Reparacion YMejora en Soldaduras

maintenance and repair of transport infrastructure
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TECHNICAL GUIDE
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Copyright LABORATRIO NACIONAL DE ENGENHARIA CIVIL, I. P.

Diviso de Divulgao Cientfica e Tcnica
AV DO BRASIL 101 1700-066 LISBOA
e-e: livraria@lnec.pt
www.lnec.pt
Publisher: LNEC
Collection: Manuals
Series: MN 13
1st. edition: 2012

Printing: 100 copies
Descriptors:
Transport infrastructures / Steel structure / Reinforced concrete structure /

/ Maintenance of structures / Repair of structures / Durability of structures /
/ Structural testing / Guide / Europe
Descritores:
Infraestruturas de transportes / Estrutura metlica / Estrutura de beto armado /

/ Conservao de estruturas / Reparao de estruturas / Durabilidade de estruturas /
/ Ensaio de estruturas / Guia / Europa
CDU

624.05[012.4]9:625(026)(4)
624.05[014]9:625(026)(4)
ISBN
978-972-49-2237-9 (paperback)
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STEEL STRUCTURES
PART III
repair methods
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VOL 4
Maria Joo Correia

Hugo Perneta
Manuela Salta
Authors
Maria Joo Correia

Postdoctoral fellow, LNEC
Hugo Perneta
Duratinet research fellow, LNEC
Manuela Salta
Principal researcher and head of Metallic Materials Division, LNEC
Reviewer
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Hugo Patrcio
Structural civil engineer, REFER
Final revision by Editorial Commission member
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X. Ramn Nvoa
Professor, University of Vigo
PREFACE
This is Part III, Volume 4 of the DURATINET Technical Guide - Maintenance
and Repair of Transport Infrastructure, which contains guidelines on repair
methods for steel structures.
The content of this volume was prepared and reviewed within DURATINET
working group WG A4 Maintenance and repair of steel structures.
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The aim of WG A4 was to harmonize the needs of maintenance and repair of

steel structures and identify knowledge gaps in the partner countries. Within this
WG, technical guidelines were developed relating to durability factors (both
environment and material related), deterioration processes (damage
mechanisms and defects), testing techniques for inspection, repair methods and
protection systems for steel structures. All these subjects are considered in the
five volumes of Part III of the DURATINET Technical Guide.
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WG A4 Maintenance and Repair of Steel Structures

WG Leader:
Franck Schoefs
University of Nantes, France
Partners active members
Country
Institution
members
Manuela Salta, Paula Rodrigues, Maria Joo
LNEC
Correia, Hugo Perneta
Portugal
Hugo Patrcio
REFER
Laurent Gaillet
France
IFSTTAR
DURATINET project approved by the Atlantic Area Programme and co-financed

by ERDF
2008-1/049
PROJECT TITLE:
Durable Transport Infrastructure in the Atlantic

Area Network
ACRONYM:
DURATINET
LEADER:
Manuela Salta
Laboratrio Nacional de Engenharia Civil (LNEC)
Materials Department
Portugal
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CONTRACT N:
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GENERAL INDEX
Part III
Steel Structures
Vol. 1
Durability factors and requirements

Environment
Material properties
Specific requirements for durability
Vol. 2
Deterioration
Classification of defects
Vol. 3
Testing techniques
Mechanisms
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Non-destructive testing methods (NDT)

Destructive testing methods (DT)
Adequacy of testing to the damage

Vol. 4
Repair methods
Methods for repairing damage in steel elements
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Methods for improving fatigue performance

Adequacy of repair to the damage
Vol. 5
Protection systems
Cathodic protection
Coating systems
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Surface preparation
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CONTENTS
Part III Steel structures: Vol. 4
1
General considerations .................................................................................1
Methods for repairing damage in steel elements .........................................2

2.1
Stop hole ...............................................................................................2

Fundamentals .................................................................................. 2
2.1.2
Applicability ...................................................................................... 2
2.1.3
Equipment........................................................................................ 2
2.1.4
Procedures ...................................................................................... 2
2.1.1
Previous evaluation ................................................................. 2
2.1.4.2
Execution Conditions ............................................................... 3
2.1.4.3
Control of work......................................................................... 3
2.1.5
2.2
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2.1.4.1
Limits ............................................................................................... 4
Welding .................................................................................................4
Fundamentals .................................................................................. 4
2.2.2
Applicability ...................................................................................... 5
2.2.3
Equipment........................................................................................ 5
2.2.4
Procedures ...................................................................................... 6
2.2.4.1
2.2.4.2
Previous evaluation ................................................................. 6

Execution Conditions ............................................................... 6
Arc welding processes ............................................................. 7
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2.2.4.3
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2.2.1
2.2.4.4
2.2.5
Effects ............................................................................................ 11
2.2.6
Limits ............................................................................................. 12
2.3
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Control of work....................................................................... 10
Bolting .................................................................................................12
2.3.1
Fundamentals ................................................................................ 12
2.3.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 14
2.3.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 14
2.3.4
Procedures .................................................................................... 15
2.3.4.1
Previous evaluation ............................................................... 15
2.3.4.2
Execution Conditions ............................................................. 15
2.3.4.3
Control of work....................................................................... 16
2.3.5
2.4
Limits ............................................................................................. 17
Riveting ...............................................................................................17
2.4.1
Fundamentals ................................................................................ 17
2.4.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 20
2.4.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 20
2.4.4
Procedures .................................................................................... 21
2.4.4.2
2.4.4.3
Control of work....................................................................... 23
2.4.5
Limits ............................................................................................. 23
Adding steel elements ........................................................................24
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2.5
2.4.4.1
Fundamentals ................................................................................ 24
2.5.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 24
2.5.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 24
2.5.4
Procedures .................................................................................... 25
2.5.5
Effects ............................................................................................ 26
2.5.6
Limits ............................................................................................. 26
2.6
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2.5.1
Replacement.......................................................................................26
Fundamentals ................................................................................ 26
2.6.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 26
2.6.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 27
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2.6.1
2.6.4
Procedures .................................................................................... 28
2.6.4.1
2.6.4.2
2.6.4.3
Control of work....................................................................... 29
2.6.5
Effects ............................................................................................ 29
2.6.6
Limits ............................................................................................. 29
2.7
Mechanical straightening ....................................................................30
2.7.1
Fundamentals ................................................................................ 30
2.7.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 30
2.7.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 30
2.7.4
Procedures .................................................................................... 32
v
2.7.4.1
2.7.4.2
Execution conditions .............................................................. 32
2.7.4.3
Control of work....................................................................... 33
2.7.5
Effects ............................................................................................ 33
2.7.6
Limits ............................................................................................. 33
2.8
Heat straightening...............................................................................33
Fundamentals ................................................................................ 33
2.8.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 34
2.8.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 34
2.8.4
Procedures .................................................................................... 34
2.8.1
2.8.4.2
Planning and design process ................................................ 35
2.8.4.3
Control of work....................................................................... 37
2.8.5
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2.8.4.1
Effects ............................................................................................ 38
Properties of materials ........................................................... 38
2.8.5.2
Residual Stresses .................................................................. 39
2.8.6
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2.8.5.1
Limits ............................................................................................. 39
Repair with fibre reinforced polymers (FRP) ......................................39
Fundamentals ................................................................................ 39
2.9.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 40
2.9.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 40
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2.9.1
2.9.4
2.9.4.1
2.9.4.2
2.9.4.3
Control of work....................................................................... 42
2.9.5
Effects ............................................................................................ 42
2.9.6
Effectiveness ................................................................................. 43
2.9.7
Limits ............................................................................................. 43
Methods for improving fatigue performance ...............................................44

3.1
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Procedures .................................................................................... 41
Grinding ..............................................................................................44
3.1.1
Fundamentals ................................................................................ 44
3.1.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 44
3.1.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 44
3.1.4
Procedures .................................................................................... 45
3.1.4.1
3.1.4.2
Control of work....................................................................... 45
3.1.5
Comparing grinding methods ........................................................ 46
3.1.6
Effects ............................................................................................ 46
3.1.7
Effectiveness ................................................................................. 46
3.1.8
Limits ............................................................................................. 46
Peening...............................................................................................47
3.2
Fundamentals ................................................................................ 47
3.2.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 48
3.2.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 48
3.2.4
Procedures .................................................................................... 48
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3.2.1
3.2.4.1
3.2.4.2
Control of work....................................................................... 49
Comparing peening methods ........................................................ 50
3.2.6
Effects ............................................................................................ 50
3.2.7
Effectiveness ................................................................................. 50
3.2.8
Limits ............................................................................................. 51
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3.2.5
Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) dressing .....................................................51

Fundamentals ................................................................................ 51
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3.3.1
3.3.2
Applicability .................................................................................... 52
3.3.3
Equipment...................................................................................... 52
3.3.4
Procedures .................................................................................... 53
3.3.4.1
3.3.4.2
Control of work....................................................................... 53
3.3.5
Effects ............................................................................................ 54
3.3.6
Effectiveness ................................................................................. 54
3.3.7
Limits ............................................................................................. 54
Adequacy of repair to the damage .............................................................55
References .................................................................................................58
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REPAIR METHODS
General considerations
Remedial measures, like repair or strengthening, may provide the safety level
required for a structure when its technical condition is considered to be at risk.
However, their implementation should result from an expert investigation that
makes it possible to identify the causes of the failure and the respective effects,
and, thus, to select the most suitable procedure according both to the type of
structural system and to the requirements for the detail being addressed.
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These remedial measures can be either used to restore or to upgrade the

structures condition. They can be used to rehabilitate structures with durability
problems, normally due to low quality of the construction materials, poor
construction and/or insufficient maintenance. These measures can also be used
to upgrade old structures, in which the original level is no longer appropriate for
the new requirements. A careful analysis is essential for an effective remedial
measure that should consider the current requirements, the environmental and
functional conditions, and the material properties. Especially in old structures,
particular attention must be given to the compatibility of materials, as well as to
the design and control of structural connections, particularly when changes in
the system of internal forces occur.
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This volume of the technical guide details the most commonly used repair
methods to restore or to improve the condition of steel structures, indicating
their fundamentals, primary procedures, limits, and respective effects. Although
the details of strengthening design are not within the scope of the current
document, some of the reported methods are also used for strengthening, such
as: adding welded or bolted steel plates or other profiles to reinforce joints and
enlarge the cross-section of structural members; replacing weak members by
new ones with the required load carrying capacity; bonding external fibre
reinforcement polymer (FRP) strips; installing additional members such as plate
or truss girders; applying external post-tensioning; and replacing the deck or
pavement with a lighter one.
Some of the reported methods are generally used to repair damages in steel
structures, even if they have limits and effects associated with the defect type
and cause, while others are specifically applied as improvement methods for
fatigue performance.
STEEL STRUCTURES
Methods for repairing damage in steel elements
2.1 Stop hole

2.1.1 Fundamentals
Stop hole consists of drilling a hole at or close to the crack tip to reduce the
local stress concentration and to prevent crack propagation.
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The effectiveness of this repair method can be influenced by several

parameters, such as: size, location and surface finish of the hole; type and size
of the crack; mechanical properties of the material; type and magnitude of the
load; and stress ratio.
According to references in the literature [1]-[4], this method may be improved by
cold expansion, additional holes, and high strength bolts, rivets, or pins.
2.1.2 Applicability
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Stop hole is a simple and economic repair technique that is normally employed
to extend the fatigue life of cracked structural elements, and also as a
temporary and/or emergency repair method, in both welded and bolted/riveted
structures, with the objective of delaying crack propagation. This method is
suited for small through-thickness cracks subjected to low stress ranges in
plates or plate components of structural elements, and to arrest the crack tip of
large cracks provided that the remaining length of the crack is repaired by either
welding or bolted splice plates [5].
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According to Khn et al. [6], in welded structures, stop hole is good for fatigue
cracking due to lack of fusion, cold cracks, restraint, and web breathing. In
these structures, it may also be applied when the fatigue causes are vibration,
web gaps, and geometrical changes. In bolted and riveted structures, this
method is excellent for out-of-plane bending, good for problems such as
secondary stresses, and fair for local stress concentration.
2.1.3 Equipment
Drilling machines are used together with adequate protective clothing and
equipment.
2.1.4 Procedures
2.1.4.1 Previous evaluation
The crack should be inspected with NDT techniques (e.g. penetrant liquids, see
Part III, Vol. 3 - Testing techniques [7]) to locate the crack tip, because the
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REPAIR METHODS
effectiveness of this method is strongly influenced by the position of the hole in

relation to the crack tip. All the remaining factors of influence, such as crack
characteristics, hole radius, component properties and loads, can be considered
for a more effective solution. The identification of the causes of cracking is also
fundamental for the effectiveness of this method and to minimize further failure
events.
2.1.4.2 Execution Conditions
The procedure basically consists of drilling a hole that limits crack propagation.
However, besides an adequate dimension for the hole, it is vital to assure that
the tip is not missed. Otherwise the resulting outcome will be unpredictable,
because the crack will behave as a notch crack growing at high rates.
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For this reason, different recommendations can be found in the literature [3]
concerning the location of the hole relatively to the crack tip, such as the edge
of the hole coinciding with the visible end of the crack, or locating the hole a
little bit ahead of the crack tip as shown in Fig. 1.
Fig. 1. Location of the hole relatively to the crack tip.
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The stop hole diameter should be enough to ensure an effective reduction in

local stress concentration. The US Army Corps of Engineers [5] recommends
determining the minimum size for the hole to be drilled using the following
equation (1), which is valid for moderate crack sizes in structural steel and
stress ranges up to 40 MPa:
26.7
(1)
where k is the stress intensity, r the radius of the hole, and y the yield stress.
The drilled holes should be cleaned to remove all traces of cutter lubricant and
drilling chips. Finally, they should be polished with an emery cloth to remove all
nicks, gouges and burrs. This procedure is essential to provide a suitable
surface condition for further improvements or to apply the coating system.
2.1.4.3 Control of work
To make sure that each crack was properly treated, visual inspection and
NDT, such as liquid penetrant testing, according to EN 571-1:1997 [8] and EN
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STEEL STRUCTURES
ISO 23277:2009 [9], should be carried out (see Part III, Vol. 3 - Testing
techniques [7]). If the crack tip was not intercepted, the hole should be slightly
enlarged [5].
2.1.5 Limits
Stop hole is usually either an emergency repair technique, or it is used together
with other repair methods to increase the residual fatigue life of a structure.
Nevertheless, according to the literature [5],[10], this method can be considered
permanent if specific conditions are fulfilled. For example on riveted structures,
the ratio between the theoretical stress at the edge of the hole and the nominal
stress should not exceed the yield stress of the material.
2.2 Welding
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2.2.1 Fundamentals
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The stop hole method is very simple to accomplish but it depends on the skill
and experience of the operator. Special care is required when crack fronts are
not uniform throughout the thickness, because if the crack tip is not eliminated
the repair may result in a harmful situation.
Welding is a process of joining materials that ensures continuity between the

metallic elements by fusion. According to ISO/TR 581:2005 [11], a metallic
substance is considered to be weldable when the metallic continuity can be
obtained using a suitable procedure so that the joints comply with the
requirements specified as regards to their properties and their influence on the
construction of which they are part.
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A wide range of welding processes are available that differ in parameters, such
as temperature, pressure, and filler metal. Based on the source of energy, these
processes can be classified as gas, arc, resistance, solid-state, thermochemical, and radiant energy welding. The choice of a specific process depends
on various factors like metal properties, type, location and requirements of the
joint, accessibility, design, envisage performance, and cost.
Welding involves the transference of a large amount of heat to the element
being welded. The thermal cycle, which is governed by the distance between
each point of the element and the source of heat, is illustrated in Fig. 2. These
thermal cycles produce microstructural changes in the steel affecting its
properties. Metallurgy explains the major principles and the consequent impact
on steel properties of welding processes.
When subjected to temperatures above the critical range, steel undergoes
changes predicted by the equilibrium diagrams. The phase transformations,
with temperature and time, are represented by time-temperature-transformation
diagrams (TTT) and by continuous cooling transformation diagrams (CCT),
respectively for isothermal and continuous cooling. Weld microstructures and
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REPAIR METHODS
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properties depend on cooling rates and are a direct consequence from other
events that occur during solidification including effect of non-metallic inclusions
and solid state reactions.
Fig. 2. Temperature variation with time at different distances from the heat
(Adapted from [12])
source.
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The metallurgical changes depend on various factors, such as materials,

process and procedures, which significantly affect the weld quality. This quality
is affected by the parameters of a given process, such as welding current and
speed, arc voltage, electrode feed rate, length and diameter, and joint geometry,
due to their effects on the deposition rate, weld-bead shape, depth of
penetration, cooling rate, and distortion.
2.2.2 Applicability
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For the repair of steel structures, welding may be used in cracks and damaged
welds. This process can also be used to strengthen riveted connections or
individual members by adding plates [13].
According to Khn et al. [6], the repair of fatigue related damages by welding is
almost exclusive to welded structures but it may also be used in riveted steel or
wrought iron structures. This type of repair offers good results for fatigue causes
such as weld defects, lack of fusion and cold cracks. For defects caused by
restraint, vibration, web gaps, geometrical changes and web breathing, welding
is not the most suitable repair technique but it can also be used. As for riveted
structures, this kind of repair is used for fatigue problems resulting from
defective riveting process, the weldability assessment of the metal being
nevertheless required.
2.2.3 Equipment
For welding, specific equipment is required, depending on the welding process,
as well as protective equipment and clothing. The equipment should comply with
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STEEL STRUCTURES
the specifications in the respective standards, like those in EN 1011-1:2009 [14] for
arc welding.
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The equipment used for arc welding consists of electrodes, electrode holder,
ground clamp and arc welding machine (Fig. 3).
Fig. 3. Arc welding: 1. arc welding machine; 2. electrode holder; 3.

electrode; 4. workpiece; 5. ground clamp.
2.2.4 Procedures
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Visual inspection and occasionally additional NDT are required to detect and
characterize defects before weld repair.
The base metal type and its weldability should be assessed, and special
attention should be paid to the compatibility of materials, selection of processes
and operating conditions. Expertise may be required to address unique
circumstances when the material is not weldable.
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Weldability is related to various factors, which include metallurgical

considerations related with chemical composition and microstructure of the
metal, mechanical properties, welding processes and joint design. Chemical
composition is the primary factor affecting weldability of metals due to its
influence on microstructure and consequent mechanical properties changes.
Weldability of steel is usually related with carbon equivalent, but can also be
determined by direct tests, which measure the changes induced by welding in a
specified property and evaluate the performance of welded joints.
Fatigue analysis in the region to be repaired may be performed when fatigue life
enhancement is required.
Welding repair of steel structures follows the common requirements for the
execution of steel structures specified in EN 1090-2:2008 [15]. Considering the
quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic materials that are indicated in
EN ISO 3834-1:2005 [16], and depending on the execution classes, according to
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REPAIR METHODS
the guidance provided by EN 1090-2:2008 [15], a welding plan should be drawn

including the connection details, weld type and procedure specifications,
requirements for intermediate checking and surface treatments, heat treatment
specifications, requirements for acceptance criteria, and reference to inspection.
Weld repair procedures depend on the type and characteristics of the damage
to be repaired although following the general requirements should be observed.
Considering, for example, the weld repair of cracks, the procedure should
include edge preparation, improvement of the weld toe profile, and inspection of
the weld.
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There are some common procedures and precautions, concerning the design
and implementation of welded joints, which should be addressed to fulfil the
quality requirements and to diminish risks associated with defects and residual
stresses. The proper design of joints and allowances are advisable to reduce
the stresses due to restraints, which may induce distortions. The use of low
hydrogen electrodes, properly stored and handled, is generally recommended
to limit cold cracking. Preheating is also recommended for similar purposes due
to its effects on the cooling rate and magnitude of shrinkage stresses. Post weld
treatment may also be used with a similar objective, particularly for steels with a
carbon content higher than 0.4 % due to its susceptibility to cracking even when
preheating is applied. Post-heat treatments are always recommended when
[3]
repairs are carried out on fracture critical members .
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Since, at fusion temperature, steel combines with air constituents causing

embrittlement, arc welding requires protection against the environment. It is this
type of protection that may be provided by different sources such as coated
electrodes, flux powder or gas, which primarily differentiates the welding
processes.
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Improvement methods, such as grinding, peening and remelting may be used to

improve the weld geometry in order to increase the fatigue resistance of the
joint. Special welding techniques have also been indicated as weld geometry
improvement methods [17].
2.2.4.3 Arc welding processes
Arc welding is the most widely used group of processes for repairing steel
structures due to its flexibility and efficiency for in situ operations. This group of
welding processes, that uses an electric arc as an energy source of heat,
includes shielded arc welding, submerged arc welding, gas metal welding, gas
tungsten welding, plasma arc welding, and electroslag | electrogas welding.
Pressure or filler metal may or may not be used, depending on the process.
Some of the most used processes in steel structures, such as manual and selfshielded metal arc welding, as well as arc stud welding will be specifically
detailed in this manual.
Guidance for arc welding processes is given by EN 1011-1:2009 [14], including
generic principles, quality requirements, planning and fabrication requirements,
protection, preheating and post-weld heat treatments, surface treatments and
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STEEL STRUCTURES
corrections, inspection and documentation. Requirements for welding procedure

specifications for arc welding processes are specified in ISO 15609-1:2004 [18].
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Manual metal arc welding is a manual process that uses an arc with an
electrode consisting of a metallic core and a coating (Fig. 4). The consumable
electrode, depending on its type, assures several functions by providing
stabilizers, gas, slag, and filler metal. The arc stabilizers, scavengers, and
deoxidizers clean the weld, while the gases shield the arc by preventing
excessive atmospheric contamination. The slag protects the hot weld metal
from air and against embrittlement, caused by excessive high rates of cooling,
enhancing the mechanical properties, bead shape, and surface cleanliness. It
also provides the filler metal, by supplying alloying elements to improve the
mechanical properties of the weld. The controlled parameters are the voltage
and amperage of the equipment.
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Fig. 4. Manual metal arc welding.
Commonly accepted advantages of this process include its suitability for most
used alloys and the relatively simple, inexpensive and portable equipment.
Furthermore, it allows different types of assemblage in all welding positions and
for a wide range of thicknesses. Nevertheless, there are some disadvantages,
such as high labour cost due to expended time and low deposition rate in
comparison with other processes. Subsequently, this process is only adopted
when more productive processes cannot be used, as for example, in areas with
difficult accessibility and for small lengths of weld [19].
Self-shielded tubular-cored arc welding (Fig. 5) is a semi-automatic process
which produces an arc between the continuous wire electrode and the weld
pool. The electrode provides similar functions as the covered electrodes used in
manual metal arc welding. The welding parameters of input are the welding
voltage, length of wire and debit speed of the wire. This process provides a
more localized protection, and higher deposition and productivity rates than
other processes like manual metal-arc welding. It may also be employed for
different types of assemblies and welding positions, and it can be applied
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REPAIR METHODS
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without protection to air currents [19]. The main disadvantages refer to the
equipment, which is more complex, more costly, and less portable than the one
used for manual metal arc welding. It also generates a larger amount of welding
fumes.
Fig. 5. Self-shielded tubular-cored arc welding.
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Short cycle drawn arc stud welding is a process that uses an arc between a
metal stud and the work piece. The requirements for the studs and stud
welding processes are specified, respectively, in ISO 13918:2008 [20] and
ISO 14555:2006 [21], including those related with welding knowledge, quality,
welding procedure specification and qualification, qualification testing of
operators, and testing of welds.
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Stud welding comprehends three phases as shown in Fig. 6. The pistol with the
stud is placed over the piece, and the stud compresses the spring (phase 1).
The exerted pressure contributes with the heat to obtain a good arc length for
fusion of the base metal with the lower end of the stud (phase 2). Finally, the
power supply is cut and the stud is spiked by the action of the spring (phase 3).
A ring of refractory material, which should be removed after welding, assures
protection by limiting the oxidation and maintaining the metal molten.
Some advantages of stud welding include the versatility related with the
positioning of the element and the high productivity rates compared with manual
welding. However, it is a specialized process, which is primarily suitable for
carbon steel and low alloy steels. The execution of stud welding in situ also
requires a powerful generator with a fast response.
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STEEL STRUCTURES
Fig. 6. Welding of studs.
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The inspection plan should include examination before, during and after
weld execution. Before welding, inspection of joint preparation should be
performed including edge preparation, cleanliness, and root opening. During
welding, the welded area should be visually inspected and imperfections,
such as cracks, cavities, and slag should be removed between each run.
The visual inspection should also be performed after the completion of
welding according to EN 970:1997 [22].
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After a predefined time, as that indicated in EN 1090-2:2008 [15], additional NDT

can be carried out in accordance to the general principles given in EN
17635:2010 [23]. These tests should comply with the specific requirements of each
method: magnetic particle - EN ISO 17638:2009 [24] and EN ISO 23278:2009 [25];
liquid penetrant - EN 571-1:1997 [8] and EN ISO 23277:2009 [9]; radiographic EN
444:1994 [26] and EN 1435:1997 [27]; ultrasonic - EN 1712:1997 [28], EN
1713:1998 [29], and EN 1714:1997 [30]; eddy current EN 1711:2000 [31] (see
Part III, Vol. 3 - Testing techniques [7]). According to EN 1090-2:2008 [15], the
need for additional NDT depends on the results of visual inspection, execution
class and requirements specified in the acceptance criteria following the
guidelines given in EN 17635:2010 [23]. These tests are used to detect defects
and to obtain information about their size, shape, orientation and location. The
welds should comply with the requirements specified in the acceptance criteria,
or be repaired in accordance with qualified welding procedures. Repaired welds
should also meet the requirements of the original welds.
Due to its influence on the metallurgy of the material and consequently on the
quality of the weld, the requirements for measuring preheat, interpass and
maintenance preheat temperature are specified in EN ISO 13916:1996 [32].
10
REPAIR METHODS
Fatigue analysis may also be performed after repair to ensure that no problems
were caused by the repair works.
2.2.5 Effects
Repair by welding should require adequate processes and design, qualified
procedures, and quality control. If the welding process is poorly controlled, the
joint resistance will be reduced and the susceptibility to cracking will be
increased by defects and residual tensile stresses. Due to continuity, these
problems are experienced by both elements and so this is the major drawback
of welded joints.
To minimize problems, the welding standard codes only allow limited levels of
defects, taking into consideration the fabrication and intended use, by defining
quality classes and acceptance criteria.
iNe
The magnetic fields frequently present in steels may deflect the arc welding
process. This phenomenon is known as arc blow and it may be strong enough
to temporarily extinguish arc welding, causing defects such as slag inclusions,
lack of sidewall fusion and porosity. In this case, the weld should be cut out and
repaired again.
rat
Generally, allowances are considered to reduce the distortion associated with

welding. The distortion is caused by uneven restrained contraction of the metal
after expansion. As Fig. 7 shows, the main types of distortion are angular,
longitudinal, and transverse. The preparation of the joint, pre-setting and tack
welding, backstep welding and appropriate welding procedures, cooling rate,
post-weld heat treatments, and stress relieving methods may be used to control
distortion.
Du
These deformations produce internal residual stresses that may cause crack
initiation. Therefore, the International Institute of Welding (IIW) classified the
assembly drawings according to the degree of weld restraining. When dealing
with old steels, it is convenient to choose simple assembly drawings [19].
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. 7. Weld distortion: (a) longitudinal; (b) transverse; (c) angular.
11
STEEL STRUCTURES
2.2.6 Limits
The complexity of welding, due to the diversity in knowledge areas and
influencing parameters like processes, procedure variables, materials, and
design details justify the need for a repair plan, as well as for qualified welders
and welding operators according to EN 287-1:2006 [33] and EN 1418:1997 [34].
For an entirely successful welding repair, the cause of distress should also be
determined and eliminated or mitigated.
2.3 Bolting
2.3.1 Fundamentals
iNe
The metal weldability and the condition of the surface to be welded are the main
influencing factors of the weld quality. Low quality wrought iron and white cast
iron are unfit for welding. Low carbon steels and high quality wrought iron may
be repaired by welding after proper surface preparation. Regardless of the type
of material, expert analysis is recommended to prepare a welding repair plan.
Du
rat
According to EN 1090-2:2008 [15], bolt assemblies (Fig. 8) consist of matching

bolts, nuts, and washers, as necessary, to reduce local damage in metallic
coatings. Bolting is the most employed mechanical fastening method and does
not require the use of specialized labour or expensive equipment.
Fig. 8. Bolt configuration: 1. screw; 2. washer; 3. set to tighten; 4. nut.
Bolted assemblies are characterized by the type of loading, perpendicular or

parallel to bolt axes, and by the operating mode in both non-preloaded and
preloaded assemblies. Integration of these criteria defines five categories for bolt
assemblies, which are designated from A to E, according to EN 1993-1-8:2005 [35].
The categories A, B and C of bolted connections are designed for shear loading
while D and E are designed for tension loading. Table 1 provides a summarized
description of these categories.
12
REPAIR METHODS
Table 1. Categories of bolted connections. (Adapted from

Category
Description
Bearing type
Slip-resistant
at
serviceability
Criteria
Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
Fv,Ed Fb,Rd
[35])
Type of
loading
Bolt classes to
use1)
Preloading
requirement
Shear
4.6 to 10.9
No
Shear
8.8 or 10.9
Yes
Shear
8.8 or 10.9
Yes
Fv,Ed.ser Fs,Rd.ser
Fv,Ed Fv,Rd
Fv,Ed Fb,Rd
Fv,Ed Fb,Rd
Fv,Ed Nnet,Rd
Nonpreloaded
Preloaded
Ft,Ed Ft,Rd
iNe
Fv,Ed Fs,Rd
Slip-resistant
at ultimate
Ft,Ed Bp,Rd
Ft,Ed Ft,Rd
Ft,Ed Bp,Rd
Tension
4.6 to 10.9
No
Tension
8.8 or 10.9
Yes
1)
See Table 2
rat
Symbols: Ultimate shear load - Fv,Ed | Shear resistance - Fv,Rd | Bearing resistance Fb,Rd | Serviceability shear load - Fv,Ed.ser | Slip resistance - Fs,Rd.ser | Plastic resistance
of the net cross-section at bolt holes - Nnet,Rd | Ultimate tension load - Ft,Ed | Tension
resistance - Ft,Rd | Punching shear resistance - Bp,Rd
Du
In non-preloaded assemblies, standard non-preloadable bolts are usually

applied although preloadable bolts may also be used. In preloaded applications,
high strength structural bolting should comply with the requirements in EN
14399-1:2005 [36] and with the specific standards for HR and HV systems of
bolts and nuts, respectively, EN 14399-3:2005 [37] and EN 143993-4:2005 [38].
The corresponding product standards for washers of HR and HV systems are,
respectively, EN 14399-5:2005 [39] and EN 14399-6:2005 [40]. The requirements
for the use of special bolts are also included in EN 1090-2:2008 [15], e.g.
hexagon injection bolts (Fig. 9). The mechanical and physical properties of
bolts, screws and studs made of carbon steel and alloy steel are specified in
EN ISO 898-1:2009 [41].
Bolting requires less skilled labour than riveting and welding, and, even though
the price of high-strength bolts is higher than the price of rivets, the overall cost
of bolting is cheaper. Comparatively to riveting, bolting requires reduced labour,
cheaper equipment, and less bolts than rivets, because they have a higher
resistance to loading. The specialized labour for bolting requires far lesser
training than riveting or welding, and the noise produced is also less significant.
Another advantage of bolted connections is the higher fatigue strength and, in
case of the need for later alterations or disassembly, bolt removal is also very
simple.
13
STEEL STRUCTURES
Fig. 9. Injection bolt in a double lap joint.
2.3.2 Applicability
[15]
iNe
Bolting is mainly used to replace defective bolts in bolt assemblies.

Nevertheless, it may also be used in old steel works with low weldability, and to
replace defective rivets in riveted assemblies. The main advantage of replacing
damaged rivets by bolts is the lower cost, but it does not contribute to the
increase of the assembly resistance. Normally, it is considered to be preferable
to use rivets that additionally maintain the uniformity.
rat
Preloaded bolting is considered [6] to be excellent for fatigue cracking caused by

cracks at holes or by thin connection plates, although it may also be used for
conditions such as bad riveting or poor detailing.
According to the guidelines of a highway research program report [42], repair of
cracks in fracture critical members must be more conservative and performed
by bolted splices with further strengthening, if additional repair methods are
used.
Du
2.3.3 Equipment
The equipment used for repair bolting are the tools normally used to form holes,
such as punching and drilling tools (Fig. 10a), and impact and/or regular
wrenches for tightening (Fig. 10b).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 10. Tools used for repair bolting: (a) drilling machine; (b) regular
wrench.
14
REPAIR METHODS
2.3.4 Procedures
Bolting procedures follow the established requirements for the execution of
bolt assemblies in steel structures, although specific repair measures may be
required depending on the type and extent of damage. The replacement of
bolts and repair measures should take into account the severity and
consequences of damage. In some cases, the replacement of preloaded
assemblies may be required, including the replacement of the cover plate, the
elimination of out-of-round holes and the use of bolts with an increased
diameter [19].
iNe
The deconsolidation of assemblies requires preliminary studies to establish the

operating and installation modes, and to evaluate the need for strengthening to
avoid further damages.
The bolt diameter should be checked for compatibility with current requirements
and non-destructive tests may be performed to ensure the inexistence of cracks
at the edges of holes.
rat
Particularly in highly stressed joints, it is advisable to replace defective bolts

promptly, because the damage may cause overloading of the remaining
operating bolts.
As for the execution of new structures according to EN 1090-2:2008 [15], repair

and strengthening of bolt assemblies include specifications for design, surface
preparation, product, holing, tightening, as well as inspection and quality
requirements.
Du
Execution drawings should set the holes position relatively to the position of
assembled parts, and between them, according to the specifications of
Eurocode 3, EN 1993-1-8:2005 [35]. The nominal clearances for bolts, regarding
several types of holes, as well as tolerances, regarding the diameter of holes
and their execution, are defined in EN 1090-2:2008 [15].
Holing may be executed by any procedure provided that it produces a finished
hole that fulfils the cutting requirements to geometrical tolerances, maximum
hardness and smoothness of free edges according to EN 1090-2:2008 [15].
Besides the quality of the surface, matching hole, burr removal and special
requirements are included in EN 1090-2:2008 [15] for punching. Punched holes
should conform to specific requirements related with steel grade and execution
classes, as well as to generic requirements such as allowable distortion.
Defective holes may be repaired by producing a larger diameter hole that
should comply with the requirements, and by using adequate bolts.
The design resistance of individual bolts is given in Eurocode 3, EN 1993-1-8:2005 [35].
The specified rules are valid for bolt classes up to 8.8, for ordinary bolts, and
15
STEEL STRUCTURES
classes 8.8 to 10.9, for high strength bolts (Table 2). Recommendations are
also given for the appropriate use of bolts related with the categories of bolted
connections.
Table 2. Nominal values of the yield strength (fyb) and the ultimate tensile
[35]
strength (fub) for bolts.
Bolt grade
fyb
fub
4.6
4.8
5.6
5.8
6.8
8.8
10.9
240
320
300
400
480
640
900
400
400
500
500
600
800
1000
N/mm
N/mm
rat
iNe
The execution standard EN 1090-2:2008 [15] describes the tightening methods

for non-preloaded and preloaded bolts. Tightening of non-preloaded bolts brings
the assembly at least to a snug-tight condition, with a special care to avoid
overloading. Tightening procedures of preloaded bolts should be carried out
progressively, normally by rotation of the nut, following the requirements, and by
using one of the allowed methods, in particular, torque control method,
combined method, or direct tension indicator method. Tightening of preloaded
bolts implies the control of parameters, such as the minimum preloading force,
and the calibration of the tightening method.
Inspection and testing requirements for non-preloaded and preloaded bolt

connections are provided by EN 1090-2:2008[15].
Non-preloaded bolted connections should be visually checked after being
bolted up to verify conformity with the acceptance criteria in accordance with
EN 1090-2:2008[15].
Du
Surfaces of reloaded bolted connections should be visually inspected before

assembly. During and after tightening, inspection shall also be undertaken
depending on the execution class and tightening method applied. Sampling
should be on a random basis covering the following variables, as appropriate:
joint type; fastener lot, type and size; the equipment used and the operative`s
work.
If any bolted connection does not conform to a specific acceptance criteria
defined for each inspection, in accordance with EN 1090-2:2008 [15], the non
conformity may be corrected or the connection remade depending on the nonconformity cause. Corrected connections should also be inspected after recompletion.
Calibration of the tightening method for preloaded connections should be
performed, in accordance with EN 14399-2:2005 [43], to ensure that the specified
minimum preload is achieved.
16
REPAIR METHODS
2.3.5 Limits
iNe
The European standard for the execution of steel structures EN 1090-2:2008 [15]
includes the general requirements for mechanical fastening. According to EN
1090-2:2008 [15], the components of a common ply should not differ in thickness
by more than 2 mm, or 1 mm in preloaded applications (Fig. 11). Steel plate
thickness should be higher than 2 mm, and should be fitted so as to limit the
number of plates to a maximum of three. In case of severe exposure conditions,
closer contact may be required to avoid corrosion. The thickness of plate
washers, specifications of cover plates, and nominal diameter of fasteners to be
used on a ply are also specified in this standard.
Fig. 11. Difference of thickness between components of a common ply.
[15]
rat
Bolted connections should be designed according to the criteria of categories for

shear and tension connections, defined by EN 1993-1-8:2005 [35]. Depending on a
given application, the requirements for bolt assembly include some limits
concerning the bolt class, load, resistance, and limit state, besides those related
with execution specified in EN 1090-2:2008 [15].
Du
According to French regulations, only category C of bolted connections is

allowed for structural elements of bridges. Non-preloaded bolts are not
recommended for bridges due to vibrations that may cause loosening of the
bolts, fatigue problems, and higher corrosion susceptibility [19].
2.4 Riveting
2.4.1 Fundamentals
Riveting is a process used to join metallic components of structural members

with rivets (Fig. 12). A rivet consists of a metallic cylindrical bar called a shank
with a head at one extremity. Rivets are driven into holes in the elements to be
connected and a second head is formed, at the other end, by specific tools.
The rivet head can have different shapes (Fig. 13), although the most employed
in structural steel is the snap head.
Hot rivets should comply with the relevant product standard, which may be
indicated in national annexes. EN 1993-1-8:2005 [35] and EN 1090-2:2008 [15]
specify, respectively, the design resistance and the technical requirements for
the installation of rivets.
17
STEEL STRUCTURES
1
3
2
iNe
Fig. 12. Riveted assembly: 1. rivet holes; 2. red hot rivets; 3. manufactured
heads; 4. driven heads.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
rat
Fig. 13. Rivet types: (a) snap; (b) pan; (c) flat countersunk; (d) round
countersunk.
Du
Rivet joints may be classified according to the arrangement of plates and rivets.
In riveted joints, the plates overlap or butt against each other, respectively, in
lap or butt joints (Fig. 14). In butt joints, the connection is achieved with cover
plates on one or both sides. The two types of joints may have a single row, or
they may be staggered or have chain riveting.
Riveted assemblies can also be classified by the mode of load transmission or
loading type, which may be perpendicular (shear) or parallel forces (tension) to
the rivet axis or a combination of both (Fig. 15). The load is transmitted by
bearing between the plates and the shank or head of the rivet, the rivet being,
respectively, in shear load or tension. Besides the bearing resistance of the
rivets on the connecting members, there is also a friction caused by clamping in
hot riveting, which is usually disregarded in the analysis or design of a joint,
although it also contributes to the resistance of the joint to slippage.
18
REPAIR METHODS
(b)
(c)
(d)
iNe
(a)
(e)
(f)
rat
Fig. 14. Types of riveted joints: (a) lap joint, rivet in single shear; (b) lap
joint, rivets in double shear; (c) butt joint, single-riveted singlecover; (d) butt joint, double-riveted single-cover; (e) butt joint,
single-riveted double-cover; (f) butt joint, double-riveted doublecover.
Du
Single shear
Double shear
Multiple shear
(a)
(b)
Fig. 15. Types of solicitation in riveted joints: (a) rivets in shear; (b) rivets
in tension.
19
STEEL STRUCTURES
2.4.2 Applicability
iNe
Riveted assemblies (Fig. 16) were widely used in the nineteenth and early
twentieth century. However, riveting has become obsolete with the development
of bolting with high strength bolts and welding. Currently, it is only used in
rehabilitation works such as the repair and reinforcement of old riveted
structures (Fig. 17). Repair by riveting is mainly used to replace defective rivets
or whole assemblies.
rat
Fig. 16. Riveted assembly.
Fig. 17. Rehabilitation works in an old riveted structure.
Du
2.4.3 Equipment
The removal of old rivets requires cutting tools, such as those shown in Fig. 18,
and holes are performed either by punching or by a drill machine (Fig. 10).
Fig. 18. Flame cutting the rivet head.
20
REPAIR METHODS
rat
iNe
In hot riveting, rivets are driven by power riveting machines, by pneumatic

hammers or by hand. In the field, rivets are normally heated in a portable forger
and manually driven through the hole with a hammer. Then, the rivet is held by
a rivet snap or a small hydraulic jack, which depends on the site conditions, and,
finally, a pneumatic hammer with an adapted tool is used to form the second
head, as shown in Fig. 19.
Du
Fig. 19. Riveting in situ: 1. portable forger; 2. pneumatic hammer with an

adapted tool; 3. rivet snap; 4. small hydraulic jack; 4. hand
hammer.
2.4.4 Procedures
Before replacing a damaged rivet, the sides of the rivet holes should be
carefully inspected to detect signs of deterioration or distortion. In some cases,
it is advisable to perform non-destructive tests to ensure that there is no crack
initiation in parts of the hole that are not visible.
Especially in highly stressed joints, the immediate replacement of loose rivets
should be considered right after detection to avoid overloading of the remaining
rivets and probable consequent failure.
21
STEEL STRUCTURES

For the replacement of structural elements, the drawings should set the position
of holes according to the tolerances for spacing and alignment of holes in
Eurocode 3, EN 1993-1-8:2005 [35], and the general procedure should comply
with the specifications included in EN 1090-2:2008 [15].
The replacement of a defective rivet requires the removal of the old rivet,
usually by cutting out the head by flame cutting or by drilling, and then punching
off the rivet.
During installation of rivets the components should be held in contact together
by erection bolts or suitable devices.
iNe
The hole should be reamed if any cracks, pits or distortion are detected. The
eccentricity of common holes of a rivet is limited by EN 1090-2:2008 [15] to a
maximum of 1 mm, and thus holes should be reamed to fulfil this requirement.
The hole needs to be clean and free of defects before the rivet is driven.
rat
Attention should be given to avoid improperly centred or formed heads (Fig. 20).
The rivet should have enough length to provide complete filling of the hole and
a head of uniform dimensions, as well as to avoid surface indentation on the
outer faces of the plies in consequence of a short shank (Fig. 21). On the other
hand, the rivet should not be too long so as to avoid the formation of an extra lip
around the rivet head.
Du
Fig. 20. Improperly centred or formed heads.
(a)
(b)
Fig. 21. Defect regarding the rod length: (a) rod too long; (b) rod too short.
According to EN 1090-2:2008 [15], the heads of countersunk rivets should fill the
countersink completely after riveting.
The rivet, which may be of a larger diameter if necessary, is driven after
being uniformly heated throughout its length. Requirements provided by EN
1090-2:2008 [15] state that the rivet should be at a bright red state without
burning and free of scale, which is removed by striking the hot rivet on a hard
22
REPAIR METHODS
(b)
iNe
(a)
surface. Steady pressure machines are recommended to maintain the driving

pressure for enough time before disengagement (Fig. 22).
Fig. 22. Riveting process: (a) rivet at a bright red state; (b) rivet driving.
rat
Specialized labour is required for heating and driving the rivets, in compliance
with the specifications of EN 1090-2:2008 [15], in order to avoid defective
connections. Distances and hole diameters, properties and geometric
characteristics of rivets, heating and driven procedures are critical factors of the
riveting process.
Du
After completion of the work, the control of rivets is performed according to

EN 1090-2:2008 [15], through visual inspection of the head and by hammer
sounding. Rivet heads should be centred with a maximum eccentricity between
head and shank of 0.15 mm of the hole diameter. The head should also be well
formed and without cracks or pits. No movement or vibration should be able to
be detected when the rivet head is lightly tapped with a hammer.
2.4.5 Limits
The European standard EN 1090-2:2008 [15], which includes the general

requirements for mechanical fastening, imposes limits to the components of a
common ply indicated above as limits for bolted assemblies.
The limits of the riveting process regard the design and execution of riveted
steel structures. The distribution and size of holes, the design resistance, the
size of rivets, and the eccentricity of common holes and rivets should be the
subject of special care and control.
23
STEEL STRUCTURES
2.5 Adding steel elements

2.5.1 Fundamentals
Adding steel elements, such as angles and cover, filler, splice, radius or gusset
plates, is an easy and inexpensive repair technique, which is commonly used to
restore the initial conditions of a damaged member.
2.5.2 Applicability
rat
iNe
Adding elements, besides strengthening structural members, is frequently used

to bridge sections damaged by corrosion (Fig. 23) or collisions, and to repair
cracks caused by fatigue or overload.
Fig. 23. Use of cover plates on rolled sections. (Adapted from
[13])
Du
In fatigue cracked members of welded structures, adding plates has good

results for causes such as weld defects, lack of fusion, restraint, vibration, and
geometrical changes. When using bolted splices, excellent results may be
obtained for weld defects, lack of fusion, cold cracks, restraint, and geometrical
changes [6].
In riveted and bolted structures, adding plates is excellent for cracks at holes
and in the gross cross section, and good for causes such as the riveting
process and poor detailing [6].
This method is usually employed for cracks with depths exceeding the
penetration capability of TIG dressing or the effectiveness of peening and
grinding.
2.5.3 Equipment
Since additional elements may be welded, adhesive bonded, bolted or riveted,
the equipment used is described, respectively, in each subject section of this
volume of the technical guide. Some cases may require temporary supports,
hydraulic jacks or other devices, intended to preserve the structural safety.
24
REPAIR METHODS
2.5.4 Procedures
Repair procedures, including assessment and control, implied in adding
elements, depend on the damage being repaired and on the method chosen to
attach the elements.
Assessing the properties of the material to be repaired is essential to verify its
weldability, and to avoid other joining problems such as galvanic corrosion
effects.
The type of reinforcement component should also be chosen according to the
present damage, e.g. plates to repair small cracks, welded plates to repair
cracked columns, splice plates to repair cracked girders, and welded or bolted
gusset plates to repair both cracked girders and bracing elements (Fig. 24) [5].
iNe
Top chord truss

member
(a)
rat
Gusset
plate
(b)
Truss
members
(c)
Fig. 24. Reinforcement plates: (a) welded plates; (b) bolted splice plates;
(c) bolted gusset plate.
Du
Generally, the procedure includes: cleaning and preparation of the area being
repaired, previous dimensioning of the reinforcement element, which should
have enough thickness to prevent local buckling without the use of intermediate
fasteners, its application assuring structural safety, and the restoration of the
protection system. Other methods may be used together with the addition of
elements to an effective repair of damaged members.
The insertion of dead load stresses into the element may be accomplished by
drifting with the shortening of the new members as the sections are attached
together, or by contraction of a welded element during cooling [13].
Specific recommendations may also be found in the literature, such as the use
of reinforcement elements in compressed members maintaining the section
symmetry in order to prevent eccentric loadings, and the use of bolting in the
cover plate ends to raise the fatigue resistance when the risk of cracking
subsists in repaired cracked members [5].
25
STEEL STRUCTURES
2.5.5 Effects
This method can considerably add more dead load to the structure, so reducing
the strengthening effectiveness. Depending on the chosen method of
attachment, other effects may be found in the sections inherent to Welding,
Bolting or Riveting. For example, the most common problem in welded
elements is fatigue cracking at weld toes at the ends of plates.
By adding steel elements, changes in the load paths are likely to occur if
structural stiffness gets unbalanced, e.g. by adding plates at the bottom flange
of a girder will increase its stiffness thus becoming a preferential load path when
compared to other girders in their original state.
2.5.6 Limits
2.6 Replacement
rat
2.6.1 Fundamentals
iNe
The limits associated with this method are related with the method used to
attach the pieces, the limits being detailed in the sections devoted to Welding,
Bolting or Riveting.
Du
Replacement can be partial or total. Partial replacement basically consists of

removing a particular damaged area of a member and then replacing it with
either a welded or bolted/riveted insert, while total replacement consists of
replacing a member by a new one (Fig. 25).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 25. Member replacement: (a) partial replacement; (b) total

replacement.
2.6.2 Applicability
Partial replacement is normally applied to highly deteriorated members that
have experienced corrosion or damage by physical mechanisms, or to severely
26
REPAIR METHODS
deformed members as a consequence of accidental causes. Total replacement

may sometimes be technically and economically justified when these damages
are too extensive.
2.6.3 Equipment
iNe
The equipment used for the replacement of members are cutting tools, such as
flame cutting tools (Fig. 26), to extract the member either partially or totally, and
specific equipment, depending on the method chosen to attach the elements
(detailed information is given in the section devoted to Welding, Bolting or
Riveting).
rat
Fig. 26. Flame cutting machine.
Du
Some cases may require a temporary additional support system, hydraulic jacks,
external post-tensioning, or other devices, in order to preserve the structural
safety and to prevent changes in the geometry of the structure (Fig. 27).
(a)
(b)
Fig. 27. Support systems: (a) shoring; (b) jacks.
27
STEEL STRUCTURES
2.6.4 Procedures
The assessment should include all the factors that support a technical and
economical evaluation of the options for designing the repair, such as: the
characterization of materials to verify their weldability and to avoid joining
problems; a structure analysis to predict the structure behaviour; and an
accurate and extensive analysis of damages. The replacement should also be
preceded by a project design that considers all the phases of the repair
including a relevant structural analysis.
iNe
For partial or total replacement of a member, the generic procedures include:

careful removal of the damaged area or member and appropriate precautions
for safety, surface preparation prior to attachment, placement and fitting of the
piece or member, control of the repair procedures during all stages, and
restoration of the protection system.
rat
The damaged member should be partially or totally removed with care in order
to avoid further damage to the remaining connecting metal. The interface area
should be cleaned and the length of the replacement element should be similar
to the original, taking into consideration the effect of temperature and camber.
For elements subject to permanent loads, a temporary support system should
be used to transfer the loads, in order to avoid changes in the geometry of the
structure and to allow the safe removal and replacement of the damaged
element. More precisely, the stresses existing in the replaced component at the
replacement time should be analysed with care to preserve the structural safety
during the operation.
Du
Several procedures may be taken in case of difficulty in defining the exact

efforts applied to an element due to lack of information about the permanent
loads, imposed deformations to the structure, quality of construction, etc [19]:
creation of a support system according to calculated loads; insertion of
realignment marks; elimination of rivets and/or bolts in any element, which may
interfere with relative movement; verification that no relative movement has
occurred between the members, otherwise the loads should be readjusted in
the temporary system and the marks realigned.
Some regulations of the geometry may be required after replacement.
Specific examples of member replacement, such as the one illustrated in
Fig. 28, can be found in the literature [44],[19].
28
iNe
REPAIR METHODS
Fig. 28. Example of member replacement.
[19]
2.6.5 Effects
rat
Replacing an element requires inspection throughout all the process by trained

and qualified personnel. Specific control of works concerning Welding, Bolting
or Riveting is described in the respective section.
If the replacement is performed correctly, the structure`s condition will be

restored with no adverse effects. However, there are some associated risks,
such as collapse and prejudicial redistribution of loads that may impair the
benefits of replacement.
Du
Additional supporting systems must be carefully used because they may cause
local plastic deformations, if the yield strength of the material is exceeded,
and/or the initiation and propagation of cracking, which may lead to brittle
fracture.
2.6.6 Limits
The major limits of partial or total replacement are related with the method used
to attach the elements, which is detailed in the sections devoted to Welding,
Bolting or Riveting. Particularly, welded inserts should not be used for fracture
critical elements unless if they are combined with bolted splices.
The condition of the structure and, particularly, the safety requirements may
limit the total replacement of a member.
29
STEEL STRUCTURES
2.7 Mechanical straightening

2.7.1 Fundamentals
iNe
Mechanical straightening consists of applying external forces to a deformed

element to induce opposite plastic deformation to restore its initial condition.
This method is designated as cold mechanical straightening if it involves only
the application of forces to induce plastic deformation and hot mechanical
straightening, if straightening is accomplished with both the use of heat and
external forces. This repair method can be applied to a given structural
member directly on site or after its temporary removal from the structure, as
shown in Fig. 29.
rat
Fig. 29. Mechanical straightening in shop.
2.7.2 Applicability
Du
Mechanical straightening is used to repair deformed structural members.

However, its applicability depends on a specific analysis that should include the
features characterizing the deformation, such as: type, size and location of the
deformation; structural member; system and steel characteristics; and
predominant type of loading.
Mechanical straightening is usually applied when allowable deformations are
exceeded and if the repair of the deformed member is technically viable. When
the deformation is too severe, the structural member should be replaced by a
new one, as detailed in the previous section (Replacement).
2.7.3 Equipment
Different types of equipment can be used in mechanical straightening

depending on the deformation features and on the structural element
characteristics. For small deformation and small thin-walled elements, hand
type tools and equipment can be used. In the case of a significantly large
deformation and in relatively large elements, hydraulic jacks, power winches,
chain blocks, pulley blocks, rigging screws, steel ropes and ties can be
employed, as well as any other type of equipment capable of producing external
forces for the required straightening action.
30
REPAIR METHODS
Fig. 30 shows several examples of mechanical straightening, by applying the

required equipment according to the deformation features.
(b)
(f)
Du
(e)
(d)
rat
(c)
iNe
(a)
(g)
Fig. 30. Examples of mechanical straightening: (a) two levers; (b) hydraulic
jack; (c) cramps; (d) hydraulic jack and support beam; (e)
hydraulic jack and support beams; (f) anchored tie with stud bolt;
(Adapted from [45])
(g) anchored tie with hardwood pads.
31
STEEL STRUCTURES
2.7.4 Procedures
Previous analysis including deformation features, such as type, size and
location of deformation, structural element characteristics, material properties,
and loads are essential to support the decision concerning mechanical
straightening repair.
2.7.4.2 Execution conditions
iNe
General recommendations concerning mechanical straightening normally

include maximum compression or tensile strength values in the deformation
area that may be repaired, and maximum heating temperature that may be
applied during hot mechanical straightening. Radomski [45] refers to maximum
strains less than 10% that may be repaired by the cold method; otherwise, for
hot mechanical straightening, it is recommended using temperatures not
exceeding 700 C. Further requirements include diverse conditions and
procedures, such as, minimum ambient temperature, the static application of
external forces, and sustentation of forces for a given time in the final stage of
repair [45].
bent deformations: when r < 15 g, where r is the radius of the bent

deformation and g is the depth or width of an element;
Du
i.
rat
The specific requirements for repairing deformed structural members by

mechanical straightening are usually provided by relevant guidelines and
recommendations, which are based on the engineering experience. These
normally express the allowable deformations that do not need repair, except
local cleaning and restoration of protection coating system, and the situations in
which mechanical straightening should not be applied. Examples of these
indications based on Polish practice are referred to by Radomski [45]. According
to them, mechanical straightening on structural members should not be applied
in the following situations:
ii.
torsional deformations: when > 10 , where is the torsional angle

measured along the distance l = 5 h, where h is the height of the crosssection;
iii. bent and torsional deformations when r is 1.5 times more than in the
situation denoted by i), and is 1.5 times less than in the situation ii);
iv. when the deformed members are located in parts of the bridge structure
subject to heavy dynamic effects, e.g. bridge deck members;
v.
when cracks or other material defects, as well as joints, occur in the

zone of the maximum curvature of the deformations.
After repair of the structural member, a protection coating system against

corrosion should be applied.
32
REPAIR METHODS

Supervision of the procedure is essential with special attention being paid to
general requirements, recommendations, and technical limits.
No cracks or other defects should occur in the member, caused by the repair
procedures.
2.7.5 Effects
The application of mechanical straightening leads to a certain decrease in the
yield point of the material, which may affect the load carrying capacity of the
member.
iNe
Removal of deformations by cold mechanical straightening often leads to

additional stresses in the material, which may weaken the member leading to
local plasticizing. Therefore, mechanical straightening is in many cases
thermally aided both to make the operation easier and to enable stress relief.
However, the use of hot mechanical straightening may not be advisable in some
steel grades because it may degrade some of their mechanical properties, such
as ductility and toughness.
2.7.6 Limits
rat
The application of mechanical straightening is limited by relevant

recommendations, like those exemplified above, which refer to deformation
features and to both function and characteristics of the deformed structural
element.
Du
The application of this repair technique requires highly qualified personnel and
supervision by highly experienced engineers. In some cases, field tests and
other investigations may be carried out to determine the actual performance of
the structure under service conditions.
2.8 Heat straightening

2.8.1 Fundamentals
Heat straightening basically consists of the cyclical application of controlled and

patterned heating and cooling to plastically deformed regions of damaged steel
for gradual straightening of the material [46]. This method is based on the
plasticity of steel after the yield point, and on its expansion, at a predictable rate
promoted by heat, with the consequent decrease in the yield stress at high
temperatures.
Heat-straightening is mainly influenced by the selection of heating patterns and
sequencing, by the control of the heating temperature, also by the heating and
cooling rate, and by the application of restraints.
33
STEEL STRUCTURES
2.8.2 Applicability
Heat straightening is used on damaged steel, where the yield stress has been
exceeded, the most frequent causes of damage being vehicle or debris impact,
distortion during construction, support or substructure movement, fire, blast, and
earthquake.
To appraise the heat-straightening specific applicability, it is essential to assess
the condition of the structure, the cause, type and degree of damage, the
presence of fractures, the properties of materials and the corresponding repair
effects and accessibility.
2.8.3 Equipment
rat
2.8.4 Procedures
iNe
The primary equipment used in heat straightening consists of fuel tanks, heating
torches, tips, and hoses. The heat source is typically an oxygen-fuel mixture
with characteristic fuels including acetylene, propane, and natural gas. Specific
equipment is also used related with temperature monitoring of the repair
process, like sensing crayons, pyrometers, and infrared electronic devices.
Besides the basic equipment, calibrated hydraulic jacks are necessary for
applying external restraining forces. Specific safety equipment must also be
used.
Du
The heat-straightening application requires specific verification during the

assessment, planning and design [46], such as: (i) determination of type and
degree of damage; (ii) location of yield zones and regions of maximum strain; (iii)
structural analysis; (iv) selection of heating patterns, temperature, jacking
restraints, and control of the process; (v) temporary requirements, e.g. shoring,
traffic control, and access. A review of the design to determine the safety and
stability of the structure may also be required.
Applicability of a heat-straightening repair depends on the type and degree of
damage, which has been classified into four fundamental categories, as
illustrated by typical examples in Fig. 31:
S - damage as a result of bending about the strong or major axis;
W - damage as a result of bending about the weak or minor axis;
T - damage as a result of torsion or twisting about the longitudinal axis;
L - includes damage that is localized in nature.
Since most damage situations are a complex mixture of these fundamental
cases, both practice and experience are required to establish the details of the
heating process.
34
iNe
REPAIR METHODS
Fig. 31. Illustration of the four fundamental damage categories. (Adapted from [47])
rat
The degree of damage can be evaluated based on the measurement of the

angle of damage (change in curvature) or of the strain ratio (maximum strain
occurring in the damaged zone) [46],[47].
Since cracks may propagate during the heat-straightening process, their
existence should be verified using an NDT, such as, dye penetrant, magnetic
particle, ultrasonic testing, or radiographic testing. When jacking forces and
heat are applied, discontinuities in the damage zone will be stress risers and,
thus, it is essential to ground them to a smoother condition prior to heat
straightening.
Du
Another concern is to ensure the integrity of the material after exposure to high
temperature damage, such as a fire. Visual signs suggesting exposure to high
temperatures, such as melted mill scale, distortion, and black discoloration of
steel, can indicate the regions where metallurgical tests should be performed.
Several tests can be considered, such as Brinell hardness, Charpy notch
toughness, and tensile tests to determine yield and ultimate strength, although
the most definitive test is a comparison of the microstructure between damaged
and undamaged areas.
2.8.4.2 Planning and design process
The specification plan and the design may include the following issues:
Analysing the degree of damage and the maximum strains induced, since
the heat straightening process is usually applied to steel elements with
plastic strains up to 100 times their yield strain [46].
35
STEEL STRUCTURES
Conducting a structural analysis of the system in its damaged configuration

to determine its capacity and the residual forces caused by damage.
Selecting applicable regions for heat straightening repair, based on the

calculation of the degree of damage [46], paying particular special attention
to fracture critical elements. Partial or total replacement may be needed for
fractured structural elements.
Selecting heating patterns, sequencing and parameters. Heat straightening

often requires a combination of basic heats, a series of such heats, applied
consecutively as a group, being referred to as a heating pattern. The order
in which these heats are conducted is the heating sequence, and the
procedure for carrying out a heating pattern is the heating cycle. The basic
heating patterns used for flat plates [46], schematically illustrated in Fig. 32,
are:
Vee Heat is the most used pattern to straighten strong axis (category S)
bends. Typically, it begins with a small spot heat applied at the apex of
a vee-shaped area, and advances progressively in a serpentine motion
towards the base of that area where the desired temperature is reached
(usually around 650C for mild carbon steel).
Edge Heats are used for a smooth gentle bend, heating a line near the
edge of the element. This line may be continuous or intermittent,
depending on the degree of curvature.
Line Heats are employed to repair a bend in the weak axis of a plate,
consisting of a single straight pass of the torch. The restraint, in this
case, is often provided by an external force.
Spot Heats are used to repair localized damage. A small round area is
heated by moving the torch in a slow circular motion and increasing the
diameter until the entire area is heated. A spot heat causes upset
throughout the thickness due to the restraint provided by the cool
surrounding material. On cooling, it leaves tensile stresses in all radial
directions across the heated area.
Du
rat
iNe
Strip Heats, or rectangular heats, are used to remove a bulge in a plate

element or to complement a vee heat. Beginning at the initiation point,
the torch is moved back and forth in a serpentine motion across a strip.
Developing a constraint plan and designing the jacking restraint

configuration, considering that the jacks should be so located as to
produce their maximum effect in the zones of plastic deformation by
exerting forces specified at safe limits [46]. References are made to the
direct proportionality between movement and level of jacking force [47].
Particular reductions in the restraining forces are recommended to
minimize the risk of fracture in regions of severe local damage until this
type of damage is repaired [48].
Estimating the heating cycles required to straighten members, based on

the relation between the degree of damage and the predicted plastic
rotation per heat, and comparing it with the progress of the repair process.
36
REPAIR METHODS
Line heat
Moments produced
by external forces
Edge heats
(a)
(b)
Movement during heating
(c)
iNe
Original deformed shape
(d)
(Adapted from [47])
: (a) edge heats;
rat
Fig. 32. Schematic illustrations of basic heats

(b) line heat; (c) strip heats; (d) vee heat.
During heat straightening repair, it is essential to pay attention to drawbacks,

such as overheating the steel, exceeding the safety limits of the jacking force, or
wrongly locating the heat and restraints.
Du
Research results reported in the literature demonstrate that heat straightening

repair should be performed with special care to minimize any changes in the
mechanical properties, so preserving the performance of materials [46],[47]. For
that matter, special attention should be paid to the following conditions:
To reduce the risk of a fracture during repair, the surface treatment of
the damaged region is essential, with a view to smooth defects (nicks,
gouges, weld toes) and to remove cracks formed during damage and
repair [48].
Adequate heating patterns and sequencing should only be applied to

regions in the vicinity of the plastically deformed zones, by considering
the references indicating that heating elastic regions can cause their
over-straightening.
The temperature of the steel should neither exceed (i) the lower critical
temperature, nor (ii) the temper limit for quenched and tempered steels,
to avoid increased brittleness of the damaged surface. ANSI/AWS
D1.5:1996 [50] specifies maximum heating temperatures of 590 C for
37
STEEL STRUCTURES
quenched and tempered (Q&T) steels and of 650 C for all others.
Hence, it is essential to monitor the temperature and to visually observe
the colour changes in the steel. The temperature is determined by
several factors including size and type of the torch orifice, intensity of
the flame, speed of torch movement, as well as thickness and
configuration of the member.
2.8.5 Effects
The stresses produced by applied external forces should not exceed

the yield stress of the steel in its heated condition, the maximum
moment being generally limited to 50 % of yield at ambient temperature.
To minimize the cracking potential, several criteria for both internal and
external constraints are defined [46], which include limits regarding the
application of external forces, structural stability, and restrictions to
movements during cooling and heating phases.
iNe
2.8.5.1 Properties of materials
rat
If the temperature is not maintained below the lower critical (or lower phase
transition) temperature, undesirable effects may occur due to changes in the
microstructure of the material, which under rapid cooling may generate a brittle
phase called martensite that is more sensitive to brittle fracture under repeated
loads.
Du
Another effect resulting from heating the steel is a reduction in the yield stress
and in the modulus of elasticity, while the coefficient of thermal expansion
increases with temperature. These short-term effects can be beneficial, like the
yield stress reduction, which is essential to the repair process because it
enables the plastic deformation to occur at relatively low stresses. However, the
repair process can also have long-term consequences, which may include a
decrease in ductility and in the modulus of elasticity, changes in notch
toughness, and an increase in yield and tensile strengths. Tests on damaged
and subsequently heat-straightened structural elements indicate that some of
these property changes may be significant [46],[47],[51]. These changes may
influence the fatigue behaviour of an element due to the increasing brittleness
of the material as a result of the loss in ductility, and a relative variation in yield
stress and tensile strength. Connor, Kaufmann and Urban [48] recommended
limiting the number of heat straightening repairs at the same location to two, as
a result of a decrease in the fatigue life after the third damage/repair cycle.
Stress adjustment factors are also recommended, especially for localized
damage, to ensure that the residual stress will not cause an increase in live load
stress that would result in fatigue failure [48].
Although the level of applied jacking force has little effect on the properties of
materials, the compressed side by damage reveals higher differences than the
tensioned region, being more brittle and thus more likely to fracture during
repair [47].
38
REPAIR METHODS
2.8.5.2 Residual Stresses

The unequal contraction of the material during cooling, hence causing residual
stresses, is another issue related with temperature, which may restrict the
application of heat straightening.
Due to residual stresses the materials movement could be hindered, and
overstress may occur when these stresses are joined with jacking, and bulges
may be produced [52]. Special heating patterns, and limits to restraints may be
required to prevent these effects.
The residual stresses promoted by damage should be accounted for in the
design plan of constraints to prevent cracking.
2.8.6 Limits
iNe
To maintain the stresses due to jacking below the yield stress at elevated
temperatures, the recommended maximum jacking force is 50 % of the member
capacity [46]. This calculation is dependent on the member characteristics and
on the type of damage [47]. When residual moments exist, special restrictions to
jacking moments should be imposed [46]-[48].
rat
The research literature indicates that heat straightening repair can be used for
strain ratios less than 100 without significantly compromising the material [47].
There are also more recent references to a limit of 230 times the yield strain,
although engineering judgment is necessary for values exceeding 150 times
that value [48]. However, there are references to the increasing risk of fracture
for strain ratios greater than 100 [47].
Du
The fact of the damage being a complex mixture of the fundamental cases is
one of the primary difficulties associated with heat-straightening repair. Another
difficulty is caused by the residual stresses and moments, which may have
been locked into the structure during both the original construction and the
damage occurrence. The latter are difficult to predict and may prevent or
increase the estimated movement.
The restraining forces are essential for the heat straightening repair, however, if
they are improperly applied, they may prevent the process, and may fracture a
member. So the design of the constraint plan is crucial.
2.9 Repair with fibre reinforced polymers (FRP)

2.9.1 Fundamentals
Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) are polymer composites, typically made of
pultruded plates or built up from a pre-impregnated sheet, which are used in
structures as an external reinforcement to provide increased strength and
stiffness. The properties of a composite will depend on the method of
manufacture, as well as on fibre type, volume fraction and orientation.
39
STEEL STRUCTURES
The advantages of using FRP are the high strength and stiffness to weight
ratios, excellent fatigue and creep properties, easy handling and transportation,
a good resistance to environmental deterioration, and a minimal added dead
weight and visual impact. The major drawbacks are the intolerance to uneven
bonding surfaces, eventual brittle debonding failure modes, and high material
costs, although it is considered as a cost effective method.
2.9.2 Applicability
iNe
FRP bonding may be used to repair damaged members, as a result of

environmentally assisted deterioration and/or accidental causes, with the
objective of an increased durability and fatigue life, and to strengthen members.
Although being used for many years in other industries, this type of composite
has only recently had an application in construction, especially in metallic
structures.
When repairing fatigue cracks, fibre reinforcement is more suited for riveted and
bolted structures. It has good results for: defects caused by the riveting process;
cracks in the gross cross section; out-of-plane bending; secondary stresses;
and poor detailing [6]. CFRP (Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymers) may increase
the fatigue life of a structure by more than 20 fold, so being very efficient in the
prevention of further cracking [53].
rat
2.9.3 Equipment
The material and equipment used for polymer composite plate bonding include
composite plates, adhesive, cutting tools, and regular cranes or other types of
lifting equipment necessary for their installation.
Du
In metallic structures, the main fibres used are carbon, aramid, and E-glass
fibres. Although, the most frequently used ones are CFRP due to their improved
properties (Table 3).
Table 3. Typical properties of fibres used in metallic structures.
Fibres used
40
Specific
weight
(Adapted from [54])
Properties
Modulus of
elasticity
Tensile
strength
Strain
to
failure
Coefficient of
thermal
expansion
GPa
MPa
10 /C
-6
Ultra-high-modulus
carbon
2.12
620 - 935
3600 - 3700
0.6
High-strength carbon
1.80
230
3400
1.48
-1.0 to +0.4
High-modulus carbon
1.80
390
2900
0.74
-1.0 to +0.4
Aramid Kevlar 49
45
130
3000
2.3
-5.2
E-glass
2.56
70
REPAIR METHODS
Composites are bonded to steel structures generally with epoxies, even though
a wide range of adhesives are available, including polyurethanes, acrylics, and
cyanoacrylate.
2.9.4 Procedures
The composite must be designed to be compatible with the steel substrate and
be durable in a given environment.
iNe
The dimensioning of a FRP strengthening scheme for a metallic structure

requires analytical tools to predict the bond strength in FRP bonded steel
structures, such as: (i) stress distribution approach; (ii) bond-slip relation; and
(iii) multi-layer distribution model. Tools should also be provided to give
options to reduce the stress in adhesive bond and to assess the significance
of possible defects.
Application of adhesive bonded FRP includes (i) preparation of FRP plates,

(ii) steel surface preparation, and (iii) application of adhesive and (iv) FRP
plates.
rat
The system should be designed so as to support the transfer of forces between

FRP and steel considering the critical influencing factors, such as bond length,
types of fibre and adhesive, surface preparation, thickness of adhesive, and
thickness of FRP composite.
Du
The success of operations with FRP depends on the effectiveness of adhesive

bonding, which is largely influenced by the surface preparation of steel. The
basic principles of surface preparation are to provide a surface free from
contamination and a chemically active surface to enable the formation of
chemical bonds. The respective procedures typically include the removal of
paint and corrosion products, abrasion, cleaning and, in some cases,
modification of the surface to produce an interface resistant to hydration. Grit
blasting and solvent cleaning are the most common methods used for surface
preparation. A primer, like a silane or a corrosion inhibitor, is normally used to
maintain the interface integrity as a way to control the systems durability.
The plates should be cut and detailed according to the design of the adhesive
joint, which is governed by stresses particularly critical near the plate ends.
When high stress is present in an adhesive joint, the designer should find a way
to contain it, with options that may include the use of different adhesive
materials with a higher strength or a modification in the geometry. Particularly at
the ends of plates or strips, reverse tapering the thickness of FRP increases its
[53],[55]
. In addition to bevelling the plate ends, a clamp also limits
performance
the epoxy adhesive failure due to the high peeling stresses [54]. A steel clamp
may also be positioned at the ends of the laminates to provide resistance to
41
STEEL STRUCTURES
peeling stresses, and bolts may be added to increase the capacity of load
transference of the adhesive [53].
The FRP pieces have generally a peel-ply on a pre-roughened surface, to
minimize its preparation, which should be removed right before bonding. If the
composite does not contain a peel ply, it must be abraded and cleaned before
application. The FRP elements should then be pressed on to the clean steel
surface and clamped in place.
The quality of the repair is assured by controlling all parts of the process,
especially those that are critical to the bond strength.
2.9.5 Effects
iNe
As for all recent repair methods, a monitoring system is almost mandatory.

Specifications with acceptable defect sizes should be provided, and the
possibility of defects in the adhesive layer and their significance should also be
considered.
Despite the lack of knowledge related to durability of FRP composites and

adhesives, there are frequently documented problems.
rat
The major problem of FRP reinforcement is the intolerance of bonding to a

rough surface, resulting in greater adhesive peel stress. Galvanic corrosion may
also occur between steel and FRP in an electrolyte solution, such as sea water,
because fibres, especially CFRP, are good electron conductors [53],[56]. This
problem can be solved by providing a nonconductive layer between the
composite and the steel, or alternatively by protecting the repaired area from
moisture.
Du
The behaviour of unprotected adhesively bonded joints is highly affected by the

presence of humidity or water in one or more of the following ways: diffusion
through the adhesive; transport along the interface; capillary action through
cracks and crazes in the adhesive diffusion through the adhered end [54]. The
consequent deterioration may be due to: (i) reversible changes in the adhesive
properties like plasticization; (ii) irreversible alterations in the adhesive
properties, causing it to hydrolyse, crack or craze; (iii) attack to interface either
by displacing the adhesive or by hydrating the metal oxide [54]. This ageing
effect on an adhesively bonded joint is particularly important for marine
applications.
The thermal effects of the manufacturing process, together with exposure, will
significantly affect life-cycle durability. In a certain temperature range, thermal
exposure may result in an advantageous post-cure for the FRP composite and
adhesive. However, beyond that range, deterioration may occur with reduction
in the mechanical performance of composites and adhesives, or with an
increased susceptibility to moisture.
42
REPAIR METHODS
2.9.6 Effectiveness
FRP may be used as either a double side or single side reinforcement (Fig. 33).
Research results show that the effectiveness of a repair is lower when FRP is
bonded to the compression face of the element instead of the tension side due to
a faster delamination in the compression surface by buckling of the laminate [53].
(a)
(b)
iNe
2.9.7 Limits
Fig. 33. FRP reinforcement: (a) single side reinforcement; (b) double side
reinforcement.
Repair of metallic structures with FRP is recent, so some doubts arise as a

result of the lack of standardization, and there are a few concerns related with
durability issues and with the possible brittle failure of FRP.
rat
Possible failure modes include steel and adhesive interface failure, cohesive
failure, FRP and adhesive interface failure, FRP delamination, and FRP rupture
(Fig. 34). These failure modes depend on the modulus of elasticity of FRP and
on the type and thickness of adhesive. There are special measures available to
prevent them.
Du
Debonding in FRP strengthened members occurs especially in high stress

regions that are often associated with material discontinuities, its propagation
being dependent on the mechanical properties of FRP and steels, and on their
interface properties. Interface debonding is encountered especially in cases of
poor surface preparation or application [57].
When exposed to medium-high temperatures, i.e. approx. 60 C, epoxy matrix
may soften and debonding may occur, thus compromising the system if no
protective measures are undertaken.
a)
b)
FRP
Adhesive
Steel
c)
d)
e)
Fig. 34. Schematic view of failure modes in FRP bonded steel members:
(a) FRP delamination; (b) FRP rupture; (c) FRP and adhesive
interface debonding; (d) adhesive layer failure; (e) steel and
adhesive interface debonding.
43
STEEL STRUCTURES
Methods for improving fatigue performance
3.1 Grinding
3.1.1 Fundamentals
iNe
Grinding is the common designation given to machining methods that use an

abrasive element as means of mechanical removal of material. The abrasive
element consists of abrasive particles, with an indefinite number and shape of
cutting points that are held together by a soft bonding agent. Each abrasive
grain has a microscopic single point with a potential cutting edge. This
technique differs from cutting because the pieces removed by the abrasive
grains are much smaller.
In the repair of metallic structures, and especially regarding fatigue
improvement, the most frequently employed forms of grinding are rotary burr
and disc grinding.
rat
Concerning fatigue improvement, grinding can be included in the group of weld

geometry improvement methods. The objective of these methods is to remove
weld toe defects by improving the weld profile to provide a smooth transition
between weld and base metal, consequently reducing the geometrical stress
and increasing the time for crack initiation.
3.1.2 Applicability
Du
Grinding methods are most commonly applied in welded structures for

modifying the weld profile as a fatigue improvement technique. These are also
employed to repair small fatigue cracks, nicks and gouges, and to smooth welds,
edges, etc. prior to the general finishing of surface preparation for the
application of protection systems.
The primary subject included in this section refers to fatigue improvement, while
specifications regarding the surface preparation for the application of protection
systems are detailed in Part III, Vol. 5 Protection systems [58].
Regarding the removal of fatigue cracks, grinding is best suited when the latter
are caused by weld defects and web gaps, but it can also be used for defect
causes such as lack of fusion, cold cracks, restraint, vibration, or geometrical
changes [6].
3.1.3 Equipment
The equipment required for rotary burr grinding (Fig. 35a) is a high speed
pneumatic, hydraulic or electric rotary grinder, appropriate electricity or air
supply, and tungsten carbide rotary burrs. Disc grinding (Fig. 35b) requires a
hand-held disc grinder, appropriate electricity or air supply, and grinding discs.
44
REPAIR METHODS
(a)
(b)
[1]
; (b) disc grinding.
iNe
Fig. 35. Grinding equipment: (a) burr grinding
3.1.4 Procedures
Du
rat
Rotary burr grinding is normally applied with a rotational speed between 15.000
and 40.000 rpm [17]. The tool should be applied in the direction of the prior weld
toe application by maintaining a 45 degree angle regarding the direction of
travel (Fig. 36).The acceptable depth for disc grinding is the same as for burr
grinding. The abrasive disc should maintain an angle between 30 and 45
degrees with the parent plate in the direction of the prior weld toe application
(Fig. 36) [1].
(a)
(b)
Fig. 36. Grinding methods: (a) burr grinding; (b) disc grinding.

In general, the final surfaces should be clean, smooth and without any trace of
undercut or slag. The depth of removed material should also be inspected with
a suitable gauge.
45
STEEL STRUCTURES
Regarding weld profile improvement, depth scratches parallel to the length of

the weld should not be accepted, and a smooth transition between the weld and
the base metal should be achieved [1].
It is recommended to perform a visual inspection to ensure the correct
execution of grinding procedures. The inspection of the weld should be carried
out by non-destructive tests (NDT) such as a magnetic particle according to
EN ISO 17639:2009 [24] and EN ISO 23278:2009 [25], or liquid penetrant
according to EN 571-1:1997 [8] and EN ISO 23277:2009 [9] (Part III, Vol. 3 Testing techniques [7]). This will guarantee a weld toe free from any traces of
undercut and will certify that embedded flaws are not exposed.
3.1.5 Comparing grinding methods
iNe
The rate of burr grinding is less than that of disc grinding. Rotary burr grinding is
also more expensive and requires much more renewal than disc grinding, so it
is not only a more costly method but also a slower tool [1].
3.1.6 Effects
rat
However, disc grinding has some disadvantages, such as unintentional

excessive removal of material by an inexperienced operator, due to the higher
grinding speed, and presents a few difficulties regarding its use in some joints
with restricted access to parts of the weld toe and to other confined areas. Disc
grinding also leaves grinding marks that may cause crack initiation, and the
improvement of fatigue strength is less than in burr grinding [17].
Du
The high temperatures generated by grinding can cause residual tensile

stresses and surface brittleness. The reduction of these tensile stresses can be
accomplished by other methods, such as peening, to optimize fatigue
improvement [17].
3.1.7 Effectiveness
According to the literature, the improvement in fatigue strength at 2*106 cycles

ranges from 50 to 200% for burr grinding, depending on the type of joint, and
from 20 to 50% for disc grinding [17].
3.1.8 Limits
There are no European standards to regulate the repair of metallic structures
with the use of grinding methods. However, the main concern, when applying
these methods, is the excessive removal of material that may impair the
strength of the repaired element. In the literature, a few references can be found
regarding some limit values, depending on the defect being repaired, which are
given below as examples.
Concerning weld profile improvement, the acceptable grinding depth is between
0.5 mm and 2.0 mm or 5 % of the plate thickness, whichever is greater [17].
46
REPAIR METHODS
Particularly for burr grinding, the International Institute of Welding (IIW/IIS) states
that benefit can only be achieved for up to a maximum of category 100 (see
fatigue strength for direct strength curves in Part III, Vol. 2 Deterioration [59]) and
provides two factors for increasing the fatigue strength, in particular 1.3 when
the materials yield strength is lower than 350 MPa, and 1.5 when it is equal to
or higher than 350 MPa [60].
According to the literature [1], grinding is one of the most suitable methods to
remove small cracks up to 25.4 mm long and 2.4 mm deep. However, it may
also be applied to cracks up to 304.8 mm long and 12.7 mm deep. The
removal of cracks, above these values by grinding consumes too much time
and labour [1].
iNe
When dealing with relatively thin plates, thickness reduction due to grinding may
become significant. So grinding is not advisable for plates thinner than
approximately 8 mm [1].
This method may also be used to remove nicks and gouges up to 5 mm deep,
provided that the cross-sectional area remains at least 98% of the original after
removal of the notch [44].
rat
In corrosive environments, an adequate protection system should be provided.

Otherwise, the corrosion roughens the smooth surfaces, reducing the benefits
of grinding [17].
3.2 Peening
3.2.1 Fundamentals
Du
Peening is generally a cold work process that plastically deforms the material by
impact with a tool or metal particles. This process produces beneficial residual
compressive stresses on the surface by work hardening. These compressive
stresses aim to replace the residual tensile stresses of as-welded elements,
which are harmful due to crack predisposition, improving the respective fatigue
strength.
The deformation induced by peening also improves the weld toe geometry and
smoothes the transition between weld and base metal, reducing local stress
concentration.
The most common forms of peening are [17]:
Hammer peening manual technique that reduces the stress

concentration at the weld toe by producing a large amount of cold work
and by modifying the angle and radius of the weld toe.
Shot peening machining operation that provides a considerable

improvement in the fatigue strength of welded joints. The extent of the
improvement depends on the type of joint and the yield strength of the
material.
47
STEEL STRUCTURES
Needle peening technique that is similar to hammer peening but

makes use of a different peening tool.
Ultrasonic impact peening recent technique that uses an ultrasonic

hammer to treat the area along the weld toe where a similar
improvement mechanism to hammer peening occurs.
3.2.2 Applicability
Peening is mainly applied in welded structures. It provides good results for

fatigue causes such as lack of fusion, cold cracks, restraint, vibration, and web
gaps [6]. Peening is also very effective to repair shallow surface cracks that
usually occur in the fillet weld toe, and to improve the fatigue resistance of the
weld.
iNe
The application of peening in the intermediate layers of weld is also considered

to be beneficial for the prevention of cracking and to reduce shrinkage stresses
and distortion. This procedure is applied to welds of plates thicker than 22.5 mm,
complying with specific procedures regarding peening tools, application area,
temperature range, and other intermediate treatments [42].
rat
Light peening during the application of flame straightening is also used because
the introduction of localized compressive stresses decreases the material
resistance to the straightening action [1].
3.2.3 Equipment
Hammer peening is carried out manually and the equipment used is a small
pneumatic/electrical hammer with hardened steel bits of 6 to 18 mm diameter
and rounded ends [17].
Du
The shot peening machines may be divided in two main categories:

compressed air or wheel. The choice for the type of machine depends on the
required quality and on the object to be treated. In this case, for shot peening of
welds, portable manual units are used with a special system to recycle the shot.
The choice for the type of shot should be carried out upon consultation with an
expert.
Needle peening is carried out with similar equipment to hammer peening but,
instead of a hardened steel bit, it uses several needles. This type of equipment
is known as needle scalers.
The equipment used for ultrasonic impact peening consists of a magneto
constriction transducer, an ultrasonic wave transmitter, and a peening tool,
which is either a ball element with 16 mm diameter or multiple needles with a
vibration frequency of 27 kHz.
3.2.4 Procedures
The following procedure description and control of repair is specific for
improving the fatigue performance of welds. Specific procedures may be
48
REPAIR METHODS
necessary, depending on the defect being repaired, which are not addressed in
this section.
Despite the fatigue improvement of welded elements by peening, if the posttreatment is proved, the procedures and limits are not so clearly defined given
the diversity of influencing factors to this treatment. Some references are found
in the literature regarding the peening post-treatment of welds; however, these
recommendations should only be considered as examples that illustrate the
main variables involved in the process.
iNe
Particularly, if some cracks are revealed after the completion of the first peening
passages, that were not initially visible, it is recommended to perform the
procedure of peening several times until all cracks disappear and the weld toe
becomes smooth [5]. To accomplish this smoothness, the intensity of peening
should be reduced over time. The transition between the base and weld metal
should also be smoothed down to reduce stress concentration.
rat
In hammer peening, the tool should be normally oriented approximate to the

weld metal surface with a 45 degree inclination in relation to the base plate
surface, and moved with a velocity rate of approximately 25 mm/s. According to
the references made by Kirkhope et al. [17], four passes, which will produce an
indentation of 0.6 mm in mild steel and 0.5 mm in high strength steels, result in
an optimum treatment.
Shot peening consists in propelling the shot (round metallic, glass or ceramic
particles), at high velocity, against the part to be treated, so producing
compressive residual stresses in the order of 70 - 80 % of the yield stress. The
shot size is approximately 0.2 - 1.0 mm, depending on the undercuts and interpass notches, and the projection velocity should be between 40 to 60 m/s.
Consultation with experts is recommended [17].
Du
As previously referred to, needle peening is similar to hammer peening but

instead of a solid tool, a group of steel wires is used, with rounded ends that
have an approximate diameter of 2 mm [17].
Ultrasonic impact peening consists in a single pass of the ultrasonic hammer
along the weld toe at a velocity rate of 0.5 m/s. In order to produce significant
compressive residual stresses, an approximate depth of 0.5 - 0.7 mm should be
achieved.
Visual inspection of the treated area is recommended. To ensure that the surface
does not have any flaw, the treated area can be analysed by non destructive tests
like magnetic particle testing, according to EN ISO 17638:2009 [24] and EN ISO
23278:2009 [25], or liquid penetrant testing, according to EN 571-1:1997 [8] and
EN ISO 23277:2009 [9] (see Part III, Vol. 3 - Testing techniques [7]).
49
STEEL STRUCTURES
Particularly, shot peening is controlled by two parameters [17]: the Almen

intensity and the coverage. The Almen intensity refers to the plastic deformation
depth, which is measured by Almen strips attached to the surface, and the
coverage to the area covered by the shot indentations on the surface. Full
coverage is achieved when the visual inspection, magnified by ten times, shows
the overlapping of all indentations.
3.2.5 Comparing peening methods
Peening techniques provide more benefits than any other fatigue life
improvement method, particularly with high strength steels, but they have some
disadvantages, such as the noise produced and the weariness endured by the
operator [17].
iNe
Due to the large amount of cold working produced, hammer peening is the most
commonly applied form of peening. This peening technique produces a large
amount of cold working, which in turn enables the compressive residual
stresses to achieve greater depth in the plate, resulting in a fatigue strength
improvement much higher than either shot peening or needle peening. As
mentioned, needle peening is similar to hammer peening but the results are not
as good [17].
rat
Shot peening is able to cover large areas with simple quality control methods
and also improves the resistance to stress corrosion cracking. This type of
peening is more appropriate for mild notches and requires the cleaning of the
shot and the existence of well accessible areas. It is also easy to lose the
beneficial effects of shot peening because corrosion may easily attack the thin
deformed surface layer [17].
Du
Ultrasonic impact peening is supposed to override the problem of noise with a

tool holder that isolates the operator from the vibration. However, this technique
requires special equipment unlike the other peening techniques, in which the
equipment is easily available [17].
3.2.6 Effects
The superficial compressive stresses improve the fatigue life, but excessive
peening may become inefficient if it causes the appearance of cracks.
3.2.7 Effectiveness
According to the references made by Kirkhope et al. [17], the improvement
provided by hammer peening is regarded to be so extensive that the weld toe
may be no longer susceptible to fatigue cracking.
Shot peening is reported to provide a 33 % improvement, at 2106, for joints
with longitudinal attachments and with yield strengths of approximately 260 to
390 MPa, and a 70% improvement for higher QT steels with yield strengths of
730 to 820 MPa.
50
REPAIR METHODS
As for needle peening, no results are provided but this technique is regarded to
be less effective than hammer peening.
Finally, for ultrasonic impact peening, improvements are obtained in the range
of 50 to 200 % for butt and overlapped joints, and similar results are obtained
for transverse fillet welded joints with high strength steel.
3.2.8 Limits
Peening is not suitable for high stress fatigue applications and the beneficial
effects may be lost under loads with variable amplitude including peak
compressive loads [17].
iNe
Some limits regarding the area of treatment and depth of cracks, found in the
literature, are given to illustrate the main variables of peening. Since there are
no standards regarding the use of peening as a residual stress method to
improve fatigue, the cautious application of peening by an experienced operator
is recommended because the benefits of this method may be lost when
incorrectly executed.
rat
As fatigue improvement technique and particularly for hammer and needle

peening, the International Institute of Welding (IIW/IIS) states that benefits can
only be achieved for up to a maximum category of 125 (see fatigue strength for
direct strength curves in Part III, Vol. 2 Deterioration [59]) and provides two
factors for increasing fatigue strength, in particular 1.3, when the yield strength
of the material is lower than 350 MPa, and 1.6 when it is equal or higher than
350 MPa. However, for structural elements with a thickness higher than 20 mm,
the increasing factor decreases to 1.5 and to a maximum category of 100 [60].
Du
According to the guidelines of the Transportation Research Board [42], the

peening process as an adjunct to weld should be carried out carefully to prevent
overlapping or cracking of the weld or base metal. Peening the base metal, the
root or the fusion boundaries of the weld is not permitted and the maximum
distance allowed to the weld metal edge is 1.6 mm.
The US Army Corps of Engineers [5] indicates that shallow weld toe surface
cracks may be arrested if not exceeding a maximum of 3 mm depth, for tensile
stresses lower than 40 MPa.
3.3 Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) dressing

3.3.1 Fundamentals
TIG dressing, also known as GTA (gas tungsten arc) remelting, is used to
remelt the weld toe region to a shallow depth, hence increasing the fatigue
strength of a welded joint. As referred by Kirkhope et al. [17], such an increase
results from improvement of the detail geometry with a reduced stress
51
STEEL STRUCTURES
concentration factor, and from removal of slag inclusions and weld toe
undercuts.
This description and primary effects also applies generally to weld toe dressing
techniques as plasma dressing. The main difference between plasma and TIG
dressing is the higher heat input by plasma, which produces a larger weld pool
resulting in a better transition between the weld and the base metal.
iNe
3.3.2 Applicability
The main advantages of weld toe dressing techniques are the possibility of
large improvements, the small physical effort required, and the low cost. TIG
dressing is relatively inexpensive, but highly skilled welders and heavy
equipment are required, and restricted accessibility may limit its application.
Another disadvantage is the difficulty in establishing an inspection criterion to
guarantee that the process is carried out properly.
TIG is effective to improve weld details and to repair shallow surface cracks in
the fillet weld toe. The weld geometry improvement may increase the fatigue life
to the double [5].
rat
The repair of fatigue cracks with this method is almost exclusive to welded
structures. Good results are obtained for causes such as lack of fusion, cold
cracking, restraint, vibration, and web gaps. However, it may also be applied to
geometrical changes and web breathing [6].
3.3.3 Equipment
Du
The equipment used is the same as for gas shielded welding with nonconsumable electrodes and standard TIG welding equipment such as electrode
holder, electrode leader and welding machine (Fig. 37).
Fig. 37. TIG equipment: 1. inert gas supply; 2. welding machine; 3.

electrode holder; 4. electrical conductor; 5. insulating heath; 6.
gas passages; 7. shielding gas; 8. workpiece; 9. ground clamp.
52
REPAIR METHODS
3.3.4 Procedures
The success of TIG dressing requires a skilled operator and suitable operating
conditions, such as cleanliness, welding current, welding speed, gas shield flow
rate, and position and angle of the torch relatively to the weld toe.
Due to the complexity of the process and to the diverse variables involved, the
validation and qualification of TIG dressing procedures is generally
recommended [17]. The general rules for the specification and qualification of
welding procedures for metallic materials, according to EN ISO 15607:2003 [61],
may be useful for this qualification.
iNe
According to US Army Corps of Engineers [5], the effectiveness of the procedure

for repairing shallow cracks depends on the depth of penetration which should
be verified by metallographic examination of test plates before in situ application.
ISO 17639:2003 [62] may be useful for specimen preparation, and for the test
procedures to be adopted for macroscopic and microscopic examinations.
TIG dressing is generally applied without the addition of any filler material with
heat inputs ranging from 1 to 2 kJ/mm [17].
Du
rat
To maximize the penetration capability of this method, a proper selection of the

shielding gas and an electrode cone angle is considered essential, not only to
remove the surface cracks but also to obtain an optimized shape for the weld
toe [17]. The US Army Corps of Engineers [5] recommends the use of argonhelium shielding gas and 60 degrees for the angle of the electrode cone. The
application of TIG dressing in cast iron and old steels with high carbon content
requires a second TIG run procedure to temper the weld toe region and to
generate acceptable hardness levels. This will also contribute to a better
transition between weld and base metal [17].
Inspection is advisable to assure that all steps of validated and qualified

procedures are followed.
Concerning specifically the repair of cracks, the metal surrounding the crack
should be melted until achieving the necessary depth to completely eliminate
the crack. Otherwise, cracks below the surface may continue to propagate and
premature failure may eventually occur.
Visual inspection of the treated area is recommended, as well as NDT, such as:
magnetic particle testing according to EN ISO 17638:2009 [24] and EN ISO
23278:2009 [25]; or liquid penetrant according to EN 571-1:1997 [8] and EN ISO
23277:2009 [9] (see Part III, Vol. 3 - Testing techniques [7]).
53
STEEL STRUCTURES
3.3.5 Effects
In cast iron and old steels with high carbon content, there is the risk of cold
cracking due to low heat input, and to excessive hardness in the heat affected
zone (HAZ) produced by the process. This problem may be solved by a second
TIG run but the cost of the method will increase.
3.3.6 Effectiveness
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iNe
Typical results of TIG dressing applied to medium strength steel have shown
that, at 2*106 cycles, the increase in fatigue strength is approximately 50 %.
According to the references made by Kirkhope et al. [17], the improvement in
fatigue life by TIG is also reduced when exposed to a seawater corrosive
environment, as shown in Fig. 38.
Fig. 38. Influence of seawater corrosion on the fatigue strength of aswelded and TIG dressed specimens. (Adapted from [17])
Du
3.3.7 Limits
This weld toe remelting technique may achieve a penetration depth of 3 mm,
however, with high heat inputs, a 6 mm penetration may be accomplished [17].
Particularly for improving fatigue strength, the International Institute of
Welding (IIW/IIS) states that benefits can only be achieved for up to a
maximum category of 112 (see fatigue strength for direct strength curves in
Part III, Vol. 2 Deterioration [59]) and provides two factors for increasing
fatigue strength, in particular 1.3, when the yield strength of the material is
lower than 350 MPa, and 1.5, when it is equal or higher than 350 MPa [60].
According to US Army Corps of Engineers [5], this method is effective to repair
shallow surface cracks that occur at the fillet weld toe, for depths up to 5 mm,
which is slightly superior to peening. There are no limitations for small stress
ranges and minimum stress levels.
According to a JRC Scientific and Technical Report [6], TIG dressing may also
be applied to short cracks, in cover plates, with smaller lengths than 10 mm.
54
REPAIR METHODS
Adequacy of repair to the damage
The characterization of the damage or failure, together with the identification of

the associated causes, processes and mechanisms of degradation, are
essential for the selection of the most suitable repair method(s). For an effective
repair measure, this previous careful analysis should additionally include the
structural material characteristics, the structural system, the damaged elements
and their current requirements, as well as the respective exposure environment
and functional conditions.
iNe
The first and second volumes of this guide present details about the relevant
durability factors and related features regarding the degradation of steel
structures, which are important for the analysis that supports the decision
making process referring to maintenance or repair. This process can be of
diverse complexity depending on the damage level, on the affected structural
elements, and on the durability requirements as regards the service and
environmental conditions. Therefore, different levels of assessment may be
considered before selecting the most suitable measures to restore the integrity
of the structure.
rat
The adequacy of repair to the damage is not a simple subject, so requiring

proper assessment of the condition of the structure. The suitability of each
repair method may be influenced by different factors including those related with
the properties of materials and the characteristics and function of elements.
This is particularly important for old structures, which are made of iron or old
steels, due to issues concerning the compatibility between original and repair
materials and the appropriateness of the current repair methods and
procedures.
Du
The particular scope of the adequacy of repair to the damage in this document
refers only to the simplest cases that require a straightforward measure. Table 4
and Table 5 show the adequacy of the most frequently applied methods in
current repair practice to the commonly documented defects in steel structures.
These tables have taken into account the classification systems applicable to
the degradation processes and defects adopted in the DURATINET project, as
[59]
detailed in the second volume of this guide (Part III, Vol.2 Deterioration ).
Accordingly, the (i) degradation processes and the frequently reported (ii)
defects in steel structures are respectively classified in (i) biological, chemical,
physical, or may be a consequence of other incidents, and (ii) in three levels
including the main features of defects, the structural components most
vulnerable to them, and complementary information considering the effect
criterion.
This information may be of limited applicability and, thus, due care is required
when applying the repair methods detailed in this technical guide. The
complexity associated with common damage and failure may usually require
adaptation and the combined use of several methods and procedures for an
effective repair.
55
STEEL STRUCTURES
Generally, after the application of the various repair methods, the restoration of
coating protection systems are needed to protect the elements and/or structure
from further degradation.
Surface preparation methods and restoration and/or maintenance of protective
coatings in deteriorated steel elements are also essential to prevent further
deterioration and significant loss of material due to degradation processes.
Table 4. Adequacy of the repair methods to physical degradation
processes and/or other incident related defects.
Defects
Peening
Adding steel
elements 1
Replacement 1
Heat
straightening
FRP Repair
Other additional methods like welding, bolting and riveting are necessary.
56
Steel
Fracture
Crack
Fracture
Crack
Fracture
Torsion
Deflection
Torsion
Crack
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Mechanical
straightening
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Repair Methods
Bolting
Loss of
material
Stop hole
Riveting
Bolted /
Welded
riveted
connector
connector
TIG dressing
Welding
Welded
Basic
connector Component
iNe
Grinding
Bolted /
riveted
connector
Deflection
Torsion
Distortion
Deflection
Basic
Component
Discontinuity
Deformation
REPAIR METHODS
Table 5. Adequacy of the repair methods to chemical/biological

degradation processes related defects.
Defects
Replacement
Localized
Uniform
Localized
Steel
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rat
FRP repair
iNe
Adding steel
elements 2
Welded
connector
Riveting
Bolted / riveted
connector
Uniform
Localized
Basic
Component
Uniform
Biological
Cleaning 1
Bolting
Chemical
Repair Methods
Steel
construction
Loss of
material
Deterioration
Contamination
Cleaning is particularly important for the maintenance of structures to avoid further

degradation.
2
Other additional methods like welding, bolting and riveting are necessary.
57
STEEL STRUCTURES
References
[1]
GREGORY, E.N., G. SLATER, and C.C. WOODLEY. Welded repair of

cracks in steel bridge members. The Welding Institute [Cambridge,
England]: National Cooperative Highway Research Program, 1989.
NCHRP Report 321. ISBN 0-309-04618-1. Available from Transportation
Research Board National Research Council 2101 Constitution Avenue,
N.W. Washington, D.C. 20418.
[2]
YIN, Y., and X. L. LIU. Numerical study on fatigue repair of structural steel
with stop hole related techniques, Advances in Steel Structures. Ed. by Z.
Y. Shen, G.Q. Li and S. L. Chan. ICASS `05, vol. 2, Elsevier, 2005.
[3]
SHIN, C. S., C.M. WANG, and P.S. SONG. Fatigue damage repair: a
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2010]. Available from: http://www.sciencedirect.com
[4]
MURDANI, A., et al. Stress Concentration at Stop-Drilled Holes and

Additional Holes. Engineering Failure Analysis [online]. Elsevier. October
2008, vol. 15, n 7, 810-819 [viewed at 10 May 2010]. Available from:
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[5]
DEPARTMENT OF ARMY, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers . Engineering

and Design: Inspection, evaluation, and repair of hydraulic steel structures.
Washington, DC: 2001. Engineer Manual 1110-2-6054.
[6]
KHN, B., et al. Assessment of existing steel structures:

recommendations for estimation of remaining fatigue life. Edited by G.
Sedlacek et al. Italy: European Communities, 2008. Joint Research
Centre: Scientific and Technical Reports 43401. ISSN 1018-5593.
[7]
CORREIA, M. J., H. PERNETA and M. SALTA. Maintenance and repair of

transport infrastructures Technical guide. Part III Steel structures. Vol.
3 Testing techniques. DURATINET project WG A4. Lisbon: LNEC,
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[9]
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[8]
EN 571-1:1997, Non destructive testing Penetrant testing Part 1:

General principles.
EN ISO 23277:2009, Non-destructive testing of welds Penetrant testing

of welds - Acceptance levels.
[10] AL-EMRANI, M., et al. Fatigue damage retrofitting of riveted steel bridges
using stop-holes. In: P. MKELINEN, and P. HASSINEN, eds. Lightweight steel and aluminium structures: ICSAS '99. Oxford: Elsevier
Science Ltd, 1999.
[11] ISO/TR 581:2005, Weldability Metallic Materials General Principles.
58
REPAIR METHODS
[12] KHAN, Ibrahim. Welding Science and Technology. New Age International
Publishers, 2007. ISBN 8122420737.
[13] JOINT DEPARTMENTS OF THE ARMY AND THE AIR FORCE. Bridge
Inspection, Maintenance and Repair. Washington, DC: 1994. Technical
Manual n 5-600, Air Force Joint Pamphlet n 32-1088.
[14] EN 1011-1:2009, Welding Recommendations for welding of metallic
materials Part 1: General guidance for arc welding.
[15] EN 1090-2: 2008, Execution of steel structures and aluminium structures
Part 2: Technical requirements for the execution of steel structures.
iNe
[16] EN ISO 3834-1:2005, Quality requirements for fusion welding of metallic

materials Part 1: Criteria for the selection of the appropriate level of
quality requirements.
[17] KIRKHOPE, K.J., et al. Weld detail fatigue life improvement techniques.
Part 1: review. Marine Structures. 1999, vol. 12, 447-474.
[18] EN ISO 15609-1:2004, Specification and qualification of welding
procedures for metallic materials Welding procedure specification Part
1: Arc welding (ISO 15609:2004).
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[19] SYNDICAT NATIONAL DES ENTREPRENEURS, Spcialistes de travaux

de rparation er renforcement de structures, eds. Guide n1: Rparation
et rnovation des structures mtalliques [Repair and renovation of metallic
structures]. France : STRRES, 2008.
[20] EN ISO 13918:2008, Welding Studs and ceramic ferrules for arc stud
welding.
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[21] EN ISO 14555:2006, Welding Arc stud welding of metallic materials.

[22] EN 970:1997, Non-destructive examination of fusion welds Visual
examination.
[23] EN ISO 17635:2010, Non-destructive testing of welds General rules for
metallic materials.
[24] EN ISO 17638:2009, Non-destructive testing of welds Magnetic particle
testing.
[25] EN ISO 23278:2009, Non-destructive testing of welds Magnetic particle
testing of welds Acceptance levels.
[26] EN 444:1994, Non-destructive testing General principles for
radiographic examination of metallic materials by X- and gamma-rays.
[27] EN 1435:1997, Non-destructive examination of welds Radiographic
examination of welded joints.
59
STEEL STRUCTURES
[28] EN 1712:1997, Non-destructive examination of welds Ultrasonic

examination of welded joints Characterization of indications in welds.
[29] EN 1713: 1998, Non-destructive examination of welds Ultrasonic
examination Acceptance levels.
[30] EN 1714:1997, Non-destructive examination of welds Ultrasonic
examination of welded joints.
[31] EN 1711:2000, Non-destructive examination of welds Eddy current
examination of welds by complex plane analysis.
[32] EN ISO 13916:1996, Welding Guidance on the measurement of

preheating temperature, interpass temperature and maintenance preheat
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iNe
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62

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maintenance and repair of transport infrastructure

Copyright LABORATRIO NACIONAL DE ENGENHARIA CIVIL, I. P.

1st. edition: 2012

Transport infrastructures / Steel structure / Reinforced concrete structure /

Infraestruturas de transportes / Estrutura metlica / Estrutura de beto armado /

Maria Joo Correia

Maria Joo Correia

Final revision by Editorial Commission member

The aim of WG A4 was to harmonize the needs of maintenance and repair of

WG A4 Maintenance and Repair of Steel Structures

DURATINET project approved by the Atlantic Area Programme and co-financed

Durable Transport Infrastructure in the Atlantic

Durability factors and requirements

Non-destructive testing methods (NDT)

Adequacy of testing to the damage

Methods for repairing damage in steel elements

Methods for improving fatigue performance

General considerations .................................................................................1

Methods for repairing damage in steel elements .........................................2

Stop hole ...............................................................................................2

Previous evaluation ................................................................. 2

Execution Conditions ............................................................... 3

Previous evaluation ................................................................. 6

Previous evaluation ............................................................... 15

Execution Conditions ............................................................. 15

Execution Conditions ............................................................. 22

Previous evaluation ............................................................... 28

Execution Conditions ............................................................. 28

Mechanical straightening ....................................................................30

Previous evaluation ............................................................... 32

Execution conditions .............................................................. 32

Previous evaluation ............................................................... 34

Planning and design process ................................................ 35

Residual Stresses .................................................................. 39

Previous evaluation ............................................................... 41

Execution Conditions ............................................................. 41

Methods for improving fatigue performance ...............................................44

Execution Conditions ............................................................. 45

Comparing grinding methods ........................................................ 46

Execution Conditions ............................................................. 49

Comparing peening methods ........................................................ 50

Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) dressing .....................................................51

Execution Conditions ............................................................. 53

Adequacy of repair to the damage .............................................................55

These remedial measures can be either used to restore or to upgrade the

Methods for repairing damage in steel elements

2.1 Stop hole

The effectiveness of this repair method can be influenced by several

effectiveness of this method is strongly influenced by the position of the hole in

Fig. 1. Location of the hole relatively to the crack tip.

The stop hole diameter should be enough to ensure an effective reduction in

Welding is a process of joining materials that ensures continuity between the

The metallurgical changes depend on various factors, such as materials,

Fig. 3. Arc welding: 1. arc welding machine; 2. electrode holder; 3.

2.2.4.1 Previous evaluation

Weldability is related to various factors, which include metallurgical

the guidance provided by EN 1090-2:2008 [15], a welding plan should be drawn

Since, at fusion temperature, steel combines with air constituents causing

Improvement methods, such as grinding, peening and remelting may be used to

corrections, inspection and documentation. Requirements for welding procedure

Fig. 4. Manual metal arc welding.

Fig. 5. Self-shielded tubular-cored arc welding.

Fig. 6. Welding of studs.