method
Graphic Mean
Standard deviation
Skewness
Kurtosis

(Mz) =

(1) =

16 + 50 + 84
3
84 16
4

95 5
+

(SK1) = 84 + 16 2 50
2( 84 16)

(KG) =

95 5
2,44( 75 25)

6,6

95 + 5 2 50
2( 95 5)

Grain size parameters

Moment measures (mathematic method)

First moment: mean (cf. median, mode)
Premier measure of the grain size

x=

fm
N

Second moment: variance (cf. standard deviation)

Measure of the degree of sorting

f (m X )

( = standard deviation)

100

Third moment : Skewness

- Measure of the symmetry of the grain-size distribution
Sk =

f (m X )

100 3

Fourth moment : Kurtosis

- Measure of the sharpness or peakedness of a grain-size
frequency curve
f (m X ) 4

K =
100 4

SK1 class :
+1,0 - +0,3
+0,3 - +0,1
+0,1 - -0,1
-0,1 - -0,3
-0,3 - -1,0

very fine-skewed
fine-skewed
near-symmetrical
coarse-skewed
very coarse-skewed

KG class:
<0,67
0,67 0,90
0,90 1,11
1,11 1,50
1,50 3,00
>3,00

very platykutic
platykurtic
mesokurtic
leptokurtic
very leptokurtic
extremely leptokurtic

Grain Morphology
Three aspects of grain morphology are the shape, sphericity and
roundness.
The shape or form of grain is measured by various ratios of the long,
intermediate and short axes.
Sphericity is a measure of how closely the grain shape approaches
that of a sphere.
Roundness is concerned with the curvature of the corners of a grain
and six classes from very angular to well rounded.

Grain shape classification

Roundness and Sphericity

Grain Fabric
Fabric for grain in sedimentary rock refers to their orientation and
packing and to the nature of contacts between them.
Grain Packing is a function of
the size and shape of grains
and postdepositional physical
and chemical processes that
bring about compaction of
sediment.
Grain orientation is mainly a
function of the physical
processes and condition
operating at the time of
deposition

Sedimentary structures
Sedimentary structures occur at very different scales, from less
than a mm (thin section) to 100s1000s of meters (large
outcrops); most attention is traditionally focused on the
bedform-scale : Microforms (e.g., ripples) ;Mesoforms (e.g.,
dunes); Macroforms (e.g., bars)
The majority of structures form by physical processes, before,
during and after sedimentation. Other result from organic and
chemical processes

 Laminae and beds are the

basic sedimentary units that
produce stratification; the
transition between the two
is arbitrarily set at 10 mm
Normal grading is an
upward decreasing grain
size within a single lamina
or bed (associated with a
decrease in flow velocity),
as opposed to reverse
grading
Fining-upward
successions and
coarsening-upward
successions are the
products of vertically
stacked individual beds

Cross stratification
Cross lamination (small-scale cross stratification) is
produced by ripples
Cross bedding (large-scale cross stratification) is produced
by dunes
Cross-stratified deposits can only be preserved when a bedform
is not entirely eroded by the subsequent bedform (i.e., sediment
input > sediment output)
Straight-crested bedforms lead to planar cross stratification;
sinuous or linguoid bedforms produce trough cross
stratification

Low angle planar cross-bedding, Kali Ngalang-Gunung Kidul, YK

Cross stratification
The angle of climb of cross-stratified deposits increases with
deposition rate, resulting in climbing ripple cross lamination
Antidunes form cross strata that dip upstream, but these are not
commonly preserved
A single unit of cross-stratified material is known as a set; a
succession of sets forms a co-set

Planar stratification
Planar lamination (or planar bedding) is formed under both lowerstage and upper-stage flow conditions
Planar stratification can easily be confused with planar cross
stratification, depending on the orientation of a section (strike
sections!)

 Cross stratification produced by wave ripples can be

distinguished from current ripples by their symmetry and by
laminae dipping in two directions
Hummocky cross stratification (HCS) forms during storm
events with combined wave and current activity in shallow seas
(below the fair-weather wave base), and is the result of
aggradation of mounds and swales
Heterolithic stratification is characterized by alternating
sand and mud laminae or beds
Flaser bedding is dominated by sand with isolated, thin mud drapes
Lenticular bedding is mud-dominated with isolated ripples

Gravity-flow deposits
Debris-flow deposits are
typically poorly sorted, matrixsupported sediments with
random clast orientation and
no sedimentary structures;
thickness and grain size
commonly remain unchanged
in a proximal to distal
direction
Turbidites, the deposits
formed by turbidity currents,
are typically normally graded,
ideally composed of five units
(Bouma-sequence with
divisions a-e), reflecting
decreasing flow velocities and
associated bedforms

 Imbrication commonly occurs in water-lain gravels and

conglomerates, and is characterized by discoid (flat) clasts consistently
dipping upstream
Sole marks are erosional sedimentary structures on a bed surface
that have been preserved by subsequent burial
Scour marks (caused by erosive turbulence)
Tool marks (caused by imprints of objects)

Paleocurrent measurements can be based on any sedimentary

structure indicating a current direction (e.g., cross stratification,
imbrication, flute casts)

 Trace fossils (ichnofossils) are the tracks, trails or burrows left

behind in sediments by organisms (e.g., feeding traces, locomotion
traces, escape burrows)
Disturbance of sediments by organisms is known as bioturbation,
which can lead to the total destruction of primary sedimentary
structures
Since numerous trace fossils are connected to specific depositional
environments, they can be very useful in sedimentologic
interpretations
Soft-sediment deformation structures are sometimes considered to be
part of the initial diagenetic changes of a sediment, and include:
Slump structures (on slopes)
Dewatering structures (upward escape of water, commonly due to loading)
Load structures (density contrasts between sand and underlying wet mud;
can in extreme cases cause mud diapirs)

Clastic (siliciclastic) rocks

Sandstones (20-25% of the stratigraphic record) can be subdivided
according to the Pettijohn classification, based on texture and
composition (relative proportions of quartz, feldspar, and lithic
fragments)

Quartz arenite: quartz-dominated

Arkosic arenite: feldspar-dominated
Lithic arenite: dominance of lithic fragments
Wacke: significantly matrix-supported (>15% mud)
Quartz wacke
Greywacke (feldspathic or lithic wacke)

Classification of Sandstone (Pettijohn, 1975)

Clastic (siliciclastic) rocks

Mudstones (60% of the stratigraphic record) are also known
as mudrocks or shales and commonly exhibit a distinct fissility
Claystone
Siltstone

Conglomerates are consolidated gravels; breccias are

conglomerates with dominantly angular clasts
Clast-supported conglomerates
Matrix-supported conglomerates

Halang Formation, Panujah, Slawi, Central Jawa

Alternating of siltstone and claystone, Sambipitu Formation-Wonogiri

Black shale (upper part) overlying above thickly bedded fine sandstone
Sambipitu Formation-Wonogiri

Normal grading sandstone, from coarse sst to fine sst, ambipitu Formation-Wonogiri

Conglomerate in Kali Ngalang, Gunung Kidul. Nglanggran Formation

Breccia, in Kali Ngalang, Gunung Kidul. Nglanggran Formation

Siliciclastic rocks classification (Pettijohn, 1975)

CARBONATE SEDIMENT AND ROCKS

Principal minerals: calcite, aragonite (unstable), and dolomite
(diagenetic)
Principal rocks: limestone (>50% CaCO3) and dolomite (dolostone)
(CaMg(CO3)2)
Formation of carbonate sediments and rocks occurs by means of two
main processes:
Biomineralization of CaCO3 by organisms
Direct chemical precipitation

Ca2+ + 2HCO3 CaCO3 + H2CO3

Biogenic carbonate formation occurs by a wide range of organisms (e.g.,

molluscs, corals, forams, algae, bacteria, and many others)
Most organisms initially form unconsolidated carbonate sediments
Coral reefs and microbial mats (e.g., stromatolites) are examples of more
solid carbonate structures

Chemical precipitation produces non-skeletal carbonate grains of

various sizes (e.g., ooids, pisoids, micrite)

CARBONATE SEDIMENT AND ROCKS

Biogenic carbonate formation occurs by a wide range of organisms
(e.g., molluscs, corals, forams, algae, bacteria, and many others)
Most organisms initially form unconsolidated carbonate sediments
Coral reefs and microbial mats (e.g., stromatolites) are examples of
more solid carbonate structures

Chemical precipitation produces non-skeletal carbonate grains of

various sizes (e.g., ooids, pisoids, micrite)

After Scholle, 2003

CARBONATE SEDIMENT AND ROCKS

Carbonate sand usually consists either of
(fragmented) skeletal remains or non-skeletal
grains
Carbonate mud (micrite) is commonly the product
either of chemical precipitation or algal/bacterial
activity
Dunham classification of carbonate rocks:
Texturally-based subdivision (cf. clastics):
mudstone, wackestone, packstone, grainstone,
rudstone
Organically bound framework during formation:
boundstone

Modified of Dunham Classification

ORGANIC (CARBONACEOUS) SEDIMENTS AND ROCKS

Peat and organic-rich clastic sediments form in relatively anaerobic
(reducing) environments (e.g., mires, lakes, oceans)
Minerotrophic peat: mostly nutrient-rich, groundwater-fed mires (e.g.,
floodplains, delta plains, coastal plains)
Ombrotrophic peat: mostly nutrient-poor, rainwater-fed mires (e.g.,
relatively high, flat terrains)
Gyttja: organic-rich lake sediment
Sapropel: organic-rich marine sediment

Coal consists primarily of solid organic matter; the remainder is

known as ash
Carbonaceous shales have a lower proportion of solid organic
matter
Oil shales (may be formed in anaerobic lake and marine
environments) contain organic matter that can be driven off as
liquid or gas by heating

Thickly bedded coal, in between shale siltstone (Bontang, East Kalimantan)

EVAPORITES
Dissolved salts precipitate out of sea water due to concentration
(brine formation) during evaporation (1 km of sea water --> 12 m of
evaporites)
Evaporites commonly lithify into consolidated rocks upon formation
Least soluble compounds precipitate first:

CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)

CaSO4 (calcium sulphate: gypsum or anhydrite)
NaCl (halite: rock salt)
Other, less stable (highly soluble) chlorides

Dissolved salts precipitate out of sea water due to concentration

(brine formation) during evaporation (1 km of sea water --> 12
m of evaporites)
Evaporites commonly lithify into consolidated rocks upon
formation
Least soluble compounds precipitate first:

CaCO3 (calcium carbonate)

CaSO4 (calcium sulphate: gypsum or anhydrite)
NaCl (halite: rock salt)
Other, less stable (highly soluble) chlorides

VOLCANICLASTIC SEDIMENTS AND ROCKS

Lava (cooled magma flows) produces volcaniclastic sediment upon
weathering
Pyroclastic material or tephra (ejected particulate material) can be
subdivided into different compositional categories:
Mineral grains
Lithic fragments
Vitric material (volcanic glass or pumice)

Pillow lava, Watuadeg-Bantul, DIY

Kekar tiang, lava. Kali Grindulu, Pacitan

Tephra of Merapi pyroclastic flow mechanism, Kaliadem, Sleman