Documentos de Académico
Documentos de Profesional
Documentos de Cultura
Content
Page
1.0
Introduction..3
2.0
Directing....3
3.0 Leadership.3
3.1 Characteristics of Leadership4
3.2 Types of Leadership..4
3.3 Types of Leaders and Power.5
3.4 Importance of Leadership.....................................6
3.5 Approaches to Leadership Styles.6
3.6 Contemporary Leadership models..12
4.0 Organization Change and Development.14
4.1 Theories of Change ...........................................15
4.2 Change management Process18
4.3 Resistant to Change...18
4.4 Change Management.20
4.5 Organization Development22
4.6 Culture of the Organization..24
5.0 Conclusion..25
6.0 Reference25
1.0 INTRODUCTION
2
Directing as the process in which managers instruct, guide and oversee the performance of
workers to achieve predetermined goals while organization change and development (OD) is a
field of study that addresses change and how it affects organizations and the individuals with
those organizationsKidombo. H., J. et al (2013). The paper will discuss in details what entails
Directing in an organization, Leadership and various approaches to it. The paper will also
elaborate more on the organization change and development which are vital process in the
modern world which is faced with dynamism. The Paper will discuss in details what entails in
the two topics, theories and approaches of modern day organization. Finally the paper will have a
conclusion and a reference to sum it up.
2.0 DIRECTING
This is the Process by which managers instruct, guide and oversee the performance of the
workers and employees in order to achieve the companys goals. It is the heart of the
management process. Planning, organizing controlling and staffing functions of management
require the key support of the directing function and consists of human factors. Directing
function is required at all levels of the organization. Every manager provides guidance and
inspiration to his subordinates. Directing function is concerned with the human factor in
organization. The function helps in converting plans into performance and hence, without this
function, people become inactive and physical resources are meaningless. Directing involves
delegation and allocation of work and supervision of people. It thus involves the use of
leadership skills.
3.0 LEADERSHIP
Leadership is an important aspect of management and the ability to lead is one of the keys to
being an effective manager. The success of any endeavour is attributed largely to leadership.
There are different definitions but for the sake of this paper, we shall pinpoint two:
a. Leadership is the art or process of influencing people so that they will strive willingly and
enthusiastically towards achievement of group goals.
b. The process of articulating visions, embodying values and creating the environment
within which things can be accomplished.
3
Therefore, directing is the heart of the management process just as the heart plays an important
role in the human body of pumping blooding to all parts of the body so that life is sustained.
Directing is thus the essence of management process.
3.2 TYPES OF LEADERS
a) Autocratic Leadership This approach refers to where all authority centers on
the leader. The manger enforces decisions by use of rewards and punishments,
communication is in one direction from manager to subordinate and conformity
and obedience on the part of followers is expected.
b) Democratic / Participatory Leadership / Mysofair This considers the
suggestions of members and leaders. It is a human relations approach where all
group members are seen as important contributors to a decision
c) Laissez Faire Leadership Allow them to do style the leader exercises
very little control of influence over the group members. Members are given a goal
and left alone to decide how to achieve it. The role of the leader is facilitative.
3.3 TYPES OF LEADERS AND POWER
a. Charismatic Leaders Those whose influence is derived from the personality and
cannot be acquired by training since it is natural e.g. Kenyatta, Nelson Mandela,
Napoleon
4
b. Traditional Leaders Their position is assured by birth, e.g. Kings, queens and
tribal chieftains. It is limited and not applicable to workplaces except in family
businesses
c. Situational Leaders Their influence is effective by being in the right place at the
right time. It is impromptu and temporary e.g. someone stepping in to control traffic
in a jam
d. Appointed Leaders Refers to those whose influence arises from the position e.g.
managers and supervisors. It is a bureaucratic type of leadership where legitimate
powers comes from the position in the hierarchy
e. Functional Leaders Are those whose influence comes from the work done rather
than position such as experts
The concepts of leadership and power are closely related. Power is the capacity to influence
others through the control of instruments of reward and punishment which can be tangible or
intangible. Sources of power are:
a. Legitimate Power Derived from the position eg. Kingship, managerial
b. Reward Power Derived from control of resources e.g. promotion, recommendation,
training etc
c. Referent Power Derived from associating with powerful people
d. Coercive Power Uses the ability to force other people to act against their wishes
through the fear of punishment
e. Expert Power Derived from the possession of expert knowledge or information that
others need but have no alternative access
Psychologist Kurt Lewin developed his leadership styles framework in the 1930s, and it provided
the foundation of many of the approaches that followed afterwards. He argued that there are
three major leadership styles:
a) Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their team members, even if their
input would be useful. This can be appropriate when you need to make decisions quickly,
when there's no need for team input, and when team agreement isn't necessary for a
successful outcome. However, this style can be demoralizing, and it can lead to high levels of
absenteeism and staff turnover.
b) Democratic leaders make the final decisions, but they include team members in the
decision-making process. They encourage creativity, and people are often highly engaged in
projects and decisions. As a result, team members tend to have high job satisfaction and high
productivity. This is not always an effective style to use, though, when you need to make a
quick decision.
c) Laissez-faire leaders give their team members a lot of freedom in how they do their work,
and how they set their deadlines. They provide support with resources and advice if needed,
but otherwise they don't get involved. This autonomy can lead to high job satisfaction, but it
can be damaging if team members don't manage their time well, or if they don't have the
knowledge, skills, or self-motivation to do their work effectively. (Laissez-faire leadership
can also occur when managers don't have control over their work and their people.)
Lewin's framework is popular and useful, because it encourages managers to be less autocratic
than they might instinctively be.
With task-oriented leadership, you focus on getting the job done. You define the work and the
roles required, put structures in place, and plan, organize, and monitor work.
According to this model, the best leadership style to use is one that has both a high concern for
people and a high concern for the task it argues that you should aim for both, rather than trying
to offset one against the other. Clearly, this is an important idea!
3.5.3 The Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory
First published in 1969, the Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership Theory argues that
you need to use different leadership styles depending on the maturity of your team members. The
model argues that with relatively immature individuals, you need a more directing approach,
while with higher maturity people, you need a more participative or delegating leadership style.
You can use this model in most business situations, regardless of whether you want to build a
new team or develop an existing one.
3.5.4 Path-Goal Theory
You may also have to think about what your team members want and need. This is where PathGoal Theory published in 1971 is useful.
For example, highly-capable people, who are assigned to a complex task, will need a different
leadership approach from people with low ability, who are assigned to an ambiguous task. (The
former will want a participative approach, while the latter need to be told what to do.)
With Path-Goal Theory, you can identify the best leadership approach to use, based on your
people's needs, the task that they're doing, and the environment that they're working in.
3.5.5 Six Emotional Leadership Styles
Daniel Goleman, Richard Boyatzis, and Annie McKee detailed their Six Emotional Leadership
Styles theory in their 2002 book, "Primal Leadership."
The theory highlights the strengths and weaknesses of six leadership styles that you can use
Visionary, Coaching, Affiliative, Democratic, Pacesetting, and Commanding. It also shows how
each style can affect the emotions of your team members.
8
Note:
Remember, not all of these styles will have a positive effect on your team members, either in the
short or long term
3.5.9 Bureaucratic Leadership
Bureaucratic leaders follow rules rigorously, and ensure that their people follow procedures
precisely.
This leadership style is appropriate for work involving serious safety risks (such as working with
machinery, with toxic substances, or at dangerous heights), or with large sums of money.
Bureaucratic leadership is also useful for managing employees who perform routine tasks.
This style is much less effective in teams and organizations that rely on flexibility, creativity, or
innovation.
3.5.10 Charismatic Leadership
A charismatic leadership style resembles transformational leadership: both types of leaders
inspire and motivate their team members.
The difference lies in their intent. Transformational leaders want to transform their teams and
organizations, while leaders who rely on charisma often focus on themselves and their own
ambitions, and they may not want to change anything.
Charismatic leaders might believe that they can do no wrong, even when others warn them about
the path that they're on. This feeling of invincibility can severely damage a team or an
organization, as was shown in the 2008 financial crisis.
3.5.11 Servant Leadership
A "servant leader" is someone, regardless of level, who leads simply by meeting the needs of the
team. The term sometimes describes a person without formal recognition as a leader.
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These people often lead by example. They have high integrity and lead with generosity .
Their approach can create a positive corporate culture, and it can lead to high morale among
team members.
Supporters of the servant leadership model suggest that it's a good way to move ahead in a world
where values are increasingly important, and where servant leaders can achieve power because
of their values, ideals, and ethics .
However, others believe that people who practice servant leadership can find themselves "left
behind" by other leaders, particularly in competitive situations.
This leadership style also takes time to apply correctly: it's ill-suited to situations where you have
to make quick decisions or meet tight deadlines.
3.5.12 Transactional Leadership
This leadership style starts with the idea that team members agree to obey their leader when they
accept a job. The "transaction" usually involves the organization paying team members in return
for their effort and compliance on a short-term task. The leader has a right to "punish" team
members if their work doesn't meet an appropriate standard.
Transactional leadership is present in many business leadership situations, and it does offer some
benefits. For example, it clarifies everyone's roles and responsibilities. And, because
transactional leadership judges team members on performance, people who are ambitious or who
are motivated by external rewards including compensation often thrive.
The downside of this style is that, on its own, it can be chilling and amoral, and it can lead to
high staff turnover. It also has serious limitations for knowledge-based or creative work.
As a result, team members can often do little to improve their job satisfaction.
Key Points
In management, transformational leadership is often the best leadership style to use.
However, no one style of leadership fits all situations, so it's useful to understand different
leadership frameworks and leadership styles. You can then adapt your approach to fit your
situation.
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innovative and creative. They encourage new ideas from their followers and
never criticize them publicly for the mistakes committed by them. The leaders
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focus on the what in problems and do not focus on the blaming part of it.
They have no hesitation in discarding an old practice set by them if it is found
ineffective.
iii) Inspirational Motivation the degree to which the leader articulates a vision
that
is
appealing
and
inspiring
to
followers.
Leaders
with
their followers. Transformational leaders must embody the values that the
followers should be learning and mimicking back to others. If the leader gives
respect and encourages others to be better, those influenced will then go to
others and repeat the positive behaviour, passing on the leadership qualities
for other followers to learn. This will earn the leader more respect and
admiration from the followers, putting them at a higher level of influence and
importance. The foundation of transformational leadership is the promotion of
consistent vision, mission, and a set of values to the members. Their vision is
so compelling that they know what they want from every interaction.
Transformational leaders guide followers by providing them with a sense of
meaning and challenge. They work enthusiastically and optimistically to
foster the spirit of teamwork and commitment.
followers of such leaders demonstrate high level of job satisfaction and organizational
commitment and engage in organizational citizenship behaviors. With such a devote workforce,
it will definitely be useful to consider making efforts towards developing ways to transforming
organization through leadership.
4.0 ORGANIZATION CHANGE AND DEVELOPMENT
Kidombo, H., J., et al. (2013) defines Organization development (OD) as a process that focus on
human and social aspects of the organization and works to change attitudes and relationships
among employees, helping to strengthen the organizations capacity for adaptation and renewal.
Using a card sorting process based on the entire OD definitions, Kidombo, H., J., goes ahead to
identify 10 clusters of dependent variables (or desired outcomes) bases on Egan (2002):
Increase effectiveness
The long term success of an organization depends on its ability to adapt to change. Such changes
may be prompted by the workforce, the economy or new technology. Instead of injecting training
or education into one aspect of the company, organization development takes a holistic approach
to managing change.Organizational culture is one of the most important factors to consider while
introducing change in the organization
4.1 THEORIES OF CHANGE:
There are three theories of change as discussed below:
4.1.1 Lewins change Model: this follows three stages
a) Unfreezing This step usually involves reducing those forces maintaining the organizations
behavior at its present level. Unfreezing is sometimes accomplished through a process of
psychological disconfirmation. By introducing information that shows discrepancies
between behaviors desired by organization members and those currently exhibited, members
can be motivated to engage in change activities.
b) Transition/moving This step shifts the behavior of the organization, department, or
individual to a new level. It involves intervening in the system to develop new behaviors,
values, and attitudes through changes in organizational structure and processes.
c) Refreezing This step stabilizes at a new state of equilibrium. It is frequently accomplished
through the use of supporting mechanisms that reinforce the new organizational state, such as
organizational cultures, norms, policies and structures.
4.1.2
a) Problem Identification This stage usually begins when a key executive in the
organization or someone with power and influence senses that the organization has a
problem that might be solves with the help of a OD practitioner
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b) Consultation with a behavioral science expert The OD practitioner and the client
assess each other and doing this from the beginning established an open and
collaborative atmosphere
c) Data gathering and preliminary diagnosis This involves the OD practitioner and
the organization and involves gathering appropriate information and analyzing it to
determine the underlying causes of organizational problems. This done through
interviews, process observation, questionnaires and organizational performance data.
d) Feedback to a key client or group Because action research is a collaborative
activity, the diagnostic data are fed back to the client, usually in a group or work-team
meeting. The feedback step, in which members are given the information gathered by
the OD practitioner, helps them determine the strength and weakness of the
organization or unit under study
e) Joint diagnosis of the problem Members discuss the feedback and explore with
the OD practitioner whether they want work on the identified problems
f) Joint Action planning The OD practitioner and the client members jointly agree on
further actions to be taken. This is the beginning of the moving process as the
organization decided how best to reach a different quasi stationary equilibrium.
Specific action will depend on the culture, technology and environment of the
organization
g) Action This stage involves the actual change from one organizational state to
another. There is a transition period as the organization moves from the present to a
desired future state
h) Data gathering after action Since action research is a cyclical process, data must
also be gathered after the action has been taken to measure and determine the effects
of the action and to give feedback. This may lead to re-diagnosis and new action
4.1.3
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a) Initiate the inquiry This is the first phase which determines the subject of change.
It emphasizes members involvement to identify the organizational issue they have
the most energy to address such as looking at customer satisfaction instead of
customer dissatisfaction. If the focus of inquiry is real and vital to organization
members, the change process itself will take on those positive attributes
b) Inquire into best practices This phase involves gathering information about the
the best of what is in the organization
c) Discover the themes Members examine all the information gathered in the second
step to identify a set of themes representing the common dimensions of peoples
experiences at the organization
d) Envision a preferred future members then examine the identified
themes,
challenge the status quo and describe a compelling future. Based on the
organizations successful past, members collectively visualize the organizations
future and develop possibility propositions statements that bridge the
organizations current best practices with ideal possibilities for future organizing
e) Design and delivery This involves the design and delivery of ways to create the
future. It describes the activities and creates the plans necessary to bring about the
vision. Members make changes, assess the results,, make necessary adjustments so as
to move the organization towards the vision and sustain what it will be.
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Kotter relating to people's response and approach to change, in which people see, feel and
then change.
Kotter's eight step change model can be summarised as:
i) Increase urgency - inspire people to move, make objectives real and relevant.
ii) Build the guiding team - get the right people in place with the right emotional
commitment, and the right mix of skills and levels.
iii) Get the vision right - get the team to establish a simple vision and strategy, focus on
emotional and creative aspects necessary to drive service and efficiency.
iv) Communicate for buy-in - Involve as many people as possible, communicate the
essentials, simply, and to appeal and respond to people's needs. De-clutter
communications - make technology work for you rather than against.
v) Empower action - Remove obstacles, enable constructive feedback and lots of support
from leaders - reward and recognise progress and achievements.
vi) Create short-term wins - Set aims that are easy to achieve - in bite-size chunks.
Manageable numbers of initiatives. Finish current stages before starting new ones.
vii) Don't let up - Foster and encourage determination and persistence - ongoing change encourage on-going progress reporting - highlight achieved and future milestones.
viii)
Make change stick - Reinforce the value of successful change via recruitment,
It is not our nature to make changes that we view as harmful to our current situation. In
an organizational setting, this means employees, peers, and managers will resist
administrative and technological changes that result in their role being eliminated or
reduced. From their perspective, your change is harmful to their place in the organization!
Forcing the change has its place. This approach alone is ineffective however. Managers
who overuse this approach will harm their effectiveness over the long term. Without a
thoughtful change strategy to address this area, leaders will trigger strong resistance and
organizational turnover.
(b) Non-reinforcing reward systems
There is a common business saying that managers get what they reward. Organizational
stakeholders will resist change when they do not see any rewards. When working with
managers, I will ask them, where is the reward to employees for implementing your
change? Without a reward, there is no motivation to support the change over the long
term. This often means that organizational reward systems must be altered to support the
change that management wants to implement. The change does not have to always be
major or costly.
(c) Surprise and fear of the unknown
The less the organization knows about the change and its impact on them, the more
fearful they become. Leading change also requires not springing surprises on the
organization! The organization needs to be prepared for the change. In the absence of
continuing two-way communication with leadership, grapevine rumors fill the void and
sabotage the change effort.
(d) Peer pressure
Whether we are introverted or extroverted, we are still social creatures. Organizational
stakeholders will resist change to protect the interests of a group. This could be
employees resisting change to protect their co-workers. Managers will resist change to
protect their work group
(e) Climate of mistrust
Meaningful organizational change does not occur in a climate of mistrust. Trust, involves
faith in the intentions and behaviour of others. Mutual mistrust will doom an otherwise
well-conceived change initiative to failure.
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the other end of the scale if demand sores suppliers must be able to satisfy demand.
Benchmarking suppliers shall help determine your best suppliers. A good supplier may be one
that allows you to have a 30 day or more credit account, which leave you with more working
capital. Essentially corporate business strategies should have a degree of flexibility to act as a
defense to sudden changes.
c) Overcoming Structural Problems and Insufficient Communication
In a large organization employees may wish to elect a spokesperson who can act as a collective
voice to air potential barriers directly to management. Surveys can be conducted and results
analyzed. In a small organization employees should be encouraged to speak up if they feel that
change is causing a conflict.
d) Overcoming Lack of Bad Leadership
It is a natural human instinct to follow leadership as children we look up to our parents and as
adults we look up towards our superiors. Leaders must lead the way and be an example for others
to follow. In leading and setting an example to others leaders must take an active role a hands
on approach side by side with the employees in order to motivate and encourage. As in the
words of the great, Mahatma Gandhi; We must become the change we want to see(Mahatma
Gandhi, http://www.performance-first.co.uk/organisation/orgmain.htm). Visionary leaders, no
matter how articulate, are not enough. A shared commitment still requires personal contact to
make it real (Handy, 95)
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The importance of planning must be emphasized and reflected. The new roles should be
concisely explained to the respective employees prior to implementing change, to stifle out any
doubts, fears or resistance.
f) Overcoming Cultural Issues
The cultural characteristics once identified need to be overcome and evolved into a non-blame
culture. By doing so the employees shall have the freedom to evolve and try innovative ways of
doing their jobs without the fear of being penalized for mistakes.
g) Individual Level
Employees should be directly involved in the change process, which shall motivate and reduce
resistance. Extra incentives should be made available to further encourage and reward
compliance. Support networks should be established as a means to reinforce the change theory.
Appendix 1 Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs depicts the theory of psychological needs, values of
authority, hierarchy and rationality, security needs.
The model consists of many levels. Maslow argues that once the basic level of Air food water
and sex are met the next hierarchical or rational need is for safety. An organization must
concentrate on invoking a sense of Belonging to the organization by keeping them informed,
involved and sharing the success.
Esteem by others should be achieved by promoting team work and the occasional appraisals by
management
4.5 ORGANIZATIONAL DEVELOPMENT
Organization development is an on-going, systematic process of implementing effective
organizational change. OD is known as both a field of science focused on understanding and
managing organizational change and as a field of scientific study and inquiry. It is
interdisciplinary in nature and draws on sociology, psychology, and theories of motivation,
learning, and personality. Although behavioural science has provided the basic foundation for the
study and practice of OD, new and emerging fields of study have made their presence felt.
22
is
defined
as
the
the
unique
social
expression,
flow through
its hierarchy,
and
affects
the
the
environment.
It
also
attendance
extends
and
punctuality,
to
production-
methods, marketing and advertising practices, and to new product creation. Organizational
culture is unique for every organization and one of the hardest things to change.
5.0 CONCLUSION
Directing is the heart of any organization since it is the one who is in the directing position who
makes it possible for the members to work efficiently and effectively to achieve goals.
Organization change is inevitable like any other change in life if organization are to continue
being effective and efficient in the ever dynamic world. The papers has discussed the
characteristics of the two and finally showing that Leadership is vital in any organization. The
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managers of organizations are the ones who spearhead any new changes and make them
acceptable by the members for the good of the organization. There are many theories on the two
topics but the paper has narrowed the discussed to the idea that leadership is part of a manger and
organization change can happen smoothly if planned well using any of the three models and
having a good manager to lead the process.
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6.0 REFERENCE
Kidombo, H., J. et al.2013. Fundamental of Management. Theories, Concepts & Practice. Aura
Publishers. Kenya.
Conner, D. (1990). The changing nation: Strategies for citizen action (Handout materials).
Atlanta: ODR, Inc.
Cumming, T. G., & Huse, E. F. (1989). Organizational development and change (4th ed.) St.
Paul, MN: West Publishing.
Egan, G. (1988). Change-agent skills b: Managing innovation and change. San Diego:
University Associates.
Foster, B. (1991). Creating a vision that employees can see. Presentation made at The
University of Georgia Center for Continuing Education, Athens, GA.
Kanter, R. M. (1983). The change masters. New York: Simon & Schuster.
Lee, C. (1991, January). Followership: The essence of leadership. Training, pp. 27-35.
Murrell, K. L., & Vogt, J. F. (1991). The manager as leader in an empowering organization:
Opportunities and challenges. In J.
W. Pfeiffer (Ed.), The 1991 annual: Developing human resources (pp. 297-305). San Diego:
University Associates.
Parker, G.M. (1990). Team players and teamwork: The new competitive business strategy. San
Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Senge, P.M. (1990). The fifth discipline: The art and practice of the learning organization. New
York: Doubleday Currency.
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