Topic 1 The building blocks of cells

1.1 Plant and animal cells

Most cells are too small to be seen with the naked eye therefore we use light microscope. In a light
microscope, a beam of light passes through the cells.
Electron microscopes pass a beam of electrons through the cells. They enable us to see in much
more detail.

You can work out the magnification of a light microscope using:

Total magnification = magnifying power of eyepiece lens x magnifying power of objective lens

The greater the resolving power, the clearer the image. Electron microscopes have a better
resolving power than light microscopes.

Resolving power = wavelength / 2

Animal cells
Cytoplasm

Cell membrane

Nucleus

Mitochondria

Where most of the cells

chemical reactions take
place
Controls the movement of
chemicals in and out of the
cell
Contains chromosomes.
Controls gene expression
and mediates the
replication of DNA during
the cell cycle.
Where sugars are broken
down releasing energy.
Includes a biochemical
process where respiration
and energy production
occurs.

Plant cells
Cell wall
Vacuole
Chloroplasts

Made out of cellulose to strengthen the cell

Filled with cell sap to keep the cell turgid
Contain chlorophyll, which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.

Bacterial cells

Do not have mitochondria, chloroplasts or a nucleus (chromosomal DNA and loops of DNA called
plasmid lie loose in the cytoplasm).
Cell wall not made out of cellulose
Some bacteria have a flagellum, which propels the cell through liquid.

1.2 DNA
DNA deoxyribonucleic acid

DNA consists of two molecules that are arranged in a ladder-like structure called a Double Helix
The two strands are held together by hydrogen bonds between pairs of bases.
When a cell grows and divides into two, it first has to make a duplicate copy of each DNA molecule.
This is done by the bonds breaking between the two strands, the strands unwinding, and then new
bases joining each old strand to make new strands.
A molecule of DNA is made out of several subunits called Nucleotides.

Each nucleotide consists of:

1) Phosphate group which vitamins help form
2) Pentose sugar from carbohydrates
3) Nitrogenous base which proteins help form

To crack the genetic code found in DNA, we need to look at the sequence of bases. Bases are
arranged in triplets called codons.
Bases consists of A (adenine), T (thymine), G (guanine) and C (cytosine). A will always join with T
and G will always join to C to form complementary bases pairings.
A gene is a section of DNA that codes for a protein. It is these proteins and combination of proteins
which give us our phenotype.

DNA can be easily extracted from cells by:

Use a detergent/salt mixture to break up the membrane of cells and release the chromosomes
Use a protein-digesting enzyme to break down the protein part of the chromosomes, releasing their
DNA
Add cold methanol, which precipitates the DNA. The strands are now clearly seen.

Discovery of DNA

In the early 1950s two scientists, Rosalind Franklin and Maurice Wilkins, studied DNA using x-rays.
Franklin produced an x-ray photograph that allowed two other researchers, James Watson and
Francis Crick to work out the 3D structure of DNA.
The structure of DNA was found to be a double helix.

The Human Genome Project

The genetic information in an organism is called its genome.

The Human Genome Project began in 1989. It was very ambitious and had several aims, including:

To work out the order or sequence of all the three billion base pairs in the human genome
To identify all the genes
To develop faster methods for sequencing DNA

The sequencing project was finished in 2001, and work continues to identify all the genes in the
human genome.
The project involved scientists from 18 different countries and showed how scientists collaborate.
The scientists broke up the chromosomes of cells to get their DNA, and placed them in sequencers
to display the most likely order of this base.
Powerful computer were used to help match the base sequences of genes with the proteins for
which are the code.

Knowing the human DNA profile raises some ethical questions, but many consider this knowledge to be of
benefit:

Improved genetic testing

Location of genes that might be linked to increased chances of inheriting a disease
New gene therapy treatments
New knowledge of how humans have evolved
Personalised medicines

1.3 Genetic engineering

Differences between Genetic engineering and cloning
Cloning
Produces exact copies
Genes copied within the same species

Genetic engineering
Produces a unique set of genes
Genes can be swapped across species

How it works

A strand of DNA from the cell carrying a gene which enable cells to produce useful proteins is cut
out using a restriction enzyme in order to isolate the gene.
Bacteria contains circular DNA called plasmid DNA which is also cut out using a restriction enzyme
The gene is inserted into the plasmid using ligase enzyme.
The recombinant plasmid is then placed back into the bacterial cell
The bacteria multiplies and produces millions of identical clones, with the DNA coding for required
protein.
The bacteria grows in fermenters. The end product is removed from the fermenter.

Uses
GM insulin

Natural insulin can be taken from the pancreas of a pig or cow. It is used to treat diabetes but is
limited in supply and doesn't suit all people.
Modern practice is to create insulin synthetically using genetically modified bacteria.
The gene for insulin secretion is cut from a length of human DNA and inserted into the DNA of a
bacterium.

Advantages of GM insulin

Cheap to produce and available in large quantities

It is (human insulin), so the users do not experience any allergic reactions or tolerances.
Does not use animal products so it is not a problem for religious groups or vegetarians.

Wild rice

Scientists have added a gene to wild rice that makes it produce beta carotene. This changes the
colour of the wild rice to a golden colour.
Beta carotene is needed by humans in order to make Vitamin A.

Advantages
Can be used in areas where Vitamin A
deficiency is common and so can help
prevent blindness.
Not meant to be the only solution to Vitamin
A deficiency

Disadvantages

Fears that it will crossbreed with and

contaminate wild rice

Worries that GM organisms might harm

people

Beta carotene levels aren't high enough to

make a difference

GM organisms can be expensive

Herbicide resistant crops

Scientists have added genes to crop plants that make them resistant to herbicides.
This reduces the quantity of herbicide that needs to be used.

Potential disadvantages of this genetic modification include:

The potential development of herbicide-resistant weeds

Loss of biodiversity as fewer weed species survive as a food and shelter source for animals

GM crops

Grow in places with low rainfall

Produce their own chemicals to kill insects to damage them
Resist diseases and herbicides

Worries are:

Not natural
Eating GM food may affect our health
Crops may harm wildlife

1.4 Mitosis and meiosis

There are two types of cell division.

Mitosis is used for growth and repair and produces diploid cells identical to each other and the
parent cell.
Meiosis is used for sexual reproduction and produces haploid cells different to each other and the
parent cell.

Mitosis

Mitosis is the type of cell division used for growth, repair and asexual reproduction.
Mitosis occurs wherever new cells are needed. It produces two daughter cells that are identical to
each other from the parent cell.
In mitosis each chromosome is copied exactly.
The new chromosomes are moved to opposite sides of the cell, before the cell divides leaving one
complete set of 46 chromosomes in each of the two new cells.

Meiosis

Meiosis is a different kind of cell division. It is used to produce male and female gametes.
A human body cell contains 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs. The gametes are sperm or
eggs, and only contain half as many chromosomes (23).
This is why meiosis is sometimes called reduction division.

Fertilisation

In humans all reproduction is sexual. It involves joining together haploid gamete cells from each
parent with half the normal number of chromosomes to make a diploid zygote.
The cells from each parent that combine to form the zygote are called gametes. In humans, the
male gamete is called sperm, and the female gamete is called an egg.
When the gametes join they form a cell called a zygote. Human sperm and eggs contain 23
chromosomes. Human zygotes contain 46 chromosomes.
The type of cell division that produces gametes with half the normal chromosome number is called
meiosis. It is used to produce cells for repair and asexual reproduction
Gametes contain different genetic information to each other and to the parent cell. Meiosis is
responsible for causing genetic variation.

1.5 Cloning
Asexual reproduction

Plants can make identical copies (clones) of themselves. Many plants have ways of increasing their
numbers by asexual reproduction

New plants are created by repeated cell division:

A potato plant can produce many tubers, each of which can grow into a new plant.
Strawberry plants and spider plants produce long stems with tiny plants on the end. These runners
can produce several new plants from one parent.

It's fairly easy to artificially produce new plants by taking a cutting, and waiting for the cutting to
develop new roots and leaves.

Process of cloning

The nucleus of a body cell of the animal to be cloned is transferred to an enucleated egg cell (one
that has had its original nucleus removed).
The cell is then stimulated to start dividing to form an embryo.
This is implanted into the uterus of the surrogate mother who is a different individual to the parent
A new individual develops and is genetically identical to the animal which wished to be cloned.

Ethical issues

Animal cloning raises ethical issues about how far humans should be allowed to interfere in the
production of new life.
Cloning plants is easier than cloning animals. Cloning expensive food crops has been carried out for
many years, and causes the public fewer ethical and moral concerns than animal cloning.

How to clone cows using embryo transplants

This technique could be used to make many copies of cows that have a high milk yield.
It would produce a herd of cows much faster than if the original cow was used for breeding in the
normal way. Sexual reproduction is still involved and the calves are not identical to either parent.
Cloning

Advantages

All the new plants are genetically

identical they will all have the
desired characteristics.
Organisms that are difficult or
slow to breed normally can be
reproduced quickly. Some plant
varieties do not produce seeds,
others have seeds that are
dormant for long periods.

Disadvantages

If a clone is susceptible to
disease or changes in
environment, then all the clones
will be susceptible.
It will lead to less variation, and
less opportunity to create new
varieties in the future.

Stem cells

During the development of an embryo most of the cells become specialised. They cannot later
change to become a different type of cell.
But embryos contain a special type of cell called stem cells. These can grow into any type of cell
found in the body. They are not specialised.
Stem cells are extracted from a 5-7 day old blastocyst.
Stem cells can divide in culture to form more of the same kind this is called a stem cell line.

Stem cells could be used for:

Making new brain cells to treat people with Parkinson's disease

Repairing damaged immune systems
Making replacement heart valves

Therapeutic cloning

If you were to receive medical treatment with cells grown from stem cells, your body's immune
system would recognise the cells as foreign, and they would be rejected and die.
But this would not happen if you received cells with the same genes as you.
This could be done by cloning one of your cells to produce an embryo, then taking stem cells from
this.

Here are the steps involved:

Nucleus taken out of a human egg cell

Nucleus from a patient's cell put into the egg cell
Egg cell stimulated to develop into an embryo
Stem cells taken from the embryo
Stem cells grown in a container of warm nutrients
Stem cells treated to develop into required cell types

Stem cell research

For

Research groups such as

ESCR (Embryonic Stem
Cell Research) fulfils the
ethical obligation to
alleviate human suffering
Since excess IVF
embryos are discarded
anyway, wouldnt it be
better to use it for
valuable research?
Therapeutic cloning
produces cells in a petri
dish, not a pregnancy.

Against

In ESCR, stem cells are

taken from a human
blastocyst, which is then
destroyed. This amounts
to murder.
There is a risk of
commercial exploitation of
participants of ESCR.

1.6 Protein synthesis

Peptides chains of 2 20 amino acids
Polypeptides chains of 21 50 amino acids

Ribonucleic acid (RNA) is a chemical like DNA. However, RNA are single stranded and has U base
instead of T

RNA has two roles in protein synthesis:

Messenger RNA (mRNA) carries the protein-making information from the DNA inside the nucleus
of the cell to the ribosomes in the cytoplasm, where the protein is made.
Transfer RNA (tRNA) carries the amino acids needed to form the protein to the ribosomes

There are two stages: transcription (which occurs in the nucleus) and translation (which occurs in the
cytoplasm).
Transcription
1) The strands of DNA separate
2) Strands of mRNA form as the bases of RNA nucleotides combine with their complementary bases
of the single stranded DNA.
3) The strands of mRNA separate from their respective strands of complementary strands of DNA.
They pass from the nucleus through gaps
Translation
4) Each strand of mRNA binds to a ribosome creating an mRNA-ribosome complex.
5) Each type of tRNA molecule binds to its particular type of amino acid dissolved in the cytoplasm,
depending on the codon it carries.
6) tRNA/amino acid combinations pass to the mRNA-ribosome complex. The exposed bases of tRNA
bind to the complementary bases of mRNA. Chemical bonds form between the amino acids next to
each other.
7) Once the bonds form, each tRNA separates from its amino acid and the mRNA strand.
8) The linked amino acids form a polypeptide.
1.7 - Enzymes

Enzymes are soluble protein molecules that can speed up chemical reactions in cells.
These reactions include respiration, photosynthesis and making new proteins. For this reason
enzymes are sometimes called biological catalysts.

Enzymes speed up (catalyse) chemical reactions occurring inside and outside of living cells. This includes:
DNA replication (DNA polymerase breaks down the double helix before DNA replication, also
involved in checking the copying of the DNA strand.)
Protein synthesis (Speeds up the rate of the joining together of individual amino acids)

Digestion (Different enzymes break down large food molecules in the mouth, stomach and small
intestine to smaller ones so they can be absorbed into the cells).

Each enzyme will only speed up one reaction as the shape of the enzyme molecule needs to match
the shape of the molecule it reacts with (the substrate molecule).
The part of the enzyme molecule that matches the substrate is called the active site.

Enzymes and temperature

At low temperatures, enzyme reactions are slow.

They speed up as the temperature rises until an optimum temperature is reached. After this point
the reaction will slow down and eventually stop.

Enzymes and pH

Most enzymes work fastest in neutral conditions. Making the solution more acidic or alkaline will
slow the reaction down. At extremes of pH the reaction will stop altogether.
Some enzymes, such as those used in digestion, are adapted to work faster in unusual pH
conditions and may have an optimum pH of 2 (very acidic) if they act in the stomach.

Enzymes and substrate concentration

Enzymes will work best if there is plenty of substrate available. As the concentration of the substrate
increases, so does the enzyme activity.
However, the enzyme activity does not increase without end. This is because the enzyme can't work
any faster even though there is plenty of substrate available.

The lock and key mechanism

Enzymes work best at their optimum temperature. This is why homeostasis is important - to keep
our body temperature at a constant 37C.
As the temperature increases, so does the rate of chemical reaction. This is because heat energy
causes more collisions, with more energy, between the enzyme molecules and other molecules.
However, if the temperature gets too high, the enzyme is denatured and stops working.

Enzymes are specific. Only molecules with the correct shape can fit into the enzyme. Just like only
one key can open a lock, only one type of enzyme can speed up a specific reaction. This is called
the lock and key model.

Denaturing the enzymes

The important part of an enzyme is called the active site. This is where specific molecules bind to
the enzyme and the reaction occurs.
Anything that changes the shape of the active site stops the enzyme from working.
The shape of the active site is affected by pH. This is why enzymes will only work at a specific pH,
as well as a specific temperature. Change the pH and the enzyme stops working.
Increasing the temperature to 60C will cause a permanent change to the shape of the active site.
This is why enzymes stop working when they are heated. We say they have become denatured.

Topic 2 Organisms and energy

2.1 Respiration
Respiration series of chemical reactions that oxidise glucose, releasing energy. In the presence of
oxygen, glucose is oxidised to carbon dioxide and water.
Aerobic respiration

Respiration is not the same thing as breathing. That is more properly called ventilation.

In aerobic respiration, oxygen is used to release energy from molecules such as glucose.
Aerobic respiration needs oxygen to work. Most of the chemical reactions involved in the process
happen in tiny objects inside the cell cytoplasm, called mitochondria.

This is the equation for aerobic respiration:

glucose + oxygen carbon dioxide + water (+ energy)

The energy released by respiration is used to make large molecules from smaller ones. (In plants,
for example, sugars, nitrates and other nutrients are converted into amino acids. Amino acids can
then join together to make proteins.)

The energy is used to:

To allow muscles to contract in animals

To maintain a constant body temperature in birds and mammals

The circulatory system

Blood carries oxygen and nutrients to the body's cells, and waste products away from them.

The diagram outlines the circulatory system. Oxygenated blood is shown in red, and deoxygenated blood in
blue.

A process called diffusion takes place in the capillaries.

Diffusion is where particles of a high concentration move to an area of low concentration.
Glucose and oxygen diffuse into the cells from the capillaries. Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the
cells into the blood in the capillaries.

Anaerobic respiration

When exercising very hard, the heart cannot get enough oxygen to the muscles. Anaerobic
respiration does not need oxygen. It releases energy from glucose but the amount is much lower.
It happens when there is not enough oxygen for aerobic respiration.

Here is the word equation:

glucose lactic acid (+ energy)

Much less energy is released by anaerobic respiration than by aerobic respiration. The lactic acid
that forms causes muscle fatigue and pain.

Effect of exercise on breathing

During exercise, the muscle cells respire more than they do at rest. This means:

Oxygen and glucose must be delivered to them more quickly

Waste carbon dioxide must be removed more quickly

This is achieved by increasing the breathing rate and heart rate. The increase in heart rate can be detected
by measuring the pulse rate.
The stroke volume also increases this is the volume of blood pumped each beat

The total cardiac output can be calculated using the equation:

Cardiac output = stroke volume x heart rate

During hard exercise, the oxygen supply may not be enough for the needs of the muscle cells.
When this happens, anaerobic respiration takes place, as well as aerobic respiration.
Fit people are able to carry out physical activities more effectively than unfit people. Their pulse rate
is likely to return to normal more quickly after exercise.

The after effect of exercise

During hard exercise when anaerobic respiration occurs with aerobic respiration, an oxygen debt
builds up. This is now known as Excess Post-exercise Oxygen Debt or EPOC.
This is because glucose is not broken down completely to form carbon dioxide and water. Some of
it is broken down to form lactic acid.
Panting after exercise provides oxygen to break down lactic acid.
The increased heart rate also allows lactic acid to be carried away by the blood to the liver, where it
is broken down.

2.2 Photosynthesis
A process in which plants absorb sunlight, carbon dioxide and water to produce glucose and oxygen.
Structure of a leaf
The equation for photosynthesis is:
Carbon dioxide and water glucose and oxygen

Adaption
Large surface area
Thin

Purpose
To absorb more light
Short distance for carbon dioxide to diffuse into leaf
cells

Chlorophyll
Network of veins

Absorbs sunlight to transfer energy into chemicals

To support the leaf and transport water and
carbohydrates

Inside of a leaf

Adaption
Epidermis is thin and transparent
Thin cuticle made of wax
Palisade cell layer at top of leaf
Spongy layer

Purpose
To allow more light to reach the palisade cells
To protect the leaf without blocking out light
To absorb more light
Air spaces allow carbon dioxide to diffuse through
the leaf, and increase the surface area

Factors affecting photosynthesis

Without enough light, a plant cannot photosynthesise very quickly, even if there is plenty of water
and carbon dioxide. Increasing the light intensity will boost the speed of photosynthesis.

Sometimes photosynthesis is limited by the concentration of carbon dioxide in the air. Even if there
is plenty of light, a plant cannot photosynthesise if there is insufficient carbon dioxide.

If it gets too cold, the rate of photosynthesis will decrease. Plants cannot photosynthesise if it gets
too hot.

Farmers can use their knowledge of these limiting factors to increase crop growth in greenhouses.

They may use artificial light so that photosynthesis can continue beyond daylight hours, or in a
higher-than-normal light intensity.
The use of paraffin lamps inside a greenhouse increases the rate of photosynthesis because the
burning paraffin produces carbon dioxide, and heat too.

2.3 Transpiration

Transpiration explains how water moves up the plant against gravity in tubes made of dead xylem
cells without the use of a pump.
Transpiration the movement of water and mineral salts from roots to leaves in plants.
Water on the surface of spongy and palisade cells (inside the leaf) evaporates and then diffuses out
of the leaf.
More water is drawn out of the xylem cells inside the leaf to replace what's lost.
As the xylem cells make a continuous tube from the leaf, down the stem to the roots, this acts like a
drinking straw, producing a flow of water and dissolved minerals from roots to leaves.

Factors that speed up transpiration will also increase the rate of water uptake from the soil. When
water is scarce, or the roots are damaged, it increases a plant's chance of survival if the
transpiration rate can be slowed down.

Plants can do this themselves by wilting, or it can be done artificially, like removing some of the
leaves from cuttings before they have chance to grow new roots.

Factors that affect transpiration rate

Factor
Light

Description
In bright light transpiration
increases

Temperature

Transpiration is faster in higher

temperatures
Transpiration is faster in windy
conditions

Wind

Humidity

Transpiration is slower in humid

conditions

Explanation
The stomata (openings in the leaf)
open wider to allow more carbon
dioxide into the leaf for
photosynthesis
Evaporation and diffusion are
faster at higher temperatures
Water vapour is removed quickly
by air movement, speeding up
diffusion of more water vapour out
of the leaf
Diffusion of water vapour out of
the leaf slows down if the leaf is
already surrounded by moist air

2.4 Plant transport

They use two different systems for transport:

Xylem moves water and solutes from the roots to the leaves
Phloem moves food substances from leaves to the rest of the plant.

Both of these systems are rows of cells that make continuous tubes running the full length of the plant.
Xylem

Xylem cells have extra reinforcement in their cell walls, and this helps to support the weight of the
plant.

For this reason, the transport systems are arranged differently in root and stem:

In the root it has to resist forces that could pull the plant out of the ground (resist stretching forces)

In the stem it has to resist compression and bending forces caused by the weight of the plant and
the wind.

Comparison between xylem and phloem

Tissue
Xylem

Process
Transpiration

Phloem

Translocation

What is moved
Moves water and
minerals from roots to
leaves
Moves food substances
from leaves to rest of
plant

Structure
Columns of hollow,
dead reinforced cells
Columns of living cells

2.5 Root hair cells and osmosis

Plants absorb water from the soil by osmosis. Root hair cells are adapted for this by having a large
surface area to speed up osmosis.

The absorbed water is transported through the roots to the rest of the plant where it is used for different
purposes:

It is a reactant used in photosynthesis

It supports leaves and shoots by keeping the cells rigid
It cools the leaves by evaporation
It transports dissolved minerals around the plant

Leaves

Leaves are adapted for photosynthesis by having a large surface area, and contain openings, called
stomata to allow carbon dioxide into the leaf.
Although these design features are good for photosynthesis, they can result in the leaf losing a lot of
water.
The cells inside the leaf have water on their surface. Some of this water evaporates, and the water
vapour can then escape from inside the leaf by diffusion
To reduce loss the leaf is coated in a wax cuticle to stop the water vapour escaping through the
epidermis.
Leaves usually have fewer stomata on their top surface to reduce this water loss.

Reducing water loss

Stomata

Plants growing in drier conditions tend to have small numbers of tiny stomata and only on their
lower leaf surface, to save water loss.
Most plants regulate the size of stomata with guard cells.
In low light the guard cells lose water and become flaccid, causing the stomata to close. They would
normally only close in the dark when no carbon dioxide is needed for photosynthesis.

Turgidity

Most plant cells are turgid at all times. This supports the weight of the plant, which is especially
important where there is no woody tissue, such as leaves, shoot and root tip.
If the plant loses water faster than it can be absorbed the cells lose turgor pressure and begin to
wilt.

Osmosis

Osmosis is the movement of water molecules from an area of high concentration of water to an
area of lower concentration of water through a partially permeable membrane.
An example is the flooding of plants by sea water. Sea water contains many chemicals in solution,
such as salt. Osmosis will move water across the plant cell membrane, from the weaker to the
stronger solution.

2.6 Fieldwork techniques

Sampling
Ecologists will want to know certain information about the species present:

Where an organism is found (distribution)

The number of that organism present (population)

Whenever a scientist studies an area it is usually not possible to look at the entire environment in
detail. Therefore, the scientist samples a section or small portion.
Sampling several small sections is representative of the whole area. The sampling technique used
depends on the habitat and type of organisms present.

Pooters

A pooter is used to catch small insects.

The user breathes in through the mouthpiece which has a piece of net covering the end.
The insects are sucked into the holding chamber via the inlet tube.

Sweep nets

Sweep nets are used in areas of long grass to catch organisms. They can also be used in ponds.

Pitfall traps

Pitfall traps are used to catch small, crawling insects.

They can be set up and left overnight to catch nocturnal species.
All organisms caught should be released unharmed.

Quadrats

They are used to sample all the plant species in a particular area.

Environmental factors
Device

Description
Light intensity can be measured using a light
intensity meter.

pH is measured with a pH probe

Temperature is measured with a temperature
probe
Sometimes a single probe can be used to read
both pH and temperature

Topic 3 Common systems

3.1 Fossils and evolution

Fossils the preserved remains of organisms that lived a long time ago
Fossils of the simplest organisms are found in the oldest rocks, and fossils of more complex
organisms in the newest rocks. This supports the theory of evolution, which states that simple life
forms gradually evolved into more complex ones.

Certain environmental conditions drastically slow down the decaying process, helping to preserve the
tissues. Examples of this are:

Insufficient oxygen, e.g when an organism becomes trapped in amber

Low temperatures, e.g when an organism becomes frozen in a glacier
High soil acidity, e.g when an organism falls into a peat bog

If these conditions are not present, the remains will not be fossilised.

This makes tracing the story of evolution of any one species challenging.
In most cases there are big gaps in fossil records. Problems also arise as soft tissues decay
resulting in scientists having to estimate what the organism was like. Finally, there are also lots of
fossils that we haven't yet found.

The pentadactyl limb

Many vertebrates have a very similar bone structure despite their limbs looking very different on the
outside. This structure is known as the pentadactyl limb five fingered.
This suggests that many vertebrates descended from the same common ancestor.

The evolution of the horse

Modern horse

Time period

Height

1 million years ago

1.6 metres

Time period

Height

10 million years ago

1.0 metres

30 million years ago

1.0 metres

40 million years ago

0.6 metres

60 million years ago

0.4 metres

Pliohippus

Merychippus

Mesohippus

Eohippus

3.2 Growth
Humans are made of millions of cells. This has a number of benefits:

Cells can be specialised to do particular tasks.

Groups of cells can function as organs, making a more efficient but complex organism.
The organism can grow very large

Growth - Growth can be defined as an increase in size, length and mass.

Growth in animals and plants
Feature
Where growth occurs
How growth occurs

Cell specialisation

Plant
Mainly at shoot and root tips and in
special growth zones like buds
Size increase often caused by
increasing the size (elongation) of
cells by absorbing water into the
vacuole
Most plant cells can differentiate
into different cell types

Animal
New cells can be made by most
tissues
Size increase is brought about by
increasing the number of cells

Only stem cells can differentiate into

different cell types. Other animal cell
functions remain fixed

Measuring growth in humans

Human growth is monitored using percentile charts.

This allows medical professionals to monitor a child's growth compared to a certain percentage of
the population.
The age of the child is taken into consideration as well as the spread of differences in the
population.

3.3 Blood
Blood is a liquid tissue consisting of:

Plasma
Red blood cells
White blood cells
Platelets

Red blood cells

Typically a biconcave disc shape provides a large surface area to volume ratio for oxygen to
diffuse in and out of the cell
Without a nucleus makes room for as much haemoglobin as possible
Contain the pigment haemoglobin, which imparts the red colour to blood
Haemoglobin can reversibly combine with oxygen to produce oxyhaemoglobin, which releases
oxygen to tissues around the body

White blood cells

Have a nucleus
Lymphocytes make antibodies bind to microorganisms that cause disease and destroy them
Phagocytes surround and destroys foreign cells that enter the body
Contain a cytoplasm allows them to access tissues so they can protect the body by attacking and
destroying bacteria and viruses.

Plasma

Straw-coloured liquid
Transports dissolved substances around the body, such as hormones, nutrients and waste
substances.

Platelets

Fragments of cells with no nucleus. They also contain protein

When platelets are damaged by a cut, they release a substance that starts a chain of chemical
reactions in the blood.
Fibrogen produced soon turns into insoluble fibrin as the scab formed dries out.

3.4 The heart

Cells, tissues and organs

Heart

A living tissue is made from a group of cells with a similar structure and function, which all work
together to do a particular job.
An organ is made from a group of different tissues, which all work together to do a particular job.
An organ system is made from a group of different organs, which all work together to do a
particular job.

1. A vena cava brings deoxygenated blood from the body into the right atrium.
2. When the atrium is full, muscles in the wall contract and force blood through the values into the
right ventricle. The values have tissue to prevent backflow.
3. When the ventricle is full, the ventricle wall contracts forcing blood through the pulmonary artery
where it picks up oxygen from the lungs.
4. The oxygenated blood returns enter the left atrium through the pulmonary vein.
5. When the atrium is full, the muscle wall contracts and forces blood through the left ventricle.
6. When ventricle wall contracts, this forces the blood out of the aorta to respiring cells in the body.

The left ventricle exerts more pressure than the right ventricle, and so it has a thicker more
muscular wall.
The atria (plural of atrium) exert less pressure than the ventricles so they have a thinner muscular
wall.

3.5 The circulatory system

Blood vessels that tube shaped organs that carry blood. There are three types: arteries, veins
and capillaries.

Arteries
Carry blood away from the heart.
The blood in arteries has to be under pressure so that it can reach all parts of the body. Therefore,
arteries have strong, thick walls.
Capillaries
Allow substances to diffuse into and out of the blood, into the cells in tissues.
To help this process, they have very think walls

Veins
Have wide passages inside them to carry blood to the heart.
They have to be wide because the blood flows relatively slowly under low pressure.
3.6 The digestive system

The digestive system is made out of the alimentary canal a muscular tube running through the
body from the mouth to the mouth of the anus and several other organs that make chemicals for
digestion (including enzymes)

Process
1) Mouth

Food is broken into smaller pieces during chewing. This increases the surface area for digestive
enzymes to work on.
The bolus (formed by the tongue) is lubricated with saliva in order to make it easier to swallow.
Salivary amylase breaks down the starch in the food

2) Oesophagus

A muscular tube between the mouth and the stomach.

Peristalsis occurs muscles contract in waves to push the food towards the stomach

3) Stomach

A muscular tube that makes hydrochloric acid and some enzymes (such as protease to digest
proteins)
Churns the food up with these juices by peristalsis to make a thick paste.

4) Small intestine

A long, coiled muscular tube in while large insoluble food molecules are turned to smaller soluble
ones.
Contains digestive enzymes made by the pancreas and makes its own digestive enzymes as well.
Molecules of digestive food are absorbed into blood using villi which contain capillaries. Food is
moved on using peristalsis.

Pancreas this organ makes digestive enzymes and releases them to the first part of the small intestine.
5) Large intestine

Undigested food passes into this wide, thin-walled tube.

Water is diffused back into the blood leaving faeces behind.

6) Anus

Undigested food is passed out of the body

Liver

Digestive food is absorbed by the small intestine and dissolves in the blood plasma. Once in the
blood, it is taken to the live to be processed. Some of the molecules are broken down even more.
Some are built into large molecules again.
The liver makes bile which helps in digestion of fats.

Gall bladder

A small organ that stores bile made by the liver and releases it to the small intestine when needed.

3.7 Breaking down food

Digesting carbohydrates
Digestive enzymes that break down carbohydrates are called carbohydrases.
Amylase is a carbohydrase that break down starch into sugars which can then be absorbed by
the small intestines or broken down into glucose by other carbohydrases.
An amylase is present in saliva. Another amylase is present in the pancreas and released into the
small intestine.
Digesting proteins
Proteases are enzymes that digest proteins breaking them into shorter chains then amino acids.
Pepsin is a protease made in the stomach. It works well in acidic conditions. The acid produced in
the stomach is pH 2-3. This is the optimum pH for pepsin to break down protein as fast as possible.
However, the contents in the small intestine is alkaline so the proteases released into the small
intestine work best at pH 8.
Digesting fats
Lipases digest fats and break down the fat molecules into fatty acids and glycerol.
Fat and water do not mix so fats and oils form globules in the watery digestive juices. Bile is
secreted into the small intestine, where it emulsifies fats. This is important, because it provides a
larger surface area in which the lipases can work.

3.8 Villi

The inside wall of the small intestine is thin, with a large surface area. This allows absorption to
happen quickly and efficiently.
To get a big surface area, the inside wall of the small intestine is lined with tiny villi. These stick out
and give a big surface area.
They also contain blood capillaries to carry away the absorbed food molecules.
The villi have a rich blood supply. The blood supply has a lower concentration of food molecules
and this steep concentration gradient between the small intestine and the blood means diffusion
occurs quickly.
Thin wall one cell thick.

3.9 Probiotics and prebiotics

Probiotics
Contain live, beneficial bacteria which are usually Lactobacillus and Bifidobacteria that produce
lactic acid in the gut.
Manufacturers of probiotic foods (such as yogurt) claim that these make you healthier by improving
your digestive system helping your body protect itself against diseases and reducing allergies.
However, in 2010, scientists at the European Food Safety Agency looked at the evidence for 180
health claims for probiotics. 10 were rejected completely whilst there was not enough evidence to
support the other 170 claims.
Prebiotics
Substances that the body cannot digest. They act as food for the beneficial bacteria in the gut and
encourage their growth.

Found in tomatoes, bananas, onions which all contain oligosaccharides, a common form of
prebiotic. Can be also found in dairy products or sold in capsules.

Plant stanol esters

Oily substances found in plants. Scientists have discovered that these can stop the small intestine
from absorbing cholesterol, lowering the levels of cholesterol in the blood. High cholesterol leads to
an increased risk of heart disease.
Used in many food such as spreads, drinks, etc. There is clear evidence that this has an effect.