In linear algebra, the CayleyHamilton theorem (named after the mathematicians Arthur

Cayley and William Rowan Hamilton) states that every square matrix over acommutative ring (such
as the real or complex field) satisfies its own characteristic equation.
More precisely,[1][2][3][4] if A is a given nn matrix and In is the nn identity matrix, then
the characteristic polynomial of A is defined as

where "det" is the determinant operation. Since the entries of the matrix are (linear or constant)
polynomials in , the determinant is also an n-th order polynomial in .
The CayleyHamilton theorem states that "substituting" the matrix A for in this polynomial
results in the zero matrix,

p(A) = 0 .
The powers of A, obtained by substitution from powers of , are defined by repeated matrix
multiplication; the constant term of p() gives a multiple of the power A0, which power is
defined as the identity matrix. The theorem allows An to be expressed as a linear
combination of the lower matrix powers of A.
When the ring is a field, the CayleyHamilton theorem is equivalent to the statement that
the minimal polynomial of a square matrix divides its characteristic polynomial.
Contents
[hide]

1 Example
2 Illustration for specific dimensions and practical applications
3 Proving the theorem in general
o 3.1 Preliminaries
3.1.1 Adjugate matrices
o 3.2 A direct algebraic proof
o 3.3 A proof using polynomials with matrix coefficients
o 3.4 A synthesis of the first two proofs
o 3.5 A proof using matrices of endomorphisms
o 3.6 A bogus "proof": p(A) = det(AIn A) = det(A A) = 0
4 Abstraction and generalizations
5 See also
6 References

Example[edit]
As a concrete example, let

.
Its characteristic polynomial is given by

The CayleyHamilton theorem claims that, if we define

then

which one can verify easily.

Illustration for specific dimensions and

practical applications[edit]
For a 11 matrix A

= (a), the characteristic polynomial is given

by p() = a, and so p(A) = (a) a(1) = 0 is obvious.

For a 22 matrix,

the characteristic polynomial is given

by p()

= 2 (a + d) + (ad bc), so the CayleyHamilton theorem

states that

which is indeed always the case, evident by working out the entries
of A2.
For a general nn invertible matrix A, i.e., one with nonzero
determinant, A1 can thus be written as an (n 1)-th
order polynomial expression in A: As indicated, the Cayley
Hamilton theorem amounts to the identity

with cn1

= tr(A), etc., where tr(A) is the trace of the matrix A.

This can then be written as

and, by multiplying both sides

by A1 (note

), one is led to the

compact expression for the inverse,

For larger matrices, the expressions for the

coefficients ck of the characteristic polynomial in terms
of the matrix components become increasingly
complicated; but they can also be expressed in terms
of traces of powers of the matrix A, using Newton's
identities (at least when the ring contains the rational
numbers), thus resulting in the expression for
theadjugate matrix of A as a trace identity,

where the sum is taken over s and the sets of all

integer partitions kl

0 satisfying the equation

For instance, in the above 22 matrix

example, the
coefficient c1

= a + d of above is just the

trace of A, trA, while the constant

= ad bc can be written
as((trA) tr(A2)). (Of course, it is also the
determinant of A, in this case.)
coefficient c0
2

In fact, this expression, ((trA)2

tr(A2)),

always gives the coefficient cn2 of n2 in the

characteristic polynomial of any nn matrix;
so, for a 33 matrix A, the statement of the
CayleyHamilton theorem can also be written
as

where the right-hand side designates a

33 matrix with all entries reduced to zero.
Likewise, this determinant in the n = 3
case, is now

minus the coefficient cn3 of n3 in the

general case, as seen below.
Similarly, one can write for a 44
matrix A,

where, now, the determinant is

and so on for larger matrices,

with the increasingly complex
expressions for the
coefficients deducible
from Newton's identities.
A practical method for
obtaining these
coefficients ck for a
general nn matrix, yielding
the above ones virtually by
inspection, provided no root
be zero, relies on an alternate
expression for the
determinant,

Hence,

where the
exponential only need
s be expanded to
order n,
since p() is of
order n, the net
negative powers
of automatically
vanishing by the CH
theorem. (Again, this
requires a ring
containing the rational
numbers.)
The generic
coefficients of the
characteristic
polynomial for
general n are given
(Le Verrier) by
determinants
of mm matrices,

The Cayley
Hamilton theorem
always provides a
relationship

between the
powers
of A (though not
always the
simplest one),
which allows one
to simplify
expressions
involving such
powers, and
evaluate them
without having to
compute the
power An or any
higher powers
of A.
For instance, the
concrete 22
Example above
can be written as

Then, for
example, to
calculate A4,
observe

Pr
ovi
ng
the
the
ore
m

in
ge
ne
ral[
edi
t]
As
the
exam
ples
abov
e
show
,
obtai
ning
the
state
ment
of the
Cayl
ey
Hami
lton
theor
em
for
an n
n m
atrix
requi
res
two
steps
: first

the
coeffi
cient
s ci of
the
chara
cteris
tic
polyn
omial
are
deter
mine
d by
devel
opme
nt as
a
polyn
omial
in t of
the
deter
mina
nt

a
n
d
t
h
e
n

t
h
e
s
e
c
o
e
ff
i
c
i
e
n
t
s
a
r
e
u
s
e
d
i
n
a
li
n
e
a
r
c
o
m
b
i
n
a

ti
o
n
o
f
p
o
w
e
r
s
o
f
A
t
h
a
t
i
s
e
q
u
a
t
e
d
t
o
t
h
e
n

n
n

u
ll
m
a
tr
i
x
:

T
h
e
l
e
f
t
h
a
n
d
s
i
d
e
c
a
n
b
e
w
o
r
k
e
d

o
u
t
t
o
a
n
n

n
m
a
t
r
i
x
w
h
o
s
e
e
n
t
r
i
e
s
a
r
e
(
e
n
o
r

m
o
u
s
)
p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
s
i
n
t
h
e
s
e
t
o
f
e
n

t
r
i
e
s

o
f
A
,
s
o
t
h
e
C
a
y
l
e
y

H
a
m
i
l
t
o
n
t
h
e
o
r

e
m
s
t
a
t
e
s
t
h
a
t
e
a
c
h
o
f
t
h
e
s
e
n
2

e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
s

a
r
e
e
q
u
i
v
a
l
e
n
t
t
o
0
.
F
o
r
a
n
y
f
i
x
e
d
v
a
l
u
e
o
f
n

t
h
e
s
e
i
d
e
n
t
i
t
i
e
s
c
a
n
b
e
o
b
t
a
i
n
e
d
b
y
t
e
d
i
o
u
s
b

u
t
c
o
m
p
l
e
t
e
l
y
s
t
r
a
i
g
h
t
f
o
r
w
a
r
d
a
l
g
e
b
r
a
i
c
m
a

n
i
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
.
N
o
n
e
o
f
t
h
e
s
e
c
o
m
p
u
t
a
t
i
o
n
s
c
a
n

s
h
o
w
h
o
w
e
v
e
r
w
h
y
t
h
e
C
a
y
l
e
y

H
a
m
i
l
t
o
n
t
h
e
o
r
e

m
s
h
o
u
l
d
b
e
v
a
l
i
d
f
o
r
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
o
f
a
l
l
p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e

s
i
z
e
s
n
,
s
o
a
u
n
i
f
o
r
m
p
r
o
o
f
f
o
r
a
l
l
n
i
s
n
e
e
d

e
d
.

P
r
e
l
i
m
i
n
a
r
i
e
s
[

e
d
i
t
]
I
f
a
v
e
c
t
o
r
v
o
f
s
i
z

e
n
h
a
p
p
e
n
s
t
o
b
e
a
n
e
i
g
e
n
v
e
c
t
o
r
o
f
A
w
i
t

h
e
i
g
e
n
v
a
l
u
e

,
i
n
o
t
h
e
r
w
o
r
d
s
i
f
A

v
=

v
,
t
h

e
n

w
h
i
c
h
i
s
t
h
e
n
u
l
l
v
e
c
t
o
r
s
i
n
c
e
p
(

)
=
0
(

t
h
e
e
i
g
e
n
v
a
l
u
e
s
o
f
A
a
r
e
p
r
e
c
i
s
e
l
y
t
h
e
r
o
o

t
s
o
f
p
(
t
)
)
.
T
h
i
s
h
o
l
d
s
f
o
r
a
l
l
p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e
e
i
g

e
n
v
a
l
u
e
s

,
s
o
t
h
e
t
w
o
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
e
q
u
a
t
e
d
b
y
t
h
e

t
h
e
o
r
e
m
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
l
y
g
i
v
e
t
h
e
s
a
m
e
(
n
u
l
l
)
r
e
s
u
l

t
w
h
e
n
a
p
p
l
i
e
d
t
o
a
n
y
e
i
g
e
n
v
e
c
t
o
r
.
N
o
w
i
f
A
a

d
m
i
t
s
a
b
a
s
i
s
o
f
e
i
g
e
n
v
e
c
t
o
r
s
,
i
n
o
t
h
e
r
w
o
r

d
s
i
f
A
i
s
d
i
a
g
o
n
a
l
i
z
a
b
l
e
,
t
h
e
n
t
h
e
C
a
y
l
e
y


H
a
m
i
l
t
o
n
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
m
u
s
t
h
o
l
d
f
o
r
A
,
s
i
n
c
e
t
w
o

m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
t
h
a
t
g
i
v
e
t
h
e
s
a
m
e
v
a
l
u
e
s
w
h
e
n
a
p
p
l
i

e
d
t
o
e
a
c
h
e
l
e
m
e
n
t
o
f
a
b
a
s
i
s
m
u
s
t
b
e
e
q
u
a
l
.
N
o
t

a
l
l
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
a
r
e
d
i
a
g
o
n
a
l
i
z
a
b
l
e
,
b
u
t
f
o
r
m
a
t

r
i
c
e
s
w
i
t
h
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s
m
a
n
y
o
f
t
h
e
m

a
r
e
:
t
h
e
s
e
t
o
f
d
i
a
g
o
n
a
l
i
z
a
b
l
e
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
s
q
u
a
r

e
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
o
f
a
g
i
v
e
n
s
i
z
e
i
s
d
e
n
s
e
i
n
t
h
e
s
e
t

o
f
a
l
l
s
u
c
h
s
q
u
a
r
e
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
[
5
]

(
f
o
r
a
m
a
t
r
i
x

t
o
b
e
d
i
a
g
o
n
a
l
i
z
a
b
l
e
i
t
s
u
f
f
i
c
e
s
f
o
r
i
n
s
t
a
n
c

e
t
h
a
t
i
t
s
c
h
a
r
a
c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
n
o
t
h
a
v

e
a
n
y
m
u
l
t
i
p
l
e
r
o
o
t
s
)
.
N
o
w
i
f
a
n
y
o
f
t
h
e
n
2

e
x

p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
s
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
e
q
u
a
t
e
s
t
o
0
w
o
u
l
d

n
o
t
r
e
d
u
c
e
t
o
a
n
u
l
l
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
,
i
n
o
t
h
e
r
w
o
r
d

s
i
f
i
t
w
o
u
l
d
b
e
a
n
o
n
z
e
r
o
p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
i
n
t
h
e
c
o
e

f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s
o
f
t
h
e
m
a
t
r
i
x
,
t
h
e
n
t
h
e
s
e
t
o
f
c
o
m
p
l

e
x
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
f
o
r
w
h
i
c
h
t
h
i
s
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
h
a
p
p
e
n

s
t
o
g
i
v
e
0
w
o
u
l
d
n
o
t
b
e
d
e
n
s
e
i
n
t
h
e
s
e
t
o
f
a
l
l
m
a

t
r
i
c
e
s
,
w
h
i
c
h
w
o
u
l
d
c
o
n
t
r
a
d
i
c
t
t
h
e
f
a
c
t
t
h
a
t

t
h
e
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
h
o
l
d
s
f
o
r
a
l
l
d
i
a
g
o
n
a
l
i
z
a
b
l
e
m
a
t

r
i
c
e
s
.
T
h
u
s
o
n
e
c
a
n
s
e
e
t
h
a
t
t
h
e
C
a
y
l
e
y

H
a
m
i
l

t
o
n
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
m
u
s
t
b
e
t
r
u
e
.
W
h
i
l
e
t
h
i
s
p
r
o
v
i
d
e
s

a
v
a
l
i
d
p
r
o
o
f
(
f
o
r
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
o
v
e
r
t
h
e
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
n

u
m
b
e
r
s
)
,
t
h
e
a
r
g
u
m
e
n
t
i
s
n
o
t
v
e
r
y
s
a
t
i
s
f
a
c
t
o

r
y
,
s
i
n
c
e
t
h
e
i
d
e
n
t
i
t
i
e
s
r
e
p
r
e
s
e
n
t
e
d
b
y
t
h
e
t

h
e
o
r
e
m
d
o
n
o
t
i
n
a
n
y
w
a
y
d
e
p
e
n
d
o
n
t
h
e
n
a
t
u
r
e
o
f

t
h
e
m
a
t
r
i
x
(
d
i
a
g
o
n
a
l
i
z
a
b
l
e
o
r
n
o
t
)
,
n
o
r
o
n
t
h

e
k
i
n
d
o
f
e
n
t
r
i
e
s
a
l
l
o
w
e
d
(
f
o
r
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
w
i
t
h
r

e
a
l
e
n
t
r
i
e
s
t
h
e
d
i
a
g
o
n
i
z
a
b
l
e
o
n
e
s
d
o
n
o
t
f
o
r
m

a
d
e
n
s
e
s
e
t
,
a
n
d
i
t
s
e
e
m
s
s
t
r
a
n
g
e
o
n
e
w
o
u
l
d
h
a
v

e
t
o
c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
c
o
m
p
l
e
x
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
t
o
s
e
e
t
h
a
t
t
h
e

C
a
y
l
e
y

H
a
m
i
l
t
o
n
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
h
o
l
d
s
f
o
r
t
h
e
m
)
.
W
e

s
h
a
l
l
t
h
e
r
e
f
o
r
e
n
o
w
c
o
n
s
i
d
e
r
o
n
l
y
a
r
g
u
m
e
n
t
s

t
h
a
t
p
r
o
v
e
t
h
e
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
d
i
r
e
c
t
l
y
f
o
r
a
n
y
m
a
t
r
i

x
u
s
i
n
g
a
l
g
e
b
r
a
i
c
m
a
n
i
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
o
n
l
y
;
t
h
e
s
e

a
l
s
o
h
a
v
e
t
h
e
b
e
n
e
f
i
t
o
f
w
o
r
k
i
n
g
f
o
r
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s

w
i
t
h
e
n
t
r
i
e
s
i
n
a
n
y
c
o
m
m
u
t
a
t
i
v
e
r
i
n
g
.
T
h
e
r
e

i
s
a
g
r
e
a
t
v
a
r
i
e
t
y
o
f
s
u
c
h
p
r
o
o
f
s
o
f
t
h
e
C
a
y
l
e
y


H
a
m
i
l
t
o
n
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
,
o
f
w
h
i
c
h
s
e
v
e
r
a
l
w
i
l
l
b
e
g

i
v
e
n
h
e
r
e
.
T
h
e
y
v
a
r
y
i
n
t
h
e
a
m
o
u
n
t
o
f
a
b
s
t
r
a
c
t

a
l
g
e
b
r
a
i
c
n
o
t
i
o
n
s
r
e
q
u
i
r
e
d
t
o
u
n
d
e
r
s
t
a
n
d
t
h

e
p
r
o
o
f
.
T
h
e
s
i
m
p
l
e
s
t
p
r
o
o
f
s
u
s
e
j
u
s
t
t
h
o
s
e
n
o

t
i
o
n
s
n
e
e
d
e
d
t
o
f
o
r
m
u
l
a
t
e
t
h
e
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
(
m
a
t
r
i

c
e
s
,
p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
s
w
i
t
h
n
u
m
e
r
i
c
e
n
t
r
i
e
s
,
d
e
t
e

r
m
i
n
a
n
t
s
)
,
b
u
t
i
n
v
o
l
v
e
t
e
c
h
n
i
c
a
l
c
o
m
p
u
t
a
t
i

o
n
s
t
h
a
t
r
e
n
d
e
r
s
o
m
e
w
h
a
t
m
y
s
t
e
r
i
o
u
s
t
h
e
f
a
c
t

t
h
a
t
t
h
e
y
l
e
a
d
p
r
e
c
i
s
e
l
y
t
o
t
h
e
c
o
r
r
e
c
t
c
o
n
c
l

u
s
i
o
n
.
I
t
i
s
p
o
s
s
i
b
l
e
t
o
a
v
o
i
d
s
u
c
h
d
e
t
a
i
l
s
,
b

u
t
a
t
t
h
e
p
r
i
c
e
o
f
i
n
v
o
l
v
i
n
g
m
o
r
e
s
u
b
t
l
e
a
l
g
e
b

r
a
i
c
n
o
t
i
o
n
s
:
p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
s
w
i
t
h
c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t

s
i
n
a
n
o
n
c
o
m
m
u
t
a
t
i
v
e
r
i
n
g
,
o
r
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
w
i
t
h

u
n
u
s
u
a
l
k
i
n
d
s
o
f
e
n
t
r
i
e
s
.
A
d
j
u
g
a
t
e
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s

[
e
d
i
t
]
A
l
l
p
r
o
o
f
s
b
e
l
o
w
u
s
e
t
h
e
n
o
t
i
o
n
o
f
t
h
e

a
d
j
u
g
a
t
e
m
a
t
r
i
x
a
d
j
(
M
)
o
f
a
n
n

n
m
a
t
r
i
x
M

.
T
h
i
s
i
s
a
m
a
t
r
i
x
w
h
o
s
e
c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
s
a
r
e
g
i
v
e

n
b
y
p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
s
i
n
t
h
e
c
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e

n
t
s
o
f
M
(
i
n
f
a
c
t
b
y
c
e
r
t
a
i
n
(
n

1
)

(
n

1
)

d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
n
t
s
)
,
i
n
s
u
c
h
a
w
a
y
t
h
a
t
o
n
e
h
a
s
t
h
e
f

o
l
l
o
w
i
n
g
f
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s

T
h
e
s
e
r
e
l

a
t
i
o
n
s
a
r
e
a
d
i
r
e
c
t
c
o
n
s
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
o
f
t
h
e
b
a
s
i
c
p

r
o
p
e
r
t
i
e
s
o
f
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
n
t
s
:
e
v
a
l
u
a
t
i
o
n
o
f
t
h

e
(
i
,
j
)
e
n
t
r
y
o
f
t
h
e
m
a
t
r
i
x
p
r
o
d
u
c
t
o
n
t
h
e
l
e
f
t

g
i
v
e
s
t
h
e
e
x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
b
y
c
o
l
u
m
n
j
o
f
t
h
e
d
e
t
e
r

m
i
n
a
n
t
o
f
t
h
e
m
a
t
r
i
x
o
b
t
a
i
n
e
d
f
r
o
m
M
b
y
r
e
p
l

a
c
i
n
g
c
o
l
u
m
n
i
b
y
a
c
o
p
y
o
f
c
o
l
u
m
n
j
,
w
h
i
c
h
i

s
d
e
t
(
M
)
i
f
i
=
j
a
n
d
z
e
r
o
o
t
h
e
r
w
i
s
e
;
t
h
e
m
a

t
r
i
x
p
r
o
d
u
c
t
o
n
t
h
e
r
i
g
h
t
i
s
s
i
m
i
l
a
r
,
b
u
t
f
o
r
e

x
p
a
n
s
i
o
n
s
b
y
r
o
w
s
.
B
e
i
n
g
a
c
o
n
s
e
q
u
e
n
c
e
o
f
j
u
s

t
a
l
g
e
b
r
a
i
c
e
x
p
r
e
s
s
i
o
n
m
a
n
i
p
u
l
a
t
i
o
n
,
t
h
e
s
e

r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
a
r
e
v
a
l
i
d
f
o
r
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
w
i
t
h
e
n
t
r
i
e

s
i
n
a
n
y
c
o
m
m
u
t
a
t
i
v
e
r
i
n
g
(
c
o
m
m
u
t
a
t
i
v
i
t
y
m
u
s

t
b
e
a
s
s
u
m
e
d
f
o
r
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
n
t
s
t
o
b
e
d
e
f
i
n
e
d
i
n

t
h
e
f
i
r
s
t
p
l
a
c
e
)
.
T
h
i
s
i
s
i
m
p
o
r
t
a
n
t
t
o
n
o
t
e
h
e

r
e
,
b
e
c
a
u
s
e
t
h
e
s
e
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
s
w
i
l
l
b
e
a
p
p
l
i
e
d
f

o
r
m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
w
i
t
h
n
o
n
n
u
m
e
r
i
c
e
n
t
r
i
e
s
s
u
c
h
a
s

p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
s
.

A
d
i
r
e
c
t
a
l
g
e
b
r
a
i
c
p
r
o
o
f
[

e
d
i
t
]

T
h
i
s
p
r
o
o
f
u
s
e
s
j
u
s
t
t
h
e
k
i
n
d
o
f
o
b
j
e
c
t
s
n
e
e
d
e

d
t
o
f
o
r
m
u
l
a
t
e
t
h
e
C
a
y
l
e
y

H
a
m
i
l
t
o
n
t
h
e
o
r
e
m
:

m
a
t
r
i
c
e
s
w
i
t
h
p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
s
a
s
e
n
t
r
i
e
s
.
T
h
e
m
a

t
r
i
x

t
I
n

A
w
h
o
s
e
d
e
t
e
r
m
i
n
a
n
t
i
s
t
h
e
c
h
a
r
a

c
t
e
r
i
s
t
i
c
p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
o
f

A
i
s
s
u
c
h
a
m
a
t
r
i
x
,

a
n
d
s
i
n
c
e
p
o
l
y
n
o
m
i
a
l
s
f
o
r
m
a
c
o
m
m
u
t
a
t
i
v
e
r
i
n

g
,
i
t
h
a
s
a
n
a
d
j
u
g
a
t
e