Resonance PDF

Resonance
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Contents
Articles
Overview
Resonance
Resonance in particle physics
Resonator
Types
13
Acoustic resonance
13
Mechanical resonance
18
Electrical resonance
21
Electron paramagnetic resonance
23
Optical resonance
31
Orbital resonance
35
46
Mssbauer effect
49
Nuclear magnetic resonance
52
Resonant inductive coupling
67
Schumann resonances
73
Related topics
81
Cymatics
81
Damping
83
Harmonic oscillator
89
Nonlinear resonance
98
Positive feedback
100
Simple harmonic motion
109
Q factor
113
Vibration
119
Mathematics
132
Cauchy distribution
132
Relativistic BreitWigner distribution
140
Miscellaneous
Tacoma Narrows Bridge
142
142
References
Article Sources and Contributors
151
Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors
154
Article Licenses
License
157
Overview
Resonance
In physics, resonance is the tendency
of a system to oscillate with greater
amplitude at some frequencies than at
others. Frequencies at which the
response amplitude is a relative
maximum are known as the system's
resonant frequencies, or resonance
frequencies. At these frequencies,
even small periodic driving forces can
produce large amplitude oscillations,
because the system stores vibrational
energy.
Resonance occurs when a system is
able to store and easily transfer energy
between two or more different storage
Increase of amplitude as damping decreases and frequency approaches resonant
frequency of a driven damped simple harmonic oscillator.
modes (such as kinetic energy and
potential energy in the case of a
pendulum). However, there are some losses from cycle to cycle, called damping. When damping is small, the
resonant frequency is approximately equal to the natural frequency of the system, which is a frequency of unforced
vibrations. Some systems have multiple, distinct, resonant frequencies.
Resonance phenomena occur with all types of vibrations or waves: there is mechanical resonance, acoustic
resonance, electromagnetic resonance, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), electron spin resonance (ESR) and
resonance of quantum wave functions. Resonant systems can be used to generate vibrations of a specific frequency
(e.g., musical instruments), or pick out specific frequencies from a complex vibration containing many frequencies
(e.g., filters).
Resonance
Examples
One familiar example is a playground swing,
which acts as a pendulum. Pushing a person in a
swing in time with the natural interval of the
swing (its resonant frequency) will make the
swing go higher and higher (maximum
amplitude), while attempts to push the swing at a
faster or slower tempo will result in smaller arcs.
This is because the energy the swing absorbs is
maximized when the pushes are "in phase" with
the swing's natural oscillations, while some of
the swing's energy is actually extracted by the
opposing force of the pushes when they are not.
Resonance occurs widely in nature, and is
Pushing a person in a swing is a common example of resonance. The loaded
exploited in many manmade devices. It is the
swing, a pendulum, has a natural frequency of oscillation, its resonant
mechanism by which virtually all sinusoidal
frequency, and resists being pushed at a faster or slower rate.
waves and vibrations are generated. Many
sounds we hear, such as when hard objects of
metal, glass, or wood are struck, are caused by brief resonant vibrations in the object. Light and other short
wavelength electromagnetic radiation is produced by resonance on an atomic scale, such as electrons in atoms. Other
examples are:
Timekeeping mechanisms of modern clocks and watches, e.g., the balance wheel in a mechanical watch and the
quartz crystal in a quartz watch
Tidal resonance of the Bay of Fundy

Acoustic resonances of musical instruments and human vocal cords
Shattering of a crystal wineglass when exposed to a musical tone of the right pitch (its resonant frequency)
Electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios and TVs that allow radio frequencies to be selectively received
Creation of coherent light by optical resonance in a laser cavity
Orbital resonance as exemplified by some moons of the solar system's gas giants
Material resonances in atomic scale are the basis of several spectroscopic techniques that are used in condensed
matter physics
Electron spin resonance
Mssbauer effect
Resonance
Theory
The exact response of a resonance,
especially for frequencies far from the
resonant frequency, depends on the
details of the physical system, and is
usually not exactly symmetric about
the resonant frequency, as illustrated
for the simple harmonic oscillator
above. For a lightly damped linear
oscillator with a resonance frequency
, the intensity of oscillations I when
the system is driven with a driving
frequency is typically approximated
by a formula that is symmetric about
the resonance frequency:
"Universal Resonance Curve", a symmetric approximation to the normalized response of
a resonant circuit; abscissa values are deviation from center frequency, in units of center
frequency divided by 2Q; ordinate is relative amplitude, and phase in cycles; dashed
curves compare the range of responses of real two-pole circuits for a Q value of 5; for
higher Q values, there is less deviation from the universal curve. Crosses mark the edges
of the 3-dB bandwidth (gain 0.707, phase shift 45 degrees or 0.125 cycle).
The intensity is defined as the square

of the amplitude of the oscillations.
This is a Lorentzian function, and this
response is found in many physical situations involving resonant systems. is a parameter dependent on the
damping of the oscillator, and is known as the linewidth of the resonance. Heavily damped oscillators tend to have
broad linewidths, and respond to a wider range of driving frequencies around the resonant frequency. The linewidth
is inversely proportional to the Q factor, which is a measure of the sharpness of the resonance.
In electrical engineering, this approximate symmetric response is known as the universal resonance curve, a concept
introduced by Frederick E. Terman in 1932 to simplify the approximate analysis of radio circuits with a range of
center frequencies and Q values.
Resonators
A physical system can have as many resonant frequencies as it has degrees of freedom; each degree of freedom can
vibrate as a harmonic oscillator. Systems with one degree of freedom, such as a mass on a spring, pendulums,
balance wheels, and LC tuned circuits have one resonant frequency. Systems with two degrees of freedom, such as
coupled pendulums and resonant transformers can have two resonant frequencies. As the number of coupled
harmonic oscillators grows, the time it takes to transfer energy from one to the next becomes significant. The
vibrations in them begin to travel through the coupled harmonic oscillators in waves, from one oscillator to the next.
Extended objects that can experience resonance due to vibrations inside them are called resonators, such as organ
pipes, vibrating strings, quartz crystals, microwave cavities, and laser rods. Since these can be viewed as being made
of millions of coupled moving parts (such as atoms), they can have millions of resonant frequencies. The vibrations
inside them travel as waves, at an approximately constant velocity, bouncing back and forth between the sides of the
resonator. If the distance between the sides is , the length of a roundtrip is
. In order to cause resonance, the
phase of a sinusoidal wave after a roundtrip has to be equal to the initial phase, so the waves will reinforce. So the
condition for resonance in a resonator is that the roundtrip distance,
, be equal to an integer number of
wavelengths
of the wave:
Resonance
If the velocity of a wave is
, the frequency is
so the resonant frequencies are:
So the resonant frequencies of resonators, called normal modes, are equally spaced multiples of a lowest frequency
called the fundamental frequency. The multiples are often called overtones. There may be several such series of
resonant frequencies, corresponding to different modes of vibration.
Q factor
The Q factor or quality factor is a dimensionless parameter that describes how under-damped an oscillator or
resonator is, or equivalently, characterizes a resonator's bandwidth relative to its center frequency. Higher Q
indicates a lower rate of energy loss relative to the stored energy of the oscillator, i.e., the oscillations die out more
slowly. A pendulum suspended from a high-quality bearing, oscillating in air, has a high Q, while a pendulum
immersed in oil has a low Q. In order to sustain a system in resonance in constant amplitude by providing power
externally, the energy that has to be provided within each cycle is less than the energy stored in the system (i.e., the
sum of the potential and kinetic) by a factor of
. Oscillators with high-quality factors have low damping
which tends to make them ring longer.
Sinusoidally driven resonators having higher Q factors resonate with greater amplitudes (at the resonant frequency)
but have a smaller range of frequencies around the frequency at which they resonate. The range of frequencies at
which the oscillator resonates is called the bandwidth. Thus, a high Q tuned circuit in a radio receiver would be more
difficult to tune, but would have greater selectivity, it would do a better job of filtering out signals from other
stations that lie nearby on the spectrum. High Q oscillators operate over a smaller range of frequencies and are more
stable. (See oscillator phase noise.)
The quality factor of oscillators varies substantially from system to system. Systems for which damping is important
(such as dampers keeping a door from slamming shut) have Q=. Clocks, lasers, and other systems that need either
strong resonance or high frequency stability need high-quality factors. Tuning forks have quality factors around
Q=1000. The quality factor of atomic clocks and some high-Q lasers can reach as high as 1011[1] and higher.[2]
There are many alternate quantities used by physicists and engineers to describe how damped an oscillator is that are
closely related to its quality factor. Important examples include: the damping ratio, relative bandwidth, linewidth,
and bandwidth measured in octaves.
Types of resonance
Mechanical and acoustic resonance
Mechanical resonance is the tendency of a mechanical system to absorb more energy when the frequency of its
oscillations matches the system's natural frequency of vibration than it does at other frequencies. It may cause violent
swaying motions and even catastrophic failure in improperly constructed structures including bridges, buildings,
trains, and aircraft. When designing objects, engineers must ensure the mechanical resonance frequencies of the
component parts do not match driving vibrational frequencies of motors or other oscillating parts, a phenomenon
known as resonance disaster.
Avoiding resonance disasters is a major concern in every building, tower, and bridge construction project. As a
countermeasure, shock mounts can be installed to absorb resonant frequencies and thus dissipate the absorbed
energy. The Taipei 101 building relies on a 660-tonne pendulum (730-short-ton)a tuned mass damperto cancel
resonance. Furthermore, the structure is designed to resonate at a frequency which does not typically occur.
Buildings in seismic zones are often constructed to take into account the oscillating frequencies of expected ground
Resonance
motion. In addition, engineers designing objects having engines must ensure that the mechanical resonant
frequencies of the component parts do not match driving vibrational frequencies of the motors or other strongly
oscillating parts.
Many clocks keep time by mechanical resonance in a balance wheel, pendulum, or quartz crystal
Acoustic resonance is a branch of mechanical resonance that is concerned with the mechanical vibrations across the
frequency range of human hearing, in other words sound. For humans, hearing is normally limited to frequencies
between about 20Hz and 20,000Hz (20kHz),[3]
Acoustic resonance is an important consideration for instrument builders, as most acoustic instruments use
resonators, such as the strings and body of a violin, the length of tube in a flute, and the shape of, and tension on, a
drum membrane.
Like mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance can result in catastrophic failure of the object at resonance. The
classic example of this is breaking a wine glass with sound at the precise resonant frequency of the glass, although
this is difficult in practice.[4]
Electrical resonance occurs in an electric circuit at a particular resonant frequency when the impedance of the circuit
is at a minimum in a series circuit or at maximum in a parallel circuit (or when the transfer function is at a
maximum).
Optical resonance
An optical cavity, also called an optical resonator, is an arrangement of mirrors that forms a standing wave cavity
resonator for light waves. Optical cavities are a major component of lasers, surrounding the gain medium and
providing feedback of the laser light. They are also used in optical parametric oscillators and some interferometers.
Light confined in the cavity reflects multiple times producing standing waves for certain resonant frequencies. The
standing wave patterns produced are called "modes". Longitudinal modes differ only in frequency while transverse
modes differ for different frequencies and have different intensity patterns across the cross-section of the beam. Ring
resonators and whispering galleries are examples of optical resonators that do not form standing waves.
Different resonator types are distinguished by the focal lengths of the two mirrors and the distance between them;
flat mirrors are not often used because of the difficulty of aligning them precisely. The geometry (resonator type)
must be chosen so the beam remains stable, i.e., the beam size does not continue to grow with each reflection.
Resonator types are also designed to meet other criteria such as minimum beam waist or having no focal point (and
therefore intense light at that point) inside the cavity.
Optical cavities are designed to have a very large Q factor;[5] a beam will reflect a very large number of times with
little attenuation. Therefore the frequency line width of the beam is very small compared to the frequency of the
laser.
Additional optical resonances are guided-mode resonances and surface plasmon resonance, which result in
anomalous reflection and high evanescent fields at resonance. In this case, the resonant modes are guided modes of a
waveguide or surface plasmon modes of a dielectric-metallic interface. These modes are usually excited by a
subwavelength grating.
Resonance
Orbital resonance
In celestial mechanics, an orbital resonance occurs when two orbiting bodies exert a regular, periodic gravitational
influence on each other, usually due to their orbital periods being related by a ratio of two small integers. Orbital
resonances greatly enhance the mutual gravitational influence of the bodies. In most cases, this results in an unstable
interaction, in which the bodies exchange momentum and shift orbits until the resonance no longer exists. Under
some circumstances, a resonant system can be stable and self-correcting, so that the bodies remain in resonance.
Examples are the 1:2:4 resonance of Jupiter's moons Ganymede, Europa, and Io, and the 2:3 resonance between
Pluto and Neptune. Unstable resonances with Saturn's inner moons give rise to gaps in the rings of Saturn. The
special case of 1:1 resonance (between bodies with similar orbital radii) causes large Solar System bodies to clear the
neighborhood around their orbits by ejecting nearly everything else around them; this effect is used in the current
definition of a planet.
Atomic, particle, and molecular resonance

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is the name
given to a physical resonance phenomenon
involving the observation of specific quantum
mechanical magnetic properties of an atomic
nucleus in the presence of an applied, external
magnetic field. Many scientific techniques exploit
NMR phenomena to study molecular physics,
crystals, and non-crystalline materials through
NMR spectroscopy. NMR is also routinely used in
advanced medical imaging techniques, such as in
magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
All nuclei containing odd numbers of nucleons
have an intrinsic magnetic moment and angular
momentum. A key feature of NMR is that the
resonant frequency of a particular substance is
directly proportional to the strength of the applied
magnetic field. It is this feature that is exploited in
imaging techniques; if a sample is placed in a
non-uniform magnetic field then the resonant
frequencies of the sample's nuclei depend on where
in the field they are located. Therefore, the particle
can be located quite precisely by its resonant
frequency.
NMR Magnet at HWB-NMR, Birmingham, UK. In its strong 21.2-tesla

field, the proton resonance is at 900MHz.
Electron paramagnetic resonance, otherwise known as Electron Spin Resonance (ESR) is a spectroscopic technique
similar to NMR, but uses unpaired electrons instead. Materials for which this can be applied are much more limited
since the material needs to both have an unpaired spin and be paramagnetic.
The Mssbauer effect is the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma ray photons by atoms bound
in a solid form.
Resonance in particle physics appears in similar circumstances to classical physics at the level of quantum
mechanics and quantum field theory. However, they can also be thought of as unstable particles, with the formula
above valid if the is the decay rate and replaced by the particle's mass M. In that case, the formula comes from
the particle's propagator, with its mass replaced by the complex number
. The formula is further related to
Resonance
the particle's decay rate by the optical theorem.
Failure of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge

The dramatically visible, rhythmic twisting that resulted in the 1940 collapse of "Galloping Gertie", the original
Tacoma Narrows Bridge, is misleadingly characterized as an example of resonance phenomenon in certain
textbooks. The catastrophic vibrations that destroyed the bridge were not due to simple mechanical resonance, but to
a more complicated interaction between the bridge and the winds passing through ita phenomenon known as
aeroelastic flutter, which is a kind of "self-sustaining vibration" as referred to in the nonlinear theory of vibrations.
Robert H. Scanlan, father of bridge aerodynamics, has written an article about this misunderstanding.
Resonance causing a vibration on the International Space Station

The rocket engines for the International Space Station (ISS) are controlled by autopilot. Ordinarily the uploaded
parameters for controlling the engine control system for the Zvezda module will cause the rocket engines to boost
the International Space Station to a higher orbit. The rocket engines are hinge-mounted, and ordinarily the operation
is not noticed by the crew. But on January 14, 2009, the uploaded parameters caused the autopilot to swing the
rocket engines in larger and larger oscillations, at a frequency of 0.5Hz. These oscillations were captured on video,
and lasted for 142 seconds.
References
[1] Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology:Q factor (http:/ / www. rp-photonics. com/ q_factor. html)
[2] Time and Frequency from A to Z: Q to Ra (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ enc-q. htm)
[3] Harry F. Olson Music, Physics and Engineering. (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=RUDTFBbb7jAC& pg=PA248) Dover Publications,
1967, pp. 248249. "Under very favorable conditions most individuals can obtain tonal characteristics as low as 12 Hz."
[4] Breaking Glass with Sound (http:/ / www. physics. ucla. edu/ demoweb/ demomanual/ acoustics/ effects_of_sound/
breaking_glass_with_sound. html)
[5] Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology - Q factor, quality factor, cavity, resonator, oscillator, frequency standards (http:/ / www.
rp-photonics. com/ q_factor. html)
External links
Definition of Resonance (http://www.answers.com/topic/resonance) - "The increase in amplitude of
oscillation of an electric or mechanical system exposed to a periodic force whose frequency is equal or very close
to the natural undamped frequency of the system."
Resonance (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/lm/ch18/ch18.html) - a chapter from an online
textbook
Greene, Brian, " Resonance in strings (http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/elegant/resonance.html)". The
Elegant Universe, NOVA (PBS)
Hyperphysics section on resonance concepts (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/sound/rescon.
html#c1)
Resonance versus resonant (http://users.ece.gatech.edu/~mleach/misc/resonance.html) (usage of terms)
Wood and Air Resonance in a Harpsichord (http://www.johnsankey.ca/bottom.html)
Java applet (http://www.phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/StatWave.htm) demonstrating resonances on a string when
the frequency of the driving force is varied
Java applet (http://phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Resonance.htm) demonstrating the occurrence of resonance when
the driving frequency matches with the natural frequency of an oscillator
Breaking glass with sound (http://www.acoustics.salford.ac.uk/acoustics_info/glass), including high-speed
footage of glass breaking

In particle physics, a resonance is the peak located around a certain energy found in differential cross sections of
scattering experiments. These peaks are associated with subatomic particles (such as nucleons, delta baryons, upsilon
mesons) and their excitations. The width of the resonance () is related to the lifetime () of the particle (or its
excited state) by the relation
where is the reduced Planck constant.
Resonator
A resonator is a device or system that exhibits resonance or resonant
behavior, that is, it naturally oscillates at some frequencies, called its
resonant frequencies, with greater amplitude than at others. The
oscillations in a resonator can be either electromagnetic or mechanical
(including acoustic). Resonators are used to either generate waves of
specific frequencies or to select specific frequencies from a signal.
Musical instruments use acoustic resonators that produce sound waves
of specific tones.
A cavity resonator, usually used in reference to electromagnetic
resonators, is one in which waves exist in a hollow space inside the
device. Acoustic cavity resonators, in which sound is produced by air
vibrating in a cavity with one opening, are known as Helmholtz resonators.
A standing wave in a rectangular cavity

resonator.
Explanation
A physical system can have as many resonant frequencies as it has degrees of freedom; each degree of freedom can
vibrate as a harmonic oscillator. Systems with one degree of freedom, such as a mass on a spring, pendulums,
balance wheels, and LC tuned circuits have one resonant frequency. Systems with two degrees of freedom, such as
coupled pendulums and resonant transformers can have two resonant frequencies. As the number of coupled
harmonic oscillators grows, the time it takes to transfer energy from one to the next becomes significant. The
vibrations in them begin to travel through the coupled harmonic oscillators in waves, from one oscillator to the next.
The term resonator is most often used for a homogeneous object in which vibrations travel as waves, at an
approximately constant velocity, bouncing back and forth between the sides of the resonator. Resonators can be
viewed as being made of millions of coupled moving parts (such as atoms). Therefore they can have millions of
resonant frequencies, although only a few may be used in practical resonators. The oppositely moving waves
interfere with each other to create a pattern of standing waves in the resonator. If the distance between the sides is
, the length of a round trip is
. To cause resonance, the phase of a sinusoidal wave after a round trip must be
equal to the initial phase so the waves self-reinforce. The condition for resonance in a resonator is that the round trip
distance,
, is equal to an integral number of wavelengths of the wave:
If the velocity of a wave is
, the frequency is
so the resonant frequencies are:
Resonator
So the resonant frequencies of resonators, called normal modes, are equally spaced multiples (harmonics) of a lowest
frequency called the fundamental frequency. The above analysis assumes the medium inside the resonator is
homogeneous, so the waves travel at a constant speed, and that the shape of the resonator is rectilinear. If the
resonator is inhomogeneous or has a nonrectilinear shape, like a circular drumhead or a cylindrical microwave
cavity, the resonant frequencies may not occur at equally spaced multiples of the fundamental frequency. They are
then called overtones instead of harmonics. There may be several such series of resonant frequencies in a single
resonator, corresponding to different modes of vibration.
Electromagnetic
Electromagnetism
Electricity
Magnetism
v
t
e [1]
An electrical circuit composed of discrete components can act as a resonator when both an inductor and capacitor are
included. Oscillations are limited by the inclusion of resistance, either via a specific resistor component, or due to
resistance of the inductor windings. Such resonant circuits are also called RLC circuits after the circuit symbols for
the components.
A distributed-parameter resonator has capacitance, inductance, and resistance that cannot be isolated into separate
lumped capacitors, inductors, or resistors. An example of this, much used in filtering, is the helical resonator.
A single layer coil (or solenoid) that is used as a secondary or tertiary winding in a Tesla coil or magnifying
transmitter is also a distributed resonator.
Cavity resonators
A cavity resonator is a hollow conductor blocked at both ends and along which an electromagnetic wave can be
supported. It can be viewed as a waveguide short-circuited at both ends (see Microwave cavity).
The cavity's interior surfaces reflect a wave of a specific frequency. When a wave that is resonant with the cavity
enters, it bounces back and forth within the cavity, with low loss (see standing wave). As more wave energy enters
the cavity, it combines with and reinforces the standing wave, increasing its intensity.
Resonator
10
Examples
RF cavities in the linac of the Australian

Synchrotron are used to accelerate and bunch
beams of electrons; the linac is the tube passing
through the middle of the cavity.
The cavity magnetron is a vacuum tube with a filament in the center of

an evacuated, lobed, circular cavity resonator. A perpendicular
magnetic field is imposed by a permanent magnet. The magnetic field
causes the electrons, attracted to the (relatively) positive outer part of
the chamber, to spiral outward in a circular path rather than moving
directly to this anode. Spaced about the rim of the chamber are
cylindrical cavities. The cavities are open along their length and so
they connect with the common cavity space. As electrons sweep past
these openings they induce a resonant high frequency radio field in the
cavity, which in turn causes the electrons to bunch into groups. A
portion of this field is extracted with a short antenna that is connected
to a waveguide (a metal tube usually of rectangular cross section). The
waveguide directs the extracted RF energy to the load, which may be a
cooking chamber in a microwave oven or a high gain antenna in the
case of radar.
The klystron, tube waveguide, is a beam tube including at least two
apertured cavity resonators. The beam of charged particles passes
through the apertures of the resonators, often tunable wave reflection
grids, in succession. A collector electrode is provided to intercept the
beam after passing through the resonators. The first resonator causes
bunching of the particles passing through it. The bunched particles
travel in a field-free region where further bunching occurs, then the
bunched particles enter the second resonator giving up their energy to
excite it into oscillations. It is a particle accelerator that works in
conjunction with a specifically tuned cavity by the configuration of the
structures. On the beamline of an accelerator system, there are specific
sections that are cavity resonators for RF.
The reflex klystron is a klystron utilizing only a single apertured cavity
resonator through which the beam of charged particles passes, first in
one direction. A repeller electrode is provided to repel (or redirect) the
beam after passage through the resonator back through the resonator in
the other direction and in proper phase to reinforce the oscillations set
up in the resonator.
An illustration of the electric and magnetic field

of one of the possible modes in a cavity
resonator.
In a laser, light is amplified in a cavity resonator that is usually

composed of two or more mirrors. Thus an optical cavity, also known
as a resonator, is a cavity with walls that reflect electromagnetic waves
(light). This allows standing wave modes to exist with little loss
outside the cavity.
Mechanical
Mechanical resonators are used in electronic circuits to generate signals of a precise frequency. For example,
piezoelectric resonators, commonly made from quartz, are used as frequency references. Common designs consist of
electrodes attached to a chunk of quartz, cut out to the form of a rectangular plate, or to the form of a tuning fork for
low frequency applications. The high dimensional stability and low temperature coefficient of quartz helps keeps
Resonator
11
resonant frequency constant. In addition, the quartz's piezoelectric property converts the mechanical vibrations into
an oscillating voltage, which is picked up by the attached electrodes. These crystal oscillators are used in quartz
clocks and watches, to create the clock signal that runs computers, and to stabilize the output signal from radio
transmitters. Mechanical resonators can also be used to induce a standing wave in other media. For example a
multiple degree of freedom system can be created by imposing a base excitation on a cantilever beam. In this case
the standing wave is imposed on the beam. This type of system can be used as a sensor to track changes in frequency
or phase of the resonance of the fiber. One application is as a measurement device for dimensional metrology.[2]
Acoustic
The most familiar examples of acoustic resonators are in musical instruments. Every musical instrument has
resonators. Some generate the sound directly, such as the wooden bars in a xylophone, the head of a drum, the
strings in stringed instruments, and the pipes in an organ. Some modify the sound by enhancing particular
frequencies, such as the sound box of a guitar or violin. Organ pipes, the bodies of woodwinds, and the sound boxes
of stringed instruments are examples of acoustic cavity resonators.
Automobiles
The exhaust pipes in automobile exhaust systems are designed as
acoustic resonators that work with the muffler to reduce noise, by
making sound waves "cancel each other out"[3]. The "exhaust note" is
an important feature for many vehicle owners, so both the original
manufacturers and the after-market suppliers use the resonator to
enhance the sound. In 'tuned exhaust' systems designed for
performance, the resonance of the exhaust pipes can also be used to
'suck' the combustion products out of the combustion chamber at a
particular engine speed or range of speeds.
A sport motorcycle, equipped with exhaust

resonator, designed for performance.
Percussion instruments
In many keyboard percussion instruments, below the centre of each note is a tube, which is an acoustic cavity
resonator, referred to simply as the resonator. The length of the tube varies according to the pitch of the note, with
higher notes having shorter resonators. The tube is open at the top end and closed at the bottom end, creating a
column of air that resonates when the note is struck. This adds depth and volume to the note. In string instruments,
the body of the instrument is a resonator. The tremolo effect of a vibraphone is achieved via a mechanism that opens
and shuts the resonators.
Stringed instruments
String instruments such as the bluegrass banjo may also have resonators. Many five-string banjos have removable
resonators, so players can use the instrument with a resonator in bluegrass style, or without it in folk music style. The
term resonator, used by itself, may also refer to the resonator guitar.
The modern ten-string guitar, invented by Narciso Yepes, adds four sympathetic string resonators to the traditional
classical guitar. By tuning these resonators in a very specific way (C, Bb, Ab, Gb) and making use of their strongest
partials (corresponding to the octaves and fifths of the strings' fundamental tones), the bass strings of the guitar now
resonate equally with any of the 12 tones of the chromatic octave. The guitar resonator is a device for driving guitar
string harmonics by an electromagnetic field. This resonance effect is caused by a feedback loop and is applied to
drive the fundamental tones, octaves, 5th, 3rd to an infinite sustain.
Resonator
References and notes

[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Electromagnetism& action=edit
[2] http:/ / www. insitutec. com
[3] http:/ / auto. howstuffworks. com/ muffler4. htm
12
13
Types
Acoustic resonance
Acoustic resonance is the tendency of an acoustic system to absorb more energy when it is forced or driven at a
frequency that matches one of its own natural frequencies of vibration (its resonance frequency) than it does at other
frequencies.
The term acoustic resonance is sometimes used to narrow mechanical resonance to the frequency range of human
hearing, but since acoustics is defined in general terms concerning vibrational waves in matter [1] acoustic resonance
can occur at frequencies outside the range of human hearing.
An acoustically resonant object usually has more than one resonance frequency, especially at harmonics of the
strongest resonance. It will easily vibrate at those frequencies, and vibrate less strongly at other frequencies. It will
"pick out" its resonance frequency from a complex excitation, such as an impulse or a wideband noise excitation. In
effect, it is filtering out all frequencies other than its resonance.
Acoustic resonance is an important consideration for instrument builders, as most acoustic instruments use
resonators, such as the strings and body of a violin, the length of tube in a flute, and the shape of a drum membrane.
Acoustic resonance is also important for hearing. For example, resonance of a stiff structural element, called the
basilar membrane within the cochlea of the inner ear allows hair cells on the membrane to detect sound. (For
mammals the membrane has tapering resonances across its length so that high frequencies are concentrated on one
end and low frequencies on the other.)
Like mechanical resonance, acoustic resonance can result in catastrophic failure of the vibrator. The classic example
of this is breaking a wine glass with sound at the precise resonant frequency of the glass; although this is difficult in
practice.[2][3]
Resonance of a string
Strings under tension, as in instruments such as lutes, harps, guitars, pianos, violins and so forth, have resonant
frequencies directly related to the mass, length, and tension of the string. The wavelength that will create the first
resonance on the string is equal to twice the length of the string. Higher resonances correspond to wavelengths that
are integer divisions of the fundamental wavelength. The corresponding frequencies are related to the speed v of a
wave traveling down the string by the equation
where L is the length of the string (for a string fixed at both ends) and n = 1, 2, 3... The speed of a wave through a
string or wire is related to its tension T and the mass per unit length :
So the frequency is related to the properties of the string by the equation
where T is the tension, is the mass per unit length, and m is the total mass.
Acoustic resonance
14
Higher tension and shorter lengths increase the resonant frequencies. When the string is excited with an impulsive
function (a finger pluck or a strike by a hammer), the string vibrates at all the frequencies present in the impulse (an
impulsive function theoretically contains 'all' frequencies). Those frequencies that are not one of the resonances are
quickly filtered outthey are attenuatedand all that is left is the harmonic vibrations that we hear as a musical
note.
String resonance in music instruments

String resonance occurs on string instruments. Strings or parts of strings may resonate at their fundamental or
overtone frequencies when other strings are sounded. For example, an A string at 440Hz will cause an E string at
330Hz to resonate, because they share an overtone of 1320Hz (3rd overtone of A and 4th overtone of E).
Resonance of a tube of air

The resonance of a tube of air is related to the length of the tube, its shape, and whether it has closed or open ends.
Musically useful tube shapes are conical and cylindrical (see bore). A pipe that is closed at one end is said to be
stopped while an open pipe is open at both ends. Modern orchestral flutes behave as open cylindrical pipes; clarinets
and lip-reed instruments (brass instruments) behave as closed cylindrical pipes; and saxophones, oboes, and
bassoons as closed conical pipes. Vibrating air columns also have resonances at harmonics, like strings.
Cylinders
By convention a rigid cylinder that is open at both ends is referred to as an "open" cylinder, whereas a rigid cylinder
that is open at one end and has a rigid surface at the other end is referred to as a "closed" cylinder.
Open
An open tube is a tube in which both ends are open. The tube resonates
at many frequencies or notes. Its lowest resonance (called its
fundamental frequency) occurs at the same frequency as a closed tube
of half its length. An open tube will resonate if there is a displacement
antinode at each open end. These displacement antinodes are places
where there is a maximum movement of air in and out of the ends of
the tube. By overblowing an open tube, a note can be obtained that is
an octave above the fundamental frequency or note of the tube. For
example, if the fundamental note of an open pipe is C1, then
overblowing the pipe gives C2, which is an octave above C1.[4]
Open cylindrical tubes resonate at the approximate frequencies:
where n is a positive integer (1, 2, 3...) representing the resonance

node, L is the length of the tube and v is the speed of sound in air
(which is approximately 343 meters per second at 20 C and at sea
level).
A more accurate equation considering an end correction is given below:
The first three resonances in an open cylindrical

tube. The horizontal axis is pressure.
Acoustic resonance
15
where d is the diameter of the resonance tube. This equation

compensates for the fact that the exact point at which a sound wave is
reflecting at an open end is not perfectly at the end section of the tube,
but a small distance outside the tube.
The reflection ratio is slightly less than 1; the open end does not
behave like an infinitesimal acoustic impedance; rather, it has a finite
value, called radiation impedance, which is dependent on the diameter
of the tube, the wavelength, and the type of reflection board possibly
present around the opening of the tube.
Closed
A closed tube (also called a "stopped pipe" in the organ) is a tube
which is closed at one end. The tube has a fundamental frequency but
can be overblown to produce other higher frequencies or notes. These
overblown registers can be tuned by using different degrees of conical
The first three resonances in a one end open and
taper. A closed tube resonates at the same fundamental frequency as an
other end closed cylindrical tube. The horizontal
axis is pressure.
open tube twice its length or one fourth of the keynote frequency
wavelength. In a closed tube, a node, or point of no vibration, always
appears at the closed end and if the tube is resonating, it will have an antinode, or point greatest vibration at the Phi
point (length X 0.618) near the open end.
By overblowing a cylindrical closed tube, a note can be obtained that is approximately a twelfth above the
fundamental note of the tube. This is sometimes described as one-fifth above the octave of the fundamental note. For
example, if the fundamental note of a closed pipe is C1, then overblowing the pipe gives G2, which is one-twelfth
above C1. Alternatively we can say that G2 is one-fifth above C2 the octave above C1. Adjusting the taper of this
cylinder for a decreasing cone can tune the second harmonic or overblown note close to the octave position or 8th.
(ref: Horns,Strings and Harmony, by Arthur H. Benade.) Opening a small "speaker hole" at the Phi point, or shared
"wave/node" position will cancel the fundamental frequency and force the tube to resonate at a 12th above the
fundamental. This technique is used in a Recorder by pinching open the dorsal thumb hole. Moving this small hole
upwards, closer to the voicing will make it an "Echo Hole" (Dolmetsch Recorder Modification) that will give a
precise half note above the fundamental when opened. Note: Slight size or diameter adjustment is needed to zero in
on the precise half note frequency.
A closed tube will have approximate resonances of:
where "n" here is an odd number (1, 3, 5...). This type of tube produces only odd harmonics and has its fundamental
frequency an octave lower than that of an open cylinder (that is, half the frequency).
A more accurate equation is given below:
.
Acoustic resonance
16
Cones
An open conical tube, that is, one in the shape of a frustum of a cone with both ends open, will have resonant
frequencies approximately equal to those of an open cylindrical pipe of the same length.
The resonant frequencies of a stopped conical tube a complete cone or frustum with one end closed satisfy a
more complicated condition:
where the wavenumber k is
and x is the distance from the small end of the frustum to the vertex. When x is small, that is, when the cone is nearly
complete, this becomes
leading to resonant frequencies approximately equal to those of an open cylinder whose length equals L+x. In
words, a complete conical pipe behaves approximately like an open cylindrical pipe of the same length, and to first
order the behavior does not change if the complete cone is replaced by a closed frustum of that cone.
Closed rectangular box

Sound waves in a rectangular box include such examples as loudspeaker enclosures and buildings. Rectangular
building have resonances described as room modes. For a rectangular box, the resonant frequencies are given by
where v is the speed of sound, Lx and Ly and Lz are the dimensions of the box, and
integers. However, , n, and m cannot all be zero.
n, and m are the nonnegative
Resonance of a sphere of air (vented)

The diameter of a sphere with a sound hole is given by
where: (in meters)

D = diameter of sphere
d = diameter of sound hole
f = frequency
Acoustic resonance
17
The diameter of a sphere with a necked sound hole is given by
where: (in meters)

D = diameter of sphere
d = diameter of sound hole
C = speed of sound
L = length of neck
f = frequency
False tones
Some large conical instruments like tubas have a strong and useful resonance
that is not in the well-known harmonic series. For example, most large B tubas have a strong resonance at low E
(E1, 39Hz), which is between the fundamental and the second harmonic (an octave higher than the fundamental).
These alternative resonances are often known as false tones or privileged tones.
The most convincing explanation for false-tones is that the horn is acting as a 'third of a pipe' rather than as a
half-pipe. The bell remains an anti-node, but there would then be a node 1/3 of the way back to the mouthpiece. If
so, it seems that the fundamental would be missing entirely, and would only be inferred from the overtones.
However, the node and the anti-node collide in the same spot and cancel out the fundamental.
Resonance in musical composition

Several composers have begun to make resonance the subject of compositions. Alvin Lucier has used acoustic
instruments and sine wave generators to explore the resonance of objects large and small in many of his
compositions. The complex inharmonic partials of a swell shaped crescendo and decrescendo on a tamtam or other
percussion instrument interact with room resonances in James Tenney's Koan: Having Never Written A Note For
Percussion. Pauline Oliveros and Stuart Dempster regularly perform in large reverberant spaces such as the
2-million-US-gallon (7,600m3) cistern at Fort Worden, WA, which has a reverb with a 45-second decay.
External links
Standing Waves Applet [5]
References
[1] Kinsler L.E., Frey A.R., Coppens A.B., Sanders J.V., "Fundamentals of Acoustics", 3rd Edition, ISBN 978-0-471-02933-5, Wiley, New
York, 1982.
[2] Breaking Glass with Sound (http:/ / www. physics. ucla. edu/ demoweb/ demomanual/ acoustics/ effects_of_sound/
breaking_glass_with_sound. html)
[3] Tutorial on how to break glass with sound (http:/ / www. acoustics. salford. ac. uk/ acoustics_info/ glass/ ?content=index)
[4] Kool, Jaap, Das Saxophon. J. J. Weber, Leipzig. 1931. Translated by Lawrence Gwozdz in 1987, discusses "open" and "closed" tubes.
[5] http:/ / www. physics. smu. edu/ ~olness/ www/ 05fall1320/ applet/ pipe-waves. html
Nederveen, Cornelis Johannes, Acoustical aspects of woodwind instruments. Amsterdam, Frits Knuf, 1969.
Rossing, Thomas D., and Fletcher, Neville H., Principles of Vibration and Sound. New York, Springer-Verlag,
1995.
Mechanical resonance is the tendency of a mechanical system to
respond at greater amplitude when the frequency of its oscillations
matches the system's natural frequency of vibration (its resonance
frequency or resonant frequency) than it does at other frequencies. It
may cause violent swaying motions and even catastrophic failure in
improperly constructed structures including bridges, buildings and
airplanesa phenomenon known as resonance disaster.
Avoiding resonance disasters is a major concern in every building,
Graph showing mechanical resonance in a
tower and bridge construction project. The Taipei 101 building relies
mechanical oscillatory system
on a 660-ton pendulum a tuned mass damper to modify the
response at resonance. Furthermore, the structure is designed to
resonate at a frequency which does not typically occur. Buildings in seismic zones are often constructed to take into
account the oscillating frequencies of expected ground motion. In addition, engineers designing objects having
engines must ensure that the mechanical resonant frequencies of the component parts do not match driving
vibrational frequencies of the motors or other strongly oscillating parts.
Many resonant objects have more than one resonance frequency. It will vibrate easily at those frequencies, and less
so at other frequencies. Many clocks keep time by mechanical resonance in a balance wheel, pendulum, or quartz
crystal.
Description
The natural frequency of a simple mechanical system consisting of a weight suspended by a spring is:
where m is the mass and k is the spring constant.

A swing set is a simple example of a resonant system with which most people have practical experience. It is a form
of pendulum. If the system is excited (pushed) with a period between pushes equal to the inverse of the pendulum's
natural frequency, the swing will swing higher and higher, but if excited at a different frequency, it will be difficult
to move. The resonance frequency of a pendulum, the only frequency at which it will vibrate, is given
approximately, for small displacements, by the equation:[1]
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (about 9.8m/s2 near the surface of Earth), and L is the length from the
pivot point to the center of mass.(An elliptic integral yields a description for any displacement). Note that, in this
approximation, the frequency does not depend on mass.
Mechanical resonators work by transferring energy repeatedly from kinetic to potential form and back again. In the
pendulum, for example, all the energy is stored as gravitational energy (a form of potential energy) when the bob is
instantaneously motionless at the top of its swing. This energy is proportional to both the mass of the bob and its
height above the lowest point. As the bob descends and picks up speed, its potential energy is gradually converted to
kinetic energy (energy of movement), which is proportional to the bob's mass and to the square of its speed. When
the bob is at the bottom of its travel, it has maximum kinetic energy and minimum potential energy. The same
process then happens in reverse as the bob climbs towards the top of its swing.
18
19
Some resonant objects have more than one resonance frequency, particularly at harmonics (multiples) of the
strongest resonance. It will vibrate easily at those frequencies, and less so at other frequencies. It will "pick out" its
resonance frequency from a complex excitation, such as an impulse or a wideband noise excitation. In effect, it is
filtering out all frequencies other than its resonance. In the example above, the swing cannot easily be excited by
harmonic frequencies, but can be excited by subharmonics.
Examples
Various examples of mechanical resonance include:
musical instruments (acoustic resonance).

Most clocks keep time by mechanical resonance in a balance wheel, pendulum, or quartz crystal.
tidal resonance of the Bay of Fundy.
Orbital resonance as in some moons of the solar system's gas giants.
The resonance of the basilar membrane in the ear.
Making a child's swing swing higher by pushing it at each swing.
A wineglass breaking when someone sings a loud note at exactly the right pitch.
Resonance may cause violent swaying motions in improperly

constructed structures, such as bridges and buildings. The London
Millennium Footbridge (nicknamed the Wobbly Bridge) exhibited this
problem. A faulty bridge can even be destroyed by its resonance (see
"Angers Bridge"); that is why soldiers are trained not to march in
lockstep across a bridge, although it is suspected to be a myth, see e.g.,
MythBusters' 'Breakstep Bridge'. Mechanical systems store potential
energy in different forms. For example, a spring/mass system stores
energy as tension in the spring, which is ultimately stored as the energy
of bonds between atoms.
Resonance Rings exhibit at California Science

Center
Resonance disaster
In mechanics and construction a resonance disaster describes the destruction of a building or a technical mechanism
by induced vibrations at a system's resonance frequency, which causes it to oscillate. Periodic excitation optimally
transfers to the system the energy of the vibration and stores it there. Because of this repeated storage and additional
energy input the system swings ever more strongly, until its load limit is exceeded.

The dramatic, rhythmic twisting that resulted in the 1940 collapse of "Galloping Gertie", the original Tacoma
Narrows Bridge, is sometimes characterized in physics textbooks as a classic example of resonance; however, this
description is misleading. The catastrophic vibrations that destroyed the bridge were not due to simple mechanical
resonance, but to a more complicated oscillation caused by interactions between the bridge and the winds passing
through its structure a phenomenon known as aeroelastic flutter. Robert H. Scanlan, father of the field of bridge
aerodynamics, wrote an article about this misunderstanding.[2]
Other Examples
Collapse of Broughton Suspension Bridge (due to soldiers walking in step)

Collapse of Angers Bridge
Collapse of Knigs Wusterhausen Central Tower
Resonance of the Millennium Bridge
Evacuation of the 39-story TechnoMart commercial-residential high-rise in Korea in 2011 due to a class
performing Tae Bo exercises to the song "The Power".
Applications
Various method of inducing mechanical resonance in a medium exist. Mechanical waves can be generated in a
medium by subjecting an electromechanical element to an alternating electric field having a frequency which induces
mechanical resonance and is below any electrical resonance frequency.[3] Such devices can apply mechanical energy
from an external source to an element to mechanically stress the element or apply mechanical energy produced by
the element to an external load.
The United States Patent Office classifies devices that tests mechanical resonance under subclass 579, resonance,
frequency, or amplitude study, of Class 73, Measuring and testing. This subclass is itself indented under subclass
570, Vibration.[4] Such devices test an article or mechanism by subjecting it to a vibratory force for determining
qualities, characteristics, or conditions thereof, or sensing, studying or making analysis of the vibrations otherwise
generated in or existing in the article or mechanism. Devices include methods to cause vibrations at a natural
mechanical resonance and measure the frequency and/or amplitude the resonance made. Various devices study the
amplitude response over a frequency range is made. This includes nodal points, wave lengths, and standing wave
characteristics measured under predetermined vibration conditions.
Notes
[1] Mechanical resonance (http:/ / www. physics. rutgers. edu/ ~jackph/ 2005s/ PS02. pdf)
[2] K. Billah and R. Scanlan (1991), Resonance, Tacoma Narrows Bridge Failure, and Undergraduate Physics Textbooks, American Journal of
Physics, 59(2), 118--124 (PDF) (http:/ / www. ketchum. org/ billah/ Billah-Scanlan. pdf)
[3] Allensworth, et al., United States Patent 4,524,295. June 18, 1985
[4] USPTO, Class 73, Measuring and testing (http:/ / www. uspto. gov/ go/ classification/ uspc073/ defs073. htm)
Further reading
S Spinner, WE Tefft, A method for determining mechanical resonance frequencies and for calculating elastic
moduli from these frequencies. American Society for testing and materials.
CC Jones, A mechanical resonance apparatus for undergraduate laboratories. American Journal of Physics,
1995.
Patents
U.S. Patent 1,414,077 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1414077) Method and apparatus for inspecting
materials
U.S. Patent 1,517,911 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1517911) Apparatus for testing textiles
U.S. Patent 1,598,141 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1598141) Apparatus for testing textiles and like
materials
U.S. Patent 1,930,267 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1930267) Testing and adjusting device
U.S. Patent 1,990,085 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1990085) Method and apparatus for testing
materials
U.S. Patent 2,352,880 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2352880) Article testing machine
20
U.S. Patent 2,539,954 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2539954) Apparatus for determining the behavior
of suspended cables
U.S. Patent 2,729,972 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2729972) Mechanical resonance detection systems
U.S. Patent 2,918,589 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2918589) Vibrating-blade relays with
electro-mechanical resonance
U.S. Patent 2,948,861 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2948861) Quantum mechanical resonance devices
U.S. Patent 3,044,290 (http://www.google.com/patents/US3044290) Mechanical resonance indicator
U.S. Patent 3,141,100 (http://www.google.com/patents/US3141100) Piezoelectric resonance device
U.S. Patent 3,990,039 (http://www.google.com/patents/US3990039) Tuned ground motion detector utilizing
principles of mechanical resonance
U.S. Patent 4,524,295 (http://www.google.com/patents/US4524295) Apparatus and method for generating
mechanical waves
U.S. Patent 4,958,113 (http://www.google.com/patents/US4958113) Method of controlling mechanical
resonance hand
U.S. Patent 7,027,897 (http://www.google.com/patents/US7027897) Apparatus and method for suppressing
mechanical resonance in a mass transit vehicle
Electrical resonance occurs in an electric circuit at a particular resonance frequency when the imaginary parts of
impedances or admittances of circuit elements cancel each other. In some circuits this happens when the impedance
between the input and output of the circuit is almost zero and the transfer function is close to one.
Resonant circuits exhibit ringing and can generate higher voltages and currents than are fed into them. They are
widely used in wireless (radio) transmission for both transmission and reception.
LC circuits
Resonance of a circuit involving capacitors and inductors occurs because the collapsing magnetic field of the
inductor generates an electric current in its windings that charges the capacitor, and then the discharging capacitor
provides an electric current that builds the magnetic field in the inductor. This process is repeated continually. An
analogy is a mechanical pendulum.
At resonance, the series impedance of the two elements is at a minimum and the parallel impedance is at maximum.
Resonance is used for tuning and filtering, because it occurs at a particular frequency for given values of inductance
and capacitance. It can be detrimental to the operation of communications circuits by causing unwanted sustained
and transient oscillations that may cause noise, signal distortion, and damage to circuit elements.
Parallel resonance or near-to-resonance circuits can be used to prevent the waste of electrical energy, which would
otherwise occur while the inductor built its field or the capacitor charged and discharged. As an example,
asynchronous motors waste inductive current while synchronous ones waste capacitive current. The use of the two
types in parallel makes the inductor feed the capacitor, and vice versa, maintaining the same resonant current in the
circuit, and converting all the current into useful work.
Since the inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance are of equal magnitude, L = 1/C, so:
where = 2f, in which f is the resonance frequency in hertz, L is the inductance in henries, and C is the capacitance
in farads when standard SI units are used.
21
The quality of the resonance (how long it will ring when excited) is determined by its Q factor, which is a function of
resistance. A true LC circuit would have infinite Q, but all real circuits have some resistance and smaller Q and are
usually approximated more accurately by an RLC circuit.
RLC circuit
An RLC circuit (or LCR circuit) is
an electrical circuit consisting of a
resistor, an inductor, and a capacitor,
connected in series or in parallel. The
RLC part of the name is due to those
letters being the usual electrical
symbols for resistance, inductance and
capacitance respectively. The circuit
A series RLC circuit: a resistor, inductor, and a capacitor
forms a harmonic oscillator for current
and resonates similarly to an LC
circuit. The main difference stemming from the presence of the resistor is that any oscillation induced in the circuit
decays over time if it is not kept going by a source. This effect of the resistor is called damping. The presence of the
resistance also reduces the peak resonant frequency. Some resistance is unavoidable in real circuits, even if a resistor
is not specifically included as a component. A pure LC circuit is an ideal that only exists in theory.
There are many applications for this circuit. It is used in many different types of oscillator circuits. An important
application is for tuning, such as in radio receivers or television sets, where they are used to select a narrow range of
frequencies from the ambient radio waves. In this role the circuit is often referred to as a tuned circuit. An RLC
circuit can be used as a band-pass filter, band-stop filter, low-pass filter or high-pass filter. The tuning application,
for instance, is an example of band-pass filtering. The RLC filter is described as a second-order circuit, meaning that
any voltage or current in the circuit can be described by a second-order differential equation in circuit analysis.
The three circuit elements can be combined in a number of different topologies. All three elements in series or all
three elements in parallel are the simplest in concept and the most straightforward to analyse. There are, however,
other arrangements, some with practical importance in real circuits. One issue often encountered is the need to take
into account inductor resistance. Inductors are typically constructed from coils of wire, the resistance of which is not
usually desirable, but it often has a significant effect on the circuit.
References
This article incorporatespublic domain material from the General Services Administration document "Federal
Standard 1037C" [1].
References
[1] http:/ / www. its. bldrdoc. gov/ fs-1037/ fs-1037c. htm
22
23

Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) or electron spin resonance (ESR) spectroscopy is a technique for
studying materials with unpaired electrons. The basic concepts of EPR are analogous to those of nuclear magnetic
resonance (NMR), but it is electron spins that are excited instead of the spins of atomic nuclei. Because most stable
molecules have all their electrons paired, the EPR technique is less widely used than NMR. However, this limitation
also means that EPR offers great specificity, since ordinary chemical solvents and matrices do not give rise to EPR
spectra.
EPR was first observed in Kazan State University by Soviet physicist Yevgeny Zavoisky in 1944, and was
developed independently at the same time by Brebis Bleaney at the University of Oxford.
Theory
Origin of an EPR signal
Every electron has a magnetic moment and
spin quantum number
, with
magnetic
components
and
. In the presence of an external

magnetic field with strength
, the
electron's magnetic moment aligns itself

either parallel (
) or antiparallel
(
) to the field, each alignment
having a specific energy due to the Zeeman

effect :
where
is the electron's so-called g-factor (see also the Land g-factor).

is the Bohr magneton.
Therefore, the separation between the lower and the upper state is
EPR spectrometer
for the free electron

for unpaired free electrons.
This equation implies that the splitting of the energy levels is directly proportional to the magnetic field's strength, as
shown in the diagram below.
24
An unpaired electron can move between the two energy levels by either absorbing or emitting a photon of energy
such that the resonance condition,
, is obeyed. This leads to the fundamental equation of EPR
spectroscopy:
Experimentally, this equation permits a large combination of frequency and magnetic field values, but the great
majority of EPR measurements are made with microwaves in the 900010000MHz (910GHz) region, with fields
corresponding to about 3500 G (0.35 T). Furthermore, EPR spectra can be generated by either varying the photon
frequency incident on a sample while holding the magnetic field constant or doing the reverse. In practice, it is
usually the frequency that is kept fixed. A collection of paramagnetic centers, such as free radicals, is exposed to
microwaves at a fixed frequency. By increasing an external magnetic field, the gap between the
and
energy states is widened until it matches the energy of the microwaves, as represented by the
double-arrow in the diagram above. At this point the unpaired electrons can move between their two spin states.
Since there typically are more electrons in the lower state, due to the MaxwellBoltzmann distribution (see below),
there is a net absorption of energy, and it is this absorption that is monitored and converted into a spectrum. The
upper spectrum below is the simulated absorption for a system of free electrons in a varying magnetic field. The
lower spectrum is the first derivative of the absorption spectrum. The latter is the most common way to record and
publish EPR spectra.
For the microwave frequency of 9388.2MHz, the predicted resonance position is a magnetic field of about
= 0.3350 tesla = 3350 gauss.
Because of electron-nuclear mass differences, the magnetic moment of an electron is substantially larger than the
corresponding quantity for any nucleus, so that a much higher electromagnetic frequency is needed to bring about a
spin resonance with an electron than with a nucleus, at identical magnetic field strengths. For example, for the field
of 3350 G shown at the right, spin resonance occurs near 9388.2MHz for an electron compared to only about
14.3MHz for 1H nuclei. (For NMR spectroscopy, the corresponding resonance equation is
where
and
depend on the nucleus under study.)
25
MaxwellBoltzmann distribution
In practice, EPR samples consist of collections of many paramagnetic species, and not single isolated paramagnetic
centers. If the population of radicals is in thermodynamic equilibrium, its statistical distribution is described by the
MaxwellBoltzmann equation
where
constant, and
is the number of paramagnetic centers occupying the upper energy state,
is the Boltzmann
is the temperature in kelvins. At 298 K, X-band microwave frequencies (
9.75GHz) give
0.998, meaning that the upper energy level has a smaller population than the lower one. Therefore,
transitions from the lower to the higher level are more probable than the reverse, which is why there is a net
absorption of energy.
The sensitivity of the EPR method (i.e., the minimum number of detectable spins
) depends on the photon
frequency
where
according to
is a constant,
(sample chamber),
With
and
is the sample's volume,
is the unloaded quality factor of the microwave cavity
is the cavity filling coefficient, and
being constants,
, i.e.,
is the microwave power in the spectrometer cavity.

~
, where
1.5. In practice,
can
change varying from 0.5 to 4.5 depending on spectrometer characteristics, resonance conditions, and sample size.
A great sensitivity is therefore obtained with a low detection limit
and a large number of spins. Therefore, the
required parameters are:
A high spectrometer frequency to maximize the eq.2. Common frequencies are discussed below
A low temperature to decrease the number of spin at the high level of energy as shown in eq.1. This condition
explain why spectra are often recorded on sample at the boiling point of liquid nitrogen or liquid helium.
Spectral parameters
In real systems, electrons are normally not solitary, but are associated with one or more atoms. There are several
important consequences of this:
1. An unpaired electron can gain or lose angular momentum, which can change the value of its g-factor, causing it
to differ from . This is especially significant for chemical systems with transition-metal ions.
2. The magnetic moment of a nucleus with a non-zero nuclear spin will affect any unpaired electrons associated
with that atom. This leads to the phenomenon of hyperfine coupling, analogous to J-coupling in NMR, splitting
the EPR resonance signal into doublets, triplets and so forth.
3. Interactions of an unpaired electron with its environment influence the shape of an EPR spectral line. Line shapes
can yield information about, for example, rates of chemical reactions.[ref needed]
4. The g-factor and hyperfine coupling in an atom or molecule may not be the same for all orientations of an
unpaired electron in an external magnetic field. This anisotropy depends upon the electronic structure of the atom
or molecule (e.g., free radical) in question, and so can provide information about the atomic or molecular orbital
containing the unpaired electron.
26
The g factor
Knowledge of the g-factor can give information about a paramagnetic center's electronic structure. An unpaired
electron responds not only to a spectrometer's applied magnetic field
but also to any local magnetic fields of
atoms or molecules. The effective field
where
experienced by an electron is thus written
includes the effects of local fields (
can be positive or negative). Therefore, the
resonance condition (above) is rewritten as follows:

The quantity
is denoted
and called simply the
-factor, so that the final resonance equation becomes
This last equation is used to determine
in an EPR experiment by measuring the field and the frequency at which
resonance occurs. If
the implication is that the ratio of the unpaired electron's spin magnetic
does not equal
moment to its angular momentum differs from the free electron value. Since an electron's spin magnetic moment is
constant (approximately the Bohr magneton), then the electron must have gained or lost angular momentum through
spin-orbit coupling. Because the mechanisms of spin-orbit coupling are well understood, the magnitude of the
change gives information about the nature of the atomic or molecular orbital containing the unpaired electron.
In general, the g factor is not a number but a second-rank tensor represented by nine numbers arranged in a 33
matrix. The principal axes of this tensor are determined by the local fields, for example, by the local atomic
arrangement around the unpaired spin in a solid or in a molecule. Choosing an appropriate coordinate system (say,
x,y,z) allows to "diagonalize" this tensor thereby reducing the maximum number of its components from nine to
three, gxx, gyy and gzz. For a single spin experiencing only Zeeman interaction with an external magnetic field, the
position of the EPR resonance is given by the expression gxxBx + gyyBy + gzzBz. Here Bx, By and Bz are the
components of the magnetic field vector in the coordinate system (x,y,z); their magnitudes change as the field is
rotated, so as the frequency of the resonance. For a large ensemble of randomly oriented spins, the EPR spectrum
consists of three peaks of characteristic shape at frequencies gxxB0, gyyB0 and gzzB0: the low-frequency peak is
positive in first-derivative spectra, the high-frequency peak is negative, and the central peak is bipolar. Such situation
is commonly observed in powders and the spectra are therefore called "powder-pattern spectra". In crystals, the
number of EPR lines is determined by the number of crystallographically equivalent orientations of the EPR spin
(called "EPR center").
Hyperfine coupling
Since the source of an EPR spectrum is a change in an electron's spin state, it might be thought that all EPR spectra
for a single electron spin would consist of one line. However, the interaction of an unpaired electron, by way of its
magnetic moment, with nearby nuclear spins, results in additional allowed energy states and, in turn, multi-lined
spectra. In such cases, the spacing between the EPR spectral lines indicates the degree of interaction between the
unpaired electron and the perturbing nuclei. The hyperfine coupling constant of a nucleus is directly related to the
spectral line spacing and, in the simplest cases, is essentially the spacing itself.
Two common mechanisms by which electrons and nuclei interact are the Fermi contact interaction and by dipolar
interaction. The former applies largely to the case of isotropic interactions (independent of sample orientation in a
magnetic field) and the latter to the case of anisotropic interactions (spectra dependent on sample orientation in a
magnetic field). Spin polarization is a third mechanism for interactions between an unpaired electron and a nuclear
spin, being especially important for -electron organic radicals, such as the benzene radical anion. The symbols "a"
or "A" are used for isotropic hyperfine coupling constants while "B" is usually employed for anisotropic hyperfine
coupling constants.[1]

In many cases, the isotropic hyperfine splitting pattern for a radical freely tumbling in a solution (isotropic system)
can be predicted.
For a radical having M equivalent nuclei, each with a spin of I, the number of EPR lines expected is 2MI+1. As
an example, the methyl radical, CH3, has three 1H nuclei each with I=1/2, and so the number of lines expected is
2MI+ 1= 2(3)(1/2)+ 1= 4, which is as observed.
For a radical having M1 equivalent nuclei, each with a spin of I1, and a group of M2 equivalent nuclei, each with a
spin of I2, the number of lines expected is (2M1I1+ 1) (2M2I2+ 1). As an example, the methoxymethyl radical,
H2C(OCH3), has two equivalent 1H nuclei each with I= 1/2 and three equivalent 1H nuclei each with I= 1/2, and
so the number of lines expected is (2M1I1+ 1) (2M2I2+ 1) = [2(2)(1/2) + 1][2(3)(1/2) + 1] = [3][4] = 12, again as
observed.
The above can be extended to predict the
number of lines for any number of nuclei.
While it is easy to predict the number of
lines a radical's EPR spectrum should show,
the reverse problem, unraveling a complex
multi-line EPR spectrum and assigning the
various spacings to specific nuclei, is more
difficult.
In the oft-encountered case of I= 1/2 nuclei
(e.g., 1H, 19F, 31P), the line intensities
Simulated EPR spectrum of the CH3 radical
produced by a population of radicals, each
possessing M equivalent nuclei, will follow Pascal's triangle. For example, the spectrum at the right shows that the
three 1H nuclei of the CH3 radical give rise to 2MI+ 1= 2(3)(1/2)+ 1= 4 lines with a 1:3:3:1 ratio. The line spacing
gives a hyperfine coupling constant of aH = 23 G for each of the three 1H nuclei. Note again that the lines in this
spectrum are first derivatives of absorptions.
As a second example, consider the
methoxymethyl radical, H2C(OCH3). The
two equivalent methyl hydrogens will give
an overall 1:2:1 EPR pattern, each
component of which is further split by the
three methoxy hydrogens into a 1:3:3:1
pattern to give a total of 34= 12 lines, a
triplet of quartets. A simulation of the
observed EPR spectrum is shown at the
right, and agrees with the 12-line prediction
Simulated EPR spectrum of the H2C(OCH3) radical
and the expected line intensities. Note that
the smaller coupling constant (smaller line
spacing) is due to the three methoxy hydrogens, while the larger coupling constant (line spacing) is from the two
hydrogens bonded directly to the carbon atom bearing the unpaired electron. It is often the case that coupling
constants decrease in size with distance from a radical's unpaired electron, but there are some notable exceptions,
such as the ethyl radical (CH2CH3).
27
28
Resonance linewidth definition

Resonance linewidths are defined in terms of the magnetic induction B, and its corresponding units, and are
measured along the x axis of an EPR spectrum, from a line's center to a chosen reference point of the line. These
defined widths are called halfwidths and possess some advantages: for asymmetric lines values of left and right
halfwidth can be given. The halfwidth
is the distance measured from the line's center to the point in which
absorption value has half of maximal absorption value in the center of resonance line. First inclination width
is a distance from center of the line to the point of maximal absorption curve inclination. In practice, a full
definition of linewidth is used. For symmetric lines, halfwidth
, and full inclination width
Pulsed EPR
The dynamics of electron spins are best studied with pulsed measurements. Microwave pulses typically 10100 ns
long are used to control the spins in the Bloch sphere. The spin-lattice relaxation time can be measured with an
inversion recovery experiment.
As with pulsed NMR, the Hahn echo is central to many pulsed EPR experiments. A Hahn echo decay experiment
can be used to measure the dephasing time, as shown in the animation below. The size of the echo is recorded for
different spacings of the two pulses. This reveals the decoherence, which is not refocused by the pulse. In simple
cases, an exponential decay is measured, which is described by the
time.
Applications
EPR/ESR spectroscopy is used in various branches of science, such as biology, chemistry and physics, for the
detection and identification of free radicals and paramagnetic centers such as F centers. EPR is a sensitive, specific
method for studying both radicals formed in chemical reactions and the reactions themselves. For example, when ice
(solid H2O) is decomposed by exposure to high-energy radiation, radicals such as H, OH, and HO2 are produced.
Such radicals can be identified and studied by EPR. Organic and inorganic radicals can be detected in
electrochemical systems and in materials exposed to UV light. In many cases, the reactions to make the radicals and
the subsequent reactions of the radicals are of interest, while in other cases EPR is used to provide information on a
radical's geometry and the orbital of the unpaired electron.
Miniature Electron Spin Resonance Spectroscopy with Micro-ESR

Miniaturisation of military radar technologies allowed the development of miniature microwave electronics as a spin
off by Caltech University. Since 2007 these sensors have been employed in miniaturized electron spin resonance
spectrometers called Micro-ESR.
The high cost, large size, and difficult maintenance of electron spin resonance spectrometers has limited their use to
specialized research centers with highly trained personnel. Micro-ESR makes ESR feasible for nonspecialists to
determine oxidation by directly measuring of free radicals.
Applications include real-time monitoring of free radical containing Asphaltenes in (crude) oils; Biomedical R&D to
measure oxidative stress; Evaluation of the shelf-life of food products;
Medical and biological applications of EPR also exist. Although radicals are very reactive, and so do not normally
occur in high concentrations in biology, special reagents have been developed to spin-label molecules of interest.
These reagents are particularly useful in biological systems. Specially-designed nonreactive radical molecules can
attach to specific sites in a biological cell, and EPR spectra can then give information on the environment of these
so-called spin-label or spin-probes. Spin-labeled fatty acids have been extensively used to study dynamic
organisation of lipids in biological membranes,[2] lipid-protein interactions[3] and temperature of transition of gel to
liquid crystalline phases.[4]

A type of dosimetry system has been designed for reference standards and routine use in medicine, based on EPR
signals of radicals from irradiated polycrystalline -alanine(the alanine deamination radical, the hydrogen
abstraction radical, and the (CO-(OH))=C(CH3)NH2+ radical) . This method is suitable for measuring gamma and
x-rays, electrons, protons, and high-linear energy transfer (LET) radiation of doses in the 1 Gy to 100 kGy range.
EPR/ESR spectroscopy can be applied only to systems in which the balance between radical decay and radical
formation keeps the free-radicals concentration above the detection limit of the spectrometer used. This can be a
particularly severe problem in studying reactions in liquids. An alternative approach is to slow down reactions by
studying samples held at cryogenic temperatures, such as 77 K (liquid nitrogen) or 4.2 K (liquid helium). An
example of this work is the study of radical reactions in single crystals of amino acids exposed to x-rays, work that
sometimes leads to activation energies and rate constants for radical reactions.
The study of radiation-induced free radicals in biological substances (for cancer research) poses the additional
problem that tissue contains water, and water (due to its electric dipole moment) has a strong absorption band in the
microwave region used in EPR spectrometers.
EPR/ESR also has been used by archaeologists for the dating of teeth. Radiation damage over long periods of time
creates free radicals in tooth enamel, which can then be examined by EPR and, after proper calibration, dated.
Alternatively, material extracted from the teeth of people during dental procedures can be used to quantify their
cumulative exposure to ionizing radiation. People exposed to radiation from the Chernobyl disaster have been
examined by this method.
Radiation-sterilized foods have been examined with EPR spectroscopy, the aim being to develop methods to
determine if a particular food sample has been irradiated and to what dose.
Because of its high sensitivity, EPR was used recently to measure the quantity of energy used locally during a
mechanochemical milling process.
EPR/ESR spectroscopy has been used to measure properties of crude oil, in particular asphaltene and vanadium
content. EPR measurement of asphaltene content is a function of spin density and solvent polarity. Prior work dating
to the 1960s has demonstrated the ability to measure vanadium content to sub-ppm levels.
In the field of quantum computing, pulsed EPR is used to control the state of electron spin qubits in materials such as
diamond, silicon and gallium arsenide.
High-field high-frequency measurements

High-field high-frequency EPR measurements are sometimes needed to detect subtle spectroscopic details. However,
for many years the use of electromagnets to produce the needed fields above 1.5 T was impossible, due principally to
limitations of traditional magnet materials. The first multifunctional millimeter EPR spectrometer with a
superconducting solenoid was described in the early 1970s by Prof. Y. S. Lebedev's group (Russian Institute of
Chemical Physics, Moscow) in collaboration with L. G. Oranski's group (Ukrainian Physics and Technics Institute,
Donetsk), which began working in the Institute of Problems of Chemical Physics, Chernogolovka around 1975.[5]
Two decades later, a W-band EPR spectrometer was produced as a small commercial line by the German Bruker
Company, initiating the expansion of W-band EPR techniques into medium-sized academic laboratories.
29
Waveband
30
300
100
75
30
20
10
15
12.5 8.5
24
50
35
4.6 4
3.2 2.7
2.1
1.6
1.1
0.83
65
95
111 140 190 285
360
75
0.03 0.11 0.14 0.33 0.54 0.86 1.25 1.8 2.3 2.7 3.5 3.9
4.9
6.8
10.2 12.8
The EPR waveband is stipulated by the frequency or wavelength of a spectrometer's microwave source (see Table).
EPR experiments often are conducted at X and, less commonly, Q bands, mainly due to the ready availability of the
necessary microwave components (which originally were developed for radar applications). A second reason for
widespread X and Q band measurements is that electromagnets can reliably generate fields up to about 1 tesla.
However, the low spectral resolution over g-factor at these wavebands limits the study of paramagnetic centers with
comparatively low anisotropic magnetic parameters. Measurements at
> 40GHz, in the millimeter wavelength
region, offer the following advantages:
1. EPR spectra are simplified due to
the reduction of second-order
effects at high fields.
2. Increase in orientation selectivity
and sensitivity in the investigation
of disordered systems.
3. The informativity and precision of
pulse methods, e.g., ENDOR also
increase at high magnetic fields.
EPR spectra of TEMPO, a nitroxide radical, as a function of frequency. Note the

improvement in resolution from left to right.
4. Accessibility of spin systems with larger zero-field splitting due to the larger microwave quantum energy h
5. The higher spectral resolution over g-factor, which increases with irradiation frequency and external magnetic
field B0. This is used to investigate the structure, polarity, and dynamics of radical microenvironments in
spin-modified organic and biological systems through the spin label and probe method. The figure shows how
spectral resolution improves with increasing frequency.
6. Saturation of paramagnetic centers occurs at a comparatively low microwave polarizing field B1, due to the
exponential dependence of the number of excited spins on the radiation frequency . This effect can be
successfully used to study the relaxation and dynamics of paramagnetic centers as well as of superslow motion in
the systems under study.
7. The cross-relaxation of paramagnetic centers decreases dramatically at high magnetic fields, making it easier to
obtain more-precise and more-complete information about the system under study.
This was demonstrated experimentally in the study of various biological, polymeric and model systems at D-band
EPR.[6]
References
[1] Strictly speaking, "a" refers to the hyperfine splitting constant, a line spacing measured in magnetic field units, while A and B refer to
hyperfine coupling constants measured in frequency units. Splitting and coupling constants are proportional, but not identical. The book by
Wertz and Bolton has more information (pp. 46 and 442). Wertz, J. E., & Bolton, J. R. (1972). Electron spin resonance: Elementary theory and
practical applications. New York: McGraw-Hill.
[2] YashRoy R.C. (1990) Magnetic resonance studies on the dynamic organisation of lipids in chloroplast membranes. Journal of Biosciences,
vol. 15(4), pp. 281-288.https:/ / www. researchgate. net/ publication/
225688482_Magnetic_resonance_studies_of_dynamic_organisation_of_lipids_in_chloroplast_membranes?ev=prf_pub
[3] YashRoy R.C. (1991) Protein heat denaturation and study of membrane lipid-protein interactions by spin label ESR. Journal of Biochemical
and Biophysical methods, vol. 22(1), pp. 55-59.https:/ / www. researchgate. net/ publication/
21306553_Protein_heat_denaturation_and_study_of_membrane_lipid-protein_interactions_by_spin_label_ESR?ev=prf_pub

[4] YashRoy R.C. (1990) Determination of membrane lipid phase transition temperature from 13-C NMR intensities. Journal of Biochemical and
Biophysical Methods, vol. 20, pp. 353-356.https:/ / www. researchgate. net/ publication/
20790042_Determination_of_membrane_lipid_phase_transition_temperature_from_13C-NMR_intensities?ev=prf_pub
[5] EPR of low-dimensional systems (http:/ / hf-epr. awardspace. us/ index. htm)
[6] V.I. Krinichnyi, 2-mm Wave Band EPR Spectroscopy of Condensed Systems, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fl, 1995.
(10) C.J.Rhodes, Electron Spin Resonance, Part 1: A Diagnostic Method in the Biomedical Sciences", Science
Progress, 2011, 94, 16.
(11) C.J.Rhodes, "Electron Spin Resonance, Part 2: A Diagnostic Method in the Environmental Sciences", Science
Progress, 2011, 94, 339.
External links
Electron Magnetic Resonance Program (http://www.magnet.fsu.edu/usershub/scientificdivisions/emr/
overview.html) National High Magnetic Field Laboratory
Electron Paramagnetic Resonance (Specialist Periodical Reports) (http://www.rsc.org/shop/books/series.
asp?seriesid=49) Published by the Royal Society of Chemistry
Optical resonance
An optical cavity or optical resonator is an arrangement of mirrors that forms a standing wave cavity resonator for
light waves. Optical cavities are a major component of lasers, surrounding the gain medium and providing feedback
of the laser light. They are also used in optical parametric oscillators and some interferometers. Light confined in the
cavity reflect multiple times producing standing waves for certain resonance frequencies. The standing wave patterns
produced are called modes; longitudinal modes differ only in frequency while transverse modes differ for different
frequencies and have different intensity patterns across the cross section of the beam.
Different resonator types are distinguished by the focal lengths of the two mirrors and the distance between them.
(Flat mirrors are not often used because of the difficulty of aligning them to the needed precision.) The geometry
(resonator type) must be chosen so that the beam remains stable (that the size of the beam does not continually grow
with multiple reflections). Resonator types are also designed to meet other criteria such as minimum beam waist or
having no focal point (and therefore intense light at that point) inside the cavity.
Optical cavities are designed to have a large Q factor; a beam will reflect a very large number of times with little
attenuation. Therefore the frequency line width of the beam is very small indeed compared to the frequency of the
laser.
31
Optical resonance
Resonator modes
Light confined in a resonator will reflect multiple times from the
mirrors, and due to the effects of interference, only certain patterns and
frequencies of radiation will be sustained by the resonator, with the
others being suppressed by destructive interference. In general,
radiation patterns which are reproduced on every round-trip of the light
through the resonator are the most stable, and these are the
eigenmodes, known as the modes, of the resonator.
Resonator modes can be divided into two types: longitudinal modes,
which differ in frequency from each other; and transverse modes,
which may differ in both frequency and the intensity pattern of the
light. The basic, or fundamental transverse mode of a resonator is a
Gaussian beam.
Resonator types
The most common types of optical cavities consist of two facing plane
(flat) or spherical mirrors. The simplest of these is the plane-parallel or
FabryProt cavity, consisting of two opposing flat mirrors. While
simple, this arrangement is rarely used in large-scale lasers due the
difficulty of alignment; the mirrors must be aligned parallel within a
Types of two-mirror optical cavities, with mirrors
of various curvatures, showing the radiation
few seconds of arc, or "walkoff" of the intracavity beam will result in it
pattern inside each cavity.
spilling out of the sides of the cavity. However, this problem is much
reduced for very short cavities with a small mirror separation distance
(L < 1cm). Plane-parallel resonators are therefore commonly used in microchip and microcavity lasers and
semiconductor lasers. In these cases, rather than using separate mirrors, a reflective optical coating may be directly
applied to the laser medium itself. The plane-parallel resonator is also the basis of the FabryProt interferometer.
For a resonator with two mirrors with radii of curvature R1 and R2, there are a number of common cavity
configurations. If the two curvatures are equal to half the cavity length (R1 = R2 = L/2), a concentric or spherical
resonator results. This type of cavity produces a diffraction-limited beam waist in the centre of the cavity, with large
beam diameters at the mirrors, filling the whole mirror aperture. Similar to this is the hemispherical cavity, with one
plane mirror and one mirror of curvature equal to the cavity length.
A common and important design is the confocal resonator, with equal curvature mirrors equal to the cavity length
(R1 = R2 = L). This design produces the smallest possible beam diameter at the cavity mirrors for a given cavity
length, and is often used in lasers where the purity of the transverse mode pattern is important.
A concave-convex cavity has one convex mirror with a negative radius of curvature. This design produces no
intracavity focus of the beam, and is thus useful in very high-power lasers where the intensity of the intracavity light
might be damaging to the intracavity medium if brought to a focus.
32
Optical resonance
33
Spherical cavity
A transparent dielectric sphere, such as a liquid droplet, also forms an interesting optical cavity. In 1986 Richard K.
Chang et al. demonstrated lasing using ethanol microdroplets (2040 micrometers in radius) doped with rhodamine
6G dye. This type of optical cavity exhibits optical resonances when the size of the sphere or the optical wavelength
or the refractive index is varied. The resonance is known as morphology-dependent resonance.
Stability
Only certain ranges of values for R1, R2, and
L produce stable resonators in which
periodic refocussing of the intracavity beam
is produced. If the cavity is unstable, the
beam size will grow without limit,
eventually growing larger than the size of
the cavity mirrors and being lost. By using
methods such as ray transfer matrix
analysis, it is possible to calculate a stability
criterion:
Values which satisfy the

correspond to stable resonators.
inequality
The stability can be shown graphically by

defining a stability parameter, g for each
mirror:
,
Stability diagram for a two-mirror cavity. Blue-shaded areas correspond to stable

configurations.
and plotting g1 against g2 as shown. Areas bounded by the line g1 g2 = 1 and the axes are stable. Cavities at points
exactly on the line are marginally stable; small variations in cavity length can cause the resonator to become
unstable, and so lasers using these cavities are in practice often operated just inside the stability line.
A simple geometric statement describes the regions of stability: A cavity is stable if the line segments between the
mirrors and their centers of curvature overlap, but one does not lie entirely within the other.
In the confocal cavity a ray, which is deviated from its original direction in the middle between the of the cavity, is
maximally (compared to other cavities) displaced on the return to the middle. This prevents amplified spontaneous
emission and is important for a good beam quality and high power amplifiers. In wave optics this is expressed by the
eigenvalue degeneration of the modes. On every turn to the left, the 0,0 mode and the 1,0 mode are 90 out of phase,
but on the turn back, they are 180 out of phase [citation needed]. Interference of the modes then leads to a
displacement.
Optical resonance
Practical resonators
If the optical cavity is not empty (e.g., a laser cavity which contains the gain medium), the value of L used is not the
physical mirror separation, but the optical path length between the mirrors. Optical elements such as lenses placed in
the cavity alter the stability and mode size. In addition, for most gain media, thermal and other inhomogeneities
create a variable lensing effect in the medium, which must be considered in the design of the laser resonator.
Practical laser resonators may contain more than two mirrors; three- and four-mirror arrangements are common,
producing a "folded cavity". Commonly, a pair of curved mirrors form one or more confocal sections, with the rest
of the cavity being quasi-collimated and using plane mirrors. The shape of the laser beam depends on the type of
resonator: The beam produced by stable, paraxial resonators can be well modeled by a Gaussian beam. In special
cases the beam can be described as a single transverse mode and the spatial properties can be well described by the
Gaussian beam, itself. More generally, this beam may be described as a superposition of transverse modes. Accurate
description of such a beam involves expansion over some complete, orthogonal set of functions (over
two-dimensions) such as Hermite polynomials or the Ince polynomials. Unstable laser resonators on the other hand,
have been shown to produce fractal shaped beams.[1]
Some intracavity elements are usually placed at a beam waist between folded sections. Examples include
acousto-optic modulators for cavity dumping and vacuum spatial filters for transverse mode control. For some low
power lasers, the laser gain medium itself may be positioned at a beam waist. Other elements, such as filters, prisms
and diffraction gratings often need large quasi-collimated beams.
These designs allow compensation of the cavity beam's astigmatism, which is produced by Brewster-cut elements in
the cavity. A 'Z'-shaped arrangement of the cavity also compensates for coma while the 'delta' or 'X'-shaped cavity
does not.
Out of plane resonators lead to rotation of the beam profile and more stability. The heat generated in the gain
medium leads to frequency drift of the cavity, therefore the frequency can be actively stabilized by locking it to
unpowered cavity. Similarly the pointing stability of a laser may still be improved by spatial filtering by an optical
fibre.
Optical delay lines

Optical cavities can also be used as multipass optical delay lines, folding a light beam so that a long path-length may
be achieved in a small space. A plane-parallel cavity with flat mirrors produces a flat zigzag light path, but as
discussed above, these designs are very sensitive to mechanical disturbances and walk-off. When curved mirrors are
used in a nearly confocal configuration, the beam travels on a circular zigzag path. The latter is called a Herriott-type
delay line. A fixed insertion mirror is placed off-axis near one of the curved mirrors, and a mobile pickup mirror is
similarly placed near the other curved mirror. A flat linear stage with one pickup mirror is used in case of flat mirrors
and a rotational stage with two mirrors is used for the Herriott-type delay line.
The rotation of the beam inside the cavity alters the polarization state of the beam. To compensate for this, a single
pass delay line is also needed, made of either a three or two mirrors in a 3d respective 2d retro-reflection
configuration on top of a linear stage. To adjust for beam divergence a second car on the linear stage with two lenses
can be used. The two lenses act as a telescope producing a flat phase front of a Gaussian beam on a virtual end
mirror.
34
Optical resonance
References
[1] G. P. Karman et al. "Laser optics: Fractal modes in unstable resonators" (http:/ / www. nature. com/ nature/ journal/ v402/ n6758/ abs/
402138a0. html) Nature 402, 138 (1999)
Koechner, William. Solid-state laser engineering, 2nd ed. Springer Verlag (1988).
An excellent two-part review of the history of optical cavities:
Siegman, Anthony E. (2000). "Laser beams and resonators: the 1960s" (http://web.archive.org/web/
20070107170320/http://www.stanford.edu/~siegman/beams_and_resonators_1.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Journal
of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 6 (6): 13801388. doi: 10.1109/2944.902192 (http://dx.doi.org/
10.1109/2944.902192). Archived from the original (http://www.stanford.edu/~siegman/
beams_and_resonators_1.pdf) on 2007-01-07. Retrieved 2006-08-01.
Siegman, Anthony E. (2000). "Laser beams and resonators: Beyond the 1960s" (http://web.archive.org/web/
20070107170308/http://www.stanford.edu/~siegman/beams_and_resonators_2.pdf) (PDF). IEEE Journal
of Selected Topics in Quantum Electronics 6 (6): 13891399. doi: 10.1109/2944.902193 (http://dx.doi.org/
10.1109/2944.902193). Archived from the original (http://www.stanford.edu/~siegman/
beams_and_resonators_2.pdf) on 2007-01-07. Retrieved 2006-08-01.
Orbital resonance
In celestial mechanics, an orbital resonance occurs when two orbiting bodies exert a regular, periodic gravitational
influence on each other, usually due to their orbital periods being related by a ratio of two small integers. The
physics principle behind orbital resonance is similar in concept to pushing a child on a swing, where the orbit and the
swing both have a natural frequency, and the other body doing the "pushing" will act in periodic repetition to have a
cumulative effect on the motion. Orbital resonances greatly enhance the mutual gravitational influence of the bodies,
i.e., their ability to alter or constrain each other's orbits. In most cases, this results in an unstable interaction, in which
the bodies exchange momentum and shift orbits until the resonance no longer exists. Under some circumstances, a
resonant system can be stable and self-correcting, so that the bodies remain in resonance. Examples are the 1:2:4
resonance of Jupiter's moons Ganymede, Europa and Io, and the 2:3 resonance between Pluto and Neptune. Unstable
resonances with Saturn's inner moons give rise to gaps in the rings of Saturn. The special case of 1:1 resonance
(between bodies with similar orbital radii) causes large Solar System bodies to eject most other bodies sharing their
orbits; this is part of the much more extensive process of clearing the neighbourhood, an effect that is used in the
current definition of a planet.
Except as noted in the Laplace resonance figure (below), a resonance ratio in this article should be interpreted as the
ratio of number of orbits completed in the same time interval, rather than as the ratio of orbital periods (which
would be the inverse ratio). The 2:3 ratio above means Pluto completes two orbits in the time it takes Neptune to
complete three.
History
Since the discovery of Newton's law of universal gravitation in the 17th century, the stability of the Solar System has
preoccupied many mathematicians, starting with Laplace. The stable orbits that arise in a two-body approximation
ignore the influence of other bodies. The effect of these added interactions on the stability of the Solar System is
very small, but at first it was not known whether they might add up over longer periods to significantly change the
orbital parameters and lead to a completely different configuration, or whether some other stabilising effects might
maintain the configuration of the orbits of the planets.
It was Laplace who found the first answers explaining the remarkable dance of the Galilean moons (see below). It is
fair to say that this general field of study has remained very active since then, with plenty more yet to be understood
35
Orbital resonance
36
(e.g., how interactions of moonlets with particles of the rings of giant planets result in maintaining the rings).
Types of resonance
In general, an orbital resonance may
involve one or any combination of the
orbit parameters (e.g. eccentricity versus
semimajor axis, or eccentricity versus
orbital inclination).
act on any time scale from short term,
commensurable with the orbit periods, to
secular, measured in 104 to 106 years.
lead to either long term stabilization of
the orbits or be the cause of their
destabilization.
A mean-motion orbital resonance occurs
when two bodies have periods of revolution
that are a simple integer ratio of each other.
Depending on the details, this can either
stabilize
or
destabilize
the
orbit.
Stabilization may occur when the two
bodies move in such a synchronised fashion
that they never closely approach. For
instance:
The semimajor axes of resonant trans-Neptunian objects (red) are clumped at

locations of low-integer resonances with Neptune (vertical red bars near top), in
contrast to those of cubewanos (blue) and nonresonant (or not known to be
resonant) scattered objects (grey).
The orbits of Pluto and the plutinos are

stable, despite crossing that of the much
larger Neptune, because they are in a 2:3
resonance with it. The resonance ensures
that, when they approach perihelion and
Neptune's orbit, Neptune is consistently
distant (averaging a quarter of its orbit
away). Other (much more numerous)
A chart of the distribution of asteroid semimajor axes, showing the Kirkwood gaps
Neptune-crossing bodies that were not in
where orbits are destabilized by resonances with Jupiter.
resonance were ejected from that region
by strong perturbations due to Neptune.
There are also smaller but significant groups of resonant trans-Neptunian objects occupying the 1:1 (Neptune
trojans), 3:5, 4:7, 1:2 (twotinos) and 2:5 resonances, among others, with respect to Neptune.
In the asteroid belt beyond 3.5 AU from the Sun, the 3:2, 4:3 and 1:1 resonances with Jupiter are populated by
clumps of asteroids (the Hilda family, 279 Thule, and the Trojan asteroids, respectively).
Orbital resonance
37
Orbital resonances can also destabilize one

of the orbits. For small bodies,
destabilization is actually far more likely.
For instance:
In the asteroid belt within 3.5 AU from
the Sun, the major mean-motion
resonances with Jupiter are locations of
gaps in the asteroid distribution, the
Kirkwood gaps (most notably at the 3:1,
5:2, 7:3 and 2:1 resonances). Asteroids
have been ejected from these almost
empty lanes by repeated perturbations.
However, there are still populations of
asteroids temporarily present in or near
these resonances. For example, asteroids
of the Alinda family are in or close to the
3:1 resonance, with their orbital
eccentricity steadily increased by
interactions with Jupiter until they
eventually have a close encounter with an
inner planet that ejects them from the
resonance.
Spiral density waves in Saturn's A Ring excited by resonances with inner moons.
Such waves propagate away from the planet (towards upper left). The large set of
waves just below center is due to the 6:5 resonance with Janus.
In the rings of Saturn, the Cassini

Division is a gap between the inner B
Ring and the outer A Ring that has been
cleared by a 2:1 resonance with the moon
Mimas. (More specifically, the site of the
resonance is the Huygens Gap, which
bounds the outer edge of the B Ring.)
In the rings of Saturn, the Encke and
Keeler gaps within the A Ring are
cleared by 1:1 resonances with the
embedded moonlets Pan and Daphnis,
respectively. The A Ring's outer edge is
maintained by a destabilizing 7:6
resonance with the moon Janus.
The eccentric Titan Ringlet in the Columbo Gap of

Saturn's C Ring (center) and the inclined orbits of
resonant particles in the bending wave just inside it
have apsidal and nodal precessions, respectively,
commensurate with Titan's mean motion.
Most bodies that are in resonance orbit in

the same direction; however, a few
retrograde damocloids have been found that
are temporarily captured in mean-motion resonance with Jupiter or Saturn. Such orbital interactions are weaker than
the corresponding interactions between bodies orbiting in the same direction.
A Laplace resonance occurs when three or more orbiting bodies have a simple integer ratio between their orbital
periods. For example, Jupiter's moons Ganymede, Europa and Io are in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance. The extrasolar
planets Gliese 876 e, b and c are also in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance.
Orbital resonance
A Lindblad resonance drives spiral density waves both in galaxies (where stars are subject to forcing by the spiral
arms themselves) and in Saturn's rings (where ring particles are subject to forcing by Saturn's moons).
A secular resonance occurs when the precession of two orbits is synchronised (usually a precession of the
perihelion or ascending node). A small body in secular resonance with a much larger one (e.g. a planet) will precess
at the same rate as the large body. Over long times (a million years, or so) a secular resonance will change the
eccentricity and inclination of the small body.
Several prominent examples of secular resonance involve Saturn. A resonance between the precession of Saturn's
rotational axis and that of Neptune's orbital axis (both of which have periods of about 1.87 million years) has been
identified as the likely source of Saturn's large axial tilt (26.7). Initially, Saturn probably had a tilt closer to that of
Jupiter (3.1). The gradual depletion of the Kuiper belt would have decreased the precession rate of Neptune's orbit;
eventually, the frequencies matched, and Saturn's axial precession was captured into the spin-orbit resonance,
leading to an increase in Saturn's obliquity. (The angular momentum of Neptune's orbit is 104 times that of Saturn's
spin, and thus dominates the interaction.)
The perihelion secular resonance between asteroids and Saturn (6 = g -g6) helps shape the asteroid belt. Asteroids
which approach it have their eccentricity slowly increased until they become Mars-crossers, at which point they are
usually ejected from the asteroid belt by a close pass to Mars. This resonance forms the inner and "side" boundaries
of the asteroid belt around 2 AU, and at inclinations of about 20.
Numerical simulations have suggested that the eventual formation of a perihelion secular resonance between
Mercury and Jupiter (g1=g5) has the potential to greatly increase Mercury's eccentricity and possibly destabilize the
inner Solar System several billion years from now.
The Titan Ringlet within Saturn's C Ring represents another type of resonance in which the rate of apsidal precession
of one orbit exactly matches the speed of revolution of another. The outer end of this eccentric ringlet always points
towards Saturn's major moon Titan.
A Kozai resonance occurs when the inclination and eccentricity of a perturbed orbit oscillate synchronously
(increasing eccentricity while decreasing inclination and vice versa). This resonance applies only to bodies on highly
inclined orbits; as a consequence, such orbits tend to be unstable, since the growing eccentricity would result in
small pericenters, typically leading to a collision or (for large moons) destruction by tidal forces.
In an example of another type of resonance involving orbital eccentricity, the eccentricities of Ganymede and
Callisto vary with a common period of 181 years, although with opposite phases.
38
Orbital resonance
39
Mean-motion resonances in the Solar System

There are only a few known
mean-motion resonances in the Solar
System involving planets, dwarf
planets or larger satellites (a much
greater number involve asteroids,
planetary rings, moonlets and smaller
Kuiper belt objects, including many
possible dwarf planets).
2:3 PlutoNeptune
2:4 TethysMimas (Saturns
moons)
1:2 DioneEnceladus (Saturns
moons)
3:4 HyperionTitan (Saturn's
moons)
1:2:4 GanymedeEuropaIo
(Jupiters moons).
Additionally, Haumea is believed to be
in a 7:12 resonance with Neptune, and
Eris and Makemake may be in 5:17
and 6:11 resonances with Neptune,
respectively.
Depiction of Haumea's presumed 7:12 resonance with Neptune in a rotating frame,

with Neptune (blue dot at lower right) held stationary. Haumea's shifting orbital
alignment relative to Neptune periodically reverses (librates), preserving the
resonance.
The simple integer ratios between

periods are a convenient simplification
hiding more complex relations:
the point of conjunction can
oscillate (librate) around an
equilibrium point defined by the
resonance.
given non-zero eccentricities, the
nodes or periapsides can drift (a
resonance related, short period, not
secular precession).
The Laplace resonance exhibited by three of the Galilean moons. The ratios in the figure
As illustration of the latter, consider
are of orbital periods.
the well known 2:1 resonance of
Io-Europa. If the orbiting periods were
in this relation, the mean motions (inverse of periods, often expressed in degrees per day) would satisfy the
following
Substituting the data (from Wikipedia) one will get 0.7395 day1, a value substantially different from zero!
Actually, the resonance is perfect but it involves also the precession of perijove (the point closest to Jupiter),
The correct equation (part of the Laplace equations) is:
Orbital resonance
In other words, the mean motion of Io is indeed double of that of Europa taking into account the precession of the
perijove. An observer sitting on the (drifting) perijove will see the moons coming into conjunction in the same place
(elongation). The other pairs listed above satisfy the same type of equation with the exception of Mimas-Tethys
resonance. In this case, the resonance satisfies the equation
The point of conjunctions librates around the midpoint between the nodes of the two moons.
The Laplace resonance

The most remarkable resonance involving
Io-Europa-Ganymede includes the following
relation locking the orbital phase of the
moons:
where
are mean longitudes of the moons.
Illustration of Io-Europa-Ganymede resonance. From the centre outwards: Io

This relation makes a triple conjunction
(yellow), Europa (gray) and Ganymede (dark)
impossible. The graph illustrates the
positions of the moons after 1, 2 and 3 Io
periods. (The Laplace resonance in the Gliese 876 system, in contrast, is associated with one triple conjunction per
orbit of the outermost planet.)
Plutino resonances
The dwarf planet Pluto is following an orbit trapped in a web of resonances with Neptune. The resonances include:
A mean-motion resonance of 2:3
The resonance of the perihelion (libration around 90), keeping the perihelion above the ecliptic
The resonance of the longitude of the perihelion in relation to that of Neptune
One consequence of these resonances is that a separation of at least 30 AU is maintained when Pluto crosses
Neptune's orbit. The minimum separation between the two bodies overall is 17 AU, while the minimum separation
between Pluto and Uranus is just 11 AU (see Pluto's orbit for detailed explanation and graphs).
The next largest body in a similar 2:3 resonance with Neptune, called a plutino, is the probable dwarf planet Orcus.
Orcus has an orbit similar in inclination and eccentricity to Pluto's. However, the two are constrained by their mutual
resonance with Neptune to always be in opposite phases of their orbits; Orcus is thus sometimes described as the
"anti-Pluto".
Mean-motion resonances among extrasolar planets

While most extrasolar planetary systems discovered have not been found to have planets in mean-motion resonances,
some remarkable examples have been uncovered:
As mentioned above, Gliese 876 e, b and c are in a 1:2:4 orbital resonance, with periods of 124.3, 61.1 and 30.0
days.
KOI-730 d, b, c and e appear to be in a 3:4:6:8 resonance, with periods of 19.72, 14.79, 9.85 and 7.38 days.[1]
KOI-500 c, b, e, d and f appear to be in or close to a 20:27:41:62:193 resonance, with periods of 9.522, 7.053,
4.645, 3.072 and 0.9868 days.[1]
Both KOI-738 and KOI-787 appear to have pairs of planets in a 7:9 resonance (ratios of 1/1.285871 and
1/1.284008, respectively).
40
Orbital resonance
Kepler-37 d, c and b are within one percent of a 5:8:15 resonance, with periods of 39.792187, 21.301886 and
13.367308 days.
Cases of extrasolar planets close to a 1:2 mean-motion resonance are fairly common. Sixteen percent of systems
found by the transit method are reported to have an example of this (with period ratios in the range 1.83-2.18), as
well as one sixth of planetary systems characterized by Doppler spectroscopy (with in this case a narrower period
ratio range). Due to incomplete knowledge of the systems, the actual proportions are likely to be higher. Overall,
about a third of radial velocity characterized systems appear to have a pair of planets close to a commensurability. It
is much more common for pairs of planets to have orbital period ratios a few percent larger than a mean-motion
resonance ratio than a few percent smaller (particularly in the case of first order resonances, in which the integers in
the ratio differ by one). This was predicted to be true in cases where tidal interactions with the star are significant.
Coincidental 'near' ratios of mean motion

A number of near-integer-ratio relationships
between the orbital frequencies of the
planets or major moons are sometimes
pointed out (see list below). However, these
have no dynamical significance because
there is no appropriate precession of
perihelion or other libration to make the
resonance perfect (see the detailed
discussion in the section above). Such near
resonances are dynamically insignificant
even if the mismatch is quite small because
(unlike a true resonance), after each cycle
the relative position of the bodies shifts.
When averaged over astronomically short
timescales, their relative position is random,
just like bodies that are nowhere near
resonance. For example, consider the orbits
of Earth and Venus, which arrive at almost
Depiction of the Earth:Venus 8:13 near resonance. With Earth held stationary at
the center of a nonrotating frame, the successive inferior conjunctions of Venus
the same configuration after 8 Earth orbits
over eight Earth years trace a pentagrammic pattern (reflecting the difference
and 13 Venus orbits. The actual ratio is
between the numbers in the ratio).
0.61518624, which is only 0.032% away
from exactly 8:13. The mismatch after 8
years is only 1.5 of Venus' orbital movement. Still, this is enough that Venus and Earth find themselves in the
opposite relative orientation to the original every 120 such cycles, which is 960 years. Therefore, on timescales of
thousands of years or more (still tiny by astronomical standards), their relative position is effectively random.
41
Orbital resonance
42
The presence of a near resonance may

reflect that a perfect resonance existed in the
past, or that the system is evolving towards
one in the future.
Some orbital
include:
frequency
coincidences
Diagram of the orbits of Pluto's small outer four moons, which follow a remarkable
3:4:5:6 sequence of near resonances relative to the period of its large inner satellite
Charon.
(Ratio) and Bodies
[2]
Mismatch after one cycle
[3]
[4]
Randomization time
Probability
4.0
200 y
0.19
1.5
1000 y
0.065
(243:395) EarthVenus
0.8
50,000 y
0.68
(1:3) MarsVenus
20.6
20 y
0.11
(1:2) MarsEarth
42.9
8y
0.24
[6]
49.1
40 y
0.28
(2:5) SaturnJupiter
[7]
12.8
800 y
0.13
(1:7) UranusJupiter
31.1
500 y
0.18
(7:20) UranusSaturn
5.7
20,000 y
0.20
(5:28) NeptuneSaturn
1.9
80,000 y
0.052
(1:2) NeptuneUranus
14.0
2000 y
0.078
0.04 y
0.083
Planets
(9:23) VenusMercury
[5]
(8:13) EarthVenus
</ref>
(1:12) JupiterEarth
Mars system
(1:4) DeimosPhobos
14.9
Major asteroids
(1:1) Pallas Ceres
1.2
700 y
0.0066
(7:18) Jupiter Pallas
4.1
4000 y
0.15
40 y
0.067
2y
0.0031
[8]
87 Sylvia system
(17:45) RomulusRemus
0.7
Jupiter system
(1:6) IoMetis
0.6
Orbital resonance
43
(3:5) AmaltheaAdrastea
3.9
0.2 y
0.064
(3:7) CallistoGanymede
0.7
30 y
0.012
33.2
0.04 y
0.33
(2:3) DioneTethys
36.2
0.07 y
0.36
(3:5) RheaDione
17.1
0.4 y
0.26
(2:7) TitanRhea
21.0
0.7 y
0.22
(1:5) IapetusTitan
9.2
4y
0.051
10,000 y
0.073
0.22
4y
0.0037
24.5
0.08 y
0.14
(3:5) UmbrielAriel
24.2
0.3 y
0.35
(1:2) TitaniaUmbriel
36.3
0.1 y
0.20
(2:3) OberonTitania
33.4
0.4 y
0.34
Saturn system
(2:3) EnceladusMimas
[9]
[10]
Major centaurs
(3:4) UranusChariklo
4.5
Uranus system
(3:5) RosalindCordelia
[11]
(1:3) UmbrielMiranda
[12]
Neptune system
(1:20) TritonNaiad
13.5
0.2 y
0.075
(1:2) ProteusLarissa
8.4
0.07 y
0.047
(5:6) ProteusS/2004 N 1
2.1
1y
0.057
Pluto system
(1:3) StyxCharon
58.5
0.2 y
0.33
(1:4) NixCharon
39.1
0.3 y
0.22
(1:5) KerberosCharon
9.2
2y
0.05
(1:6) HydraCharon
6.6
3y
0.037
2y
0.55
Haumea system
[13]
(3:8) HiiakaNamaka
</ref> 42.5
[1] Extrasolar Planets Encyclopaedia, KOI-730 (http:/ / exoplanet. eu/ star. php?st=KOI-730)
[2] Mismatch in orbital longitude of the inner body, as compared to its position at the beginning of the cycle (with the cycle defined as n orbits of
the outer body see below). Circular orbits are assumed (i.e., precession is ignored).
[3] The time needed for the mismatch from the initial relative longitudinal orbital positions of the bodies to grow to 180, rounded to the nearest
first significant digit.
[4] The probability of obtaining an orbital coincidence of equal or smaller mismatch by chance at least once in n attempts, where n is the integer
number of orbits of the outer body per cycle, and the mismatch is assumed to vary between 0 and 180 at random. The value is calculated as
1- (1- mismatch/180)^n. The smaller the probability, the more remarkable the coincidence. This is a crude calculation that only attempts to
give a rough idea of relative probabilities.
[5] The two near commensurabilities listed for Earth and Venus are reflected in the timing of transits of Venus, which occur in pairs 8 years
apart, in a cycle that repeats every 243 years.<ref name = "Langford">
[6] The near 1:12 resonance between Jupiter and Earth causes the Alinda asteroids, which occupy (or are close to) the 3:1 resonance with Jupiter,
to be close to a 1:4 resonance with Earth.
[7] This near resonance has been termed the Great Inequality. It was first described by Laplace in a series of papers published 17841789.
[8] 87 Sylvia is the first asteroid discovered to have more than one moon.
[9] This resonance may have been occupied in the past.
Orbital resonance
[10] Some definitions of centaurs stipulate that they are nonresonant bodies.
[13] The results for the Haumea system aren't very meaningful because, contrary to the assumptions implicit in the calculations, Namaka has an
eccentric, non-Keplerian orbit that precesses rapidly (see below). Hiiaka and Namaka are much closer to a 3:8 resonance than indicated, and
may actually be in it.<ref name="Ragozzine&Brown2009">
The most remarkable (least probable) orbital correlation in the list is that between Io and Metis, followed by those
between Rosalind and Cordelia, Pallas and Ceres, Callisto and Ganymede, and Hydra and Charon, respectively.
Possible past mean-motion resonances

A past resonance between Jupiter and Saturn may have played a dramatic role in early Solar System history. A 2004
computer model by Alessandro Morbidelli of the Observatoire de la Cte d'Azur in Nice suggested that the
formation of a 1:2 resonance between Jupiter and Saturn (due to interactions with planetesimals that caused them to
migrate inward and outward, respectively) created a gravitational push that propelled both Uranus and Neptune into
higher orbits, and in some scenarios caused them to switch places, which would have doubled Neptune's distance
from the Sun. The resultant expulsion of objects from the proto-Kuiper belt as Neptune moved outwards could
explain the Late Heavy Bombardment 600million years after the Solar System's formation and the origin of Jupiter's
Trojan asteroids. An outward migration of Neptune could also explain the current occupancy of some of its
resonances (particularly the 2:5 resonance) within the Kuiper belt.
While Saturn's mid-sized moons Dione and Tethys are not close to an exact resonance now, they may have been in a
2:3 resonance early in the Solar System's history. This would have led to orbital eccentricity and tidal heating that
may have warmed Tethys' interior enough to form a subsurface ocean. Subsequent freezing of the ocean after the
moons escaped from the resonance may have generated the extensional stresses that created the enormous graben
system of Ithaca Chasma on Tethys.
The satellite system of Uranus is notably different from those of Jupiter and Saturn in that it lacks precise resonances
among the larger moons, while the majority of the larger moons of Jupiter (3 of the 4 largest) and of Saturn (6 of the
8 largest) are in mean-motion resonances. In all three satellite systems, moons were likely captured into
mean-motion resonances in the past as their orbits shifted due to tidal dissipation (a process by which satellites gain
orbital energy at the expense of the primary's rotational energy, affecting inner moons disproportionately). In the
Uranus System, however, due to the planet's lesser degree of oblateness, and the larger relative size of its satellites,
escape from a mean-motion resonance is much easier. Lower oblateness of the primary alters its gravitational field in
such a way that different possible resonances are spaced more closely together. A larger relative satellite size
increases the strength of their interactions. Both factors lead to more chaotic orbital behavior at or near mean-motion
resonances. Escape from a resonance may be associated with capture into a secondary resonance, and/or tidal
evolution-driven increases in orbital eccentricity or inclination.
Mean-motion resonances that probably once existed in the Uranus System include (3:5) Ariel-Miranda, (1:3)
Umbriel-Miranda, (3:5) Umbriel-Ariel, and (1:4) Titania-Ariel. Evidence for such past resonances includes the
relatively high eccentricities of the orbits of Uranus' inner satellites, and the anomalously high orbital inclination of
Miranda. High past orbital eccentricities associated with the (1:3) Umbriel-Miranda and (1:4) Titania-Ariel
resonances may have led to tidal heating of the interiors of Miranda and Ariel, respectively. Miranda probably
escaped from its resonance with Umbriel via a secondary resonance, and the mechanism of this escape is believed to
explain why its orbital inclination is more than 10 times those of the other regular Uranian moons (see Uranus'
natural satellites).
Similar to the case of Miranda, the present inclinations of Jupiter's moonlets Amalthea and Thebe are thought to be
indications of past passage through the 3:1 and 4:2 resonances with Io, respectively.
Neptune's regular moons Proteus and Larissa are thought to have passed through a 1:2 resonance a few hundred
million years ago; the moons have drifted away from each other since then because Proteus is outside a synchronous
44
Orbital resonance
orbit and Larissa is within one. Passage through the resonance is thought to have excited both moons' eccentricities
to a degree that has not since been entirely damped out.
In the case of Pluto's satellites, it has been proposed that the present near resonances are relics of a previous precise
resonance that was disrupted by tidal damping of the eccentricity of Charon's orbit (see Pluto's natural satellites for
details). The near resonances may be maintained by a 15% local fluctuation in the Pluto-Charon gravitational field.
Thus, these near resonances may not be coincidental.
The smaller inner moon of the dwarf planet Haumea, Namaka, is one tenth the mass of the larger outer moon,
Hiiaka. Namaka revolves around Haumea in 18 days in an eccentric, non-Keplerian orbit, and as of 2008 is inclined
13 from Hiiaka. Over the timescale of the system, it should have been tidally damped into a more circular orbit. It
appears that it has been disturbed by resonances with the more massive Hiiaka, due to converging orbits as it moved
outward from Haumea because of tidal dissipation. The moons may have been caught in and then escaped from
orbital resonance several times. They probably passed through the 3:1 resonance relatively recently, and currently
are in or at least close to an 8:3 resonance. Namaka's orbit is strongly perturbed, with a current precession of about
6.5 per year.
References
C. D. Murray, S. F. Dermott (1999). Solar System Dynamics, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-57597-4.
Renu Malhotra Orbital Resonances and Chaos in the Solar System. In Solar System Formation and Evolution,
ASP Conference Series, 149 (1998) preprint (http://www.lpl.arizona.edu/people/faculty/malhotra_preprints/
rio97.pdf).
Renu Malhotra, The Origin of Pluto's Orbit: Implications for the Solar System Beyond Neptune, The
Astronomical Journal, 110 (1995), p.420 Preprint (http://arxiv.org/abs/astro-ph/9504036).
Lematre, A. (2010). "Resonances: Models and Captures". In Souchay, J.; Dvorak, R. Dynamics of Small Solar
System Bodies and Exoplanets. Lecture Notes in Physics 790. Springer. pp.162. doi:
10.1007/978-3-642-04458-8 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-04458-8). ISBN978-3-642-04457-1.
External links
Locations of Solar System Planetary Mean-Motion Resonances (http://www.alpheratz.net/murison/asteroids/
resonances/). Web calculator that plots distributions of the semimajor axes (or in one case the perihelion
distances) of the minor planets in relation to mean-motion resonances of the planets (website maintained by M.A.
Murison).
45
Mechanical resonance is the tendency of a mechanical system to
respond at greater amplitude when the frequency of its oscillations
matches the system's natural frequency of vibration (its resonance
frequency or resonant frequency) than it does at other frequencies. It
may cause violent swaying motions and even catastrophic failure in
improperly constructed structures including bridges, buildings and
airplanesa phenomenon known as resonance disaster.
Avoiding resonance disasters is a major concern in every building,
Graph showing mechanical resonance in a
tower and bridge construction project. The Taipei 101 building relies
mechanical oscillatory system
on a 660-ton pendulum a tuned mass damper to modify the
response at resonance. Furthermore, the structure is designed to
resonate at a frequency which does not typically occur. Buildings in seismic zones are often constructed to take into
account the oscillating frequencies of expected ground motion. In addition, engineers designing objects having
engines must ensure that the mechanical resonant frequencies of the component parts do not match driving
vibrational frequencies of the motors or other strongly oscillating parts.
Many resonant objects have more than one resonance frequency. It will vibrate easily at those frequencies, and less
so at other frequencies. Many clocks keep time by mechanical resonance in a balance wheel, pendulum, or quartz
crystal.
Description
The natural frequency of a simple mechanical system consisting of a weight suspended by a spring is:
where m is the mass and k is the spring constant.

A swing set is a simple example of a resonant system with which most people have practical experience. It is a form
of pendulum. If the system is excited (pushed) with a period between pushes equal to the inverse of the pendulum's
natural frequency, the swing will swing higher and higher, but if excited at a different frequency, it will be difficult
to move. The resonance frequency of a pendulum, the only frequency at which it will vibrate, is given
approximately, for small displacements, by the equation:[1]
where g is the acceleration due to gravity (about 9.8m/s2 near the surface of Earth), and L is the length from the
pivot point to the center of mass.(An elliptic integral yields a description for any displacement). Note that, in this
approximation, the frequency does not depend on mass.
Mechanical resonators work by transferring energy repeatedly from kinetic to potential form and back again. In the
pendulum, for example, all the energy is stored as gravitational energy (a form of potential energy) when the bob is
instantaneously motionless at the top of its swing. This energy is proportional to both the mass of the bob and its
height above the lowest point. As the bob descends and picks up speed, its potential energy is gradually converted to
kinetic energy (energy of movement), which is proportional to the bob's mass and to the square of its speed. When
the bob is at the bottom of its travel, it has maximum kinetic energy and minimum potential energy. The same
process then happens in reverse as the bob climbs towards the top of its swing.
46
47
Some resonant objects have more than one resonance frequency, particularly at harmonics (multiples) of the
strongest resonance. It will vibrate easily at those frequencies, and less so at other frequencies. It will "pick out" its
resonance frequency from a complex excitation, such as an impulse or a wideband noise excitation. In effect, it is
filtering out all frequencies other than its resonance. In the example above, the swing cannot easily be excited by
harmonic frequencies, but can be excited by subharmonics.
Examples
Various examples of mechanical resonance include:
musical instruments (acoustic resonance).

Most clocks keep time by mechanical resonance in a balance wheel, pendulum, or quartz crystal.
tidal resonance of the Bay of Fundy.
Orbital resonance as in some moons of the solar system's gas giants.
The resonance of the basilar membrane in the ear.
Making a child's swing swing higher by pushing it at each swing.
A wineglass breaking when someone sings a loud note at exactly the right pitch.
Resonance may cause violent swaying motions in improperly

constructed structures, such as bridges and buildings. The London
Millennium Footbridge (nicknamed the Wobbly Bridge) exhibited this
problem. A faulty bridge can even be destroyed by its resonance (see
"Angers Bridge"); that is why soldiers are trained not to march in
lockstep across a bridge, although it is suspected to be a myth, see e.g.,
MythBusters' 'Breakstep Bridge'. Mechanical systems store potential
energy in different forms. For example, a spring/mass system stores
energy as tension in the spring, which is ultimately stored as the energy
of bonds between atoms.
Resonance Rings exhibit at California Science

Center
Resonance disaster
In mechanics and construction a resonance disaster describes the destruction of a building or a technical mechanism
by induced vibrations at a system's resonance frequency, which causes it to oscillate. Periodic excitation optimally
transfers to the system the energy of the vibration and stores it there. Because of this repeated storage and additional
energy input the system swings ever more strongly, until its load limit is exceeded.

The dramatic, rhythmic twisting that resulted in the 1940 collapse of "Galloping Gertie", the original Tacoma
Narrows Bridge, is sometimes characterized in physics textbooks as a classic example of resonance; however, this
description is misleading. The catastrophic vibrations that destroyed the bridge were not due to simple mechanical
resonance, but to a more complicated oscillation caused by interactions between the bridge and the winds passing
through its structure a phenomenon known as aeroelastic flutter. Robert H. Scanlan, father of the field of bridge
aerodynamics, wrote an article about this misunderstanding.[2]
Other Examples
Collapse of Broughton Suspension Bridge (due to soldiers walking in step)

Collapse of Angers Bridge
Collapse of Knigs Wusterhausen Central Tower
Resonance of the Millennium Bridge
Evacuation of the 39-story TechnoMart commercial-residential high-rise in Korea in 2011 due to a class
performing Tae Bo exercises to the song "The Power".
Applications
Various method of inducing mechanical resonance in a medium exist. Mechanical waves can be generated in a
medium by subjecting an electromechanical element to an alternating electric field having a frequency which induces
mechanical resonance and is below any electrical resonance frequency.[3] Such devices can apply mechanical energy
from an external source to an element to mechanically stress the element or apply mechanical energy produced by
the element to an external load.
The United States Patent Office classifies devices that tests mechanical resonance under subclass 579, resonance,
frequency, or amplitude study, of Class 73, Measuring and testing. This subclass is itself indented under subclass
570, Vibration.[4] Such devices test an article or mechanism by subjecting it to a vibratory force for determining
qualities, characteristics, or conditions thereof, or sensing, studying or making analysis of the vibrations otherwise
generated in or existing in the article or mechanism. Devices include methods to cause vibrations at a natural
mechanical resonance and measure the frequency and/or amplitude the resonance made. Various devices study the
amplitude response over a frequency range is made. This includes nodal points, wave lengths, and standing wave
characteristics measured under predetermined vibration conditions.
Notes
[1] Mechanical resonance (http:/ / www. physics. rutgers. edu/ ~jackph/ 2005s/ PS02. pdf)
[2] K. Billah and R. Scanlan (1991), Resonance, Tacoma Narrows Bridge Failure, and Undergraduate Physics Textbooks, American Journal of
Physics, 59(2), 118--124 (PDF) (http:/ / www. ketchum. org/ billah/ Billah-Scanlan. pdf)
[3] Allensworth, et al., United States Patent 4,524,295. June 18, 1985
[4] USPTO, Class 73, Measuring and testing (http:/ / www. uspto. gov/ go/ classification/ uspc073/ defs073. htm)
Further reading
S Spinner, WE Tefft, A method for determining mechanical resonance frequencies and for calculating elastic
moduli from these frequencies. American Society for testing and materials.
CC Jones, A mechanical resonance apparatus for undergraduate laboratories. American Journal of Physics,
1995.
Patents
U.S. Patent 1,414,077 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1414077) Method and apparatus for inspecting
materials
U.S. Patent 1,517,911 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1517911) Apparatus for testing textiles
U.S. Patent 1,598,141 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1598141) Apparatus for testing textiles and like
materials
U.S. Patent 1,930,267 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1930267) Testing and adjusting device
U.S. Patent 1,990,085 (http://www.google.com/patents/US1990085) Method and apparatus for testing
materials
U.S. Patent 2,352,880 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2352880) Article testing machine
48
U.S. Patent 2,539,954 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2539954) Apparatus for determining the behavior
of suspended cables
U.S. Patent 2,729,972 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2729972) Mechanical resonance detection systems
U.S. Patent 2,918,589 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2918589) Vibrating-blade relays with
electro-mechanical resonance
U.S. Patent 2,948,861 (http://www.google.com/patents/US2948861) Quantum mechanical resonance devices
U.S. Patent 3,044,290 (http://www.google.com/patents/US3044290) Mechanical resonance indicator
U.S. Patent 3,141,100 (http://www.google.com/patents/US3141100) Piezoelectric resonance device
U.S. Patent 3,990,039 (http://www.google.com/patents/US3990039) Tuned ground motion detector utilizing
principles of mechanical resonance
U.S. Patent 4,524,295 (http://www.google.com/patents/US4524295) Apparatus and method for generating
mechanical waves
U.S. Patent 4,958,113 (http://www.google.com/patents/US4958113) Method of controlling mechanical
resonance hand
U.S. Patent 7,027,897 (http://www.google.com/patents/US7027897) Apparatus and method for suppressing
mechanical resonance in a mass transit vehicle
Mssbauer effect
The Mssbauer effect, or recoilless nuclear resonance fluorescence, is a physical phenomenon discovered by
Rudolf Mssbauer in 1958. It involves the resonant and recoil-free emission and absorption of gamma radiation by
atomic nuclei bound in a solid. Its main application is in Mssbauer spectroscopy.
History
The emission and absorption of x-rays by gases had been observed previously, and it was expected that a similar
phenomenon would be found for gamma rays, which are created by nuclear transitions (as opposed to x-rays, which
are typically produced by electronic transitions). However, attempts to observe nuclear resonance produced by
gamma-rays in gases failed due to energy being lost to recoil, preventing resonance (the Doppler effect also broadens
the gamma-ray spectrum). Mssbauer was able to observe resonance in nuclei of solid iridium, which raised the
question of why gamma-ray resonance was possible in solids, but not in gases. Mssbauer proposed that, for the case
of atoms bound into a solid, under certain circumstances a fraction of the nuclear events could occur essentially
without recoil. He attributed the observed resonance to this recoil-free fraction of nuclear events.
The Mssbauer effect was one of the last major discoveries in physics to be originally reported in German language.
The first report in English language was a letter describing a repetition of the experiment.
The discovery was rewarded with the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1961 together with Robert Hofstadter's research of
electron scattering in atomic nuclei.
49
Mssbauer effect
Description
The Mssbauer Effect is a process in which a nucleus emits or absorbs
gamma rays without loss of energy to a nuclear recoil. It was discovered by
the German physicist Rudolf L. Mssbauer in 1958 and has proved to be
remarkably useful for basic research in physics and chemistry. It has been
used, for instance, in precisely measuring small energy changes in nuclei,
atoms, and crystals induced by electrical, magnetic, or gravitational fields. In
a transition of a nucleus from a higher to a lower energy state with
accompanying emission of gamma rays, the emission generally causes the
nucleus to recoil, and this takes energy from the emitted gamma rays. Thus
the gamma rays do not have sufficient energy to excite a target nucleus to be examined. However, Mssbauer
discovered that is possible to have transitions in which the recoil is absorbed by a whole crystal in which the emitting
nucleus is bound. Under these circumstances, the energy that goes into the recoil is a negligible portion of the energy
of the transition. Therefore the emitted gamma rays carry virtually all of the energy liberated by the nuclear
transition. The gamma rays thus are able to induce a reverse transition, under similar conditions of negligible recoil,
in a target nucleus of the same material as the emitter but in a lower energy state. In general, gamma rays are
produced by nuclear transitions from an unstable high-energy state, to a stable low-energy state. The energy of the
emitted gamma ray corresponds to the energy of the nuclear transition, minus an amount of energy that is lost as
recoil to the emitting atom. If the lost "recoil energy" is small compared with the energy linewidth of the nuclear
transition, then the gamma ray energy still corresponds to the energy of the nuclear transition, and the gamma ray
can be absorbed by a second atom of the same type as the first. This emission and subsequent absorption is called
resonant fluorescence. Additional recoil energy is also lost during absorption, so in order for resonance to occur the
recoil energy must actually be less than half the linewidth for the corresponding nuclear transition.
The amount of energy in the recoiling body (ER) can be found from momentum conservation:
where PR is the momentum of the recoiling matter, and P the momentum of the gamma ray. Substituting energy into
the equation gives:
where ER (0.002eV for 57Fe) is the energy lost as recoil, E is the energy of the gamma ray (14.4keV for 57Fe), M
(56.9354u for 57Fe) is the mass of the emitting or absorbing body, and c is the speed of light. In the case of a gas the
emitting and absorbing bodies are atoms, so the mass is relatively small, resulting in a large recoil energy, which
prevents resonance. (Note that the same equation applies for recoil energy losses in x-rays, but the photon energy is
much less, resulting in a lower energy loss, which is why gas-phase resonance could be observed with x-rays.)
In a solid, the nuclei are bound to the lattice and do not recoil in the same way as in a gas. The lattice as a whole
recoils but the recoil energy is negligible because the M in the above equation is the mass of the whole lattice.
However, the energy in a decay can be taken up or supplied by lattice vibrations. The energy of these vibrations is
quantised in units known as phonons. The Mssbauer effect occurs because there is a finite probability of a decay
occurring involving no phonons. Thus in a fraction of the nuclear events (the recoil-free fraction, given by the
LambMssbauer factor), the entire crystal acts as the recoiling body, and these events are essentially recoil-free. In
these cases, since the recoil energy is negligible, the emitted gamma rays have the appropriate energy and resonance
can occur.
In general (depending on the half-life of the decay), gamma rays have very narrow linewidths. This means they are
very sensitive to small changes in the energies of nuclear transitions. In fact, gamma rays can be used as a probe to
observe the effects of interactions between a nucleus and its electrons and those of its neighbors. This is the basis for
50
Mssbauer effect
Mssbauer spectroscopy, which combines the Mssbauer effect with the Doppler effect to monitor such interactions.
Zero-phonon optical transitions, a process closely analogous to the Mssbauer effect, can be observed in
lattice-bound chromophores at low temperatures.
Further reading
Mssbauer, R. L. (1958). "Kernresonanzfluoreszenz von Gammastrahlung in Ir191". Zeitschrift fr Physik A (in
German) 151 (2): 124143. Bibcode:1958ZPhy..151..124M [1]. doi:10.1007/BF01344210 [2].
Frauenfelder, H. (1962). The Mssbauer Effect. W. A. Benjamin. LCCN61018181 [3].
Eyges, L. (1965). "Physics of the Mssbauer Effect". American Journal of Physics 33 (10): 790802.
Bibcode:1965AmJPh..33..790E [4]. doi:10.1119/1.1970986 [5].
Hesse, J. (1973). "Simple Arrangement for Educational Mssbauer-Effect Measurements". American Journal of
Physics 41: 127129. Bibcode:1973AmJPh..41..127H [6]. doi:10.1119/1.1987142 [7].
Ninio, F. (1973). "The Forced Harmonic Oscillator and the Zero-Phonon Transition of the Mssbauer Effect".
American Journal of Physics 41 (5): 648649. Bibcode:1973AmJPh..41..648N [8]. doi:10.1119/1.1987323 [9].
Vandergrift, G.; Fultz, B. (1998). "The Mssbauer effect explained". American Journal of Physics 66 (7):
593596. Bibcode:1998AmJPh..66..593V [10]. doi:10.1119/1.18911 [11].
Encyclopedia Americana (1988) "Mossbauer Effect" Encyclopedia Americana 19: 500 ISBN 0-7172-0119-8 (set)
References
[1] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1958ZPhy. . 151. . 124M
[2] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1007%2FBF01344210
[3] http:/ / lccn. loc. gov/ 61018181
[4] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1965AmJPh. . 33. . 790E
[5] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1119%2F1. 1970986
[6] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1973AmJPh. . 41. . 127H
[7] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1119%2F1. 1987142
[8] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1973AmJPh. . 41. . 648N
[9] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1119%2F1. 1987323
[10] http:/ / adsabs. harvard. edu/ abs/ 1998AmJPh. . 66. . 593V
[11] http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1119%2F1. 18911
51

Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) is a physical phenomenon in
which nuclei in a magnetic field absorb and re-emit electromagnetic
radiation. This energy is at a specific resonance frequency which
depends on the strength of the magnetic field and the magnetic
properties of the isotope of the atoms; in practical applications, the
frequency is similar to VHF and UHF television broadcasts
(601000MHz). NMR allows the observation of specific quantum
mechanical magnetic properties of the atomic nucleus. Many scientific
techniques exploit NMR phenomena to study molecular physics,
crystals, and non-crystalline materials through NMR spectroscopy.
NMR is also routinely used in advanced medical imaging techniques,
such as in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).
All isotopes that contain an odd number of protons and/or of neutrons
(see Isotope) have an intrinsic magnetic moment and angular
momentum, in other words a nonzero spin, while all nuclides with even
Bruker 700 MHz. Nuclear Magnetic Resonance
numbers of both have a total spin of zero. The most commonly studied
(NMR) spectrometer
nuclei are 1H and 13C, although nuclei from isotopes of many other
elements (e.g. 2H, 6Li, 10B, 11B, 14N, 15N, 17O, 19F, 23Na, 29Si, 31P, 35Cl, 113Cd, 129Xe, 195Pt) have been studied
by high-field NMR spectroscopy as well.
A key feature of NMR is that the resonance frequency of a particular substance is directly proportional to the
strength of the applied magnetic field. It is this feature that is exploited in imaging techniques; if a sample is placed
in a non-uniform magnetic field then the resonance frequencies of the sample's nuclei depend on where in the field
they are located. Since the resolution of the imaging technique depends on the magnitude of magnetic field gradient,
many efforts are made to develop increased field strength, often using superconductors. The effectiveness of NMR
can also be improved using hyperpolarization, and/or using two-dimensional, three-dimensional and
higher-dimensional multi-frequency techniques.
The principle of NMR usually involves two sequential steps:
The alignment (polarization) of the magnetic nuclear spins in an applied, constant magnetic field H0.
The perturbation of this alignment of the nuclear spins by employing an electro-magnetic, usually radio frequency
(RF) pulse. The required perturbing frequency is dependent upon the static magnetic field (H0) and the nuclei of
observation.
The two fields are usually chosen to be perpendicular to each other as this maximizes the NMR signal strength. The
resulting response by the total magnetization (M) of the nuclear spins is the phenomenon that is exploited in NMR
spectroscopy and magnetic resonance imaging. Both use intense applied magnetic fields (H0) in order to achieve
dispersion and very high stability to deliver spectral resolution, the details of which are described by chemical shifts,
the Zeeman effect, and Knight shifts (in metals).
NMR phenomena are also utilized in low-field NMR, NMR spectroscopy and MRI in the Earth's magnetic field
(referred to as Earth's field NMR), and in several types of magnetometers.
52
History
Nuclear magnetic resonance was first described and measured in molecular beams by Isidor Rabi in 1938, by
extending the SternGerlach experiment, and in 1944, Rabi was awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for this work.[1]
In 1946, Felix Bloch and Edward Mills Purcell expanded the technique for use on liquids and solids, for which they
shared the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1952.[2]
Purcell had worked on the development of radar during World War II at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology's
Radiation Laboratory. His work during that project on the production and detection of radio frequency power and on
the absorption of such RF power by matter laid the foundation for Rabi's discovery of NMR.
Rabi, Bloch, and Purcell observed that magnetic nuclei, like 1H and 31P, could absorb RF energy when placed in a
magnetic field and when the RF was of a frequency specific to the identity of the nuclei. When this absorption
occurs, the nucleus is described as being in resonance. Different atomic nuclei within a molecule resonate at
different (radio) frequencies for the same magnetic field strength. The observation of such magnetic resonance
frequencies of the nuclei present in a molecule allows any trained user to discover essential chemical and structural
information about the molecule.
The development of NMR as a technique in analytical chemistry and biochemistry parallels the development of
electromagnetic technology and advanced electronics and their introduction into civilian use.
Theory of nuclear magnetic resonance

Nuclear spin and magnets
All nucleons, that is neutrons and protons, composing any atomic nucleus, have the intrinsic quantum property of
spin. The overall spin of the nucleus is determined by the spin quantum number S. If the number of both the protons
and neutrons in a given nuclide are even then S = 0, i.e. there is no overall spin. Then, just as electrons pair up in
atomic orbitals, so do even numbers of protons or even numbers of neutrons (which are also spin-12 particles and
hence fermions) pair up giving zero overall spin.
However, a proton and neutron will have lower energy when their spins are parallel, not anti-parallel, since this
parallel spin alignment does not infringe upon the Pauli Exclusion Principle, but instead it has to do with the quark
structure of these two nucleons. Therefore, the spin ground state for the deuteron (the deuterium nucleus, or the 2H
isotope of hydrogen)that has only a proton and a neutroncorresponds to a spin value of 1, not of zero. The
single, isolated deuteron therefore exhibits an NMR absorption spectrum characteristic of a quadrupolar nucleus of
spin 1, which in the "rigid" state at very low temperatures is a characteristic ('Pake') doublet, (not a singlet as for a
single, isolated 1H, or any other isolated fermion or dipolar nucleus of spin 1/2). On the other hand, because of the
Pauli Exclusion Principle, the tritium isotope of hydrogen must have a pair of anti-parallel spin neutrons (of total
spin zero for the neutron-spin pair), plus a proton of spin 1/2. Therefore, the character of the tritium nucleus is again
magnetic dipolar, not quadrupolarlike its non-radioactive deuteron cousinand the tritium nucleus total spin
value is again 1/2, just like for the simpler, abundant hydrogen isotope, 1H nucleus (the proton). The NMR
absorption (radio) frequency for tritium is however slightly higher than that of 1H because the tritium nucleus has a
slightly higher gyromagnetic ratio than 1H. In many other cases of non-radioactive nuclei, the overall spin is also
non-zero. For example, the 27Al nucleus has an overall spin value S = 52.
A non-zero spin is thus always associated with a non-zero magnetic moment () via the relation = S, where is
the gyromagnetic ratio. It is this magnetic moment that allows the observation of NMR absorption spectra caused by
transitions between nuclear spin levels. Most nuclides (with some rare exceptions) that have both even numbers of
protons and even numbers of neutrons, also have zero nuclear magnetic moments, and they also have zero magnetic
dipole and quadrupole moments. Hence, such nuclides do not exhibit any NMR absorption spectra. Thus, 18O is an
example of a nuclide that has no NMR absorption, whereas 13C, 31P, 35Cl and 37Cl are nuclides that do exhibit
53

NMR absorption spectra. The last two nuclei are quadrupolar nuclei whereas the preceding two nuclei (13C and 31P)
are dipolar ones.
Electron spin resonance (ESR) is a related technique in which transitions between electronic spin levels are detected
rather than nuclear ones. The basic principles are similar but the instrumentation, data analysis, and detailed theory
are significantly different. Moreover, there is a much smaller number of molecules and materials with unpaired
electron spins that exhibit ESR (or electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR)) absorption than those that have NMR
absorption spectra. ESR has much higher sensitivity than NMR does.
Values of spin angular momentum

The angular momentum associated with nuclear spin is quantized. This means both that the magnitude of angular
momentum is quantized (i.e. S can only take on a restricted range of values), and also that the orientation of the
associated angular momentum is quantized. The associated quantum number is known as the magnetic quantum
number, m, and can take values from +S to S, in integer steps. Hence for any given nucleus, there are a total of 2S +
1 angular momentum states.
The z-component of the angular momentum vector (S) is therefore Sz = m, where is the reduced Planck constant.
The z-component of the magnetic moment is simply:
Spin behavior in a magnetic field

Consider nuclei which have a spin of
one-half, like 1H, 13C or 19F. The nucleus
has two possible spin states: m = 12 or m =
12 (also referred to as spin-up and
spin-down, or sometimes and spin
states, respectively). These states are
degenerate, that is they have the same
energy. Hence the number of atoms in these
two states will be approximately equal at
thermal equilibrium.
If a nucleus is placed in a magnetic field,
however, the interaction between the nuclear
Splitting of nuclei spin states in an external magnetic field
magnetic moment and the external magnetic
field mean the two states no longer have the
same energy. The energy of a magnetic moment when in a magnetic field B0 is given by:
Usually the z axis is chosen to be along B0, and the above expression reduces to:
or alternatively:
54
55
As a result the different nuclear spin states

have different energies in a non-zero
magnetic field. In less formal language, we
can talk about the two spin states of a spin
1
2 as being aligned either with or against
the magnetic field. If is positive (true for
most isotopes) then m = 12 is the lower
energy state.
The energy difference between the two
states is:
and this difference results in a small

population bias toward the lower energy
state.
An intuitive model. Nuclei behave like they had own magnetic moments (spin
magnetic moments). By itself, there is no energetic difference for any particular
orientation (only one energy state, on the left), but in external magnetic field there
is a high-energy state and a low-energy state depending on the relative orientations
of the magnet to the external field, and the orientation of the magnetic moment can
precess relative to it. The external field can be supplied by a large magnet and also
by other nuclei in the vicinity.
Magnetic resonance by nuclei

Resonant absorption by nuclear spins will occur only when electromagnetic radiation of the correct frequency (e.g.,
equaling the Larmor precession rate) is being applied to match the energy difference between the nuclear spin levels
in a constant magnetic field of the appropriate strength. The energy of an absorbed photon is then E = h0, where 0
is the resonance radiofrequency that has to match (that is, it has to be equal to the Larmor precession frequency L of
the nuclear magnetization in the constant magnetic field B0). Hence, a magnetic resonance absorption will only
occur when E = h0, which is when 0 = B0/(2). Such magnetic resonance frequencies typically correspond to
the radio frequency (or RF) range of the electromagnetic spectrum for magnetic fields up to roughly 20T. It is this
magnetic resonant absorption which is detected in NMR. [citation needed]
Nuclear shielding
It might appear from the above that all nuclei of the same nuclide (and hence the same ) would resonate at the same
frequency. This is not the case. The most important perturbation of the NMR frequency for applications of NMR is
the "shielding" effect of the surrounding shells of electrons.[3] Electrons, similar to the nucleus, are also charged and
rotate with a spin to produce a magnetic field opposite to the magnetic field produced by the nucleus. In general, this
electronic shielding reduces the magnetic field at the nucleus (which is what determines the NMR frequency).
As a result the energy gap is reduced, and the frequency required to achieve resonance is also reduced. This shift in
the NMR frequency due to the electronic molecular orbital coupling to the external magnetic field is called chemical
shift, and it explains why NMR is able to probe the chemical structure of molecules, which depends on the electron
density distribution in the corresponding molecular orbitals. If a nucleus in a specific chemical group is shielded to a
higher degree by a higher electron density of its surrounding molecular orbital, then its NMR frequency will be
shifted "upfield" (that is, a lower chemical shift), whereas if it is less shielded by such surrounding electron density,
then its NMR frequency will be shifted "downfield" (that is, a higher chemical shift).
Unless the local symmetry of such molecular orbitals is very high (leading to "isotropic" shift), the shielding effect
will depend on the orientation of the molecule with respect to the external field (B0). In solid-state NMR
spectroscopy, magic angle spinning is required to average out this orientation dependence in order to obtain values
close to the average chemical shifts. This is unnecessary in conventional NMR investigations of molecules, since
rapid "molecular tumbling" averages out the chemical shift anisotropy (CSA). In this case, the term "average"
chemical shift (ACS) is used.
Relaxation
The process called population relaxation refers to nuclei that return to the thermodynamic state in the magnet. This
process is also called T1, "spin-lattice" or "longitudinal magnetic" relaxation, where T1 refers to the mean time for an
individual nucleus to return to its thermal equilibrium state of the spins. Once the nuclear spin population is relaxed,
it can be probed again, since it is in the initial, equilibrium (mixed) state.
The precessing nuclei can also fall out of alignment with each other (returning the net magnetization vector to a
non-precessing field) and stop producing a signal. This is called T2 or transverse relaxation. Because of the
difference in the actual relaxation mechanisms involved (for example, inter-molecular vs. intra-molecular magnetic
dipole-dipole interactions ), T1 is usually (except in rare cases) longer than T2 (that is, slower spin-lattice relaxation,
for example because of smaller dipole-dipole interaction effects). In practice, the value of
which is the actually
observed decay time of the observed NMR signal, or free induction decay, (to 1/e of the initial amplitude
immediately after the resonant RF pulse)-- also depends on the static magnetic field inhomogeneity, which is quite
significant. (There is also a smaller but significant contribution to the observed FID shortening from the RF
inhomogeneity of the resonant pulse). In the corresponding FT-NMR spectrummeaning the Fourier transform of
the free induction decaythe
time is inversely related to the width of the NMR signal in frequency units. Thus,
a nucleus with a long T2 relaxation time gives rise to a very sharp NMR peak in the FT-NMR spectrum for a very
homogeneous ("well-shimmed") static magnetic field, whereas nuclei with shorter T2 values give rise to broad
FT-NMR peaks even when the magnet is shimmed well. Both T1 and T2 depend on the rate of molecular motions as
well as the gyromagnetic ratios of both the resonating and their strongly interacting, next-neighbor nuclei that are not
at resonance.
A Hahn echo decay experiment can be used to measure the dephasing time, as shown in the animation below. The
size of the echo is recorded for different spacings of the two pulses. This reveals the decoherence which is not
refocused by the pulse. In simple cases, an exponential decay is measured which is described by the
time.
56
NMR spectroscopy
NMR spectroscopy is one of the principal
techniques used to obtain physical, chemical,
electronic and structural information about
molecules due to either the chemical shift, Zeeman
effect, or the Knight shift effect, or a combination
of both, on the resonant frequencies of the nuclei
present in the sample. It is a powerful technique
that can provide detailed information on the
topology, dynamics and three-dimensional
structure of molecules in solution and the solid
state. Thus, structural and dynamic information is
obtainable (with or without "magic angle" spinning
(MAS)) from NMR studies of quadrupolar nuclei
(that is, those nuclei with spin S > 12) even in the
presence of magnetic "dipole-dipole" interaction
broadening (or simply, dipolar broadening) which
is always much smaller than the quadrupolar
interaction strength because it is a magnetic vs. an
electric interaction effect.
Additional structural and chemical information
900 MHz, 21.2T NMR Magnet at HWB-NMR, Birmingham, UK
may be obtained by performing double-quantum
NMR experiments for quadrupolar nuclei such as
2H. Also, nuclear magnetic resonance is one of the techniques that has been used to design quantum automata, and
also build elementary quantum computers.[4]
Continuous wave (CW) spectroscopy

In its first few decades, nuclear magnetic resonance spectrometers used a technique known as continuous-wave
spectroscopy (CW spectroscopy). Although NMR spectra could be, and have been, obtained using a fixed magnetic
field and sweeping the frequency of the electromagnetic radiation, this more typically involved using a fixed
frequency source and varying the current (and hence magnetic field) in an electromagnet to observe the resonant
absorption signals. This is the origin of the counterintuitive, but still common, "high field" and "low field"
terminology for low frequency and high frequency regions respectively of the NMR spectrum.
CW spectroscopy is inefficient in comparison with Fourier analysis techniques (see below) since it probes the NMR
response at individual frequencies in succession. Since the NMR signal is intrinsically weak, the observed spectrum
suffers from a poor signal-to-noise ratio. This can be mitigated by signal averaging i.e. adding the spectra from
repeated measurements. While the NMR signal is constant between scans and so adds linearly, the random noise
adds more slowly proportional to the square-root of the number of spectra (see random walk). Hence the overall
signal-to-noise ratio increases as the square-root of the number of spectra measured.
57
Fourier transform spectroscopy

Most applications of NMR involve full NMR spectra, that is, the intensity of the NMR signal as a function of
frequency. Early attempts to acquire the NMR spectrum more efficiently than simple CW methods involved
illuminating the target simultaneously with more than one frequency. A revolution in NMR occurred when short
pulses of radio-frequency radiation began to be usedcentered at the middle of the NMR spectrum. In simple terms,
a short pulse of a given "carrier" frequency "contains" a range of frequencies centered about the carrier frequency,
with the range of excitation (bandwidth) being inversely proportional to the pulse duration, i.e. the Fourier transform
of a short pulse contains contributions from all the frequencies in the neighborhood of the principal frequency. The
restricted range of the NMR frequencies made it relatively easy to use short (millisecond to microsecond) radio
frequency pulses to excite the entire NMR spectrum.[citation needed]
Applying such a pulse to a set of nuclear spins simultaneously excites all the single-quantum NMR transitions. In
terms of the net magnetization vector, this corresponds to tilting the magnetization vector away from its equilibrium
position (aligned along the external magnetic field). The out-of-equilibrium magnetization vector precesses about the
external magnetic field vector at the NMR frequency of the spins. This oscillating magnetization vector induces a
current in a nearby pickup coil, creating an electrical signal oscillating at the NMR frequency. This signal is known
as the free induction decay (FID), and it contains the vector sum of the NMR responses from all the excited spins. In
order to obtain the frequency-domain NMR spectrum (NMR absorption intensity vs. NMR frequency) this
time-domain signal (intensity vs. time) must be Fourier transformed. Fortunately the development of Fourier
Transform NMR coincided with the development of digital computers and the digital Fast Fourier Transform.
Fourier methods can be applied to many types of spectroscopy. (See the full article on Fourier transform
spectroscopy.)
Richard R. Ernst was one of the pioneers of pulse NMR, and he won a Nobel Prize in chemistry in 1991 for his work
on Fourier Transform NMR and his development of multi-dimensional NMR (see below).
Multi-dimensional NMR Spectroscopy

The use of pulses of different shapes, frequencies and durations in specifically designed patterns or pulse sequences
allows the spectroscopist to extract many different types of information about the molecule. Multi-dimensional
nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy is a kind of FT NMR in which there are at least two pulses and, as the
experiment is repeated, the pulse sequence is systematically varied. In multidimensional nuclear magnetic resonance
there will be a sequence of pulses and, at least, one variable time period. In three dimensions, two time sequences
will be varied. In four dimensions, three will be varied.
There are many such experiments. In one, these time intervals allow (amongst other things) magnetization transfer
between nuclei and, therefore, the detection of the kinds of nuclear-nuclear interactions that allowed for the
magnetization transfer. Interactions that can be detected are usually classified into two kinds. There are
through-bond interactions and through-space interactions, the latter usually being a consequence of the nuclear
Overhauser effect. Experiments of the nuclear Overhauser variety may be employed to establish distances between
atoms, as for example by 2D-FT NMR of molecules in solution.
Although the fundamental concept of 2D-FT NMR was proposed by Jean Jeener from the Free University of
Brussels at an International Conference, this idea was largely developed by Richard Ernst who won the 1991 Nobel
prize in Chemistry for his work in FT NMR, including multi-dimensional FT NMR, and especially 2D-FT NMR of
small molecules.[5] Multi-dimensional FT NMR experiments were then further developed into powerful
methodologies for studying biomolecules in solution, in particular for the determination of the structure of
biopolymers such as proteins or even small nucleic acids.
In 2002 Kurt Wthrich shared the Nobel Prize in Chemistry (with John Bennett Fenn and Koichi Tanaka) for his
work with protein FT NMR in solution.
58
Solid-state NMR spectroscopy

This technique complements X-ray crystallography in that it is frequently applicable to molecules in a liquid or
liquid crystal phase, whereas crystallography, as the name implies, is performed on molecules in a solid phase.
Though nuclear magnetic resonance is used to study solids, extensive atomic-level molecular structural detail is
especially challenging to obtain in the solid state. There is little signal averaging by thermal motion in the solid state,
where most molecules can only undergo restricted vibrations and rotations at room temperature, each in a slightly
different electronic environment, therefore exhibiting a different NMR absorption peak. Such a variation in the
electronic environment of the resonating nuclei results in a blurring of the observed spectrawhich is often only a
broad Gaussian band for non-quadrupolar spins in a solid- thus making the interpretation of such "dipolar" and
"chemical shift anisotropy" (CSA) broadened spectra either very difficult or impossible.
Professor Raymond Andrew at Nottingham University in the UK pioneered the development of high-resolution
solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance. He was the first to report the introduction of the MAS (magic angle sample
spinning; MASS) technique that allowed him to achieve spectral resolution in solids sufficient to distinguish between
chemical groups with either different chemical shifts or distinct Knight shifts. In MASS, the sample is spun at
several kilohertz around an axis that makes the so-called magic angle m (which is ~54.74, where cos2m = 1/3)
with respect to the direction of the static magnetic field B0; as a result of such magic angle sample spinning, the
chemical shift anisotropy bands are averaged to their corresponding average (isotropic) chemical shift values. The
above expression involving cos2m has its origin in a calculation that predicts the magnetic dipolar interaction effects
to cancel out for the specific value of m called the magic angle. One notes that correct alignment of the sample
rotation axis as close as possible to m is essential for cancelling out the dipolar interactions whose strength for
angles sufficiently far from m is usually greater than ~10kHz for C-H bonds in solids, for example, and it is thus
greater than their CSA values.
There are different angles for the sample spinning relative to the applied field for the averaging of quadrupole
interactions and paramagnetic interactions, correspondingly ~30.6 and ~70.1
A concept developed by Sven Hartmann and Erwin Hahn was utilized in transferring magnetization from protons to
less sensitive nuclei (popularly known as cross-polarization) by M.G. Gibby, Alex Pines and John S. Waugh. Then,
Jake Schaefer and Ed Stejskal demonstrated also the powerful use of cross-polarization under MASS conditions
which is now routinely employed to detect low-abundance and low-sensitivity nuclei.
Sensitivity
Because the intensity of nuclear magnetic resonance signals and, hence, the sensitivity of the technique depends on
the strength of the magnetic field the technique has also advanced over the decades with the development of more
powerful magnets. Advances made in audio-visual technology have also improved the signal-generation and
processing capabilities of newer instruments.
As noted above, the sensitivity of nuclear magnetic resonance signals is also dependent on the presence of a
magnetically susceptible nuclide and, therefore, either on the natural abundance of such nuclides or on the ability of
the experimentalist to artificially enrich the molecules, under study, with such nuclides. The most abundant naturally
occurring isotopes of hydrogen and phosphorus (for example) are both magnetically susceptible and readily useful
for nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. In contrast, carbon and nitrogen have useful isotopes but which occur
only in very low natural abundance.
Other limitations on sensitivity arise from the quantum-mechanical nature of the phenomenon. For quantum states
separated by energy equivalent to radio frequencies, thermal energy from the environment causes the populations of
the states to be close to equal. Since incoming radiation is equally likely to cause stimulated emission (a transition
from the upper to the lower state) as absorption, the NMR effect depends on an excess of nuclei in the lower states.
Several factors can reduce sensitivity, including
59

Increasing temperature, which evens out the population of states. Conversely, low temperature NMR can
sometimes yield better results than room-temperature NMR, providing the sample remains liquid.
Saturation of the sample with energy applied at the resonant radiofrequency. This manifests in both CW and
pulsed NMR; in the first case (CW) this happens by using too much continuous power that keeps the upper spin
levels completely populated; in the second case (pulsed), each pulse (that is at least a 90 pulse) leaves the sample
saturated, and four to five times the (longitudinal) relaxation time (5 T1) must pass before the next pulse or pulse
sequence can be applied. For single pulse experiments, shorter RF pulses that tip the magnetization by less than
90 can be used, which loses some intensity of the signal, but allows for shorter recycle delays. The optimum
there is called an Ernst angle, after the Nobel laureate. Especially in solid state NMR, or in samples with very few
nuclei with spins > 0, (diamond with the natural 1% of Carbon-13 is especially troublesome here) the longitudinal
relaxation times can be on the range of hours, while for proton-NMR they are more on the range of one second.
Non-magnetic effects, such as electric-quadrupole coupling of spin-1 and spin-32 nuclei with their local
environment, which broaden and weaken absorption peaks. 14N, an abundant spin-1 nucleus, is difficult to study
for this reason. High resolution NMR instead probes molecules using the rarer 15N isotope, which has spin-12.
Isotopes
Many isotopes of chemical elements can be used for NMR analysis.[6]
Commonly used nuclei:
1H, the most commonly used spin nucleus in NMR investigation, has been studied using many forms of NMR.
Hydrogen is highly abundant, especially in biological systems. It is the nucleus most sensitive to NMR signal
(apart from 3H which is not commonly used due to its instability and radioactivity). Proton NMR produces
narrow chemical shift with sharp signals. Fast acquisition of quantitative results (peak integrals in stoichiometric
ratio) is possible due to short relaxation time. The 1H signal has been the sole diagnostic nucleus used for clinical
magnetic resonance imaging.
2H, a spin 1 nucleus commonly utilized as signal-free medium in the form of deuterated solvents during proton
NMR, to avoid signal interference from hydrogen-containing solvents in measurement of 1H solutes. Also used in
determining the behavior of lipids in lipid membranes and other solids or liquid crystals as it is a relatively
non-perturbing label which can selectively replace 1H. Alternatively, 2H can be detected in media specially
labeled with 2H. Deuterium resonance is commonly used in high-resolution NMR spectroscopy to monitor drifts
in the magnetic field strength (lock) and to improve the homogeneity of the external magnetic field.
3He, is very sensitive to NMR. There is a very low percentage in natural helium, and subsequently has to be
purified from 4He. It is used mainly in studies of endohedral fullerenes, where its chemical inertness is beneficial
to ascertaining the structure of the entrapping fullerene.
11B, more sensitive than 10B, yields sharper signals. Quartz tubes must be used as borosilicate glass interferes
with measurement.
13C spin-1/2, is widely used, despite its relative paucity in naturally occurring carbon (approximately 1%). It is
stable to nuclear decay. Since there is a low percentage in natural carbon, spectrum acquisition on samples which
have not been experimentally enriched in 13C takes a long time. Frequently used for labeling of compounds in
synthetic and metabolic studies. Has low sensitivity and wide chemical shift, yields sharp signals. Low percentage
makes it useful by preventing spin-spin couplings and makes the spectrum appear less crowded. Slow relaxation
means that spectra are not integrable unless long acquisition times are used.
14N, spin-1, medium sensitivity nucleus with wide chemical shift. Its large quadrupole moment interferes in
acquisition of high resolution spectra, limiting usefulness to smaller molecules and functional groups with a high
degree of symmetry such as the headgroups of lipids.
15N, spin-1/2, relatively commonly used. Can be used for labeling compounds. Nucleus very insensitive but
yields sharp signals. Low percentage in natural nitrogen together with low sensitivity requires high concentrations
or expensive isotope enrichment.
60

17O, spin-5/2, low sensitivity and very low natural abundance (0.037%), wide chemical shifts range (up to 2000
ppm). Quadrupole moment causing a line broadening. Used in metabolic and biochemical studies in studies of
chemical equilibria.
19F, spin-1/2, relatively commonly measured. Sensitive, yields sharp signals, has wide chemical shift.
31P, spin-1/2, 100% of natural phosphorus. Medium sensitivity, wide chemical shifts range, yields sharp lines.
Spectra tend to have a moderate amount of noise. Used in biochemical studies and in coordination chemistry
where phosphorus containing ligands are involved.
35Cl and 37Cl, broad signal. 35Cl significantly more sensitive, preferred over 37Cl despite its slightly broader
signal. Organic chlorides yield very broad signals, its use is limited to inorganic and ionic chlorides and very
small organic molecules.
43Ca, used in biochemistry to study calcium binding to DNA, proteins, etc. Moderately sensitive, very low natural
abundance.
113Cd, used to study metal-binding in metallothioneins and alkaline phosphatase and other metalloproteins.
195Pt, used in studies of catalysts and complexes.
Other nuclei (usually used in the studies of their complexes and chemical binding, or to detect presence of the
element):
6Li, 7Li
9Be
19F
21Ne
23Na
25Mg
27Al
29Si
31P
33S
39K, 40K, 41K
45Sc
47Ti, 49Ti
50V, 51V
53Cr
55Mn
57Fe
59Co
61Ni
63Cu, 65Cu
67Zn
69Ga, 71Ga
73Ge
75As
77Se
81Br
87Rb
87Sr
95Mo
109Ag
119Sn
61
125Te
127I
133Cs
135Ba, 137Ba
139La
183W
199Hg
Applications
Medicine
The application of nuclear magnetic resonance best known to the
general public is magnetic resonance imaging for medical diagnosis
and magnetic resonance microscopy in research settings, however, it is
also widely used in chemical studies, notably in NMR spectroscopy
such as proton NMR, carbon-13 NMR, deuterium NMR and
phosphorus-31 NMR. Biochemical information can also be obtained
from living tissue (e.g. human brain tumors) with the technique known
as in vivo magnetic resonance spectroscopy or chemical shift NMR
Microscopy.
These studies are possible because nuclei are surrounded by orbiting
Medical MRI
electrons, which are charged particles that generate small, local
magnetic fields that add to or subtract from the external magnetic field,
and so will partially shield the nuclei. The amount of shielding depends on the exact local environment. For example,
a hydrogen bonded to an oxygen will be shielded differently than a hydrogen bonded to a carbon atom. In addition,
two hydrogen nuclei can interact via a process known as spin-spin coupling, if they are on the same molecule, which
will split the lines of the spectra in a recognizable way.
As one of the two major spectroscopic techniques used in metabolomics, NMR is used to generate metabolic
fingerprints from biological fluids to obtain information about disease states or toxic insults.
Chemistry
By studying the peaks of nuclear magnetic resonance spectra, chemists can determine the structure of many
compounds. It can be a very selective technique, distinguishing among many atoms within a molecule or collection
of molecules of the same type but which differ only in terms of their local chemical environment. NMR spectroscopy
is used to unambiguously identify known and novel compounds, and as such, is usually required by scientific
journals for identity confirmation of synthesized new compounds. See the articles on carbon-13 NMR and proton
NMR for detailed discussions.
By studying T2 information, a chemist can determine the identity of a compound by comparing the observed nuclear
precession frequencies to known frequencies. Further structural data can be elucidated by observing spin-spin
coupling, a process by which the precession frequency of a nucleus can be influenced by the magnetization transfer
from nearby chemically bound nuclei. Spin-spin coupling is observed in NMR of hydrogen-1 (1H NMR), since its
natural abundance is nearly 100%; isotope enrichment is required for most other elements.
Because the nuclear magnetic resonance timescale is rather slow, compared to other spectroscopic methods,
changing the temperature of a T2*experiment can also give information about fast reactions, such as the Cope
rearrangement or about structural dynamics, such as ring-flipping in cyclohexane. At low enough temperatures, a
62

distinction can be made between the axial and equatorial hydrogens in cyclohexane.
An example of nuclear magnetic resonance being used in the determination of a structure is that of
buckminsterfullerene (often called "buckyballs", composition C60). This now famous form of carbon has 60 carbon
atoms forming a sphere. The carbon atoms are all in identical environments and so should see the same internal H
field. Unfortunately, buckminsterfullerene contains no hydrogen and so 13C nuclear magnetic resonance has to be
used. 13C spectra require longer acquisition times since carbon-13 is not the common isotope of carbon (unlike
hydrogen, where 1H is the common isotope). However, in 1990 the spectrum was obtained by R. Taylor and
co-workers at the University of Sussex and was found to contain a single peak, confirming the unusual structure of
buckminsterfullerene.
Purity determination (w/w NMR)

NMR is primarily used for structural determination, however it can also be used for purity determination, providing
that the structure and molecular weight of the compound is known. This technique requires the use of an internal
standard of a known purity. Typically this standard will have a high molecular weight to facilitate accurate weighing,
but relatively few protons so as to give a clear peak for later integration e.g. 1,2,3,4-tetrachloro-5-nitrobenzene.
Accurately weighed portions of both the standard and sample are combined and analysed by NMR. Suitable peaks
are selected for both compounds and the purity of the sample determined via the following equation.
Where:
: Weight of internal standard
: Weight of sample
: The integrated area of the peak selected for comparison in the standard, corrected for the
number of protons in that functional group
: The integrated area of the peak selected for comparison in the sample, corrected for the number
of protons in that functional group
: Molecular weight of standard
: Molecular weight of sample
: Purity of internal standard
Non-destructive testing
Nuclear magnetic resonance is extremely useful for analyzing samples non-destructively. Radio waves and static
magnetic fields easily penetrate many types of matter and anything that is not inherently ferromagnetic. For example,
various expensive biological samples, such as nucleic acids, including RNA and DNA, or proteins, can be studied
using nuclear magnetic resonance for weeks or months before using destructive biochemical experiments. This also
makes nuclear magnetic resonance a good choice for analyzing dangerous samples.
Acquisition of dynamic information

In addition to providing static information on molecules by determining their 3D structures in solution, one of the
remarkable advantages of NMR over X-ray crystallography is that it can be used to obtain important dynamic
information including the low-frequency collective motion in proteins and DNA, for example in the Ca2+-calmodulin
system. The low-frequency internal motion in biomacromolecules and its biological functions have been discussed
by Chou.
63
Data acquisition in the petroleum industry

Another use for nuclear magnetic resonance is data acquisition in the petroleum industry for petroleum and natural
gas exploration and recovery. A borehole is drilled into rock and sedimentary strata into which nuclear magnetic
resonance logging equipment is lowered. Nuclear magnetic resonance analysis of these boreholes is used to measure
rock porosity, estimate permeability from pore size distribution and identify pore fluids (water, oil and gas). These
instruments are typically low field NMR spectrometers.
Flow probes for NMR spectroscopy

Recently, real-time applications of NMR in liquid media have been developed using specifically designed flow
probes (flow cell assemblies) which can replace standard tube probes. This has enabled techniques that can
incorporate the use of high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) or other continuous flow sample
introduction devices.
Process control
NMR has now entered the arena of real-time process control and process optimization in oil refineries and
petrochemical plants. Two different types of NMR analysis are utilized to provide real time analysis of feeds and
products in order to control and optimize unit operations. Time-domain NMR (TD-NMR) spectrometers operating at
low field (220MHz for 1H) yield free induction decay data that can be used to determine absolute hydrogen
content values, rheological information, and component composition. These spectrometers are used in mining,
polymer production, cosmetics and food manufacturing as well as coal analysis. High resolution FT-NMR
spectrometers operating in the 60MHz range with shielded permanent magnet systems yield high resolution 1H
NMR spectra of refinery and petrochemical streams. The variation observed in these spectra with changing physical
and chemical properties is modeled using chemometrics to yield predictions on unknown samples. The prediction
results are provided to control systems via analogue or digital outputs from the spectrometer.
Earth's field NMR

In the Earth's magnetic field, NMR frequencies are in the audio frequency range, or the very low frequency and ultra
low frequency bands of the radio frequency spectrum. Earth's field NMR (EFNMR) is typically stimulated by
applying a relatively strong dc magnetic field pulse to the sample and, after the end of the pulse, analyzing the
resulting low frequency alternating magnetic field that occurs in the Earth's magnetic field due to free induction
decay (FID). These effects are exploited in some types of magnetometers, EFNMR spectrometers, and MRI imagers.
Their inexpensive portable nature makes these instruments valuable for field use and for teaching the principles of
NMR and MRI.
An important feature of EFNMR spectrometry compared with high-field NMR is that some aspects of molecular
structure can be observed more clearly at low fields and low frequencies, whereas other aspects observable at high
fields are not observable at low fields. This is because:
Electron-mediated heteronuclear J-couplings (spin-spin couplings) are field independent, producing clusters of
two or more frequencies separated by several Hz, which are more easily observed in a fundamental resonance of
about 2 kHz. "Indeed it appears that enhanced resolution is possible due to the long spin relaxation times and high
field homogeneity which prevail in EFNMR."
Chemical shifts of several ppm are clearly separated in high field NMR spectra, but have separations of only a
few millihertz at proton EFNMR frequencies, so are usually lost in noise etc.
64
Quantum computing
NMR quantum computing uses the spin states of molecules as qubits. NMR differs from other implementations of
quantum computers in that it uses an ensemble of systems, in this case molecules.
Magnetometers
Various magnetometers use NMR effects to measure magnetic fields, including proton precession magnetometers
(PPM) (also known as proton magnetometers), and Overhauser magnetometers. See also Earth's field NMR.
Makers of NMR equipment

Major NMR instrument makers include Oxford Instruments, Bruker, Spinlock SRL, General Electric, JEOL, Kimble
Chase, Philips, Siemens AG, and Agilent Technologies, Inc. (who own Varian, Inc.).
References
[1] Biography of I. Rabi at Nobelprize.org (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1944/ rabi-bio. html)
[2] 1952 Nobel Prize for Physics at Nobelprize.org (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ physics/ laureates/ 1952/ )
[3] Principle of Shielding and Deshielding | NMRCentral.com (http:/ / nmrcentral. com/ 2011/ 08/ principle-of-shielding-and-deshielding/ )
[4] Quantum automaton and quantum computation (http:/ / planetphysics. org/ encyclopedia/ QuantumComputers. html) (see also references
therein)
[5] "Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Fourier Transform Spectroscopy" (http:/ / nobelprize. org/ nobel_prizes/ chemistry/ laureates/ 1991/
ernst-lecture. html) Ernst's Nobel lecture. (Includes mention of Jeener's suggestion.)
[6] Multinuclear NMR (http:/ / chem. ch. huji. ac. il/ nmr/ techniques/ 1d/ multi. html)
Further reading
Gary E. Martin, A. S. Zektzer (1988). Two-Dimensional NMR Methods for Establishing Molecular Connectivity
(http://books.google.com/books?id=9ysYrpe_NoEC&printsec=frontcover). New York: Wiley-VCH. p.59.
ISBN0-471-18707-0.
J.W. Akitt, B.E. Mann (2000). NMR and Chemistry. Cheltenham, UK: Stanley Thornes. pp.273, 287.
ISBN0-7487-4344-8.
J.P. Hornak. "The Basics of NMR" (http://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/nmr/). Retrieved 2009-02-23.
J. Keeler (2005). Understanding NMR Spectroscopy. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN0-470-01786-4.
Kurt Wthrich (1986). NMR of Proteins and Nucleic Acids. New York (NY), USA: Wiley-Interscience.
ISBN0-471-11917-2.
J.M Tyszka, S.E Fraser, R.E Jacobs (2005). "Magnetic resonance microscopy: recent advances and applications".
Current Opinion in Biotechnology 16 (1): 9399. doi: 10.1016/j.copbio.2004.11.004 (http://dx.doi.org/10.
1016/j.copbio.2004.11.004). PMID 15722021 (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/15722021).
J.C. Edwards. "Principles of NMR" (http://www.process-nmr.com/pdfs/NMR Overview.pdf). Process NMR
Associates. Retrieved 2009-02-23.
R.L Haner, P.A. Keifer (2009). Encyclopedia of Magnetic Resonance. John Wiley. doi:
10.1002/9780470034590.emrstm1085 (http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/9780470034590.emrstm1085).
65
External links
Tutorial
NMR/MRI tutorial (http://www.cis.rit.edu/htbooks/nmr/inside.htm)
NMR Library (http://nmr.chinanmr.cn/guide/eNMR/eNMRindex.html) NMR Concepts
NMR Course Notes (http://www.grandinetti.org/Teaching/Chem7160/Notes)
Animations and Simulations

This animation shows a spin, the modification of spin with magnetic field and HF pulse, spin echo sequences,
inversion recovery sequence, gradient echo sequence and relaxation of spin (http://www.bigs.de/BLH/en/
index.php?option=com_content&view=category&layout=blog&id=51&Itemid=222)
Animation of NMR spin 12 precession (http://www.chem.queensu.ca/FACILITIES/NMR/nmr/webcourse/
precess.htm)
A free interactive simulation of NMR principles (http://vam.anest.ufl.edu/forensic/nmr.html)
Video
introduction to NMR and MRI (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7aRKAXD4dAg)
Richard Ernst, NL Developer of Multdimensional NMR techniques (http://www.vega.org.uk/video/
programme/21) Freeview video provided by the Vega Science Trust.
'An Interview with Kurt Wuthrich' (http://www.vega.org.uk/video/programme/115) Freeview video by the
Vega Science Trust (Wthrich was awarded a Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 2002 "for his development of nuclear
magnetic resonance spectroscopy for determining the three-dimensional structure of biological macromolecules in
solution").
Other
Off Magic Angle Spinning (http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S109078070700198X)
66

Resonant inductive coupling or electrodynamic induction is the near field wireless transmission of electrical
energy between two coils that are tuned to resonate at the same frequency. The equipment to do this is sometimes
called a resonant or resonance transformer. While many transformers employ resonance, this type has a high Q
and is often air cored to avoid 'iron' losses. The two coils may exist as a single piece of equipment or comprise two
separate pieces of equipment.
Resonant transfer works by making a coil ring with an oscillating current. This generates an oscillating magnetic
field. Because the coil is highly resonant, any energy placed in the coil dies away relatively slowly over very many
cycles; but if a second coil is brought near it, the coil can pick up most of the energy before it is lost, even if it is
some distance away. The fields used are predominately non-radiative, near field (sometimes called evanescent
waves), as all hardware is kept well within the 1/4 wavelength distance they radiate little energy from the transmitter
to infinity.
One of the applications of the resonant transformer is for the CCFL inverter. Another application of the resonant
transformer is to couple between stages of a superheterodyne receiver, where the selectivity of the receiver is
provided by tuned transformers in the intermediate-frequency amplifiers. Resonant transformers such as the Tesla
coil can generate very high voltages with or without arcing, and are able to provide much higher current than
electrostatic high-voltage generation machines such as the Van de Graaff generator. Resonant energy transfer is the
operating principle behind proposed short range (up to 2 metre) wireless electricity systems such as WiTricity and
systems that have already been deployed, such as Qi power transfer, passive RFID tags and contactless smart cards.
Resonant coupling
Non-resonant coupled inductors, such
as typical transformers, work on the
principle of a primary coil generating a
magnetic field and a secondary coil
subtending as much as possible of that
field so that the power passing through
the secondary is as close as possible to
that of the primary. This requirement
Basic transmitter and receiver circuits, Rs and Rr are the resistances and losses in the
that the field be covered by the
associated capacitors and inductors. Ls and Lr are coupled by small coupling coefficient,
secondary results in very short range
k, usually below 0.2
and usually requires a magnetic core.
Over
greater
distances
the
non-resonant induction method is highly inefficient and wastes the vast majority of the energy in resistive losses of
the primary coil.
Using resonance can help improve efficiency dramatically. If resonant coupling is used, each coil is capacitively
loaded so as to form a tuned LC circuit. If the primary and secondary coils are resonant at a common frequency, it
turns out that significant power may be transmitted between the coils over a range of a few times the coil diameters
at reasonable efficiency.
67
Coupling coefficient
The coupling coefficient is the fraction of the flux of the primary that cuts the secondary coil, and is a function of the
geometry of the system. The coupling coefficient, k, is between 0 and 1.
Systems are said to be tightly coupled, loosely coupled, critically coupled or overcoupled. Tight coupling is when the
coupling coefficient is around 1 as with conventional iron-core transformers. Overcoupling is when the secondary
coil is so close that it tends to collapse the primary's field, and critical coupling is when the transfer in the passband
is optimal. Loose coupling is when the coils are distant from each other, so that most of the flux misses the
secondary, in Tesla coils around 0.2 is used, and at greater distances, for example for inductive wireless power
transmission, it may be lower than 0.01.
Energy transfer and efficiency

The general principle is that if a given oscillating amount of energy (for example a pulse or a series of pulses) is
placed into a primary coil which is capacitively loaded, the coil will 'ring', and form an oscillating magnetic field.
The energy will transfer back and forth between the magnetic field in the inductor and the electric field across the
capacitor at the resonant frequency. This oscillation will die away at a rate determined by the gain-bandwidth (Q
factor), mainly due to resistive and radiative losses. However, provided the secondary coil cuts enough of the field
that it absorbs more energy than is lost in each cycle of the primary, then most of the energy can still be transferred.
The primary coil forms a series RLC circuit, and the Q factor for such a coil is:
,
For R=10 ohm,C=1 micro farad and L=10 mH, Q is given as 10.
Because the Q factor can be very high, (experimentally around a thousand has been demonstrated[1] with air cored
coils) only a small percentage of the field has to be coupled from one coil to the other to achieve high efficiency,
even though the field dies quickly with distance from a coil, the primary and secondary can be several diameters
apart.
It can be shown that a figure of merit for the efficiency is:[2]
Where Q1 and Q2 is the Q factor of the source and receiver coils.

And the maximum achievable efficiency is:
Power transfer
Because the Q can be very high, even when low power is fed into the transmitter coil, a relatively intense field builds
up over multiple cycles, which increases the power that can be receivedat resonance far more power is in the
oscillating field than is being fed into the coil, and the receiver coil receives a percentage of that.
Voltage gain
The voltage gain of resonantly coupled coils is directly proportional to the square root of the ratio of secondary and
primary inductances.
68
69
Transmitter coils and circuitry

Unlike the multiple-layer secondary of a non-resonant transformer, coils for this purpose are often single layer
solenoids (to minimise skin effect and give improved Q) in parallel with a suitable capacitor, or they may be other
shapes such as wave-wound litz wire. Insulation is either absent, with spacers, or low permittivity, low loss materials
such as silk to minimise dielectric losses.
To progressively feed energy/power into the primary coil with each
cycle, different circuits can be used. One circuit employs a Colpitts
oscillator.
In Tesla coils an intermittent switching system, a "circuit controller" or
"break," is used to inject an impulsive signal into the primary coil; the
secondary coil then rings and decays.
Colpitts oscillator. In resonant energy transfer the

inductor would be the transmitter coil and
capacitors are used to tune the circuit to a suitable
frequency.
Receiver coils and circuitry

The secondary receiver coils are similar designs to the primary sending
coils. Running the secondary at the same resonant frequency as the
primary ensures that the secondary has a low impedance at the
transmitter's frequency and that the energy is optimally absorbed.
The receiver of a smart card has a coil connected

to a chip which provides capacitance to give
resonance as well as regulators to provide a
suitable voltage
70
To remove energy from the secondary coil, different methods can be

used, the AC can be used directly or rectified and a regulator circuit
can be used to generate DC voltage.
Example receiver coil. The coil is loaded with a

capacitor and two LEDs. The coil and the
capacitor form a series LC circuit which is tuned
to a resonant frequency that matches the
transmission coil located inside of the brown
matt. Power is transmitted over a distance of
thirteen inches.
History
In 1894 Nikola Tesla used resonant inductive coupling, also known as
"electro-dynamic induction" to wirelessly light up phosphorescent and
incandescent lamps at the 35 South Fifth Avenue laboratory, and later
at the 46 E. Houston Street laboratory in New York City. In 1897 he
patented a device[3] called the high-voltage, resonance transformer or
"Tesla coil." Transferring electrical energy from the primary coil to the
secondary coil by resonant induction, a Tesla coil is capable of
producing very high voltages at high frequency. The improved design
allowed for the safe production and utilization of high-potential
electrical currents, "without serious liability of the destruction of the
apparatus itself and danger to persons approaching or handling it."
In the early 1960s resonant inductive wireless energy transfer was used
successfully in implantable medical devices[4] including such devices
as pacemakers and artificial hearts. While the early systems used a
resonant receiver coil, later systems[5] implemented resonant
This advanced Tesla coil was designed to
transmitter coils as well. These medical devices are designed for high
implement wireless power by means of the
efficiency using low power electronics while efficiently
disturbed charge of ground and air method.
accommodating some misalignment and dynamic twisting of the coils.
The separation between the coils in implantable applications is
commonly less than 20cm. Today resonant inductive energy transfer is regularly used for providing electric power
in many commercially available medical implantable devices.

Wireless electric energy transfer for experimentally powering electric automobiles and buses is a higher power
application (>10kW) of resonant inductive energy transfer. High power levels are required for rapid recharging and
high energy transfer efficiency is required both for operational economy and to avoid negative environmental impact
of the system. An experimental electrified roadway test track built circa 1990 achieved 80% energy efficiency while
recharging the battery of a prototype bus at a specially equipped bus stop.[6][7] The bus could be outfitted with a
retractable receiving coil for greater coil clearance when moving. The gap between the transmit and receive coils was
designed to be less than 10cm when powered. In addition to buses the use of wireless transfer has been investigated
for recharging electric automobiles in parking spots and garages as well.
Some of these wireless resonant inductive devices operate at low milliwatt power levels and are battery powered.
Others operate at higher kilowatt power levels. Current implantable medical and road electrification device designs
achieve more than 75% transfer efficiency at an operating distance between the transmit and receive coils of less
than 10cm.
In 1995, Professor John Boys and Prof Grant Covic, of The University of Auckland in New Zealand, developed
systems to transfer large amounts of energy across small air gaps. [citation needed]
In 1998, RFID tags were patented that were powered in this way.[8]
In November 2006, Marin Soljai and other researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology applied this
near field behavior, well known in electromagnetic theory, the wireless power transmission concept based on
strongly-coupled resonators. In a theoretical analysis, they demonstrate that, by designing electromagnetic resonators
that suffer minimal loss due to radiation and absorption and have a near field with mid-range extent (namely a few
times the resonator size), mid-range efficient wireless energy-transfer is possible. The reason is that, if two such
resonant circuits tuned to the same frequency are within a fraction of a wavelength, their near fields (consisting of
'evanescent waves') couple by means of evanescent wave coupling. Oscillating waves develop between the inductors,
which can allow the energy to transfer from one object to the other within times much shorter than all loss times,
which were designed to be long, and thus with the maximum possible energy-transfer efficiency. Since the resonant
wavelength is much larger than the resonators, the field can circumvent extraneous objects in the vicinity and thus
this mid-range energy-transfer scheme does not require line-of-sight. By utilizing in particular the magnetic field to
achieve the coupling, this method can be safe, since magnetic fields interact weakly with living organisms.
Apple Inc. applied for a patent on the technology in 2010, after WiPower did so in 2008.[9]
Comparison with other technologies

Compared to inductive transfer in conventional transformers, except when the coils are well within a diameter of
each other, the efficiency is somewhat lower (around 80% at short range) whereas tightly coupled conventional
transformers may achieve greater efficiency (around 90-95%) and for this reason it cannot be used where high
energy transfer is required at greater distances.
However, compared to the costs associated with batteries, particularly non-rechargeable batteries, the costs of the
batteries are hundreds of times higher. In situations where a source of power is available nearby, it can be a cheaper
solution. In addition, whereas batteries need periodic maintenance and replacement, resonant energy transfer can be
used instead. Batteries additionally generate pollution during their construction and their disposal which is largely
avoided.
71
Regulations and safety

Unlike mains-wired equipment, no direct electrical connection is needed and hence equipment can be sealed to
minimize the possibility of electric shock.
Because the coupling is achieved using predominantly magnetic fields; the technology may be relatively safe. Safety
standards and guidelines do exist in most countries for electromagnetic field exposures (e.g.[10][11]) Whether the
system can meet the guidelines or the less stringent legal requirements depends on the delivered power and range
from the transmitter.
Deployed systems already generate magnetic fields, for example induction cookers and contactless smart card
readers.
Uses
Contactless smart card

High voltage (one million volt) sources for X-ray production
Tesla coils
Some Passports
References
[1] Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonances Andr Kurs, Aristeidis Karalis, Robert Moffatt, J. D. Joannopoulos,
Peter Fisher, Marin Soljacic (http:/ / www. sciencemag. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 1143254)
[2] WiTricity White Paper- Highly Resonant Wireless Power Transfer: Safe, Efficient, and Over Distance- Highly Resonant Wireless Power
Transfer: Safe, Efficient, and Over Distance 2013 Morris Kesler (http:/ / www. witricity. com/ pdfs/
highly-resonant-power-transfer-kesler-witricity-2013. pdf)
[3] Electrical Transformer
[4] J. C. Schuder, Powering an artificial heart: Birth of the inductively coupled-radio frequency system in 1960, Artificial Organs, vol. 26, no.
11, pp. 909915, 2002.
[5] SCHWAN M. A. and P.R. Troyk, "High efficiency driver for transcutaneously coupled coils" IEEE Engineering in Medicine & Biology
Society 11th Annual International Conference, November 1989, pp. 1403-1404.
[6] Systems Control Technology, Inc, "Roadway Powered Electric Vehicle Project, Track Construction and Testing Program". UC Berkeley Path
Program Technical Report: UCB-ITS-PRR-94-07, http:/ / www. path. berkeley. edu/ PATH/ Publications/ PDF/ PRR/ 94/ PRR-94-07. pdf
[7] Shladover, S.E., PATH at 20: History and Major Milestones, Intelligent Transportation Systems Conference, 2006. ITSC '06. IEEE 2006,
pages 1_22-1_29.
[8] RFID Coil Design (http:/ / ww1. microchip. com/ downloads/ en/ appnotes/ 00678b. pdf)
[9] "Ready for ANOTHER patent war? Apple 'invents' wireless charging." (http:/ / www. theregister. co. uk/ 2012/ 12/ 03/
apple_charging_patent/ )
[10] http:/ / www. icnirp. de/ documents/ emfgdl. pdf ICNIRP Guidelines Guidelines for Limiting Exposure to Time-Varying ...
[11] IEEE C95.1
External links
NYC Manhole covers hide resonance chargers (http://www.greencarreports.com/news/
1087816_nyc-manhole-covers-to-hide-resonance-chargers-for-electric-cars)
IEEE Spectrum: A critical look at wireless power (http://spectrum.ieee.org/green-tech/mass-transit/
a-critical-look-at-wireless-power/0)
Intel: Cutting the Last Cord, Wireless Power (http://www.intel.com/pressroom/archive/releases/
20080821comp.htm)
Yahoo News: Intel cuts electric cords with wireless power system (http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20080821/
ts_afp/usitinternetenergychipcompanyintel)
BBC News: An end to spaghetti power cables (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/7575618.stm)
Instructables: wireless power (http://www.instructables.com/id/
Wireless-Power-Transmission-Over-Short-Distances-U/)
72
73
"Marin Soljai (researcher team leader) home page on MIT" (http://www.mit.edu/~soljacic/wireless_power.

html).
Jonathan Fildes (2007-06-07). "Wireless energy promise powers up" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/
6725955.stm). BBC News.
JR Minkel (2007-06-07). "Wireless Energy Lights Bulb from Seven Feet Away" (http://www.sciam.com/
article.cfm?articleid=07511C52-E7F2-99DF-3FA6ED2D7DC9AA20&chanId=sa025). Scientific American.
"Breakthrough to a wireless (electricity) future (WiTricity)" (http://www.breitbart.com/article.
php?id=paWirelessThur19Wirelesspower&show_article=1&catnum=0). The Press Association. 2007-06-07.
Katherine Noyes (2007-06-08). "MIT Wizards Zap Electricity Through the Air" (http://www.technewsworld.
com/story/57757.html). TechNewsWorld.
Chris Peredun, Kristopher Kubicki (2007-06-11). "MIT Engineers Unveil Wireless Power System" (http://www.
dailytech.com/MIT+Engineers+Unveil+Wireless+Power+System/article7632.htm). DailyTech.
"Supporting Online Material for Wireless Power Transfer via Strongly Coupled Magnetic Resonances" (http://
www.sciencemag.org/cgi/data/1143254/DC1/1). Science Magazine.
Gary Peterson (2008-08-06). "Anticipating Witricity" (http://www.tfcbooks.com/articles/witricity.htm). 21st
Century Books.
William C. Brown biography on the IEEE MTT-S website (http://www.mtt.org/awards/WCB's distinguished
career.htm)
Anuradha Menon (2008-11-14). "Intels Wireless Power Technology Demonstrated" (http://thefutureofthings.
com/news/5763/intel-s-wireless-power-technology-demonstrated.html). The Future of Things e-magazine.
Schumann resonances
The Schumann resonances (SR) are a
set of spectrum peaks in the extremely
low frequency (ELF) portion of the
Earth's electromagnetic field spectrum.
Schumann resonances are global
electromagnetic resonances, excited by
lightning discharges in the cavity
formed by the Earth's surface and the
ionosphere.
Description
Animation of Schumann resonance in Earth's atmosphere.
This global electromagnetic resonance

phenomenon is named after physicist
Winfried Otto Schumann who predicted it mathematically in 1952. Schumann resonances occur because the space
between the surface of the Earth and the conductive ionosphere acts as a closed waveguide. The limited dimensions
of the Earth cause this waveguide to act as a resonant cavity for electromagnetic waves in the ELF band. The cavity
is naturally excited by electric currents in lightning. Schumann resonances are the principal background in the
electromagnetic spectrum[1] beginning at 3Hz and extend to 60Hz,[2] and appear as distinct peaks at extremely low
frequencies (ELF) around 7.83 (fundamental),[3] 14.3, 20.8, 27.3 and 33.8Hz.[4]
In the normal mode descriptions of Schumann resonances, the fundamental mode is a standing wave in the
Earthionosphere cavity with a wavelength equal to the circumference of the Earth. This lowest-frequency (and
highest-intensity) mode of the Schumann resonance occurs at a frequency of approximately 7.83Hz, but this
Schumann resonances
74
frequency can vary slightly from a variety of factors, such as solar-induced perturbations to the ionosphere, which
comprises the upper wall of the closed cavity.[citation needed] The higher resonance modes are spaced at approximately
6.5Hz intervals,[citation needed] a characteristic attributed to the atmosphere's spherical geometry. The peaks exhibit a
spectral width of approximately 20% on account of the damping of the respective modes in the dissipative cavity.
The 8th partial lies at approximately 60Hz.[citation needed]
Observations of Schumann resonances have been used to track global lightning activity. Owing to the connection
between lightning activity and the Earth's climate it has been suggested that they may also be used to monitor global
temperature variations and variations of water vapor in the upper troposphere. It has been speculated that
extraterrestrial lightning (on other planets) may also be detected and studied by means of their Schumann resonance
signatures. Schumann resonances have been used to study the lower ionosphere on Earth and it has been suggested
as one way to explore the lower ionosphere on celestial bodies. Effects on Schumann resonances have been reported
following geomagnetic and ionospheric disturbances. More recently, discrete Schumann resonance excitations have
been linked to transient luminous events sprites, elves, jets, and other upper-atmospheric lightning. A new field of
interest using Schumann resonances is related to short-term earthquake prediction.
History
In 1893, George Francis FitzGerald noted that the upper layers of the atmosphere must be fairly good conductors.
Assuming that the height of these layers are about 100km above ground, he estimated that oscillations (in this case
the lowest mode of the Schumann resonances) would have a period of 0.1 second.[5] Because of this contribution, it
has been suggested to rename these resonances as SchumannFitzGerald resonances.[6] However FitzGerald's
findings were not widely known as they were only presented at a meeting of the British Association for the
Advancement of Science, followed by a brief mention in a column in Nature.
Hence the first suggestion that an ionosphere existed, capable of trapping electromagnetic waves, is attributed to
Heaviside and Kennelly (1902). It took another twenty years before Edward Appleton and Barnett in 1925, were able
to prove experimentally the existence of the ionosphere.
Although some of the most important mathematical tools for dealing with spherical waveguides were developed by
G. N. Watson in 1918, it was Winfried Otto Schumann who first studied the theoretical aspects of the global
resonances of the earthionosphere waveguide system, known today as the Schumann resonances. In 19521954
Schumann, together with H. L. Knig, attempted to measure the resonant frequencies. However, it was not until
measurements made by Balser and Wagner in 19601963 that adequate analysis techniques were available to extract
the resonance information from the background noise. Since then there has been an increasing interest in Schumann
resonances in a wide variety of fields.
Basic theory
Lightning discharges are considered to be the primary natural source of Schumann resonance excitation; lightning
channels behave like huge antennas that radiate electromagnetic energy at frequencies below about 100kHz. These
signals are very weak at large distances from the lightning source, but the Earthionosphere waveguide behaves like
a resonator at ELF frequencies and amplifies the spectral signals from lightning at the resonance frequencies.
In an ideal cavity, the resonant frequency of the
of light
-th mode
is determined by the Earth radius
and the speed
The real Earthionosphere waveguide is not a perfect electromagnetic resonant cavity. Losses due to finite
ionosphere electrical conductivity lower the propagation speed of electromagnetic signals in the cavity, resulting in a
resonance frequency that is lower than would be expected in an ideal case, and the observed peaks are wide. In
Schumann resonances
addition, there are a number of horizontal asymmetries day-night difference in the height of the ionosphere,
latitudinal changes in the Earth's magnetic field, sudden ionospheric disturbances, polar cap absorption, variation in
the Earth radius of +/- 11km from equator to geographic poles, etc. that produce other effects in the Schumann
resonance power spectra.
Measurements
Today Schumann resonances are recorded at many separate research stations around the world. The sensors used to
measure Schumann resonances typically consist of two horizontal magnetic inductive coils for measuring the
north-south and east-west components of the magnetic field, and a vertical electric dipole antenna for measuring the
vertical component of the electric field. A typical passband of the instruments is 3100Hz. The Schumann
resonance electric field amplitude (~300 microvolts per meter) is much smaller than the static fair-weather electric
field (~150 V/m) in the atmosphere. Similarly, the amplitude of the Schumann resonance magnetic field (~1
picotesla) is many orders of magnitude smaller than the Earth's magnetic field (~3050 microteslas). Specialized
receivers and antennas are needed to detect and record Schumann resonances. The electric component is commonly
measured with a ball antenna, suggested by Ogawa et al., in 1966, connected to a high-impedance amplifier. The
magnetic induction coils typically consist of tens- to hundreds-of-thousands of turns of wire wound around a core of
very high magnetic permeability.
Dependence on global lightning activity

From the very beginning of Schumann resonance studies, it was known that they could be used to monitor global
lightning activity. At any given time there are about 2000 thunderstorms around the globe. Producing ~50 lightning
events per second, these thunderstorms create the background Schumann resonance signal.
Determining the spatial lightning distribution from Schumann resonance records is a complex problem: in order to
estimate the lightning intensity from Schumann resonance records it is necessary to account for both the distance to
lightning sources as well as the wave propagation between the source and the observer. The common approach is to
make a preliminary assumption on the spatial lightning distribution, based on the known properties of lightning
climatology. An alternative approach is placing the receiver at the North or South Pole, which remain approximately
equidistant from the main thunderstorm centers during the day. One method not requiring preliminary assumptions
on the lightning distribution is based on the decomposition of the average background Schumann resonance spectra,
utilizing ratios between the average electric and magnetic spectra and between their linear combination. This
technique assumes the cavity is spherically symmetric and therefore does not include known cavity asymmetries that
are believed to affect the resonance and propagation properties of electromagnetic waves in the system.
Diurnal variations
The best documented and the most debated features of the Schumann resonance phenomenon are the diurnal
variations of the background Schumann resonance power spectrum.
A characteristic Schumann resonance diurnal record reflects the properties of both global lightning activity and the
state of the Earthionosphere cavity between the source region and the observer. The vertical electric field is
independent of the direction of the source relative to the observer, and is therefore a measure of global lightning. The
diurnal behavior of the vertical electric field shows three distinct maxima, associated with the three "hot spots" of
planetary lightning activity: 9 UT (Universal Time) peak, linked to the increased thunderstorm activity from
Southeast Asia; 14 UT peak associated with the peak in African lightning activity; and the 20 UT peak resulting for
the increase in lightning activity in South America. The time and amplitude of the peaks vary throughout the year,
reflecting the seasonal changes in lightning activity.
75
Schumann resonances
"Chimney" ranking
In general, the African peak is the strongest, reflecting the major contribution of the African "chimney" to the global
lightning activity. The ranking of the two other peaks Asian and American is the subject of a vigorous dispute
among Schumann resonance scientists. Schumann resonance observations made from Europe show a greater
contribution from Asia than from South America. This contradicts optical satellite and climatological lightning data
that show the South American thunderstorm center stronger than the Asian center., although observations made from
North America indicate the dominant contribution comes from South America. The reason for such disparity remains
unclear, but may have something to do with the 60Hz cycling of electricity used in North America (60Hz being a
mode of Schumann Resonance). Williams and Stori suggest that in order to obtain "correct" Asia-America chimney
ranking, it is necessary to remove the influence of the day/night variations in the ionospheric conductivity (day-night
asymmetry influence) from the Schumann resonance records. On the other hand, such "corrected" records presented
in the work by Stori et al. show that even after the removal of the day-night asymmetry influence from Schumann
resonance records, the Asian contribution remains greater than American. Similar results were obtained by Pechony
et al. who calculated Schumann resonance fields from satellite lightning data. It was assumed that the distribution of
lightning in the satellite maps was a good proxy for Schumann excitations sources, even though satellite observations
predominantly measure in-cloud lightning rather than the cloud-to-ground lightning that are the primary exciters of
the resonances. Both simulations those neglecting the day-night asymmetry, and those taking this asymmetry into
account, showed same Asia-America chimney ranking. As for today, the reason for the "invert" ranking of Asia and
America chimneys in Schumann resonance records remains unclear and the subject requires further, targeted
research.
Influence of the day-night asymmetry
In the early literature the observed diurnal variations of Schumann resonance power were explained by the variations
in the source-receiver (lightning-observer) geometry. It was concluded that no particular systematic variations of the
ionosphere (which serves as the upper waveguide boundary) are needed to explain these variations. Subsequent
theoretical studies supported the early estimations of the small influence of the ionosphere day-night asymmetry
(difference between day-side and night-side ionosphere conductivity) on the observed variations in Schumann
resonance field intensities.
The interest in the influence of the day-night asymmetry in the ionosphere conductivity on Schumann resonances
gained new strength in the 1990s, after publication of a work by Sentman and Fraser. Sentman and Fraser developed
a technique to separate the global and the local contributions to the observed field power variations using records
obtained simultaneously at two stations that were widely separated in longitude. They interpreted the diurnal
variations observed at each station in terms of a combination of a diurnally varying global excitation modulated by
the local ionosphere height. Their work, which combined both observations and energy conservation arguments,
convinced many scientists of the importance of the ionospheric day-night asymmetry and inspired numerous
experimental studies. However, recently it was shown that results obtained by Sentman and Fraser can be
approximately simulated with a uniform model (without taking into account ionosphere day-night variation) and
therefore cannot be uniquely interpreted solely in terms of ionosphere height variation.
Schumann resonance amplitude records show significant diurnal and seasonal variations which in general coincide in
time with the times of the day-night transition (the terminator). This time-matching seems to support the suggestion
of a significant influence of the day-night ionosphere asymmetry on Schumann resonance amplitudes. There are
records showing almost clock-like accuracy of the diurnal amplitude changes. On the other hand there are numerous
days when Schumann Resonance amplitudes do not increase at sunrise or do not decrease at sunset. There are studies
showing that the general behavior of Schumann resonance amplitude records can be recreated from diurnal and
seasonal thunderstorm migration, without invoking ionospheric variations. Two recent independent theoretical
studies have shown that the variations in Schumann resonance power related to the day-night transition are much
smaller than those associated with the peaks of the global lightning activity, and therefore the global lightning
76
Schumann resonances
activity plays a more important role in the variation of the Schumann resonance power.
It is generally acknowledged that source-observer effects are the dominant source of the observed diurnal variations,
but there remains considerable controversy about the degree to which day-night signatures are present in the data.
Part of this controversy stems from the fact that the Schumann resonance parameters extractable from observations
provide only a limited amount of information about the coupled lightning source-ionospheric system geometry. The
problem of inverting observations to simultaneously infer both the lightning source function and ionospheric
structure is therefore extremely underdetermined, leading to the possibility of nonunique interpretations.
The "inverse problem"
One of the interesting problems in Schumann resonances studies is determining the lightning source characteristics
(the "inverse problem"). Temporally resolving each individual flash is impossible because the mean rate of excitation
by lightning, ~50 lightning events per second globally, mixes up the individual contributions together. However,
occasionally there occur extremely large lightning flashes which produce distinctive signatures that stand out from
the background signals. Called "Q-bursts", they are produced by intense lightning strikes that transfer large amounts
of charge from clouds to the ground, and often carry high peak current. Q-bursts can exceed the amplitude of the
background signal level by a factor of 10 or more, and appear with intervals of ~10 s, which allows to consider them
as isolated events and determine the source lightning location. The source location is determined with either
multi-station or single-station techniques, and requires assuming a model for the Earthionosphere cavity. The
multi-station techniques are more accurate, but require more complicated and expensive facilities.
Transient luminous events research

It is now believed that many of the Schumann resonances transients (Q bursts) are related to the transient luminous
events (TLEs). In 1995 Boccippio et al. showed that sprites, the most common TLE, are produced by positive
cloud-to-ground lightning occurring in the stratiform region of a thunderstorm system, and are accompanied by
Q-burst in the Schumann resonances band. Recent observations reveal that occurrences of sprites and Q bursts are
highly correlated and Schumann resonances data can possibly be used to estimate the global occurrence rate of
sprites.
Global temperature
Williams [1992] suggested that global temperature may be monitored with the Schumann resonances. The link
between Schumann resonance and temperature is lightning flash rate, which increases nonlinearly with temperature.
The nonlinearity of the lightning-to-temperature relation provides a natural amplifier of the temperature changes and
makes Schumann resonance a sensitive "thermometer". Moreover, the ice particles that are believed to participate in
the electrification processes which result in a lightning discharge have an important role in the radiative feedback
effects that influence the atmosphere temperature. Schumann resonances may therefore help us to understand these
feedback effects. A strong link between global lightning and global temperature has not been experimentally
confirmed as of 2008.
Upper tropospheric water vapor
Tropospheric water vapor is a key element of the Earths climate, which has direct effects as a greenhouse gas, as
well as indirect effect through interaction with clouds, aerosols and tropospheric chemistry. Upper tropospheric
water vapor (UTWV) has a much greater impact on the greenhouse effect than water vapor in the lower atmosphere,
but whether this impact is a positive, or a negative feedback is still uncertain. The main challenge in addressing this
question is the difficulty in monitoring UTWV globally over long timescales. Continental deep-convective
thunderstorms produce most of the lightning discharges on Earth. In addition, they transport large amount of water
vapor into the upper troposphere, dominating the variations of global UTWV. Price [2000] suggested that changes in
the UTWV can be derived from records of Schumann Resonances. According to the effective work made by the
77
Schumann resonances
Upper Tropospheric Water Vapor (( UTWV )), we should highlight that the percentage of UTWV in normal
condition of the Air mass can be meauserd as a minimal quantity, so that its influence can be considered very very
low; in fact the higher percentage of it can be only found in the lower Tropspheric layers. But in the case of a high
quantity of UTWV in the highest level of Troposphere, due to a warmer air mass of atlantic origins, for istance, the
Water vapor, due to the low air temperature ((about minus 60 Degrees )) it turns into ice cristal, becoming clouds as
Cirrus or Cirrus Stratus: no Water vapour exists as gas with so low temperature. So, we can say that the affirmation
that Water vapor interacts with cloud, can be considered wrong as the clouds both those of low level of
((Atmosphere)) and those of higher levels of it are made of condensed or cristallised Water Vapor.
On other planets and moons

The existence of Schumann-like resonances is conditioned primarily by two factors:
1. A closed, planetary-sized sphericalWikipedia:Disputed statement cavity, consisting of conducting lower and
upper boundaries separated by an insulating medium. For the earth the conducting lower boundary is its surface,
and the upper boundary is the ionosphere. Other planets may have similar electrical conductivity geometry, so it
is speculated that they should possess similar resonant behavior.
2. A source of electrical excitation of electromagnetic waves in the ELF range.
Within the Solar System there are five candidates for Schumann resonance detection besides the Earth: Venus, Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn and its biggest moon Titan. Modeling Schumann resonances on the planets and moons of the Solar
System is complicated by the lack of knowledge of the waveguide parameters. No in situ capability exists today to
validate the results.
Venus
The strongest evidence for lightning on Venus comes from the impulsive electromagnetic waves detected by Venera
11 and 12 landers. Theoretical calculations of the Schumann resonances at Venus were reported by Nickolaenko and
Rabinowicz [1982] and Pechony and Price [2004]. Both studies yielded very close results, indicating that Schumann
resonances should be easily detectable on that planet given a lightning source of excitation and a suitably located
sensor.
Mars
In the case of Mars there have been terrestrial observations of radio emission spectra that have been associated with
Schumann resonances. The reported radio emissions are not of the primary electromagnetic Schumann modes, but
rather of secondary modulations of the nonthermal microwave emissions from the planet at approximately the
expected Schumann frequencies, and have not been independently confirmed to be associated with lightning activity
on Mars. There is the possibility that future lander missions could carry in situ instrumentation to perform the
necessary measurements. Theoretical studies are primarily directed to parameterizing the problem for future
planetary explorers.
Detection of lightning activity on Mars has been reported by Ruf et al. [2009]. The evidence is indirect and in the
form of modulations of the nonthermal microwave spectrum at approximately the expected Schumann resonance
frequencies. It has not been independently confirmed that these are associated with electrical discharges on Mars. In
the event confirmation is made by direct, in situ observations, it would verify the suggestion of the possibility of
charge separation and lightning strokes in the Martian dust storms made by Eden and Vonnegut [1973] and Renno et
al. [2003]. Martian global resonances were modeled by Sukhorukov [1991], Pechony and Price [2004] and
Molina-Cuberos et al. [2006]. The results of the three studies are somewhat different, but it seems that at least the
first two Schumann resonance modes should be detectable. Evidence of the first three Schumann resonance modes is
present in the spectra of radio emission from the lightning detected in Martian dust storms.
78
Schumann resonances
Titan
It was long ago suggested that lightning discharges may occur on Titan, but recent data from CassiniHuygens
seems to indicate that there is no lightning activity on this largest satellite of Saturn. Due to the recent interest in
Titan, associated with the CassiniHuygens mission, its ionosphere is perhaps the most thoroughly modeled today.
Schumann resonances on Titan have received more attention than on any other celestial body, in works by Besser et
al. [2002], Morente et al. [2003], Molina-Cuberos et al. [2004], Nickolaenko et al. [2003] and Pechony and Price
[2004]. It appears that only the first Schumann resonance mode might be detectable on Titan.
Since the landing of the Huygens probe on Titan's surface in January 2005, there have been many reports on
observations and theory of an atypical Schumann resonance on Titan. After several tens of fly-bys by Cassini,
neither lightning nor thunderstorms were detected in Titan's atmosphere. Scientists therefore proposed another
source of electrical excitation: induction of ionospheric currents by Saturn's co-rotating magnetosphere. All data and
theoretical models comply with a Schumann resonance, the second eigenmode of which was observed by the
Huygens probe. The most important result of this is the proof of existence of a buried liquid water-ammonia ocean
under few tens of km the icy subsurface crust.[7][8][9][10]
Jupiter and Saturn

Jupiter is one planet where lightning activity has been optically detected. Existence of lightning activity on that
planet was predicted by Bar-Nun [1975] and it is now supported by data from Galileo, Voyagers 1 and 2, Pioneers
10 and 11 and Cassini. Saturn is also confirmed to have lightning activity.[11] Though three visiting spacecraft
Pioneer 11 in 1979, Voyager 1 in 1980 and Voyager 2 in 1981, failed to provide any convincing evidence from
optical observations, in July 2012 the Cassini spacecraft detected visible lightning flashes, and electromagnetic
sensors aboard the spacecraft detected signatures that are characteristic of lightning. Little is known about the
electrical parameters of Jupiter and Saturn interior. Even the question of what should serve as the lower waveguide
boundary is a non-trivial one in case of the gaseous planets. There seem to be no works dedicated to Schumann
resonances on Saturn. To date there has been only one attempt to model Schumann resonances on Jupiter. Here, the
electrical conductivity profile within the gaseous atmosphere of Jupiter was calculated using methods similar to
those used to model stellar interiors, and it was pointed out that the same methods could be easily extended to the
other gas giants Saturn, Uranus and Neptune. Given the intense lightning activity at Jupiter, the Schumann
resonances should be easily detectable with a sensor suitably positioned within the planetary-ionospheric cavity.
References
[1] MacGorman, W. D. Rust, W. David Rust. "The electrical nature of storms". Page 114 (http:/ / books. google. com/
books?id=_NbHNj7KJecC& pg=PA114).
[2] Handbook of atmospheric electrodynamics, Volume 1 By Hans Volland. Page 277.
[3] Department of Theoretical and Experimental Nuclear Physics, Odessa National Polytechnic University, Ukraine
[4] Recent advances in multidisciplinary applied physics By A. Mndez-Vilas. Page 65.
[5] G. F. FitzGerald, On the period of vibration of electrical disturbances upon the Earth, Br. Assoc. Adv. Sci., Rep. 63, 682 (1893)
[6] J. D. Jackson, Examples of the zeroth theorem of the history of science, American Journal of Physics, Vol. 76, No. 8, pp. 704719, August
2008
[7] Bghin, C., et al., 2007. A Schumann-like resonance on Titan driven by Saturns magnetosphere possibly revealed by the Huygens Probe,
Icarus 191, 251-266.
[8] Bghin, C., et al., 2009. New insights on Titans plasma-driven Schumann resonance inferred from Huygens and Cassini data, Planet. Space
Sci., 57, 1872-1888.
[9] Bghin, C., Hamelin, M., Sotin, C., 2010. Titans native ocean revealed beneath some 45 km of ice by a Schumann-like resonance, Comptes
Rendus Geoscience, 342, 425-433.
[10] Bghin, C., and 8 colleagues. Analytic theory of Titans Schumann resonance: Constraints on ionospheric conductivity and buried water
ocean, Icarus, 218, 1028-1042, 2012.
[11] http:/ / www. ciclops. org/ view_event/ 178/ Lightning_Flashing_in_Daylight
79
Schumann resonances
External articles and references

General references
Articles on the NASA ADS Database: Full list (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/
nph-abs_connect?db_key=AST&db_key=PHY&db_key=PRE&qform=AST&sim_query=YES&
ned_query=YES&aut_logic=OR&obj_logic=OR&author=&object=&start_mon=&start_year=&end_mon=&
end_year=&ttl_logic=OR&title="Schumann+Resonances"&txt_logic=OR&text=&nr_to_return=100&
start_nr=1&jou_pick=ALL&ref_stems=&data_and=ALL&group_and=ALL&start_entry_day=&
start_entry_mon=&start_entry_year=&end_entry_day=&end_entry_mon=&end_entry_year=&min_score=&
sort=SCORE&data_type=SHORT&aut_syn=YES&ttl_syn=YES&txt_syn=YES&aut_wt=1.0&obj_wt=1.0&
ttl_wt=0.3&txt_wt=3.0&aut_wgt=YES&obj_wgt=YES&ttl_wgt=YES&txt_wgt=YES&ttl_sco=YES&
txt_sco=YES&version=1) | Full text (http://adsabs.harvard.edu/cgi-bin/nph-abs_connect?db_key=AST&
db_key=PHY&db_key=PRE&qform=AST&sim_query=YES&ned_query=YES&aut_logic=OR&
obj_logic=OR&author=&object=&start_mon=&start_year=&end_mon=&end_year=&ttl_logic=OR&
title="Schumann+Resonances"&txt_logic=OR&text=&nr_to_return=100&start_nr=1&jou_pick=ALL&
ref_stems=&data_and=YES&gif_link=YES&group_and=ALL&start_entry_day=&start_entry_mon=&
start_entry_year=&end_entry_day=&end_entry_mon=&end_entry_year=&min_score=&sort=SCORE&
data_type=SHORT&aut_syn=YES&ttl_syn=YES&txt_syn=YES&aut_wt=1.0&obj_wt=1.0&ttl_wt=0.3&
txt_wt=3.0&aut_wgt=YES&obj_wgt=YES&ttl_wgt=YES&txt_wgt=YES&ttl_sco=YES&txt_sco=YES&
version=1)
Websites
Magnetic activity and Schumann resonance (http://quake.geo.berkeley.edu/ncedc/em.intro.html)
Well illustrated study from the University of Iowa explaining the construction of a ULF receiver for studying
Schumann resonances. Link updated 3 Nov. 2011 (http://www.iaspacegrant.org/sites/default/files/pdf_files/
Kruger-SEED.pdf)
Global Coherence Initiative (Spectrogram Calendar) (http://www.glcoherence.org/monitoring-system/
live-data.html) Schumann resonance live data
Animation
Schumann resonance animation (http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/vis/a010000/a010800/a010891/) from NASA
Goddard Space Flight Center
80
81
Related topics
Cymatics
Cymatics (from Greek: "wave") is the study of
visible sound and vibration, a subset of modal
phenomena. Typically the surface of a plate,
diaphragm, or membrane is vibrated, and regions of
maximum and minimum displacement are made visible
in a thin coating of particles, paste, or liquid. Different
patterns emerge in the excitatory medium depending on
the geometry of the plate and the driving frequency.
The apparatus employed can be simple, such as the old
Chinese spouting bowl, or Chinese singing fountain, in
which copper handles are rubbed and cause the copper
bottom elements to vibrate. Other examples are a
Chladni Plate or advanced such as the CymaScope, a
laboratory instrument that makes visible the inherent
geometries within sound and music.Wikipedia:Please
clarify
Resonance made visible with black seeds on a

harpsichord soundboard
Etymology
The generic term for this field of science is the study of
modal phenomena, retitled Cymatics by Hans Jenny, a
Swiss medical doctor and a pioneer in this field. The
word Cymatics derives from the Greek 'kuma' meaning
'billow' or 'wave,' to describe the periodic effects that
sound and vibration have on matter.
Cornstarch and water solution under the influence of sine wave

vibration
History
On July 8, 1680, Robert Hooke was able to see the nodal patterns associated with the modes of vibration of glass
plates. Hooke ran a bow along the edge of a glass plate covered with flour, and saw the nodal patterns emerge.[1][2]
In 1787, Ernst Chladni repeated the work of Robert Hooke and published "Entdeckungen ber die Theorie des
Klanges" ("Discoveries in the Theory of Sound"). In this book, Chladni describes the patterns seen by placing sand
on metal plates which are made to vibrate by stroking the edge of the plate with a bow.
Throughout the 1960s, up until his death in 1972, Swiss medical doctor and Anthroposophist, Hans Jenny took a
methodological and exhaustive approach to documenting Cymatic phenomena. He coined the term "Cymatics" in his
1967 book, Kymatik (translated Cymatics).[3] Inspired by systems theory and the work of Ernst Chladni, Jenny
delved deeply into the many types of periodic phenomena but especially the visual display of sound. He pioneered
the use of laboratory grown piezoelectric crystals, which were quite costly at that time. Hooking them up to
Cymatics
amplifiers and frequency generators, the crystals functioned as transducers, converting the frequencies into
vibrations that were strong enough to set the steel plates into resonance. He made the resultant nodal fields visible by
spreading a fine powder lycopodium spores of a club moss, as well as many other methods and materials. He
documented much of his work in still photos which were compiled into two volumes published in 1967 and 1972,
and republished in 2001 as a single hardcover edition (see above reference). He also documented his experiments in
16mm films which have since been re-released on a DVD entitled Cymatic SoundScapes: Bringing Matter to Life
with Sound. [4]
Influences in art
Hans Jenny's book influenced Alvin Lucier and, along with Chladni, helped lead to Lucier's composition Queen of
the South. Jenny's work was also followed up by Center for Advanced Visual Studies (CAVS) founder Gyrgy
Kepes at MIT.[5] His work in this area included an acoustically vibrated piece of sheet metal in which small holes
had been drilled in a grid. Small flames of gas burned through these holes and thermodynamic patterns were made
visible by this setup.
In the mid 1980's visual artist, Ron Rocco who also developed his work at the Center for Advanced Visual Studies
(CAVS) employed mirrors mounted to tiny servo motors, driven by the audio signal of a synthesizer and amplified
by a tube amp to reflect the beam of a laser. This created light patterns which corresponded to the audio's frequency
and amplitude. Using this beam to generate video feedback and computers to process the feedback signal, Mr. Rocco
created his "Andro-media" series of installations. Rocco later formed a collaboration with musician David Hykes,
who practiced a form of Mongolian overtone chanting with The Harmonic Choir, to generate cymatic images from a
pool of liquid mercury, which functioned as a liquid mirror to modulate the beam of a HeNe laser from the sound
thus generated. Photographs of this work can be found in the Ars Electronica catalog of 1987."In Light of Sound
study 1" [6]
Contemporary German photographer, philosopher and Cymatic researcher, Alexander Lauterwasser has brought the
work of Hans Jenny into the 21st century using finely crafted crystal oscillators to resonate steel plates covered with
fine sand and also to vibrate small samples of water in Petri dishes. His first book, Water Sound Images, [7]
translated into English in 2006, features imagery of light reflecting off of the surface of water set into motion by
sound sources ranging from pure sine waves, to music by Ludwig van Beethoven, Karlheinz Stockhausen,
electroacoustic group Kymatik (who often record in surround sound ambisonics), and overtone singing. The resulting
photographs of standing wave patterns in both sand on steel plates and standing wave patterns in water, are striking.
In this book, Lauterwasser particularly focused on creating exquisitely detailed visual analogues of patterns found in
nature, ranging from the distribution of spots on a leopard, to the geometric patterns found in plants and flowers, to
the shapes of jellyfish, and most amazingly, the intricate patterns found on the shell of a tortoise.
Composer Stuart Mitchell and his father T.J. Mitchell claim that Rosslyn Chapel's carvings contain references to
Cymatics patterns. In 2005 they created a work called The Rosslyn Motet realised by matching Cymatics/Chladni
patterns to the 13 geometric symbols carved onto the faces of 213 cubes emanating from 14 arches.[8] Like many
claims in the cymatics community, the hypothesis that the carvings represent Chladni patterns is not supported by
scientific or historical evidence.[citation needed] One of the problems is that many of the 'box' carvings are not original,
having been replaced in the 19th century following damage by erosion.
82
Cymatics
83
References
[1] Ernst Florens Friedrich Chladni (http:/ / www. ilt. columbia. edu/ projects/ bluetelephone/ html/ chladni. html), Institute for Learning
Technologies (http:/ / www. ilt. columbia. edu/ about/ index. html), Columbia University
[2] Pg 101 Oxford Dictionary of Scientists- Oxford University Press- 1999
[3] Jenny, Hans (1967). Kymatik. ISBN 1-888138-07-6
[4] Jenny, Hans (2006). Cymatic SoundScapes. ISBN 1-888138-10-6
[5] Gyrgy Kepes profile at MIT (http:/ / web. archive. org/ web/ 20021104072629/ http:/ / web. mit. edu/ cavs/ people/ kepes/ kepes. html)
[6] http:/ / upload. wikimedia. org/ wikipedia/ commons/ 5/ 57/ In_Light_of_Sound_%28study_1%29. jpg
[7] Lauterwasser, Alexander (2006). Water Sound Images. ISBN 1-888138-09-2
[8] Wilson, Chris (May 19, 2011). " The Rosslyn Code: Is a Scottish Da Vinci responsible for the Rosslyn melodies? (http:/ / web. archive. org/
web/ 20110623063324/ http:/ / www. slate. com/ id/ 2294490/ )", Slate.com.
External links
Global Cymatics Community (http://www.cymatics.co.uk)

Cymatics, A Study of Wave Phenomena (http://www.cymaticsource.com)
Cymatics Conference (http://www.cymaticsconference.com)
Cymatica.net : Architectural thesis investigation into the synthesis of space and form generated from sound (http:/
/Cymatica.net)
Cymatics.org: Cymatics images & video capturing the interaction of sounds with liquids (http://www.cymatics.
org)
Video of Cymatics of salt grains on vibrating square metal plate (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=s9GBf8y0lY0)
DIY Cymatics (http://www.rmcybernetics.com/projects/DIY_Devices/homemade_cymatics_display.htm)
Damping
Classical
mechanics
History
Timeline
v
t
e [1]
Damping
84
Damping is an influence within or upon an oscillatory system that has the effect of
reducing, restricting or preventing its oscillations. In physical systems, damping is
produced by processes that dissipate the energy stored in the oscillation. Examples
include Viscous drag in mechanical systems, resistance in electronic oscillators, and
absorption and scattering of light in optical oscillators. Damping not based on energy
loss can be important in other oscillating systems such as those that occur in
biological systems.
The damping of a system can be described as being one of the following:
Overdamped: The system returns (exponentially decays) to equilibrium without
oscillating.
Critically damped: The system returns to equilibrium as quickly as possible
without oscillating.
Underdamped: The system oscillates (at reduced frequency compared to the
undamped case) with the amplitude gradually decreasing to zero.
Undamped: The system oscillates at its natural resonant frequency (o).
For example, consider a door that uses a spring to close the door once open. This can
lead to any of the above types of damping depending on the strength of the damping.
If the door is undamped it will swing back and forth forever at a particular resonant
frequency. If it is underdamped it will swing back and forth with decreasing size of
the swing until it comes to a stop. If it is critically damped then it will return to closed
as quickly as possible without oscillating. Finally, if it is overdamped it will return to
closed without oscillating but slower depending on how overdamped it is. Different
levels of damping are desired for different types of systems.
Underdamped springmass
system
Linear damping
A particularly mathematically useful type of damping is linear damping. Linear damping occurs when a potentially
oscillatory variable is damped by an influence that opposes changes in it, in direct proportion to the instantaneous
rate of change, velocity or time derivative, of the variable itself. In engineering applications it is often desirable to
linearize non-linear drag forces. This may be done by finding an equivalent work coefficient in the case of harmonic
forcing. In non-harmonic cases, restrictions on the speed may lead to accurate linearization.
In physics and engineering, damping may be mathematically modelled as a force synchronous with the velocity of
the object but opposite in direction to it. If such force is also proportional to the velocity, as for a simple mechanical
viscous damper (dashpot), the force may be related to the velocity by
where c is the damping coefficient, given in units of newton-seconds per meter.

This force may be used as an approximation to the friction caused by drag and may be realized, for instance, using a
dashpot. (This device uses the viscous drag of a fluid, such as oil, to provide a resistance that is related linearly to
velocity.) Even when friction is related to , if the velocity is restricted to a small range, then this non-linear effect
may be small. In such a situation, a linearized friction coefficient
error.
may be determined which produces little
When including a restoring force (such as due to a spring) that is proportional to the displacement and in the
opposite direction, and by setting the sum of these two forces equal to the mass of the object times its acceleration
creates a second-order differential equation whose terms can be rearranged into the following form:
Damping
85
where 0 is the undamped angular frequency of the oscillator and is a constant called the damping ratio. This
equation is valid for many different oscillating systems, but with different formulas for the damping ratio and the
undamped angular frequency.
The value of the damping ratio determines the behavior of the system such that = 1 corresponds to being critically
damped with larger values being overdamped and smaller values being underdamped. If = 0, the system is
undamped.
Example: massspringdamper
An ideal massspringdamper system with mass m, spring constant k
and viscous damper of damping coefficient c is subject to an
oscillatory force
and a damping force
The values can be in any consistent system of units; for example, in SI

units, m in kilograms, k in newtons per meter, and c in newton-seconds
per meter or kilograms per second.
A mass attached to a spring and damper. The

damping coefficient, usually c, is represented by
B in this case. The F in the diagram denotes an
external force, which this example does not
include.
Treating the mass as a free body and applying Newton's second law,
the total force Ftot on the body is
where a is the acceleration of the mass and x is the displacement of the mass relative to a fixed point of reference.
Since Ftot = Fs + Fd,
This differential equation may be rearranged into
The following parameters are then defined:
The first parameter, 0, is called the (undamped) natural frequency of the system . The second parameter, , is called
the damping ratio. The natural frequency represents an angular frequency, expressed in radians per second. The
damping ratio is a dimensionless quantity.
The differential equation now becomes
Continuing, we can solve the equation by assuming a solution x such that:
where the parameter (gamma) is, in general, a complex number.
Damping
86
Substituting this assumed solution back into the differential equation gives
which is the characteristic equation.

Solving the characteristic equation will give two roots, + and . The solution to the differential equation is thus[2]
where A and B are determined by the initial conditions of the system:
System behaviour
The behaviour of the system depends on the
relative values of the two fundamental
parameters, the natural frequency 0 and the
damping ratio . In particular, the qualitative
behavior of the system depends crucially on
whether the quadratic equation for has one
real solution, two real solutions, or two
complex conjugate solutions.
Critical damping ( = 1)
When = 1, there is a double root (defined
above), which is real. The system is said to
be critically damped. A critically damped
system converges to zero as fast as possible
without oscillating. An example of critical
damping is the door closer seen on many
hinged doors in public buildings. The recoil
mechanisms in most guns are also critically
damped so that they return to their original
position, after the recoil due to firing, in the
least possible time.
Time dependence of the system behavior on the value of the damping ratio , for
undamped (blue), under-damped (green), critically damped (red), and over-damped
(cyan) cases, for zero-velocity initial condition.
In this case, with only one root , there is in

addition to the solution x(t) = et a solution
x(t) = tet:[3]
where
and
are determined by the
initial conditions of the system (usually the

initial position and velocity of the mass):
Over-damping ( > 1)
Steady state variation of amplitude with frequency and damping of a driven simple
harmonic oscillator.
Damping
87
When > 1, the system is over-damped and there are two different real roots. An over-damped door-closer will take
longer to close than a critically damped door would.
The solution to the motion equation is:
where
and
are determined by the initial conditions of the system:
Under-damping (0 < 1)
Finally, when 0 < < 1, is complex, and the system is under-damped. In this situation, the system will oscillate at
the natural damped frequency d, which is a function of the natural frequency and the damping ratio. To continue
the analogy, an underdamped door closer would close quickly, but would hit the door frame with significant
velocity, or would oscillate in the case of a swinging door.
In this case, the solution can be generally written as:[4]
where
represents the damped frequency or ringing frequency of the system, and A and B are again determined by the initial
conditions of the system:
This "damped frequency" is not to be confused with the damped resonant frequency or peak frequency peak. This is
the frequency at which a moderately underdamped (<1/2) simple 2nd-order harmonic oscillator has its maximum
gain (or peak transmissibility) when driven by a sinusoidal input. The frequency at which this peak occurs is given
by:
.
For an under-damped system, the value of can be found by examining the logarithm of the ratio of succeeding
amplitudes of a system. This is called the logarithmic decrement.
Alternative models
Viscous damping models, although widely used, are not the only damping models. A wide range of models can be
found in specialized literature. One is the so-called "hysteretic damping model" or "structural damping model".
When a metal beam is vibrating, the internal damping can be better described by a force proportional to the
displacement but in phase with the velocity. In such case, the differential equation that describes the free movement
of a single-degree-of-freedom system becomes:
where h is the hysteretic damping coefficient and i denotes the imaginary unit; the presence of i is required to
synchronize the damping force to the velocity (xi being in phase with the velocity). This equation is more often
written as:
Damping
where is the hysteretic damping ratio, that is, the fraction of energy lost in each cycle of the vibration.
Although requiring complex analysis to solve the equation, this model reproduces the real behaviour of many
vibrating structures more closely than the viscous model.
A more general model that also requires complex analysis, the fractional model not only includes both the viscous
and hysteretic models, but also allows for intermediate cases (useful for some polymers):
where r is any number, usually between 0 (for hysteretic) and 1 (for viscous), and A is a general damping (h for
hysteretic and c for viscous) coefficient.
Nonlinear damping
Nonlinear passive damping offers important advantages compared to purely linear designs.[5] Nonlinear damping
using an odd function, for example cubic damping, allows the user to damp the resonance without increasing the
energy in the frequency response tails and hence overcomes several limitations of a purely linear design.
References
[1] http:/ / en. wikipedia. org/ w/ index. php?title=Template:Classical_mechanics& action=edit
[2] MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource (http:/ / mathworld. wolfram. com/ DampedSimpleHarmonicMotionOverdamping. html)
[3] Weisstein, Eric W. "Damped Simple Harmonic Motion--Critical Damping." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. (http:/ /
mathworld. wolfram. com/ DampedSimpleHarmonicMotionCriticalDamping. html)
[4] Weisstein, Eric W. "Damped Simple Harmonic Motion--Underdamping." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. (http:/ / mathworld.
wolfram. com/ DampedSimpleHarmonicMotionUnderdamping. html)
[5] Billings S.A. "Nonlinear System Identification: NARMAX Methods in the Time, Frequency, and Spatio-Temporal Domains". Wiley, 2013
Books
Komkov, Vadim (1972) Optimal control theory for the damping of vibrations of simple elastic systems. Lecture
Notes in Mathematics, Vol. 253. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-New York.
External links
Calculation of the matching attenuation,the damping factor, and the damping of bridging (http://www.
sengpielaudio.com/calculator-bridging.htm)
Damping Matlab scripts (http://vibrationdata.wordpress.com/category/damping/)
88
Harmonic oscillator
89
Harmonic oscillator
Classical
mechanics
History
Timeline
v
t
e [1]
In classical mechanics, a harmonic oscillator is a system that, when displaced from its equilibrium position,
experiences a restoring force, F, proportional to the displacement, x:
where k is a positive constant.

If F is the only force acting on the system, the system is called a simple harmonic oscillator, and it undergoes
simple harmonic motion: sinusoidal oscillations about the equilibrium point, with a constant amplitude and a
constant frequency (which does not depend on the amplitude).
If a frictional force (damping) proportional to the velocity is also present, the harmonic oscillator is described as a
damped oscillator. Depending on the friction coefficient, the system can:
Oscillate with a frequency smaller than in the non-damped case, and an amplitude decreasing with time
(underdamped oscillator).
Decay to the equilibrium position, without oscillations (overdamped oscillator).
The boundary solution between an underdamped oscillator and an overdamped oscillator occurs at a particular value
of the friction coefficient and is called "critically damped."
If an external time dependent force is present, the harmonic oscillator is described as a driven oscillator.
Mechanical examples include pendula (with small angles of displacement), masses connected to springs, and
acoustical systems. Other analogous systems include electrical harmonic oscillators such as RLC circuits. The
harmonic oscillator model is very important in physics, because any mass subject to a force in stable equilibrium acts
as a harmonic oscillator for small vibrations. Harmonic oscillators occur widely in nature and are exploited in many
manmade devices, such as clocks and radio circuits. They are the source of virtually all sinusoidal vibrations and
waves.
Simple harmonic oscillator

A simple harmonic oscillator is an oscillator that is neither driven nor
damped. It consists of a mass m, which experiences a single force, F,
which pulls the mass in the direction of the point x=0 and depends only
on the mass's position x and a constant k. Balance of forces (Newton's
second law) for the system is
Solving this differential equation, we find that the motion is described by the function
Harmonic oscillator
90
where
The motion is periodic, repeating itself in a sinusoidal fashion with constant amplitude, A. In addition to its
amplitude, the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator is characterized by its period T, the time for a single oscillation
or its frequency f=1T, the number of cycles per unit time. The position at a given time t also depends on the phase,
, which determines the starting point on the sine wave. The period and frequency are determined by the size of the
mass m and the force constant k, while the amplitude and phase are determined by the starting position and velocity.
The velocity and acceleration of a simple harmonic oscillator oscillate with the same frequency as the position but
with shifted phases. The velocity is maximum for zero displacement, while the acceleration is in the opposite
direction as the displacement.
The potential energy stored in a simple harmonic oscillator at position x is
Damped harmonic oscillator

In real oscillators, friction, or damping, slows the motion of the
system. Due to frictional force, the velocity decreases in
proportion to the acting frictional force. While simple harmonic
motion oscillates with only the restoring force acting on the
system, damped harmonic motion experiences friction. In many
vibrating systems the frictional force Ff can be modeled as being
proportional to the velocity v of the object: Ff = cv, where c is
called the viscous damping coefficient.
Balance of forces (Newton's second law) for damped harmonic
oscillators is then
Dependence of the system behavior on the value of the

damping ratio
This is rewritten into the form
where
is called the 'undamped angular frequency of
the oscillator' and
is called the 'damping ratio'.
A damped harmonic oscillator, which slows

down due to friction
Harmonic oscillator
91
The value of the damping ratio critically determines the behavior

of the system. A damped harmonic oscillator can be:
Overdamped ( > 1): The system returns (exponentially decays)
to steady state without oscillating. Larger values of the damping
ratio return to equilibrium slower.
Critically damped ( = 1): The system returns to steady state as
quickly as possible without oscillating. This is often desired for
the damping of systems such as doors.
Underdamped ( < 1): The system oscillates (with a slightly
different frequency than the undamped case) with the amplitude
gradually decreasing to zero. The angular frequency of the
underdamped harmonic oscillator is given by
The Q factor of a damped oscillator is defined as
Step-response of a damped harmonic oscillator; curves

are plotted for three values of = 1 = 012. Time
is in units of the decay time = 1/(0).
Q is related to the damping ratio by the equation
Driven harmonic oscillators

Driven harmonic oscillators are damped oscillators further affected by an externally applied force F(t).
Newton's second law takes the form
It is usually rewritten into the form
This equation can be solved exactly for any driving force, using the solutions z(t) which satisfy the unforced
equation:
and which can be expressed as damped sinusoidal oscillations,
in the case where 1. The amplitude A and phase determine the behavior needed to match the initial conditions.
Harmonic oscillator
92
Step input
In the case <1 and a unit step input withx(0)=0:
the solution is:
with phase given by
The time an oscillator needs to adapt to changed external conditions is of the order =1/(0). In physics, the
adaptation is called relaxation, and is called the relaxation time.
In electrical engineering, a multiple of is called the settling time, i.e. the time necessary to ensure the signal is
within a fixed departure from final value, typically within 10%. The term overshoot refers to the extent the
maximum response exceeds final value, and undershoot refers to the extent the response falls below final value for
times following the maximum response.
Sinusoidal driving force

In the case of a sinusoidal driving force:
where
is the driving amplitude and
is
the driving frequency for a sinusoidal

driving mechanism. This type of system
appears in AC driven RLC circuits
(resistor-inductor-capacitor) and driven
spring systems having internal mechanical
resistance or external air resistance.
The general solution is a sum of a transient
solution that depends on initial conditions,
and a steady state that is independent of
initial conditions and depends only on the
driving amplitude
, driving frequency,
, undamped angular frequency
the damping ratio .
Steady state variation of amplitude with frequency and damping of a driven simple
, and
The steady-state solution is proportional to the driving force with an induced phase change of
where
is the absolute value of the impedance or linear response function and
Harmonic oscillator
93
is the phase of the oscillation relative to the driving force, if the arctan value is taken to be between -180 degrees and
0 (that is, it represents a phase lag, for both positive and negative values of the arctan's argument).
For a particular driving frequency called the resonance, or resonant frequency
(for a given
) is maximum. This resonance effect only occurs when
, the amplitude
, i.e. for significantly
underdamped systems. For strongly underdamped systems the value of the amplitude can become quite large near
the resonance frequency.
The transient solutions are the same as the unforced (
) damped harmonic oscillator and represent the
systems response to other events that occurred previously. The transient solutions typically die out rapidly enough
that they can be ignored.
Parametric oscillators
A parametric oscillator is a driven harmonic oscillator in which the drive energy is provided by varying the
parameters of the oscillator, such as the damping or restoring force. A familiar example of parametric oscillation is
"pumping" on a playground swing. A person on a moving swing can increase the amplitude of the swing's
oscillations without any external drive force (pushes) being applied, by changing the moment of inertia of the swing
by rocking back and forth ("pumping") or alternately standing and squatting, in rhythm with the swing's oscillations.
The varying of the parameters drives the system. Examples of parameters that may be varied are its resonance
frequency and damping .
Parametric oscillators are used in many applications. The classical varactor parametric oscillator oscillates when the
diode's capacitance is varied periodically. The circuit that varies the diode's capacitance is called the "pump" or
"driver". In microwave electronics, waveguide/YAG based parametric oscillators operate in the same fashion. The
designer varies a parameter periodically to induce oscillations.
Parametric oscillators have been developed as low-noise amplifiers, especially in the radio and microwave frequency
range. Thermal noise is minimal, since a reactance (not a resistance) is varied. Another common use is frequency
conversion, e.g., conversion from audio to radio frequencies. For example, the Optical parametric oscillator converts
an input laser wave into two output waves of lower frequency (
).
Parametric resonance occurs in a mechanical system when a system is parametrically excited and oscillates at one of
its resonant frequencies. Parametric excitation differs from forcing, since the action appears as a time varying
modification on a system parameter. This effect is different from regular resonance because it exhibits the instability
phenomenon.
Universal oscillator equation

The equation
is known as the universal oscillator equation since all second order linear oscillatory systems can be reduced to this
form. This is done through nondimensionalization.
If the forcing function is f(t) =cos(t) =cos(tc) =cos(), where =tc, the equation becomes
The solution to this differential equation contains two parts, the "transient" and the "steady state".
Harmonic oscillator
94
Transient solution
The solution based on solving the ordinary differential equation is for arbitrary constants c1 and c2
The transient solution is independent of the forcing function.
Steady-state solution
Apply the "complex variables method" by solving the auxiliary equation below and then finding the real part of its
solution:
Supposing the solution is of the form
Its derivatives from zero to 2nd order are
Substituting these quantities into the differential equation gives
Dividing by the exponential term on the left results in
Equating the real and imaginary parts results in two independent equations
Amplitude part
Squaring both equations and adding them together gives
Bode plot of the frequency response of an ideal

Therefore,
Harmonic oscillator
95
Compare this result with the theory section on resonance, as well as the "magnitude part" of the RLC circuit. This
amplitude function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the frequency response of
second-order systems.
Phase part
To solve for , divide both equations to get
This phase function is particularly important in the analysis and understanding of the frequency response of
second-order systems.
Full solution
Combining the amplitude and phase portions results in the steady-state solution
The solution of original universal oscillator equation is a superposition (sum) of the transient and steady-state
solutions
For a more complete description of how to solve the above equation, see linear ODEs with constant coefficients.
Equivalent systems
Harmonic oscillators occurring in a number of areas of engineering are equivalent in the sense that their
mathematical models are identical (see universal oscillator equation above). Below is a table showing analogous
quantities in four harmonic oscillator systems in mechanics and electronics. If analogous parameters on the same line
in the table are given numerically equal values, the behavior of the oscillatorstheir output waveform, resonant
frequency, damping factor, etc.are the same.
Translational Mechanical Torsional Mechanical Series RLC Circuit
Parallel RLC Circuit
Position
Angle
Charge
Flux linkage
Velocity
Angular velocity
Current
Voltage
Mass
Moment of inertia
Inductance
Capacitance
Spring constant
Torsion constant
Elastance
Susceptance
Damping
Rotational friction
Resistance
Conductance
Drive force
Drive torque
Voltage
Current
Undamped resonant frequency
Differential equation:
Harmonic oscillator
96
Application to a conservative force

The problem of the simple harmonic oscillator occurs frequently in physics, because a mass at equilibrium under the
influence of any conservative force, in the limit of small motions, behaves as a simple harmonic oscillator.
A conservative force is one that has a potential energy function. The potential energy function of a harmonic
oscillator is:
Given an arbitrary potential energy function

minimum (
Because
, one can do a Taylor expansion in terms of
around an energy
) to model the behavior of small perturbations from equilibrium.
is a minimum, the first derivative evaluated at
must be zero, so the linear term drops out:
The constant term V(x0) is arbitrary and thus may be dropped, and a coordinate transformation allows the form of the
simple harmonic oscillator to be retrieved:
Thus, given an arbitrary potential energy function
with a non-vanishing second derivative, one can use the
solution to the simple harmonic oscillator to provide an approximate solution for small perturbations around the
equilibrium point.
Examples
Simple pendulum
Assuming no damping and small amplitudes, the
differential equation governing a simple pendulum is
The solution to this equation is given by:
where
is the largest angle attained by the pendulum.
The period, the time for one complete oscillation, is

given by
divided by whatever is multiplying the
time in the argument of the cosine (
here).
A simple pendulum exhibits simple harmonic motion under the

conditions of no damping and small amplitude.
Pendulum swinging over turntable
Harmonic oscillator
97
Simple harmonic motion can in some cases be considered to be the one-dimensional projection of two-dimensional
circular motion. Consider a long pendulum swinging over the turntable of a record player. On the edge of the
turntable there is an object. If the object is viewed from the same level as the turntable, a projection of the motion of
the object seems to be moving backwards and forwards on a straight line orthogonal to the view direction,
sinusoidally like the pendulum.
Spring/mass system
When a spring is stretched or compressed by a mass, the spring
develops a restoring force. Hooke's law gives the relationship of the
force exerted by the spring when the spring is compressed or
stretched a certain length:
where F is the force, k is the spring constant, and x is the

displacement of the mass with respect to the equilibrium position.
The minus sign in the equation indicates that the force exerted by the
spring always acts in a direction that is opposite to the displacement
(i.e. the force always acts towards the zero position), and so prevents
the mass from flying off to infinity.
By using either force balance or an energy method, it can be readily
shown that the motion of this system is given by the following
differential equation:
...the latter being Newton's second law of motion.

If the initial displacement is A, and there is no initial velocity, the
solution of this equation is given by:
Given an ideal massless spring,

is the mass on the end of the
spring. If the spring itself has mass, its effective mass must be
included in
.
Springmass system in equilibrium (A), compressed

(B) and stretched (C) states.
Energy variation in the springdamping system

In terms of energy, all systems have two types of energy, potential energy and kinetic energy. When a spring is
stretched or compressed, it stores elastic potential energy, which then is transferred into kinetic energy. The potential
energy within a spring is determined by the equation
When the spring is stretched or compressed, kinetic energy of the mass gets converted into potential energy of the
spring. By conservation of energy, assuming the datum is defined at the equilibrium position, when the spring
reaches its maximum potential energy, the kinetic energy of the mass is zero. When the spring is released, it tries to
return to equilibrium, and all its potential energy converts to kinetic energy of the mass.
Harmonic oscillator
98
Notes
References
Serway, Raymond A.; Jewett, John W. (2003). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Brooks/Cole.
ISBN0-534-40842-7.
Tipler, Paul (1998). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Vol. 1 (4th ed.). W. H. Freeman. ISBN1-57259-492-6.
Wylie, C. R. (1975). Advanced Engineering Mathematics (4th ed.). McGraw-Hill. ISBN0-07-072180-7.
External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Oscillator, harmonic" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.
php?title=p/o070530), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4
Harmonic Oscillator (http://hypertextbook.com/chaos/41.shtml) from The Chaos Hypertextbook
A Java applet of harmonic oscillator with damping proportional to velocity or damping caused by dry friction
(http://phy.hk/wiki/englishhtm/Damped.htm)
Nonlinear resonance
In physics, nonlinear resonance is the occurrence of resonance in a nonlinear system. In nonlinear resonance the
system behaviour resonance frequencies and modes depends on the amplitude of the oscillations, while for linear
systems this is independent of amplitude.
Description
Generically two types of resonances have to be distinguished linear and nonlinear. From the physical point of
view, they are defined by whether or not external force coincides with the eigen-frequency of the system (linear and
nonlinear resonance correspondingly). The frequency condition of nonlinear resonance reads
with possibly different

equation. Here
being eigen-frequencies of the linear part of some nonlinear partial differential
is a vector with the integer subscripts
being indexes into Fourier harmonics or eigenmodes
see Fourier series. Accordingly, the frequency resonance condition is equivalent to a Diophantine equation with
many unknowns. The problem of finding their solutions is equivalent to the Hilbert's tenth problem that is proven to
be algorithmically unsolvable.
Main notions and results of the theory of nonlinear resonances are:
1. The use of the special form of dispersion functions
appearing in various physical applications
allows to find the solutions of frequency resonance condition.

2. The set of resonances for given dispersion function and the form of resonance conditions is partitioned into
non-intersecting resonance clusters; dynamics of each cluster can be studied independently (at the appropriate
time-scale).
3. Each resonance cluster can be represented by its NR-diagram which is a plane graph of the special structure. This
representation allows to reconstruct uniquely 3a) dynamical system describing time-dependent behavior of the
cluster, and 3b) the set of its polynomial conservation laws which are generalization of ManleyRowe constants
of motion for the simplest clusters (triads and quartets)
4. Dynamical systems describing some types of the clusters can be solved analytically.
5. These theoretical results can be used directly for describing real-life physical phenomena (e.g. intraseasonal
oscillations in the Earth's atmosphere) or various wave turbulent regimes in the theory of wave turbulence.
Nonlinear resonance
99
Nonlinear resonance shift

Nonlinear effects may significantly modify the shape of the resonance
curves of harmonic oscillators. First of all, the resonance frequency
is shifted from its "natural" value
according to the formula
where
is the oscillation amplitude and
is a constant defined by
the anharmonic coefficients. Second, the shape of the resonance curve

is distorted (foldover effect). When the amplitude of the (sinusoidal)
external force reaches a critical value
instabilities appear. The
critical value is given by the formula
where
is the oscillator mass and
oscillations of frequency close to
Foldover effect
is the damping coefficient. Furthermore, new resonances appear in which

are excited by an external force with frequency quite different from
Nonlinear frequency response functions

Generalized frequency response functions, and nonlinear output frequency response functions [1] allow the user to
study complex nonlinear behaviors in the frequency domain in a principled way. These functions reveal resonance
ridges, harmonic, inter modulation, and energy transfer effects in a way that allows the user to relate these terms
from complex nonlinear discrete and continuous time models to the frequency domain and vice versa.
Notes and references

Notes
[1] Billings S.A. "Nonlinear System Identification: NARMAX Methods in the Time, Frequency, and Spatio-Temporal Domains". Wiley, 2013
References
Landau, L. D.; Lifshitz, E. M. (1976), Mechanics (3rd ed.), Pergamon Press, ISBN0-08-021022-8 (hardcover)
and 0-08-029141-4 (softcover) Check |isbn= value (help)
External links
Elmer, Franz-Josef (July 20, 1998), Nonlinear Resonance] (http://monet.physik.unibas.ch/~elmer/pendulum/
nonres.htm), University of Basel, retrieved 27 October 2010
Positive feedback
100
Positive feedback
Positive feedback is a process in which the effects of a small
disturbance on a system include an increase in the magnitude of the
perturbation. That is, A produces more of B which in turn produces
more of A.[1] In contrast, a system in which the results of a change act
to reduce or counteract it has negative feedback.
Mathematically, positive feedback is defined as a positive loop gain
around a feedback loop. That is, positive feedback is in phase with the
input, in the sense that it adds to make the input larger. Positive
feedback tends to cause system instability. When the loop gain is
positive and above 1, there will typically be exponential growth,
increasing oscillations or divergences from equilibrium. System
parameters will typically accelerate towards extreme values, which
may damage or destroy the system, or may end with the system latched
into a new stable state. Positive feedback may be controlled by signals
in the system being filtered, damped, or limited, or it can be cancelled
or reduced by adding negative feedback.
Causal loop diagram that depicts the causes of a

stampede as a positive feedback loop.
Positive feedback is used in digital electronics to force voltages away

from intermediate voltages into '0' and '1' states. On the other hand,
thermal runaway is a positive feedback that can destroy semiconductor
junctions. Positive feedback in chemical reactions can increase the rate
of reactions, and in some cases can lead to explosions. Positive
feedback in mechanical design causes tipping-point, or 'over-centre',
mechanisms to snap into position, for example in switches and locking
pliers. Out of control, it can cause bridges to collapse. Positive
feedback in economic systems can cause boom-then-bust cycles. A
familiar example of positive feedback is the loud squealing or howling
sound produced by audio feedback in public address systems: the
microphone picks up sound from its own loudspeakers, amplifies it,
and sends it through the speakers again.
In sociology a network effect can quickly create

the positive feedback of a bank run. The above
photo is of the UK Northern Rock 2007 bank run.
See also viral video.
Alarm or panic can spread by positive feedback

among a herd of animals to cause a stampede.
Overview
In feedback loops a chain of cause and effect exists where a state variable of a system has a feedback loop
influencing its own rate of change. Such feedback can be direct, or can be via other state variables.
Such systems can give rich qualitative behaviors, but whether the feedback is positive or negative in sign is an
extremely important influence on the results.
In positive feedback, the derivative of the variable is positively affected by the variables value, and the opposite is
true in negative feedback.
A key feature of positive feedback is thus that small disturbances get bigger. When a change occurs in a system,
positive feedback causes further change, in the same direction.
Positive feedback
101
Basic
A simple feedback loop is shown in the diagram. If the loop gain AB is
positive, then a condition of positive or regenerative feedback exists.
If the functions A and B are linear and AB is smaller than unity, then
the overall system gain from the input to output is finite, but can be
very large as AB approaches unity.[2] In that case, it can be shown that
the overall or "closed loop" gain from input to output is:
When AB > 1, the system is unstable, so does not have a well-defined

gain; the gain may be called infinite.
A basic feedback system can be represented by

this block diagram. In the diagram the + symbol
is an adder and A and B are arbitrary causal
functions.
Thus depending on the feedback, state changes can be convergent, or divergent. The result of positive feedback is to
augment changes, so that small perturbations may result in big changes.
A system in equilibrium in which there is positive feedback to any change from its current state may be unstable, in
which case the equilibrium is said to be in an unstable equilibrium. The magnitude of the forces that act to move
such a system away from its equilibrium are an increasing function of the "distance" of the state from the
equilibrium.
Hysteresis
In the real world, positive feedback loops typically do not cause
ever-increasing growth, but are modified by limiting effects of some
sort. According to Donella Meadows:
"Positive feedback loops are sources of growth, explosion,
erosion, and collapse in systems. A system with an
unchecked positive loop ultimately will destroy itself.
Thats why there are so few of them. Usually a negative
loop will kick in sooner or later."[3]
Hysteresis can be generated by positive feedback. When the gain of the
feedback loop is above 1, then the output moves away from the input,
if it is above the input, then it moves towards the nearest positive limit,
if it is below the input then it moves towards the nearest negative limit.
Hysteresis causes the output value to depend on

the history of the input
Once it reaches the limit, it will be stable. However if the input goes
past the limit,Wikipedia:Please clarify then the feedback will change
signWikipedia:Disputed statement and the output will move in the
opposite direction until it hits the opposite limit. The system therefore
shows bistable behaviour.
Terminology
The terms positive and negative were first applied to feedback before
the World War II. The idea of positive feedback was already current in
the 1920s with the introduction of the regenerative circuit. Friis &
Jensen (1924) described regeneration in a set of electronic amplifiers
In a Schmitt trigger circuit, feedback to the

non-inverting input of an amplifier pushes the
output directly away from the applied voltage
towards the maximum or minimum voltage the
amplifier can generate.
Positive feedback
102
as a case where the "feed-back" action is positive in contrast to negative feed-back action, which they mention only
in passing. Harold Stephen Black's classic 1934 paper first details the use of negative feedback in electronic
amplifiers. According to Black:
"Positive feed-back increases the gain of the amplifier, negative feed-back reduces it."
According to Mindell (2002) confusion in the terms arose shortly after this:
"...Friis and Jensen had made the same distinction Black used between 'positive feed-back' and 'negative
feed-back', based not on the sign of the feedback itself but rather on its effect on the amplifiers gain. In
contrast, Nyquist and Bode, when they built on Blacks work, referred to negative feedback as that with
the sign reversed. Black had trouble convincing others of the utility of his invention in part because
confusion existed over basic matters of definition."(p121)
Examples and applications

In electronics
Regenerative circuits were invented and patented in 1914[4] for the
amplification and reception of very weak radio signals. Carefully
controlled positive feedback around a single transistor amplifier can
multiply its gain by 1,000 or more. Therefore a signal can be amplified
20,000 or even 100,000 times in one stage, that would normally have a
gain of only 20 to 50. The problem with regenerative amplifiers
working at these very high gains is that they easily become unstable
and start to oscillate. The radio operator has to be prepared to tweak
the amount of feedback fairly continuously for good reception. Modern
radio receivers use the superheterodyne design, with many more
amplification stages, but much more stable operation and no positive
feedback.
A vintage style regenerative radio receiver. Due

to the controlled use of positive feedback,
sufficient amplification can be derived from a
single vacuum tube or valve (centre).
The oscillation that can break out in a regenerative radio circuit is used
in electronic oscillators. By the use of tuned circuits or a piezoelectric crystal (commonly quartz), the signal that is
amplified by the positive feedback remains linear and sinusoidal. There are several designs for such harmonic
oscillators, including the Armstrong oscillator, Hartley oscillator, Colpitts oscillator, and the Wien bridge oscillator.
They all use positive feedback to create oscillations.
Many electronic circuits, especially amplifiers, incorporate negative feedback. This reduces their gain, but improves
their linearity, input impedance, output impedance, and bandwidth, and stabilises all of these parameters, including
the closed-loop gain. These parameters also become less dependent on the details of the amplifying device itself, and
more dependent on the feedback components, which are less likely to vary with manufacturing tolerance, age and
temperature. The difference between positive and negative feedback for AC signals is one of phase: if the signal is
fed back out of phase, the feedback is negative and if it is in phase the feedback is positive. One problem for
amplifier designers who use negative feedback is that some of the components of the circuit will introduce phase
shift in the feedback path. If there is a frequency (usually a high frequency) where the phase shift reaches 180, then
the designer must ensure that the amplifier gain at that frequency is very low (usually by low-pass filtering). If the
loop gain (the product of the amplifier gain and the extent of the positive feedback) at any frequency is greater than
one, then the amplifier will oscillate at that frequency (Barkhausen stability criterion). Such oscillations are
sometimes called parasitic oscillations. An amplifier that is stable in one set of conditions can break into parasitic
oscillation in another. This may be due to changes in temperature, supply voltage, adjustment of front-panel controls,
or even the proximity of a person or other conductive item. Amplifiers may oscillate gently in ways that are hard to
Positive feedback
103
detect without an oscilloscope, or the oscillations may be so extensive that only a very distorted or no required signal
at all gets through, or that damage occurs. Low frequency parasitic oscillations have been called 'motorboating' due
to the similarity to the sound of a low-revving exhaust note.
Digital electronic circuits are sometimes designed to benefit from
positive feedback. Normal logic gates usually rely simply on gain to
push digital signal voltages away from intermediate values to the
values that are meant to represent boolean '0' and '1'. When an input
voltage is expected to vary in an analogue way, but sharp thresholds
are required for later digital processing, the Schmitt trigger circuit uses
positive feedback to ensure that if the input voltage creeps gently
above the threshold, the output is forced smartly and rapidly from one
logic state to the other. One of the corollaries of the Schmitt trigger's
use of positive feedback is that, should the input voltage move gently
down again past the same threshold, the positive feedback will hold the
The effect of using a Schmitt trigger (B) instead
of a comparator (A)
output in the same state with no change. This effect is called hysteresis:
the input voltage has to drop past a different, lower threshold to
'un-latch' the output and reset it to its original digital value. By reducing the extent of the positive feedback, the
hysteresis-width can be reduced, but it can not entirely be eradicated. The Schmitt trigger is, to some extent, a
latching circuit.
An electronic flip-flop, or "latch", or "bistable multivibrator", is a
circuit that due to high positive feedback is not stable in a balanced or
intermediate state. Such a bistable circuit is the basis of one bit of
electronic memory. The flip-flop uses a pair of amplifiers, transistors,
or logic gates connected to each other so that positive feedback
maintains the state of the circuit in one of two unbalanced stable states
after the input signal has been removed, until a suitable alternative
signal is applied to change the state. Computer random access memory
(RAM) can be made in this way, with one latching circuit for each bit
of memory.
Illustration of an R-S ('reset-set') flip-flop made

from two digital nor gates with positive feedback.
Red and black mean logical '1' and '0',
respectively.
Thermal runaway occurs in electronic systems because some aspect of

a circuit is allowed to pass more current when it gets hotter, then the
hotter it gets, the more current it passes, which heats it some more and
so it passes yet more current. The effects are usually catastrophic for the device in question. If devices have to be
used near to their maximum power-handling capacity, and thermal runaway is possible or likely under certain
conditions, improvements can usually be achieved by careful design.
Positive feedback
A phonograph turntable is prone to acoustic

feedback
104
Audio and video systems can demonstrate positive feedback. If a
microphone picks up the amplified sound output of loudspeakers in the
same circuit, then howling and screeching sounds of audio feedback (at
up to the maximum power capacity of the amplifier) will be heard, as
random noise is re-amplified by positive feedback and filtered by the
characteristics of the audio system and the room. Microphones are not
the only transducers subject to this effect. Record deck pickup
cartridges can do the same, usually in the low frequency range below
about 100Hz, manifesting as a low rumble. Jimi Hendrix helped to
develop the controlled and musical use of audio feedback in electric
guitar playing, and later Brian May was a famous proponent of the
technique.
Similarly, if a video camera is pointed at a monitor screen that

is displaying the camera's own signal, then repeating patterns
can be formed on the screen by positive feedback. This video
feedback effect was used in the opening sequences to the first
ten series of the television program Doctor Who.
Switches
In electrical switches, including bimetallic strip based
thermostats, the switch usually has hysteresis in the switching
Video feedback.
action. In these cases hysteresis is mechanically achieved via
positive feedback within a tipping point mechanism. The
positive feedback action minimises the length of time arcing occurs for during the switching and also holds the
contacts in an open or closed state.
In biology
]
In physiology
A number of examples of positive feedback systems may be found in
physiology.
One example is the onset of contractions in childbirth, known as the
Ferguson reflex. When a contraction occurs, the hormone oxytocin
causes a nerve stimulus, which stimulates the hypothalamus to
produce more oxytocin, which increases uterine contractions. This
results in contractions increasing in amplitude and
frequency.[5](pp924925)
Positive feedback is a mechanism by which an

output is enhanced, such as protein levels.
However, in order to avoid any fluctuation in the
protein level, the mechanism is inhibited
stochastically (I), therefore when the
concentration of the activated protein (A) is past
the threshold ([I]), the loop mechanism is
activated and the concentration of A increases
exponentially if d[A]=k [A
Another example is the process of blood clotting. The loop is

initiated when injured tissue releases signal chemicals that activate
platelets in the blood. An activated platelet releases chemicals to activate more platelets, causing a rapid cascade
and the formation of a blood clot.(pp392394)
Lactation also involves positive feedback in that as the baby suckles on the nipple there is a nerve response into
the spinal cord and up into the hypothalamus of the brain, which then stimulates the pituitary gland to produce
more prolactin to produce more milk.(p926)
Positive feedback
105
A spike in estrogen during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle causes ovulation.(p907)
The generation of nerve signals is another example, in which the membrane of a nerve fibre causes slight leakage
of sodium ions through sodium channels, resulting in a change in the membrane potential, which in turn causes
more opening of channels, and so on. So a slight initial leakage results in an explosion of sodium leakage which
creates the nerve action potential.(p59)
In excitationcontraction coupling of the heart, an increase in intracellular calcium ions to the cardiac myocyte is
detected by ryanodine receptors in the membrane of the sarcoplasmic reticulum which transport calcium out into
the cytosol in a positive feedback physiological response.
In most cases, such feedback loops culminate in counter-signals being released that suppress or breaks the loop.
Childbirth contractions stop when the baby is out of the mother's body. Chemicals break down the blood clot.
Lactation stops when the baby no longer nurses.
In gene regulation
Positive feedback is a well studied phenomenon in gene regulation, where it is most often associated with bistability.
Positive feedback occurs when a gene activates itself directly or indirectly via a double negative feedback loop.
Genetic engineers have constructed and tested simple positive feedback networks in bacteria to demonstrate the
concept of bistability. A classic example of positive feedback is the lac operon in E. coli. Positive feedback plays an
integral role in cellular differentiation, development, and cancer progression, and therefore, positive feedback in gene
regulation can have significant physiological consequences. Random motions in molecular dynamics coupled with
positive feedback can trigger interesting effects, such as create population of phenotypically different cells from the
same parent cell. This happens because noise can become amplified by positive feedback. Positive feedback can also
occur in other forms of cell signaling, such as enzyme kinetics or metabolic pathways.
In evolutionary biology
Positive feedback loops have been used to describe aspects of the dynamics of change in biological evolution. For
example, beginning at the macro level, Alfred J. Lotka (1945) argued that the evolution of the species was most
essentially a matter of selection that fed back energy flows to capture more and more energy for use by living
systems. At the human level, Richard Alexander (1989) proposed that social competition between and within human
groups fed back to the selection of intelligence thus constantly producing more and more refined human intelligence.
Crespi (2004) discussed several other examples of positive feedback loops in evolution. The analogy of Evolutionary
arms races provide further examples of positive feedback in biological systems.
It has been shown that changes in
biodiversity through the Phanerozoic
correlate much better with hyperbolic model
(widely used in demography and
macrosociology) than with exponential and
logistic models (traditionally used in
population biology and extensively applied
to fossil biodiversity as well). The latter
models imply that changes in diversity are
guided by a first-order positive feedback
(more ancestors, more descendants) and/or a
negative feedback arising from resource
limitation. Hyperbolic model implies a
second-order positive feedback. The
During the Phanerozoic the biodiversity shows a steady but not monotonic increase
from near zero to several thousands of genera.
Positive feedback
hyperbolic pattern of the world population growth has been demonstrated (see below) to arise from a second-order
positive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth. The hyperbolic character of
biodiversity growth can be similarly accounted for by a positive feedback between the diversity and community
structure complexity. It has been suggested that the similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human
population probably comes from the fact that both are derived from the interference of the hyperbolic trend
(produced by the positive feedback) with cyclical and stochastic dynamics.[6]
Immune system
A cytokine storm, or hypercytokinemia is a potentially fatal immune reaction consisting of a positive feedback loop
between cytokines and immune cells, with highly elevated levels of various cytokines. In normal immune function,
positive feedback loops can be utilized to enhance the action of B lymphocytes. When a B cell binds its antibodies to
an antigen and becomes activated, it begins releasing antibodies and secreting a complement protein called C3. Both
C3 and a B cell's antibodies can bind to a pathogen, and when a B cell has its antibodies bind to a pathogen with C3,
it speeds up that B cell's secretion of more antibodies and more C3, thus creating a positive feedback loop.
In psychology
Winner (1996) described gifted children as driven by positive feedback loops involving setting their own learning
course, this feeding back satisfaction, thus further setting their learning goals to higher levels and so on. Winner
termed this positive feedback loop as a "rage to master." Vandervert (2009a, 2009b) proposed that the child prodigy
can be explained in terms of a positive feedback loop between the output of thinking/performing in working
memory, which then is fed to the cerebellum where it is streamlined, and then fed back to working memory thus
steadily increasing the quantitative and qualitative output of working memory. Vandervert also argued that this
working memory/cerebellar positive feedback loop was responsible for language evolution in working memory.
In economics
Systemic risk
Systemic risk is the risk that an amplification or leverage or positive feedback process is built into a system, this is
usually unknown, and under certain conditions this process can amplify exponentially and rapidly lead to destructive
or chaotic behavior. A Ponzi scheme is a good example of a positive-feedback system, because its output (profit) is
fed back to the input (new investors), causing rapid growth toward collapse. W. Brian Arthur has also studied and
written on positive feedback in the economy (e.g. W. Brian Arthur, 1990)[7]
Simple systems that clearly separate the inputs from the outputs are not prone to systemic risk. This risk is more
likely as the complexity of the system increases, because it becomes more difficult to see or analyze all the possible
combinations of variables in the system even under careful stress testing conditions. The more efficient a complex
system is, the more likely it is to be prone to systemic risks, because it takes only a small amount of deviation to
disrupt the system. Therefore well-designed complex systems generally have built-in features to avoid this condition,
such as a small amount of friction, or resistance, or inertia, or time delay to decouple the outputs from the inputs
within the system. These factors amount to an inefficiency, but they are necessary to avoid instabilities.
106
Positive feedback
Human population growth
Agriculture and human population can be considered to be in a positive feedback mode, which means that one drives
the other with increasing intensity. It is suggested that this positive feedback system will end sometime with a
catastrophe, as modern agriculture is using up all of the easily available phosphate and is resorting to highly efficient
monocultures which are more susceptible to systemic risk.
Technological innovation and human population can be similarly considered, and this has been offered as an
explanation for the apparent hyperbolic growth of the human population in the past, instead of a simpler exponential
growth.[8] It is proposed that the growth rate is accelerating because of second-order positive feedback between
population and technology.[9](p133160) Technological growth increases the carrying capacity of land for people,
which leads to more population, and so more potential inventors in further technological growth.(p146)
Prejudice, social institutions and poverty
Gunnar Myrdal described a vicious circle of increasing inequalities, and poverty, which is known as "circular
cumulative causation".
In meteorology
Drought intensifies through positive feedback. A lack of rain decreases soil moisture, which kills plants and/or
causes them to release less water through transpiration. Both factors limit evapotranspiration, the process by which
water vapor is added to the atmosphere from the surface, and add dry dust to the atmosphere, which absorbs water.
Less water vapor means both low dew point temperatures and more efficient daytime heating, decreasing the chances
of humidity in the atmosphere leading to cloud formation. Lastly, without clouds, there cannot be rain, and the loop
is complete.[citation needed]
In climatology
Climate "forcings" may push a climate system in the direction of warming or cooling,[10] for example, increased
atmospheric concentrations of greenhouse gases cause warming at the surface. Forcings are external to the climate
system and feedbacks are internal processes of the system. Some feedback mechanisms act in relative isolation to the
rest of the climate system while others are tightly coupled.[11] Forcings, feedbacks and the dynamics of the climate
system determine how much and how fast the climate changes. The main positive feedback in global warming is the
tendency of warming to increase the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere, which in turn leads to further
warming.[12] The main negative feedback comes from the StefanBoltzmann law, the amount of heat radiated from
the Earth into space is proportional to the fourth power of the temperature of Earth's surface and atmosphere.
Other examples of positive feedback subsystems in climatology include:
A warmer atmosphere will melt ice and this changes the albedo which further warms the atmosphere.
Methane hydrates can be unstable so that a warming ocean could release more methane, which is also a
greenhouse gas.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) Fourth Assessment Report states that "Anthropogenic
warming could lead to some effects that are abrupt or irreversible, depending upon the rate and magnitude of the
climate change."
107
Positive feedback
In sociology
A self-fulfilling prophecy is a social positive feedback loop between beliefs and behavior: if enough people believe
that something is true, their behavior can make it true, and observations of their behavior may in turn increase belief.
A classic example is a bank run.
Another sociological example of positive feedback is the network effect. When more people are encouraged to join a
network this increases the reach of the network therefore the network expands ever more quickly. A viral video is an
example of the network effect in which links to a popular video are shared and redistributed, ensuring that more
people see the video and then re-publish the links. This is the basis for many social phenomena, including Ponzi
schemes and chain letters. In many cases population size is the limiting factor to the feedback effect.
On the Internet
Internet recommendation systems are expected to increase the diversity of what we see and do online. They help us
discover new content and websites among myriad choices. Some recommendation systems, however, unintentionally
do the opposite. Because some recommendation systems (i.e. certain collaborative filters) recommend products
based on past sales or ratings, they cannot usually recommend products with limited historical data. This can create
positive feedback: a rich-get-richer effect for popular products. This bias toward popularity can prevent what are
otherwise better recommendations for that user's preferences. A Wharton study details this phenomenon along with
several ideas that may promote diversity.
Chemistry
If a chemical reaction causes the release of heat, and the reaction itself happens faster at higher temperatures, then
there is a high likelihood of positive feedback. If the heat produced is not removed from the reactants fast enough,
thermal runaway can occur and very quickly lead to a chemical explosion.
References
[1] Keesing, R.M. (1981). Cultural anthropology: A contemporary perspective (2nd ed.) p.149. Sydney: Holt, Rinehard & Winston, Inc.
[2] Electronics circuits and devices second edition. Ralph J. Smith
[3] Donella Meadows, Leverage Points: Places to Intervene in a System (http:/ / www. sustainabilityinstitute. org/ pubs/ Leverage_Points. pdf),
1999
[4] Armstrong, E. H., , Wireless receiving system, 1914.
[5] Guyton, Arthur C. (1991) Textbook of Medical Physiology. (8th ed). Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders. ISBN 0-7216-3994-1
[6] Markov A., Korotayev A. Phanerozoic marine biodiversity follows a hyperbolic trend // Palaeoworld. Volume 16, Issue 4, December 2007,
Pages 311-318 (http:/ / www. sciencedirect. com/ science?_ob=ArticleURL& _udi=B83WC-4N0HJMK-2& _user=10& _rdoc=1& _fmt=&
_orig=search& _sort=d& _docanchor=& view=c& _acct=C000050221& _version=1& _urlVersion=0& _userid=10&
md5=74a80d7c55ff987c9fc8d9c7963feab9); Markov A., Korotayev A. Hyperbolic growth of marine and continental biodiversity through the
Phanerozoic and community evolution // Journal of General Biology. Volume 69, 2008. N 3, pp. 175194 (http:/ / elementy. ru/ genbio/
abstracts?artid=177).
[7] W. Brian Arthur (February 1990). "Positive Feedbacks in the Economy". Scientific American, Vol 262. No.2, p.80
[8] B.M. Dolgonosov. "On the reasons of hyperbolic growth in the biological and human world systems" Institute of Water Problems, Russian
Academy of Sciences, Gubkina 3, Moscow 119991, Russia, March 2010. online (http:/ / dx. doi. org/ 10. 1016/ j. ecolmodel. 2010. 03. 028)
[9] Korotayev A. Compact Mathematical Models of World System Development, and How they can Help us to Clarify our Understanding of
Globalization Processes. Globalization as Evolutionary Process: Modeling Global Change. Edited by George Modelski, Tessaleno Devezas,
and William R. Thompson. London: Routledge, 2007. P. 133-160.
[10] , p.9. Also available as PDF (http:/ / nas-sites. org/ americasclimatechoices/ files/ 2012/ 06/ 19014_cvtx_R1. pdf)
[11] Understanding Climate Change Feedbacks, U.S. National Academy of Sciences (http:/ / www. nap. edu/ openbook. php?record_id=10850&
page=16)
[12] http:/ / www. ipcc. ch/ publications_and_data/ ar4/ wg1/ en/ ch8s8-6-3-1. html
108
Positive feedback
109
Further reading
Norbert Wiener (1948), Cybernetics or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine, Paris,
Hermann et Cie - MIT Press, Cambridge, MA.
Katie Salen and Eric Zimmerman. Rules of Play. MIT Press. 2004. ISBN 0-262-24045-9. Chapter 18: Games as
Cybernetic Systems.

In mechanics and physics, simple harmonic motion is a type of periodic motion where the restoring force is directly
proportional to the displacement. It can serve as a mathematical model of a variety of motions, such as the oscillation
of a spring. In addition, other phenomena can be approximated by simple harmonic motion, including the motion of
a simple pendulum as well as molecular vibration. Simple harmonic motion is typified by the motion of a mass on a
spring when it is subject to the linear elastic restoring force given by Hooke's Law. The motion is sinusoidal in time
and demonstrates a single resonant frequency. In order for simple harmonic motion to take place, the net force of the
object at the end of the pendulum must be proportional to the displacement.
Simple harmonic motion provides a basis for the characterization of more complicated motions through the
techniques of Fourier analysis.
Introduction
In the diagram a simple harmonic oscillator,
comprising a mass attached to one end of a
spring, is shown. The other end of the spring
is connected to a rigid support such as a
wall. If the system is left at rest at the
equilibrium position then there is no net
force acting on the mass. However, if the
mass is displaced from the equilibrium
position, a restoring elastic force which
obeys Hooke's law is exerted by the spring.
Mathematically, the restoring force F is
given by
where F is the restoring elastic force exerted

by the spring (in SI units: N), k is the spring
constant (Nm1), and x is the displacement
from the equilibrium position (in m).
Simple harmonic motion shown both in real space and phase space. The orbit is
periodic. (Here the velocity and position axes have been reversed from the standard
convention in order to align the two diagrams)
For any simple harmonic oscillator:

When the system is displaced from its equilibrium position, a restoring force which resembles Hooke's law tends
to restore the system to equilibrium.
Once the mass is displaced from its equilibrium position, it experiences a net restoring force. As a result, it
accelerates and starts going back to the equilibrium position. When the mass moves closer to the equilibrium
position, the restoring force decreases. At the equilibrium position, the net restoring force vanishes. However, at x =
0, the mass has momentum because of the impulse that the restoring force has imparted. Therefore, the mass

continues past the equilibrium position, compressing the spring. A net restoring force then tends to slow it down,
until its velocity reaches zero, whereby it will attempt to reach equilibrium position again.
As long as the system has no energy loss, the mass will continue to oscillate. Thus, simple harmonic motion is a type
of periodic motion.
Dynamics of simple harmonic motion

For one-dimensional simple harmonic motion, the equation of motion, which is a second-order linear ordinary
differential equation with constant coefficients, could be obtained by means of Newton's second law and Hooke's
law.
where m is the inertial mass of the oscillating body, x is its displacement from the equilibrium (or mean) position,
and k is the spring constant.
Therefore,
Solving the differential equation above, a solution which is a sinusoidal function is obtained.
where
In the solution, c1 and c2 are two constants determined by the initial conditions, and the origin is set to be the
equilibrium position.[A] Each of these constants carries a physical meaning of the motion: A is the amplitude
(maximum displacement from the equilibrium position), = 2f is the angular frequency, and is the phase.[B]
Using the techniques of differential calculus, the velocity and acceleration as a function of time can be found:
Speed = w.sqrt(A^2 - x^2) Maximum speed = wA (at equilibrium point)
Maximum acceleration = omega^2.A (at extreme points)

Acceleration can also be expressed as a function of displacement:
Then since = 2f,
and since T = 1/f where T is the time period,
110
111
These equations demonstrate that the simple harmonic motion is isochronous (the period and frequency are
independent of the amplitude and the initial phase of the motion).
Energy of simple harmonic motion

The kinetic energy K of the system at time t is
and the potential energy is
The total mechanical energy of the system therefore has the constant value
Examples
The following physical systems are some examples of simple harmonic
oscillator.
Mass on a spring
A mass m attached to a spring of spring constant k exhibits simple
harmonic motion in closed space. The equation
shows that the period of oscillation is independent of both the amplitude

and gravitational acceleration
Uniform circular motion

Simple harmonic motion can in some cases be considered to be the
one-dimensional projection of uniform circular motion. If an object
moves with angular speed around a circle of radius r centered at the
origin of the x-y plane, then its motion along each coordinate is simple
harmonic motion with amplitude r and angular frequency .
An undamped springmass system undergoes

simple harmonic motion.
112
Mass on a simple pendulum

In the small-angle approximation, the motion of a simple pendulum is approximated
by simple harmonic motion. The period of a mass attached to a pendulum of length
with gravitational acceleration g is given by
This shows that the period of oscillation is independent of the amplitude and mass of
the pendulum but not the acceleration due to gravity (g), therefore a pendulum of the
same length on the Moon would swing more slowly due to the Moon's lower
gravitational field strength.
This approximation is accurate only in small angles because of the expression for
angular acceleration being proportional to the sine of position:
where I is the moment of inertia. When is small, sin and therefore the
expression becomes
which makes angular acceleration directly proportional to , satisfying the definition

of simple harmonic motion.
Notes
A. ^ The choice of using a cosine in this equation is arbitrary. Other valid
formulations are:
,
where
The motion of an undamped

Pendulum approximates to
simple harmonic motion if the
amplitude is very small relative
to the length of the rod.
,
since cos = sin( + /2).
B. ^ The maximum displacement (that is, the amplitude), xmax, occurs when cos(t + )or (t - ) = 1, and thus
when xmax = A.
References
Walker, Jearl (2011). Principles of Physics (9th ed.). Hoboken, N.J. : Wiley. ISBN0-470-56158-0.
Thornton, Stephen T.; Marion, Jerry B. (2003). Classical Dynamics of Particles and Systems (5th ed.). Brooks
Cole. ISBN0-534-40896-6.
John R Taylor (2005). Classical Mechanics. University Science Books. ISBN1-891389-22-X.
Grant R. Fowles, George L. Cassiday (2005). Analytical Mechanics (7th ed.). Thomson Brooks/Cole.
ISBN0-534-49492-7.
113
External links
Simple Harmonic Motion [1] from HyperPhysics
Java simulation of spring-mass oscillator [2]
References
[1] http:/ / hyperphysics. phy-astr. gsu. edu/ hbase/ shm. html
[2] http:/ / www. phy. hk/ wiki/ englishhtm/ SpringSHM. htm
Q factor
In physics and engineering the quality
factor or Q factor is a dimensionless
parameter
that
describes
how
under-damped
an
oscillator
or
resonator
is,
or
equivalently,
characterizes a resonator's bandwidth
relative to its center frequency. Higher
Q indicates a lower rate of energy loss
relative to the stored energy of the
resonator; the oscillations die out more
slowly. A pendulum suspended from a
high-quality bearing, oscillating in air,
has a high Q, while a pendulum
immersed in oil has a low one.
Resonators with high quality factors
have low damping so that they ring
longer.
The bandwidth,
, or f1 to f2, of a damped oscillator is shown on a graph of energy
versus frequency. The Q factor of the damped oscillator, or filter, is
. The
higher the Q, the narrower and 'sharper' the peak is.
Explanation
Sinusoidally driven resonators having higher Q factors resonate with greater amplitudes (at the resonant frequency)
but have a smaller range of frequencies around that frequency for which they resonate; the range of frequencies for
which the oscillator resonates is called the bandwidth. Thus, a high-Q tuned circuit in a radio receiver would be more
difficult to tune, but would have more selectivity; it would do a better job of filtering out signals from other stations
that lie nearby on the spectrum. High-Q oscillators oscillate with a smaller range of frequencies and are more stable.
(See oscillator phase noise.)
The quality factor of oscillators varies substantially from system to system. Systems for which damping is important
(such as dampers keeping a door from slamming shut) have Q near . Clocks, lasers, and other resonating systems
that need either strong resonance or high frequency stability have high quality factors. Tuning forks have quality
factors around 1000. The quality factor of atomic clocks, superconducting RF cavities used in accelerators, and some
high-Q lasers can reach as high as 1011[1] and higher.[2]
There are many alternative quantities used by physicists and engineers to describe how damped an oscillator is.
Important examples include: the damping ratio, relative bandwidth, linewidth and bandwidth measured in octaves.
The concept of "Q" originated with K.S. Johnson of Western Electric Company's Engineering Department while
evaluating the quality of coils (inductors). His choice of the symbol Q was only because all other letters of the
Q factor
alphabet were taken. The term was not intended as an abbreviation for "quality" or "quality factor", although these
terms have grown to be associated with it.[3][4]
Definition of the quality factor

In the context of resonators, Q is defined in terms of the ratio of the energy stored in the resonator to the energy
supplied by a generator, per cycle, to keep signal amplitude constant, at a frequency (the resonant frequency), fr,
where the stored energy is constant with time:
The factor 2 makes Q expressible in simpler terms, involving only the coefficients of the second-order differential
equation describing most resonant systems, electrical or mechanical. In electrical systems, the stored energy is the
sum of energies stored in lossless inductors and capacitors; the lost energy is the sum of the energies dissipated in
resistors per cycle. In mechanical systems, the stored energy is the maximum possible stored energy, or the total
energy, i.e. the sum of the potential and kinetic energies at some point in time; the lost energy is the work done by an
external conservative force, per cycle, to maintain amplitude.
For high values of Q, the following definition is also mathematically accurate:
where fr is the resonant frequency, f is the half-power bandwidth i.e. the bandwidth over which the power of
vibration is greater than half the power at the resonant frequency, r=2fr is the angular resonant frequency, and
is the angular half-power bandwidth.
More generally and in the context of reactive component specification (especially inductors), the
frequency-dependent definition of Q is used:
where is the angular frequency at which the stored energy and power loss are measured. This definition is
consistent with its usage in describing circuits with a single reactive element (capacitor or inductor), where it can be
shown to be equal to the ratio of reactive power to real power. (See Individual reactive components.)
Q factor and damping

The Q factor determines the qualitative behavior of simple damped oscillators. (For mathematical details about these
systems and their behavior see harmonic oscillator and linear time invariant (LTI) system.)
A system with low quality factor (Q < ) is said to be overdamped. Such a system doesn't oscillate at all, but
when displaced from its equilibrium steady-state output it returns to it by exponential decay, approaching the
steady state value asymptotically. It has an impulse response that is the sum of two decaying exponential
functions with different rates of decay. As the quality factor decreases the slower decay mode becomes stronger
relative to the faster mode and dominates the system's response resulting in a slower system. A second-order
low-pass filter with a very low quality factor has a nearly first-order step response; the system's output responds to
a step input by slowly rising toward an asymptote.
A system with high quality factor (Q > ) is said to be underdamped. Underdamped systems combine
oscillation at a specific frequency with a decay of the amplitude of the signal. Underdamped systems with a low
quality factor (a little above Q = ) may oscillate only once or a few times before dying out. As the quality factor
increases, the relative amount of damping decreases. A high-quality bell rings with a single pure tone for a very
long time after being struck. A purely oscillatory system, such as a bell that rings forever, has an infinite quality
factor. More generally, the output of a second-order low-pass filter with a very high quality factor responds to a
114
Q factor
115
step input by quickly rising above, oscillating around, and eventually converging to a steady-state value.
A system with an intermediate quality factor (Q = ) is said to be critically damped. Like an overdamped
system, the output does not oscillate, and does not overshoot its steady-state output (i.e., it approaches a
steady-state asymptote). Like an underdamped response, the output of such a system responds quickly to a unit
step input. Critical damping results in the fastest response (approach to the final value) possible without
overshoot. Real system specifications usually allow some overshoot for a faster initial response or require a
slower initial response to provide a safety margin against overshoot.
In negative feedback systems, the dominant closed-loop response is often well-modeled by a second-order system.
The phase margin of the open-loop system sets the quality factor Q of the closed-loop system; as the phase margin
decreases, the approximate second-order closed-loop system is made more oscillatory (i.e., has a higher quality
factor).
Quality factors of common systems

A unity gain SallenKey filter topology with equivalent capacitors and equivalent resistors is critically damped
(i.e.,
).[citation needed]
A second order Butterworth filter (i.e., continuous-time filter with the flattest passband frequency response) has
an underdamped
.[5]
A Bessel filter (i.e., continuous-time filter with flattest group delay) has an underdamped
.[citation
needed]
Physical interpretation of Q
Physically speaking, Q is
times the ratio of the total energy stored divided by the energy lost in a single cycle or
equivalently the ratio of the stored energy to the energy dissipated over one radian of the oscillation.
It is a dimensionless parameter that compares the exponential time constant for decay of an oscillating physical
system's amplitude to its oscillation period. Equivalently, it compares the frequency at which a system oscillates to
the rate at which it dissipates its energy.
Equivalently (for large values of Q), the Q factor is approximately the number of oscillations required for a freely
oscillating system's energy to fall off to
, or about 1/535 or 0.2%, of its original energy.[6]
The width (bandwidth) of the resonance is given by
,
where
is the resonant frequency, and
, the bandwidth, is the width of the range of frequencies for which the
energy is at least half its peak value.

The resonant frequency is often expressed in natural units (radians per second), rather than using the
.
The factors Q, damping ratio , attenuation rate , and exponential time constant are related such that:
and the damping ratio can be expressed as:
The envelope of oscillation decays proportional to
or
, where and can be expressed as:
in hertz, as
Q factor
116
and
.
The energy of oscillation, or the power dissipation, decays twice as fast, that is, as the square of the amplitude, as
or
.
For a two-pole lowpass filter, the transfer function of the filter is
For this system, when

each have a real part of
(i.e., when the system is underdamped), it has two complex conjugate poles that
. That is, the attenuation parameter
represents the rate of exponential decay of the
oscillations (that is, of the output after an impulse) into the system. A higher quality factor implies a lower
attenuation rate, and so high-Q systems oscillate for many cycles. For example, high-quality bells have an
approximately pure sinusoidal tone for a long time after being struck by a hammer.
Filter type (2nd order)
Lowpass
Bandpass
Notch
Highpass
Electrical systems
[7]
Transfer function
Q factor
117
For an electrically resonant system, the

Q factor represents the effect of
electrical
resistance
and,
for
electromechanical resonators such as
quartz crystals, mechanical friction.
RLC circuits
In an ideal series RLC circuit, and in a
tuned radio frequency receiver (TRF)
the Q factor is:
,
where
and
are
the
resistance, inductance and capacitance

of the tuned circuit, respectively. The
larger the series resistance, the lower
the circuit Q.
A graph of a filter's gain magnitude, illustrating the concept of -3 dB at a voltage gain of

0.707 or half-power bandwidth. The frequency axis of this symbolic diagram can be
linear or logarithmically scaled.
For a parallel RLC circuit, the Q factor is the inverse of the series case:[8]
,
Consider a circuit where R, L and C are all in parallel. The lower the parallel resistance, the more effect it will have
in damping the circuit and thus the lower the Q. This is useful in filter design to determine the bandwidth.
In a parallel LC circuit where the main loss is the resistance of the inductor, R, in series with the inductance, L, Q is
as in the series circuit. This is a common circumstance for resonators, where limiting the resistance of the inductor to
improve Q and narrow the bandwidth is the desired result.
Individual reactive components

The Q of an individual reactive component depends on the frequency at which it is evaluated, which is typically the
resonant frequency of the circuit that it is used in. The Q of an inductor with a series loss resistance is by convention
defined to be the Q of a resonant circuit consisting of that inductor (with its series loss) in parallel with a perfect
capacitor.
Where:
is the resonance frequency in radians per second,

is the inductance,
is the inductive reactance, and
is the series resistance of the inductor.
It should be noted that this standard definition of Q for an inductor (where the inductor is part of a resonant tank
circuit) is twice what it would be if the inductor were treated as an isolated inductor (with loss).
The Q of a capacitor with a series loss resistance is the same as the Q of a resonant circuit using that capacitor with a
perfect inductor:
Q factor
118
Where:
is the resonance frequency in radians per second,

is the capacitance,
is the capacitive reactance, and

is the series resistance of the capacitor.
In general, the Q of a resonator involving a series combination of a capacitor and an inductor can be determined from
the Q values of the components, whether their losses come from series resistance or otherwise:
Mechanical systems
For a single damped mass-spring system, the Q factor represents the effect of simplified viscous damping or drag,
where the damping force or drag force is proportional to velocity. The formula for the Q factor is:
where M is the mass, k is the spring constant, and D is the damping coefficient, defined by the equation
, where is the velocity.[9]
Optical systems
In optics, the Q factor of a resonant cavity is given by
where
is the resonant frequency,
is the stored energy in the cavity, and
is the power dissipated.
The optical Q is equal to the ratio of the resonant frequency to the bandwidth of the cavity resonance. The average
lifetime of a resonant photon in the cavity is proportional to the cavity's Q. If the Q factor of a laser's cavity is
abruptly changed from a low value to a high one, the laser will emit a pulse of light that is much more intense than
the laser's normal continuous output. This technique is known as Q-switching.
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology:Q factor (http:/ / www. rp-photonics. com/ q_factor. html)
Time and Frequency from A to Z: Q to Ra (http:/ / tf. nist. gov/ general/ enc-q. htm)
http:/ / www. collinsaudio. com/ Prosound_Workshop/ The_story_of_Q. pdf
B. Jeffreys, Q.Jl R. astr. Soc. (1985) 26, 51-52
http:/ / opencourseware. kfupm. edu. sa/ colleges/ ces/ ee/ ee303/ files%5C5-Projects_Sample_Project3. pdf
, Ch.2
Chapter 8 Analog Filters Analog Devices (http:/ / www. analog. com/ library/ analogdialogue/ archives/ 43-09/ edch 8 filter. pdf)
Series and Parallel Resonance (http:/ / fourier. eng. hmc. edu/ e84/ lectures/ ch3/ node8. html)
Methods of Experimental Physics Lecture 5: Fourier Transforms and Differential Equations (http:/ / units. physics. uwa. edu. au/ __data/
page/ 115450/ lecture5_(amplifier_noise_etc). pdf)
Q factor
119
Further reading
Agarwal, Anant; Lang, Jeffrey (2005). Foundations of Analog and Digital Electronic Circuits (http://books.
google.com/books?id=83onAAAACAAJ&dq=intitle:"Foundations+of+Analog+and+Digital+Electronic+
Circuits"). Morgan Kaufmann. ISBN1-55860-735-8.
External links
Calculating the cut-off frequencies when center frequency and Q factor is given (http://www.sengpielaudio.
com/calculator-cutoffFrequencies.htm)
Explanation of Q factor in radio tuning circuits (http://www.techlib.com/reference/q.htm)
Vibration
Classical
mechanics
History
Timeline
v
t
e [1]
Vibration is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may
be periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a gravel road.
Vibration is occasionally "desirable". For example the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a woodwind instrument or
harmonica, or mobile phones or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration, necessary for the correct
functioning of the various devices.
More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound noise. For example, the
vibrational motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical device in operation are typically unwanted. Such
vibrations can be caused by imbalances in the rotating parts, uneven friction, the meshing of gear teeth, etc. Careful
designs usually minimize unwanted vibrations.
The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, or "pressure waves", are generated by vibrating
structures (e.g. vocal cords); these pressure waves can also induce the vibration of structures (e.g. ear drum). Hence,
when trying to reduce noise it is often a problem in trying to reduce vibration.
Vibration
120
Types of vibration
Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set off with an
initial input and then allowed to vibrate freely. Examples of this type of
vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and then letting go or
hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring. The mechanical system will
then vibrate at one or more of its "natural frequency" and damp down
to zero.
One of the possible modes of vibration of a

circular drum (see other modes).
Forced vibration is when a time-varying disturbance (load,

displacement or velocity) is applied to a mechanical system. The
disturbance can be a periodic, steady-state input, a transient input, or a
random input. The periodic input can be a harmonic or a non-harmonic
disturbance. Examples of these types of vibration include a shaking
washing machine due to an imbalance, transportation vibration (caused
by truck engine, springs, road, etc.), or the vibration of a building
during an earthquake. For linear systems, the frequency of the
steady-state vibration response resulting from the application of a
periodic, harmonic input is equal to the frequency of the applied force
or motion, with the response magnitude being dependent on the actual
mechanical system.
Vibration testing
Vibration testing is accomplished by introducing a forcing function
Car Suspension: designing vibration control is
into a structure, usually with some type of shaker.[1] Alternately, a
undertaken as part of acoustic, automotive or
DUT (device under test) is attached to the "table" of a shaker.
mechanical engineering.
Vibration testing is performed to examine the response of a device
under test (DUT) to a defined vibration environment. The measured response may be fatigue life, resonant
frequencies or squeak and rattle sound output (NVH). Squeak and rattle testing is performed with a special type of
quiet shaker that produces very low sound levels while under operation.
For relatively low frequency forcing, servohydraulic (electrohydraulic) shakers are used. For higher frequencies,
electrodynamic shakers are used. Generally, one or more "input" or "control" points located on the DUT-side of a
fixture is kept at a specified acceleration.[2] Other "response" points experience maximum vibration level (resonance)
or minimum vibration level (anti-resonance). It is often desirable to achieve anti-resonance in order to keep a system
from becoming too noisy, or to reduce strain on certain parts of a system due to vibration modes caused by specific
frequencies of vibration.
The most common types of vibration testing services conducted by vibration test labs are Sinusoidal and Random.[3]
Sine (one-frequency-at-a-time) tests are performed to survey the structural response of the device under test (DUT).
A random (all frequencies at once) test is generally considered to more closely replicate a real world environment,
such as road inputs to a moving automobile.
Most vibration testing is conducted in a 'single DUT axis' at a time, even though most real-world vibration occurs in
various axes simultaneously. MIL-STD-810G, released in late 2008, Test Method 527, calls for multiple exciter
testing. The vibration test fixture which is used to attach the DUT to the shaker table must be designed for the
frequency range of the vibration test spectrum. Generally for smaller fixtures and lower frequency ranges, the
designer targets a fixture design which is free of resonances in the test frequency range. This becomes more difficult
Vibration
as the DUT gets larger and as the test frequency increases, and in these cases multi-point control strategies can be
employed to mitigate some of the resonances which may be present in the future.
Devices specifically designed to trace or record vibrations are called vibroscopes.
Vibration analysis
The fundamentals of vibration analysis can be understood by studying the simple massspringdamper model.
Indeed, even a complex structure such as an automobile body can be modeled as a "summation" of simple
massspringdamper models. The massspringdamper model is an example of a simple harmonic oscillator. The
mathematics used to describe its behavior is identical to other simple harmonic oscillators such as the RLC circuit.
Note: In this article the step by step mathematical derivations will not be included, but will focus on the major
equations and concepts in vibration analysis. Please refer to the references at the end of the article for detailed
derivations.
Vibration Limits for Machinery

General machinery severity chart
ACCELERATION
FREQUENCY 18,000 to 600,000 Cycles per Minute
300 to 10,000Hz, Cycles per Second
RATINGS vary from EXTREMELY SMOOTH to VERY ROUGH.
General vibration acceleration severity chart
ACCELERATION
FREQUENCY 100 to 10,000 Cycles per Minute
1.7 to 167Hz, Cycles per Second
RATINGS vary from EXTREMELY SMOOTH to VERY ROUGH.
Displacement of vibrations for machine tools.
TOLERANCE RANGE in mils by type of tool.,,[4][5][6]
Free vibration without damping

To start the investigation of the massspringdamper assume the
damping is negligible and that there is no external force applied to
the mass (i.e. free vibration). The force applied to the mass by the
spring is proportional to the amount the spring is stretched "x" (we
will assume the spring is already compressed due to the weight of
the mass). The proportionality constant, k, is the stiffness of the
spring and has units of force/distance (e.g. lbf/in or N/m). The
negative sign indicates that the force is always opposing the
motion of the mass attached to it:
The force generated by the mass is proportional to the acceleration of the mass as given by Newtons second law of
motion :
121
Vibration
122
The sum of the forces on the mass then generates this ordinary differential equation:
Assuming that the initiation of vibration begins by stretching the spring by the distance
of A and releasing, the solution to the above equation that describes the motion of mass
is:
This solution says that it will oscillate with simple harmonic motion that has an
amplitude of A and a frequency of fn. The number fn is called the undamped natural
frequency. For the simple massspring system, fn is defined as:
Note: angular frequency (=2 f) with the units of radians per second is often used in
equations because it simplifies the equations, but is normally converted to standard
frequency (units of Hz or equivalently cycles per second) when stating the frequency of a
system. If the mass and stiffness of the system is known the frequency at which the
system will vibrate once it is set in motion by an initial disturbance can be determined
using the above stated formula. Every vibrating system has one or more natural
frequencies that it will vibrate at once it is disturbed. This simple relation can be used to
understand in general what will happen to a more complex system once we add mass or
stiffness. For example, the above formula explains why when a car or truck is fully
loaded the suspension will feel softer than unloaded because the mass has increased
and therefore reduced the natural frequency of the system.
Simple harmonic motion of

the massspring system
What causes the system to vibrate: from conservation of energy point of view
Vibrational motion could be understood in terms of conservation of energy. In the above example the spring has
been extended by a value of x and therefore some potential energy (
) is stored in the spring. Once released,
the spring tends to return to its un-stretched state (which is the minimum potential energy state) and in the process
accelerates the mass. At the point where the spring has reached its un-stretched state all the potential energy that we
supplied by stretching it has been transformed into kinetic energy (
). The mass then begins to decelerate
because it is now compressing the spring and in the process transferring the kinetic energy back to its potential. Thus
oscillation of the spring amounts to the transferring back and forth of the kinetic energy into potential energy. In this
simple model the mass will continue to oscillate forever at the same magnitude, but in a real system there is always
damping that dissipates the energy, eventually bringing it to rest.
Vibration
123
Free vibration with damping

When a "viscous" damper is added to the model that outputs a force
that is proportional to the velocity of the mass. The damping is called
viscous because it models the effects of a fluid within an object. The
proportionality constant c is called the damping coefficient and has
units of Force over velocity (lbf s/ in or N s/m).
Summing the forces on the mass results in the following ordinary

differential equation:
Mass Spring Damper Model
The solution to this equation depends on the amount of damping. If the damping is small enough the system will still
vibrate, but eventually, over time, will stop vibrating. This case is called underdamping this case is of most interest
in vibration analysis. If the damping is increased just to the point where the system no longer oscillates the point of
critical damping is reached (if the damping is increased past critical damping the system is called overdamped). The
value that the damping coefficient needs to reach for critical damping in the mass spring damper model is:
To characterize the amount of damping in a system a ratio called the damping ratio (also known as damping factor
and % critical damping) is used. This damping ratio is just a ratio of the actual damping over the amount of damping
required to reach critical damping. The formula for the damping ratio ( ) of the mass spring damper model is:
For example, metal structures (e.g. airplane fuselage, engine crankshaft) will have damping factors less than 0.05
while automotive suspensions in the range of 0.20.3.
The solution to the underdamped system for the mass spring damper model is the following:
The value of X, the initial magnitude, and
the phase shift, are
determined by the amount the spring is stretched. The formulas for

these values can be found in the references.
Damped and undamped natural frequencies
The major points to note from the solution are the exponential term and
the cosine function. The exponential term defines how quickly the
system damps down the larger the damping ratio, the quicker it
damps to zero. The cosine function is the oscillating portion of the
solution, but the frequency of the oscillations is different from the
undamped case.
The frequency in this case is called the "damped natural frequency",
and is related to the undamped natural frequency by the following
formula:
Free vibration with 0.1 and 0.3 damping ratio
Vibration
124
The damped natural frequency is less than the undamped natural frequency, but for many practical cases the
damping ratio is relatively small and hence the difference is negligible. Therefore the damped and undamped
description are often dropped when stating the natural frequency (e.g. with 0.1 damping ratio, the damped natural
frequency is only 1% less than the undamped).
The plots to the side present how 0.1 and 0.3 damping ratios effect how the system will ring down over time. What
is often done in practice is to experimentally measure the free vibration after an impact (for example by a hammer)
and then determine the natural frequency of the system by measuring the rate of oscillation as well as the damping
ratio by measuring the rate of decay. The natural frequency and damping ratio are not only important in free
vibration, but also characterize how a system will behave under forced vibration.
Forced vibration with damping

The behavior of the spring mass damper model varies with the addition of a harmonic force. A force of this type
could, for example, be generated by a rotating imbalance.
Summing the forces on the mass results in the following ordinary differential equation:
The steady state solution of this problem can be written as:
The result states that the mass will oscillate at the same frequency, f, of the applied force, but with a phase shift
The amplitude of the vibration X is defined by the following formula.
Where r is defined as the ratio of the harmonic force frequency over the undamped natural frequency of the
massspringdamper model.
The phase shift,
is defined by the following formula.
The plot of these functions, called "the frequency response of the system", presents one of the most important
features in forced vibration. In a lightly damped system when the forcing frequency nears the natural frequency (
) the amplitude of the vibration can get extremely high. This phenomenon is called resonance (subsequently
Vibration
125
the natural frequency of a system is often referred to as the resonant frequency). In rotor bearing systems any
rotational speed that excites a resonant frequency is referred to as a critical speed.
If resonance occurs in a mechanical system it can be very harmful leading to eventual failure of the system.
Consequently, one of the major reasons for vibration analysis is to predict when this type of resonance may occur
and then to determine what steps to take to prevent it from occurring. As the amplitude plot shows, adding damping
can significantly reduce the magnitude of the vibration. Also, the magnitude can be reduced if the natural frequency
can be shifted away from the forcing frequency by changing the stiffness or mass of the system. If the system cannot
be changed, perhaps the forcing frequency can be shifted (for example, changing the speed of the machine
generating the force).
The following are some other points in regards to the forced vibration shown in the frequency response plots.
At a given frequency ratio, the amplitude of the vibration, X, is directly proportional to the amplitude of the force
(e.g. if you double the force, the vibration doubles)
With little or no damping, the vibration is in phase with the forcing frequency when the frequency ratio r<1 and
180 degrees out of phase when the frequency ratio r>1
When r1 the amplitude is just the deflection of the spring under the static force
This deflection is called
the static deflection

Hence, when r1 the effects of the damper and the mass are minimal.
When r1 the amplitude of the vibration is actually less than the static deflection
In this region the force
generated by the mass (F=ma) is dominating because the acceleration seen by the mass increases with the
frequency. Since the deflection seen in the spring, X, is reduced in this region, the force transmitted by the spring
(F=kx) to the base is reduced. Therefore the massspringdamper system is isolating the harmonic force from
the mounting base referred to as vibration isolation. Interestingly, more damping actually reduces the effects of
vibration isolation when r1 because the damping force (F=cv) is also transmitted to the base.
whatever the damping is, the vibration is 90 degrees out of phase with the forcing frequency when the frequency
ratio r =1, which is very helpful when it comes to determining the natural frequency of the system.
whatever the damping is, when r 1, the vibration is 180 degrees out of phase with the forcing frequency
whatever the damping is, when r 1, the vibration is in phase with the forcing frequency
What causes resonance?
Resonance is simple to understand if the spring and mass are viewed as energy storage elements with the mass
storing kinetic energy and the spring storing potential energy. As discussed earlier, when the mass and spring have
no external force acting on them they transfer energy back and forth at a rate equal to the natural frequency. In other
words, if energy is to be efficiently pumped into both the mass and spring the energy source needs to feed the energy
in at a rate equal to the natural frequency. Applying a force to the mass and spring is similar to pushing a child on
swing, a push is needed at the correct moment to make the swing get higher and higher. As in the case of the swing,
the force applied does not necessarily have to be high to get large motions; the pushes just need to keep adding
energy into the system.
The damper, instead of storing energy, dissipates energy. Since the damping force is proportional to the velocity, the
more the motion, the more the damper dissipates the energy. Therefore a point will come when the energy dissipated
by the damper will equal the energy being fed in by the force. At this point, the system has reached its maximum
amplitude and will continue to vibrate at this level as long as the force applied stays the same. If no damping exists,
there is nothing to dissipate the energy and therefore theoretically the motion will continue to grow on into infinity.
Vibration
126
Applying "complex" forces to the massspringdamper model

In a previous section only a simple harmonic force was applied to the model, but this can be extended considerably
using two powerful mathematical tools. The first is the Fourier transform that takes a signal as a function of time
(time domain) and breaks it down into its harmonic components as a function of frequency (frequency domain). For
example, by applying a force to the massspringdamper model that repeats the following cycle a force equal to
1newton for 0.5second and then no force for 0.5second. This type of force has the shape of a 1Hz square wave.
The Fourier transform of the square wave
generates a frequency spectrum that presents
the magnitude of the harmonics that make
up the square wave (the phase is also
generated, but is typically of less concern
and therefore is often not plotted). The
Fourier transform can also be used to
analyze non-periodic functions such as
transients (e.g. impulses) and random
functions. The Fourier transform is almost
always computed using the Fast Fourier
Transform (FFT) computer algorithm in
combination with a window function.
In the case of our square wave force, the
first component is actually a constant force
of 0.5 newton and is represented by a value
at "0" Hz in the frequency spectrum. The
next component is a 1Hz sine wave with an
How a 1 Hz square wave can be represented as a summation of sine
amplitude of 0.64. This is shown by the line
waves(harmonics) and the corresponding frequency spectrum. Click and go to full
at 1Hz. The remaining components are at
resolution for an animation
odd frequencies and it takes an infinite
amount of sine waves to generate the perfect
square wave. Hence, the Fourier transform allows you to interpret the force as a sum of sinusoidal forces being
applied instead of a more "complex" force (e.g. a square wave).
In the previous section, the vibration solution was given for a single harmonic force, but the Fourier transform will in
general give multiple harmonic forces. The second mathematical tool, "the principle of superposition", allows the
summation of the solutions from multiple forces if the system is linear. In the case of the springmassdamper
model, the system is linear if the spring force is proportional to the displacement and the damping is proportional to
the velocity over the range of motion of interest. Hence, the solution to the problem with a square wave is summing
the predicted vibration from each one of the harmonic forces found in the frequency spectrum of the square wave.
Frequency response model
The solution of a vibration problem can be viewed as an input/output relation where the force is the input and the
output is the vibration. Representing the force and vibration in the frequency domain (magnitude and phase) allows
the following relation:
is called the frequency response function (also referred to as the transfer function, but not technically as
accurate) and has both a magnitude and phase component (if represented as a complex number, a real and imaginary
component). The magnitude of the frequency response function (FRF) was presented earlier for the
Vibration
127
massspringdamper system.
where
The phase of the FRF was also presented earlier as:
For example, calculating the FRF for a massspringdamper system with a mass of 1kg, spring stiffness of
1.93N/mm and a damping ratio of 0.1. The values of the spring and mass give a natural frequency of 7Hz for this
specific system. Applying the 1Hz square wave from earlier allows the calculation of the predicted vibration of the
mass. The figure illustrates the resulting vibration. It happens in this example that the fourth harmonic of the square
wave falls at 7Hz. The frequency response of the massspringdamper therefore outputs a high 7Hz vibration even
though the input force had a relatively low 7Hz harmonic. This example highlights that the resulting vibration is
dependent on both the forcing function and the system that the force is applied to.
The figure also shows the time domain
representation of the resulting vibration.
This is done by performing an inverse
Fourier Transform that converts frequency
domain data to time domain. In practice, this
is rarely done because the frequency
spectrum provides all the necessary
information.
The frequency response function (FRF) does
not necessarily have to be calculated from
the knowledge of the mass, damping, and
Frequency response model
stiffness of the system, but can be measured
experimentally. For example, if a known force is applied and sweep the frequency and then measure the resulting
vibration the frequency response function can be calculated and the system characterized. This technique is used in
the field of experimental modal analysis to determine the vibration characteristics of a structure.
Multiple degrees of freedom systems and mode shapes

The simple massspring damper model is the foundation of vibration analysis, but what about more complex
systems? The massspringdamper model described above is called a single degree of freedom (SDOF) model since
the mass is assumed to only move up and down. In the case of more complex systems the system must be discretized
into more masses which are allowed to move in more than one direction adding degrees of freedom. The major
concepts of multiple degrees of freedom (MDOF) can be understood by looking at just a 2 degree of freedom model
as shown in the figure.
Vibration
128
The equations of motion of the 2DOF

system are found to be:
This can be rewritten in matrix format:
2 degree of freedom model
A more compact form of this matrix equation can be written as:
where
and
are symmetric matrices referred respectively as the mass, damping, and stiffness
matrices. The matrices are NxN square matrices where N is the number of degrees of freedom of the system.
In the following analysis involves the case where there is no damping and no applied forces (i.e. free vibration). The
solution of a viscously damped system is somewhat more complicated.[7]
This differential equation can be solved by assuming the following type of solution:
Note: Using the exponential solution of
is a mathematical trick used to solve linear differential equations.
Using Euler's formula and taking only the real part of the solution it is the same cosine solution for the 1 DOF
system. The exponential solution is only used because it easier to manipulate mathematically.
The equation then becomes:
Since
cannot equal zero the equation reduces to the following.
Eigenvalue problem
This is referred to an eigenvalue problem in mathematics and can be put in the standard format by pre-multiplying
the equation by
and if:
and
The solution to the problem results in N eigenvalues (i.e.
), where N corresponds to the number of
degrees of freedom. The eigenvalues provide the natural frequencies of the system. When these eigenvalues are
substituted back into the original set of equations, the values of
that correspond to each eigenvalue are called
the eigenvectors. These eigenvectors represent the mode shapes of the system. The solution of an eigenvalue
Vibration
129
problem can be quite cumbersome (especially for problems with many degrees of freedom), but fortunately most
math analysis programs have eigenvalue routines.
The eigenvalues and eigenvectors are often written in the following matrix format and describe the modal model of
the system:
and
A simple example using the 2 DOF model can help illustrate the concepts. Let both masses have a mass of 1kg and
the stiffness of all three springs equal 1000 N/m. The mass and stiffness matrix for this problem are then:
and
Then
The eigenvalues for this problem given by an eigenvalue routine will be:
The natural frequencies in the units of hertz are then (remembering
and
The two mode shapes for the respective natural frequencies are given as:
Since the system is a 2 DOF system, there are two modes with their respective natural frequencies and shapes. The
mode shape vectors are not the absolute motion, but just describe relative motion of the degrees of freedom. In our
case the first mode shape vector is saying that the masses are moving together in phase since they have the same
value and sign. In the case of the second mode shape vector, each mass is moving in opposite direction at the same
rate.
Illustration of a multiple DOF problem

When there are many degrees of freedom, the best method of visualizing the mode shapes is by animating them. An
example of animated mode shapes is shown in the figure below for a cantilevered I-beam. In this case, the finite
element method was used to generate an approximation to the mass and stiffness matrices and solve a discrete
eigenvalue problem. Note that, in this case, the finite element method provides an approximation of the 3D
electrodynamics model (for which there exists an infinite number of vibration modes and frequencies). Therefore,
this relatively simple model that has over 100 degrees of freedom and hence as many natural frequencies and mode
shapes, provides a good approximation for the first natural frequencies and modes. Generally, only the first few
modes are important for practical applications.
Vibration
130
In this table the first and second (top and bottom respectively) horizontal bending (left), torsional (middle), and vertical bending (right) vibrational modes of an
I-beam are visualized. There also exist other kinds of vibrational modes in which the beam gets compressed/stretched out in the height, width and length directions
respectively.
The mode shapes of a cantilevered I-beam
^ Note that when performing a numerical approximation of any mathematical model, convergence of the parameters
of interest must be ascertained.
Multiple DOF problem converted to a single DOF problem

The eigenvectors have very important properties called orthogonality properties. These properties can be used to
greatly simplify the solution of multi-degree of freedom models. It can be shown that the eigenvectors have the
following properties:
and
are diagonal matrices that contain the modal mass and stiffness values for each one of the
modes. (Note: Since the eigenvectors (mode shapes) can be arbitrarily scaled, the orthogonality properties are often
used to scale the eigenvectors so the modal mass value for each mode is equal to 1. The modal mass matrix is
therefore an identity matrix)
These properties can be used to greatly simplify the solution of multi-degree of freedom models by making the
following coordinate transformation.
Using this coordinate transformation in the original free vibration differential equation results in the following
equation.
Taking advantage of the orthogonality properties by premultiplying this equation by
Vibration
131
The orthogonality properties then simplify this equation to:
This equation is the foundation of vibration analysis for multiple degree of freedom systems. A similar type of result
can be derived for damped systems. The key is that the modal mass and stiffness matrices are diagonal matrices and
therefore the equations have been "decoupled". In other words, the problem has been transformed from a large
unwieldy multiple degree of freedom problem into many single degree of freedom problems that can be solved using
the same methods outlined above.
Solving for x is replaced by solving for q, referred to as the modal coordinates or modal participation factors.
It may be clearer to understand if
is written as:
Written in this form it can be seen that the vibration at each of the degrees of freedom is just a linear sum of the
mode shapes. Furthermore, how much each mode "participates" in the final vibration is defined by q, its modal
participation factor.
References
[1] Vibration Type Approval Guide Book (PDF) (http:/ / www. typeapprovalmadeeasy. com/ vibration)
[2] Tustin, Wayne. Where to place the control accelerometer: one of the most critical decisions in developing random vibration tests also is the
most neglected (http:/ / findarticles. com/ p/ articles/ mi_hb4797/ is_10_45/ ai_n29299213/ ), EE-Evaluation Engineering, 2006
[3] http:/ / www. desolutions. com/ blog/ 2013/ 04/ sinusoidal-and-random-vibration-testing-primer/
[4] http:/ / www. asiri. net/ courses/ meng472/ download/ Practical_Machinery_Vibration_Analysis_and_Predictive_Maintenance. pdf Pages
26-28 (35-37).
[5] http:/ / www. ijitee. org/ attachments/ File/ v2i2/ B0372012213. pdf Condition Based Maintenance (CBM) Through Vibration Spectrum
Analysis for Improving the Reliability of B-1 Conveyor (DIVE542) Diagnosis of Fault through Vibration Spectrum Analysis Technique.
K.RaviRaju, B.MadhavaVarma, N.Ravi Kumar. International Journal of Innovative Technology and Exploring Engineering (IJITEE). ISSN:
2278-3075, Volume-2, Issue-2, January 2013
[6] http:/ / www. rewaonline. org/ docs/ 175734_ReWa_Pelham_IPS_Equip_Replacement-Tech_Specs. pdf Renewable Water Resources Pelham
WWTP Influent Pump Station Equipment Replacement Technical Specifications by BLACK & VEATCH. Page 49
[7] Maia, Silva. Theoretical And Experimental Modal Analysis, Research Studies Press Ltd., 1997, ISBN 0-471-97067-0
Further reading
Tongue, Benson, Principles of Vibration, Oxford University Press, 2001, ISBN 0-19-514246-2
Inman, Daniel J., Engineering Vibration, Prentice Hall, 2001, ISBN 0-13-726142-X
Thompson, W.T., Theory of Vibrations, Nelson Thornes Ltd, 1996, ISBN 0-412-78390-8
Hartog, Den, Mechanical Vibrations, Dover Publications, 1985, ISBN 0-486-64785-4
External links
Vibration Testing Guidebook (http://www.typeapprovalmadeeasy.com/vibration-testing/)
Hyperphysics Educational Website, Concepts (http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/permot.
html#permot''Oscillation/Vibration)
Nelson Publishing, Evaluation Engineering Magazine (http://www.evaluationengineering.com/)
Structural Dynamics and Vibration Laboratory of McGill University (http://structdynviblab.mcgill.ca)
Normal vibration modes of a circular membrane (http://web.mat.bham.ac.uk/C.J.Sangwin/Teaching/
CircWaves/waves.html)
Free Excel sheets to estimate modal parameters (http://www.noisestructure.com/products/MPE_SDOF.php)
Vibrationdata Blog & Matlab scripts (http://vibrationdata.wordpress.com/)
132
Mathematics
Cauchy distribution
Cauchy
Probability density function
The purple curve is the standard Cauchy distribution

Cumulative distribution function
Parameters
location (real)
> 0 scale (real)
Support
pdf
CDF
Mean
undefined
Median
Mode
Variance
undefined
Skewness
undefined
Ex. kurtosis
undefined
Entropy
MGF
CF
does not exist
Cauchy distribution
The Cauchy distribution, named after Augustin Cauchy, is a continuous probability distribution. It is also known,
especially among physicists, as the Lorentz distribution (after Hendrik Lorentz), CauchyLorentz distribution,
Lorentz(ian) function, or BreitWigner distribution. The simplest Cauchy distribution is called the standard
Cauchy distribution. It is the distribution of a random variable that is the ratio of two independent standard normal
variables and has the probability density function
Its cumulative distribution function has the shape of an arctangent function arctan(x):
The Cauchy distribution is often used in statistics as the canonical example of a "pathological" distribution since
both its mean and its variance are undefined. (But see the section Explanation of undefined moments below.) The
Cauchy distribution does not have finite moments of order greater than or equal to one; only fractional absolute
moments exist.[1] The Cauchy distribution has no moment generating function.
Its importance in physics is the result of it being the solution to the differential equation describing forced
resonance.[2] In mathematics, it is closely related to the Poisson kernel, which is the fundamental solution for the
Laplace equation in the upper half-plane. In spectroscopy, it is the description of the shape of spectral lines which are
subject to homogeneous broadening in which all atoms interact in the same way with the frequency range contained
in the line shape. Many mechanisms cause homogeneous broadening, most notably collision broadening, and
ChantlerAlda radiation. In its standard form, it is the maximum entropy probability distribution for a random
variate X for which
Characterisation
Probability density function
The Cauchy distribution has the probability density function
where x0 is the location parameter, specifying the location of the peak of the distribution, and is the scale parameter
which specifies the half-width at half-maximum (HWHM), alternatively 2 is full width at half maximum (FWHM).
is also equal to half the interquartile range and is sometimes called the probable error. Augustin-Louis Cauchy
exploited such a density function in 1827 with an infinitesimal scale parameter, defining what would now be called a
Dirac delta function.
The amplitude of the above Lorentzian function is given by
The special case when x0 = 0 and = 1 is called the standard Cauchy distribution with the probability density
function
In physics, a three-parameter Lorentzian function is often used:
133
Cauchy distribution
where I is the height of the peak.
Cumulative distribution function

The cumulative distribution function is:
and the quantile function (inverse cdf) of the Cauchy distribution is
It follows that the first and third quartiles are (x0, x0+), and hence the interquartile range is 2.
The derivative of the quantile function, the quantile density function, for the Cauchy distribution is:
The differential entropy of a distribution can be defined in terms of its quantile density, specifically
Properties
The Cauchy distribution is an example of a distribution which has no mean, variance or higher moments defined. Its
mode and median are well defined and are both equal to x0.
When U and V are two independent normally distributed random variables with expected value 0 and variance 1,
then the ratio U/V has the standard Cauchy distribution.
If X1, ..., Xn are independent and identically distributed random variables, each with a standard Cauchy distribution,
then the sample mean (X1+ ... +Xn)/n has the same standard Cauchy distribution. To see that this is true, compute the
characteristic function of the sample mean:
where
is the sample mean. This example serves to show that the hypothesis of finite variance in the central limit
theorem cannot be dropped. It is also an example of a more generalized version of the central limit theorem that is
characteristic of all stable distributions, of which the Cauchy distribution is a special case.
The Cauchy distribution is an infinitely divisible probability distribution. It is also a strictly stable distribution.
The standard Cauchy distribution coincides with the Student's t-distribution with one degree of freedom.
Like all stable distributions, the location-scale family to which the Cauchy distribution belongs is closed under linear
transformations with real coefficients. In addition, the Cauchy distribution is the only univariate distribution which is
closed under linear fractional transformations with real coefficients. In this connection, see also McCullagh's
parametrization of the Cauchy distributions.
134
Cauchy distribution
Characteristic function
Let X denote a Cauchy distributed random variable. The characteristic function of the Cauchy distribution is given
by
which is just the Fourier transform of the probability density. [citation needed] The original probability density may be
expressed in terms of the characteristic function, essentially by using the inverse Fourier transform:
Observe that the characteristic function is not differentiable at the origin: this corresponds to the fact that the Cauchy
distribution does not have an expected value.
Explanation of undefined moments

Mean
If a probability distribution has a density function f(x), then the mean is
The question is now whether this is the same thing as
If at most one of the two terms in (2) is infinite, then (1) is the same as (2). But in the case of the Cauchy
distribution, both the positive and negative terms of (2) are infinite. This means (2) is undefined. Moreover, if (1) is
construed as a Lebesgue integral, then (1) is also undefined, because (1) is then defined simply as the difference (2)
between positive and negative parts.
However, if (1) is constructed as an improper integral rather than a Lebesgue integral, then (2) is undefined, and (1)
is not necessarily well-defined. We may take (1) to mean
and this is its Cauchy principal value, which is zero, but we could also take (1) to mean, for example,
which is not zero, as can be seen easily by computing the integral.

Because the integrand is bounded and is not Lebesgue integrable, it is not even HenstockKurzweil integrable.
Various results in probability theory about expected values, such as the strong law of large numbers, will not work in
such cases.
135
Cauchy distribution
Higher moments
The Cauchy distribution does not have finite moments of any order. Some of the higher raw moments do exist and
have a value of infinity, for example the raw second moment:
By re-arranging the formula, one can see that the second moment is essentially the infinite integral of a constant
(here 1). Higher even-powered raw moments will also evaluate to infinity. Odd-powered raw moments, however, do
not exist at all (i.e. are undefined), which is distinctly different from existing with the value of infinity. The
odd-powered raw moments are undefined because their values are essentially equivalent to since the two
halves of the integral both diverge and have opposite signs. The first raw moment is the mean, which, being odd,
does not exist. (See also the discussion above about this.) This in turn means that all of the central moments and
standardized moments do not exist (are undefined), since they are all based on the mean. The variance which is
the second central moment is likewise non-existent (despite the fact that the raw second moment exists with the
value infinity).
The results for higher moments follow from Hlder's inequality, which implies that higher moments (or halves of
moments) diverge if lower ones do.
Estimation of parameters
Because the parameters of the Cauchy distribution don't correspond to a mean and variance, attempting to estimate
the parameters of the Cauchy distribution by using a sample mean and a sample variance will not succeed. For
example, if n samples are taken from a Cauchy distribution, one may calculate the sample mean as:
Although the sample values xi will be concentrated about the central value x0, the sample mean will become
increasingly variable as more samples are taken, because of the increased likelihood of encountering sample points
with a large absolute value. In fact, the distribution of the sample mean will be equal to the distribution of the
samples themselves; i.e., the sample mean of a large sample is no better (or worse) an estimator of x0 than any single
observation from the sample. Similarly, calculating the sample variance will result in values that grow larger as more
samples are taken.
Therefore, more robust means of estimating the central value x0 and the scaling parameter are needed. One simple
method is to take the median value of the sample as an estimator of x0 and half the sample interquartile range as an
estimator of . Other, more precise and robust methods have been developed For example, the truncated mean of the
middle 24% of the sample order statistics produces an estimate for x0 that is more efficient than using either the
sample median or the full sample mean. However, because of the fat tails of the Cauchy distribution, the efficiency
of the estimator decreases if more than 24% of the sample is used.
Maximum likelihood can also be used to estimate the parameters x0 and . However, this tends to be complicated by
the fact that this requires finding the roots of a high degree polynomial, and there can be multiple roots that represent
local maxima. Also, while the maximum likelihood estimator is asymptotically efficient, it is relatively inefficient
for small samples. The log-likelihood function for the Cauchy distribution for sample size n is:
Maximizing the log likelihood function with respect to x0 and produces the following system of equations:
136
Cauchy distribution
137
Note that
is a monotone function in and that the solution must satisfy
Solving just for x0 requires solving a polynomial of degree 2n1, and solving just for requires solving a polynomial
of degree n (first for 2, then x0). Therefore, whether solving for one parameter or for both parameters
simultaneously, a numerical solution on a computer is typically required. The benefit of maximum likelihood
estimation is asymptotic efficiency; estimating x0 using the sample median is only about 81% as asymptotically
efficient as estimating x0 by maximum likelihood. The truncated sample mean using the middle 24% order statistics
is about 88% as asymptotically efficient an estimator of x0 as the maximum likelihood estimate. When Newton's
method is used to find the solution for the maximum likelihood estimate, the middle 24% order statistics can be used
as an initial solution for x0.
Circular Cauchy distribution

If X is Cauchy distributed with median and scale parameter , then the complex variable
has unit modulus and is distributed on the unit circle with density:
with respect to the angular variable = arg(z),[citation needed] where
and expresses the two parameters of the associated linear Cauchy distribution for x as a complex number:
The distribution
needed]
is called the circular Cauchy distribution[3](also the complex Cauchy distribution)[citation
with parameter . The circular Cauchy distribution is related to the wrapped Cauchy distribution. If
is a wrapped Cauchy distribution with the parameter = + i representing the parameters of the
corresponding "unwrapped" Cauchy distribution in the variable y where = y mod 2, then

See also McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions and Poisson kernel for related concepts.
The circular Cauchy distribution expressed in complex form has finite moments of all orders
for integer r 1. For || < 1, the transformation
is holomorphic on the unit disk, and the transformed variable U(Z, ) is distributed as complex Cauchy with
parameter U(, ).
Given a sample z1, ..., zn of size n > 2, the maximum-likelihood equation
can be solved by a simple fixed-point iteration:
Cauchy distribution
138
starting with (0) = 0. The sequence of likelihood values is non-decreasing, and the solution is unique for samples
containing at least three distinct values.
The maximum-likelihood estimate for the median (
) and scale parameter (
) of a real Cauchy sample is
obtained by the inverse transformation:
For n 4, closed-form expressions are known for
. The density of the maximum-likelihood estimator at t in the
unit disk is necessarily of the form:
where
.
Formulae for p3 and p4 are available.
Multivariate Cauchy distribution

A random vector X = (X1, ..., Xk) is said to have the multivariate Cauchy distribution if every linear combination of
its components Y = a1X1 + ... + akXk has a Cauchy distribution. That is, for any constant vector a Rk, the random
variable Y = aX should have a univariate Cauchy distribution. The characteristic function of a multivariate Cauchy
distribution is given by:
where x0(t) and (t) are real functions with x0(t) a homogeneous function of degree one and (t) a positive
homogeneous function of degree one. More formally:
for all t.
An example of a bivariate Cauchy distribution can be given by:
Note that in this example, even though there is no analogue to a covariance matrix, x and y are not statistically
independent.
Analogously to the univariate density, the multidimensional Cauchy density also relates to the multivariate Student
distribution. They are equivalent when the degrees of freedom parameter is equal to one. The density of a k
dimension Student distribution with one degree of freedom becomes:
Properties and details for this density can be obtained by taking it as a particular case of the multivariate Student
density.
Cauchy distribution
139
Transformation properties
If
then
If
and
are independent, then[citation needed]
If
then
McCullagh's parametrization of the Cauchy distributions:[citation needed] Expressing a Cauchy distribution in terms
of one complex parameter
, define X ~ Cauchy() to mean X ~ Cauchy
. If X ~
Cauchy() then:
~ Cauchy
where a,b,c and d are real numbers.
Using the same convention as above, if X ~ Cauchy() then:[citation needed]
~ CCauchy
where "CCauchy" is the circular Cauchy distribution.
Related distributions
Student's t distribution
Non-standardized Student's t distribution
If
independent, then
If
then
If X ~ Log-Cauchy(0, 1) then ln(X) ~ Cauchy(0, 1)
The Cauchy distribution is a limiting case of a Pearson distribution of type 4[citation needed]
The Cauchy distribution is a special case of a Pearson distribution of type 7.
The Cauchy distribution is a stable distribution: if X ~ Stable(1, 0, , ), then X ~ Cauchy(, ).
The Cauchy distribution is a singular limit of a Hyperbolic distribution[citation needed]
The wrapped Cauchy distribution, taking values on a circle, is derived from the Cauchy distribution by wrapping
it around the circle.

In nuclear and particle physics, the energy profile of a resonance is described by the relativistic BreitWigner
distribution, while the Cauchy distribution is the (non-relativistic) BreitWigner distribution.[citation needed]
References
[1] , Chapter 16.
[2] http:/ / webphysics. davidson. edu/ Projects/ AnAntonelli/ node5. html Note that the intensity, which follows the Cauchy distribution, is the
square of the amplitude.
[3] McCullagh, P., "Conditional inference and Cauchy models" (http:/ / biomet. oxfordjournals. org/ cgi/ content/ abstract/ 79/ 2/ 247),
Biometrika, volume 79 (1992), pages 247259. PDF (http:/ / www. stat. uchicago. edu/ ~pmcc/ pubs/ paper18. pdf) from McCullagh's
homepage.
Cauchy distribution
140
External links
Hazewinkel, Michiel, ed. (2001), "Cauchy distribution" (http://www.encyclopediaofmath.org/index.
php?title=p/c020850), Encyclopedia of Mathematics, Springer, ISBN978-1-55608-010-4
Earliest Uses: The entry on Cauchy distribution has some historical information. (http://jeff560.tripod.com/c.
html)
Weisstein, Eric W., " Cauchy Distribution (http://mathworld.wolfram.com/CauchyDistribution.html)",
MathWorld.
GNU Scientific Library Reference Manual (http://www.gnu.org/software/gsl/manual/gsl-ref.
html#SEC294)

The relativistic BreitWigner distribution (after Gregory Breit and Eugene Wigner) is a continuous probability
distribution with the following probability density function:[1]
Where k is the constant of proportionality, equal to

with
(This equation is written using natural units, = c = 1.) It is most often used to model resonances (unstable particles)
in high-energy physics. In this case E is the center-of-mass energy that produces the resonance, M is the mass of the
resonance, and is the resonance width (or decay width), related to its mean lifetime according to = 1/. (With
units included, the formula is = /.) The probability of producing the resonance at a given energy E is
proportional to f(E), so that a plot of the production rate of the unstable particle as a function of energy traces out the
shape of the relativistic BreitWigner distribution.
In general, can also be a function of E; this dependence is typically only important when is not small compared
to M and the phase space-dependence of the width needs to be taken into account. (For example, in the decay of the
rho meson into a pair of pions.) The factor of M2 that multiplies 2 should also be replaced with E2 (or E4/M2, etc.)
when the resonance is wide.[2]
The form of the relativistic BreitWigner distribution arises from the propagator of an unstable particle, which has a
denominator of the form p2 M2 + iM. Here p2 is the square of the four-momentum carried by the particle. The
propagator appears in the quantum mechanical amplitude for the process that produces the resonance; the resulting
probability distribution is proportional to the absolute square of the amplitude, yielding the relativistic BreitWigner
distribution for the probability density function as given above.
The form of this distribution is similar to the solution of the classical equation of motion for a damped harmonic
oscillator driven by a sinusoidal external force.
References
[1] See (http:/ / cepa. fnal. gov/ psm/ simulation/ mcgen/ lund/ pythia_manual/ pythia6. 3/ pythia6301/ node192. html) for a discussion of the
widths of particles in the PYTHIA manual. Note that this distribution is usually represented as a function of the squared energy.
[2] See the treatment of the Z-boson cross-section in, for example,
141
142
Miscellaneous
The original Tacoma Narrows Bridge roadway twisted and vibrated violently under 40-mile-per-hour (64km/h) winds on the day of the collapse
Other name(s)
Galloping Gertie
Design
Suspension
Total length
5,939 feet (1,810.2m)
Longest span
2,800 feet (853.4m)
Clearance below
195 feet (59.4m)
Opened
July 1, 1940
Collapsed
November 7, 1940
Coordinates
471600N 1223300W
[1]
[1]
Coordinates: 471600N
1223300W
The 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge was the first Tacoma Narrows
Bridge, a suspension bridge in the U.S. state of Washington that
spanned the Tacoma Narrows strait of Puget Sound between Tacoma
and the Kitsap Peninsula. It opened to traffic on July 1, 1940, and
dramatically collapsed into Puget Sound on November 7 of the same
year. At the time of its construction (and its destruction), the bridge
was the third longest suspension bridge in the world in terms of main
span length, behind the Golden Gate Bridge and the George
Washington Bridge.
Construction on the bridge began in September 1938. From the time
the deck was built, it began to move vertically in windy conditions,
Map showing location of the bridge
which led to construction workers giving the bridge the nickname
Galloping Gertie. The motion was observed even when the bridge
opened to the public. Several measures aimed at stopping the motion were ineffective, and the bridge's main span
finally collapsed under 40-mile-per-hour (64km/h) wind conditions the morning of November 7, 1940.
Following the collapse, the United States' involvement in World War II delayed plans to replace the bridge. The
portions of the bridge still standing after the collapse, including the towers and cables, were dismantled and sold as

scrap metal. Nearly 10 years after the bridge collapsed, a new Tacoma Narrows Bridge opened in the same location,
using the original bridge's tower pedestals and cable anchorages. The portion of the bridge that fell into the water
now serves as an artificial reef.
The bridge's collapse had a lasting effect on science and engineering. In many physics textbooks, the event is
presented as an example of elementary forced resonance with the wind providing an external periodic frequency that
matched the bridge's natural structural frequency, though the actual cause of failure was aeroelastic flutter. Its failure
also boosted research in the field of bridge aerodynamics-aeroelastics, the study of which has influenced the designs
of all the world's great long-span bridges built since 1940.
Design and construction

The desire for the construction of a bridge between Tacoma and the Kitsap Peninsula dates back to 1889 with a
Northern Pacific Railway proposal for a trestle, but concerted efforts began in the mid-1920s. The Tacoma Chamber
of Commerce began campaigning and funding studies in 1923. Several noted bridge engineers, including Joseph B.
Strauss, who went on to be chief engineer of the Golden Gate Bridge, and David B. Steinman, who went on to design
the Mackinac Bridge, were consulted. Steinman made several Chamber-funded visits, culminating in a preliminary
proposal presented in 1929, but by 1931, the Chamber decided to cancel the agreement on the grounds that Steinman
was not sufficiently active in working to obtain financing. Another problem with financing the first bridge was
buying out the ferry contract from a private firm running service on the Narrows at the time.
The Washington State legislature created the Washington State Toll Bridge Authority and appropriated $5,000 to
study the request by Tacoma and Pierce County for a bridge over the Narrows.
From the start, financing of the bridge was a problem: revenue from the proposed tolls would not be enough to cover
construction costs, but there was strong support for the bridge from the U.S. Navy, which operated the Puget Sound
Naval Shipyard in Bremerton, and from the U.S. Army, which ran McChord Field and Fort Lewis near Tacoma.
Washington State engineer Clark Eldridge produced a preliminary tried-and-true conventional suspension bridge
design, and the Washington Toll Bridge Authority requested $11 million from the Federal Public Works
Administration (PWA). Preliminary construction plans by the Washington Department of Highways had called for a
set of 25-foot-deep (7.6m) trusses to sit beneath the roadway and stiffen it.
However, according to Eldridge, "Eastern consulting engineers"by which Eldridge meant Leon Moisseiff, the
noted New York bridge engineer who served as designer and consultant engineer for the Golden Gate
Bridgepetitioned the PWA and the Reconstruction Finance Corporation (RFC) to build the bridge for less.
Moisseiff proposed shallower supportsgirders 8 feet (2.4m) deep. His approach meant a slimmer, more elegant
design, and also reduced the construction costs as compared with the Highway Department's design. Moisseiff's
design won out, inasmuch as the other proposal was considered to be too expensive. On June 23, 1938, the PWA
approved nearly $6 million for the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. Another $1.6 million was to be collected from tolls to
cover the estimated total $8 million cost.
Following Moisseiff's design, bridge construction began on September 27, 1938. Construction took only nineteen
months, at a cost of $6.4 million, which was financed by the grant from the PWA and a loan from the RFC. The
Tacoma Narrows Bridge, with a main span of 2,800 feet (850m), was the third-longest suspension bridge in the
world at that time, following the George Washington Bridge between New Jersey and New York City, and the
Golden Gate Bridge, connecting San Francisco with Marin County to its north.[2] Moisseiff and Fred Lienhard, the
latter a Port of New York Authority engineer, published a paper[3] that was probably the most important theoretical
advance in the bridge engineering field of the decade.[4] Their theory of elastic distribution extended the deflection
theory that was originally devised by the Austrian engineer Josef Melan to horizontal bending under static wind load.
They showed that the stiffness of the main cables (via the suspenders) would absorb up to one-half of the static wind
pressure pushing a suspended structure laterally. This energy would then be transmitted to the anchorages and
towers.
143
144
Using this theory, Moisseiff argued for stiffening the bridge with a set of eight-foot-deep plate girders rather than the
25 feet (7.6m)-deep trusses proposed by the Washington Toll Bridge Authority. This change was a substantial
contributor to the difference in the projected costs of the designs.
Because planners expected fairly light traffic volumes, the bridge was designed with two lanes, and it was just 39
feet (12m) wide. This was quite narrow, especially in comparison with its length. With only the 8 feet (2.4m)-deep
plate girders providing additional depth, the bridge's roadway section was also shallow.
The decision to use such shallow and narrow girders proved to be the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge's undoing.
With such minimal girders, the deck of the bridge was insufficiently rigid and was easily moved about by winds;
from the start, the bridge became infamous for its movement. A mild to moderate wind could cause alternate halves
of the center span to visibly rise and fall several feet over four- to five-second intervals. This flexibility was
experienced by the builders and workmen during construction, which led some of the workers to christen the bridge
"Galloping Gertie." The nickname soon stuck, and even the public (when the toll-paid traffic started) felt these
motions on the day that the bridge opened on July 1, 1940.
Attempt to control structural vibration

Since the structure experienced considerable vertical oscillations while
it was still under construction, several strategies were used to reduce
the motion of the bridge. They included[5]
attachment of tie-down cables to the plate girders, which were
anchored to 50-ton concrete blocks on the shore. This measure
proved ineffective, as the cables snapped shortly after installation.
addition of a pair of inclined cable stays that connected the main
cables to the bridge deck at mid-span. These remained in place until
the collapse, but were also ineffective at reducing the oscillations.
finally, the structure was equipped with hydraulic buffers installed
between the towers and the floor system of the deck to damp
longitudinal motion of the main span. The effectiveness of the
hydraulic dampers was nullified, however, because the seals of the
units were damaged when the bridge was sand-blasted before being
painted.
Illustration from the Seattle Times, November 8,

1940. PH Coll. 290.159 University of
Washington Libraries. Manuscripts, Special
Collections, UW23030
The Washington Toll Bridge Authority hired Professor Frederick Burt Farquharson, an engineering professor at the
University of Washington, to make wind-tunnel tests and recommend solutions in order to reduce the oscillations of
the bridge. Professor Farquharson and his students built a 1:200-scale model of the bridge and a 1:20-scale model of
a section of the deck. The first studies concluded on November 2, 1940five days before the bridge collapse on
November 7. He proposed two solutions:
To drill holes in the lateral girders and along the deck so that the air flow could circulate through them (in this
way reducing lift forces).
To give a more aerodynamic shape to the transverse section of the deck by adding fairings or deflector vanes
along the deck, attached to the girder fascia.
The first option was not favored because of its irreversible nature. The second option was the chosen one; but it was
not carried out, because the bridge collapsed five days after the studies were concluded.
145
Collapse
The wind-induced collapse occurred on November 7, 1940, at 11:00 a.m. (Pacific time), because of a physical
phenomenon known as aeroelastic flutter.
Leonard Coatsworth, a Tacoma News Tribune editor, was the last person to drive on the bridge:
"Just as I drove past the towers, the bridge began to sway violently from side to side. Before I realized it, the
tilt became so violent that I lost control of the car...I jammed on the brakes and got out, only to be thrown onto
my face against the curb...Around me I could hear concrete cracking...The car itself began to slide from side to
side of the roadway.
On hands and knees most of the time, I crawled 500 yards (460m) or more to the towers...My breath was
coming in gasps; my knees were raw and bleeding, my hands bruised and swollen from gripping the concrete
curb...Toward the last, I risked rising to my feet and running a few yards at a time...Safely back at the toll
plaza, I saw the bridge in its final collapse and saw my car plunge into the Narrows." No human life was lost
in the collapse of the bridge. Tubby, a black male cocker spaniel, was the only fatality of the Tacoma Narrows
Bridge disaster; he was lost along with Coatsworth's car. Professor Farquharson and a news photographer[6]
attempted to rescue Tubby during a lull, but the dog was too terrified to leave the car and bit one of the
rescuers. Tubby died when the bridge fell, and neither his body nor the car were ever recovered. Coatsworth
had been driving Tubby back to his daughter, who owned the dog. Coatsworth received US$450.00 (US$7,600
with inflation[7]) for his car and US$364.40 (US$6,100 with inflation[7]) in reimbursement for the contents of
his car, including Tubby.
Inquiry
A fragment of the collapsed bridge, in the

Washington State History Museum, Tacoma,
Washington.
Theodore von Krmn, the director of the Guggenheim Aeronautical

Laboratory and a world-renowned aerodynamicist, was a member of
the board of inquiry into the collapse. He reported that the State of
Washington was unable to collect on one of the insurance policies for
the bridge because its insurance agent had fraudulently pocketed the
insurance premiums. The agent, Hallett R. French, who represented the
Merchant's Fire Assurance Company, was charged and tried for grand
larceny for withholding the premiums for $800,000 worth of insurance.
The bridge, however, was insured by many other policies that covered
80% of the $5.2 million structure's value. Most of these were collected
without incident.
On November 28, 1940, the U.S. Navy's Hydrographic Office reported that the remains of the bridge were located at
geographical coordinates 471600N 1223300W [1], at a depth of 180 feet (55 meters).
Film of collapse
The collapse of the bridge was recorded on film by Barney Elliott, owner of a local camera shop. The film shows
Leonard Coatsworth leaving the bridge after exiting his car. In 1998, The Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse was
selected for preservation in the United States National Film Registry by the Library of Congress as being culturally,
historically, or aesthetically significant. This footage is still shown to engineering, architecture, and physics students
as a cautionary tale. Elliot's original films of the construction and collapse of the bridge were shot on 16mm
Kodachrome film, but most copies in circulation are in black and white because newsreels of the day copied the film
onto 35mm black-and-white stock.
Commission of the Federal Works Agency

A commission formed by the Federal Works Agency studied the collapse of the bridge. It included Othmar Ammann
and Theodore von Krmn. Without drawing any definitive conclusions, the commission explored three possible
failure causes:
Aerodynamic instability by self-induced vibrations in the structure
Eddy formations that might be periodic in nature
Random effects of turbulence, that is the random fluctuations in velocity and direction of the wind.
Cause of the collapse

The original Tacoma Narrows Bridge was solidly built, with girders of carbon steel anchored in huge blocks of
concrete. Preceding designs typically had open lattice beam trusses underneath the roadbed. This bridge was the first
of its type to employ plate girders (pairs of deep I-beams) to support the roadbed. With the earlier designs any wind
would simply pass through the truss, but in the new design the wind would be diverted above and below the
structure. Shortly after construction finished at the end of June (opened to traffic on July 1, 1940), it was discovered
that the bridge would sway and buckle dangerously in relatively mild windy conditions that are common for the area,
and worse during severe winds. This vibration was transverse, one-half of the central span rising while the other
lowered. Drivers would see cars approaching from the other direction rise and fall, riding the violent energy wave
through the bridge. However, at that time the mass of the bridge was considered to be sufficient to keep it
structurally sound.
The failure of the bridge occurred when a never-before-seen twisting mode occurred, from winds at a mild 40 miles
per hour (64km/h). This is a so-called torsional vibration mode (which is different from the transversal or
longitudinal vibration mode), whereby when the left side of the roadway went down, the right side would rise, and
vice versa, with the center line of the road remaining still. Specifically, it was the "second" torsional mode, in which
the midpoint of the bridge remained motionless while the two halves of the bridge twisted in opposite directions.
Two men proved this point by walking along the center line, unaffected by the flapping of the roadway rising and
falling to each side. This vibration was caused by aeroelastic fluttering.
Fluttering is a physical phenomenon in which several degrees of freedom of a structure become coupled in an
unstable oscillation driven by the wind. This movement inserts energy to the bridge during each cycle so that it
neutralizes the natural damping of the structure; the composed system (bridge-fluid) therefore behaves as if it had an
effective negative damping (or had positive feedback), leading to an exponentially growing response. In other words,
the oscillations increase in amplitude with each cycle because the wind pumps in more energy than the flexing of the
structure can dissipate, and finally drives the bridge toward failure due to excessive deflection and stress. The wind
speed that causes the beginning of the fluttering phenomenon (when the effective damping becomes zero) is known
as the flutter velocity. Fluttering occurs even in low-velocity winds with steady flow. Hence, bridge design must
ensure that flutter velocity will be higher than the maximum mean wind speed present at the site.
Eventually, the amplitude of the motion produced by the fluttering increased beyond the strength of a vital part, in
this case the suspender cables. Once several cables failed, the weight of the deck transferred to the adjacent cables
that broke in turn until almost all of the central deck fell into the water below the span.
146
147
Resonance (due to Von Krmn vortex street) hypothesis

The bridge's spectacular destruction is often used as an object lesson in
the necessity to consider both aerodynamics and resonance effects in
civil and structural engineering. Billah and Scanlan (1991) reported
that in fact, many physics textbooks (for example Resnick et al. and
Tipler et al.) wrongly explain that the cause of the failure of the
Tacoma Narrows bridge was externally forced mechanical resonance.
Resonance is the tendency of a system to oscillate at larger amplitudes
at certain frequencies, known as the system's natural frequencies. At
these frequencies, even relatively small periodic driving forces can
produce large amplitude vibrations, because the system stores energy.
For example, a child using a swing realizes that if the pushes are
properly timed, the swing can move with a very large amplitude. The
driving force, in this case the child pushing the swing, exactly
replenishes the energy that the system loses if its frequency equals the
natural frequency of the system.
Vortex shedding and Krmn vortex street behind

a circular cylinder. The first hypothesis of failure
of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge was resonance
(due to the Krmn vortex street). This is because
it was thought that the Krmn vortex street
frequency (the so-called Strouhal frequency) was
the same as the torsional natural vibration
frequency. This was found to be incorrect. The
actual failure was due to aeroelastic flutter.
Usually, the approach taken by those physics textbooks is to introduce a first order forced oscillator, defined by the
second order differential equation
(eq. 1)
where
and
stand for the mass, damping coefficient and stiffness of the linear system and
and
represent the amplitude and the angular frequency of the exciting force. The solution of such ordinary differential
equation as a function of time represents the displacement response of the system (given appropriate initial
conditions). In the above system resonance happens when
is approximately
, i.e.
is the
natural (resonant) frequency of the system. The actual vibration analysis of a more complicated mechanical
systemsuch as an airplane, a building or a bridgeis based on the linearization of the equation of motion for the
system, which is a multidimensional version of equation (eq. 1). The analysis requires eigenvalue analysis and
thereafter the natural frequencies of the structure are found, together with the so-called fundamental modes of the
system, which are a set of independent displacements and/or rotations that specify completely the displaced or
deformed position and orientation of the body or system, i.e., the bridge moves as a (linear) combination of those
basic deformed positions.
Each structure has natural frequencies. For resonance to occur, it is necessary to have also periodicity in the
excitation force. The most tempting candidate of the periodicity in the wind force was assumed to be the so-called
vortex shedding. This is because bluff bodies (non-streamlined bodies), like bridge decks, in a fluid stream shed
wakes, whose characteristics depend on the size and shape of the body and the properties of the fluid. These wakes
are accompanied by alternating low-pressure vortices on the downwind side of the body (the so-called Von Krmn
vortex street). The body will in consequence try to move toward the low-pressure zone, in an oscillating movement
called vortex-induced vibration. Eventually, if the frequency of vortex shedding matches the natural frequency of the
structure, the structure will begin to resonate and the structure's movement can become self-sustaining.
The frequency of the vortices in the von Krmn vortex street is called the Strouhal frequency
, and is given by
(eq. 2)
Here,
stands for the flow velocity,
is a characteristic length of the bluff body and
is the dimensionless
Strouhal number, which depends on the body in question. For Reynolds Numbers greater than 1000, the Strouhal
number is approximately equal to 0.21. In the case of the Tacoma Narrows,
was approximately 8 feet (2.4m)
and
was 0.20.

It was thought that the Strouhal frequency was close enough to one of the natural vibration frequencies of the bridge
i.e.
, to cause resonance and therefore vortex-induced vibration.
In the case of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, this appears not to have been the cause of the catastrophic damage.
According to Professor Frederick Burt Farquharson, an engineering professor at the University of Washington and
one of the main researchers into the cause of the bridge collapse, the wind was steady at 42 miles per hour (68km/h)
and the frequency of the destructive mode was 12 cycles/minute (0.2 Hz).[8] This frequency was neither a natural
mode of the isolated structure nor the frequency of blunt-body vortex shedding of the bridge at that wind speed
(which was approximately 1Hz). It can be concluded therefore that the vortex shedding was not the cause of the
bridge collapse. The event can be understood only while considering the coupled aerodynamic and structural system
that requires rigorous mathematical analysis to reveal all the degrees of freedom of the particular structure and the
set of design loads imposed.
Note, however, that vortex-induced vibration is a far more complex process that involves both the external
wind-initiated forces and internal self-excited forces that lock on to the motion of the structure. During lock-on, the
wind forces drive the structure at or near one of its natural frequencies, but as the amplitude increases this has the
effect of changing the local fluid boundary conditions, so that this induces compensating, self-limiting forces, which
restrict the motion to relatively benign amplitudes. This is clearly not a linear resonance phenomenon, even if the
bluff body has itself linear behaviour, since the exciting force amplitude is a nonlinear force of the structural
response.[9]
Origin of the confusion in failure modes
It is not clear what is the original source of the confusion Wikipedia:Please clarify. Billah and Scanlan cite that Lee
Edson in his biography of Theodore von Krmn[10] is a source of misinformation: "The culprit in the Tacoma
disaster was the Karman vortex Street."
However, the Federal Works Administration report of the investigation (of which von Krmn was part) concluded
that
It is very improbable that the resonance with alternating vortices plays an important role in the oscillations of
suspension bridges. First, it was found that there is no sharp correlation between wind velocity and oscillation
frequency such as is required in case of resonance with vortices whose frequency depends on the wind
velocity.[11]
Fate of the collapsed superstructure

Efforts to salvage the bridge began almost immediately after its collapse and continued into May 1943.[12] Two
review boards, one appointed by the federal government and one appointed by the state of Washington, concluded
that repair of the bridge was impossible, and the entire bridge would have to be dismantled and an entirely new
bridge superstructure built.[13] With steel being a valuable commodity because of the involvement of the United
States in World War II, steel from the bridge cables and the suspension span was sold as scrap metal to be melted
down. The salvage operation cost the state more than was returned from the sale of the material, a net loss of over
$350,000.
The cable anchorages, tower pedestals and most of the remaining substructure were relatively undamaged in the
collapse, and were reused during construction of the replacement span that opened in 1950. The towers, which
supported Gertie's main cables and road deck, suffered major damage at their bases from being deflected twelve feet
towards shore as a result of the collapse of the mainspan and the sagging of the sidespans. They were dismantled,
and the steel sent to recyclers.
148
149
"Preservation" of the collapsed roadway

The underwater remains of the highway deck of the old suspension bridge act as
a large artificial reef, and these are listed on the National Register of Historic
Places with reference number 92001068.
A lesson for history

Othmar Ammann, a leading bridge designer and member of the Federal Works
Agency Commission investigating the collapse of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge,
wrote:
The Tacoma Narrows bridge failure has given us invaluable
information...It has shown [that] every new structure [that] projects into
new fields of magnitude involves new problems for the solution of which
neither theory nor practical experience furnish an adequate guide. It is then
that we must rely largely on judgement and if, as a result, errors, or failures
occur, we must accept them as a price for human progress.[14]
Remains of the collapsed bridge
The Bronx Whitestone Bridge, which is of similar design to the 1940 Tacoma Narrows Bridge, was reinforced
shortly after the collapse. Fourteen-foot-high (4.3 m) steel trusses were installed on both sides of the deck in 1943 to
weigh down and stiffen the bridge in an effort to reduce oscillation. In 2003, the stiffening trusses were removed and
aerodynamic fiberglass fairings were installed along both sides of the road deck.
Replacement bridge
Because of materials and labor shortages as a result of the involvement of the United States in World War II, it took
10 years before a replacement bridge was opened to traffic. This replacement bridge was opened to traffic on
October 14, 1950, and is 5,979 feet (1,822m) long40 feet (12m) longer than Galloping Gertie. The replacement
bridge also has more lanes than the original bridge, which only had two traffic lanes, plus shoulders on both sides.
Half a century later, the rebuilt bridge that was completed in 1950 was exceeding its traffic capacity, and a second,
parallel suspension bridge was constructed to carry eastbound traffic. The suspension bridge that was completed in
1950 was reconfigured to solely carry westbound traffic. The new parallel bridge opened to traffic in July 2007.
References
Notes
[1] http:/ / tools. wmflabs. org/ geohack/ geohack. php?pagename=Tacoma_Narrows_Bridge_%281940%29&
params=47_16_00_N_122_33_00_W_
[2] Henry Petroski. Engineers of Dreams: Great Bridge Builders and the Spanning of America. New York: Knopf/Random House, 1995.
[3] Leon S. Moisseiff and Frederick Lienhard. "Suspension Bridges Under the Action of Lateral Forces," with discussion. Transactions of the
American Society of Civil Engineers, No. 98, 1933, pp. 10801095, 10961141
[4] Richard Scott. In the Wake of Tacoma: Suspension Bridges and the Quest for Aerodynamic Stability. American Society of Civil Engineers
(June 1, 2001) ISBN 0-7844-0542-5 http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=DnQOzYDJsm8C
[5] Rita Robison. "Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collapse." In When Technology Fails, edited by Neil Schlager, pp. 18190. Detroit: Gale Research,
1994.
[6] As told by Clarence C. Murton, head of the Seattle Post Intelligencer Art Dept at the time, and close colleague of the photographer.
[7] Consumer Price Index (estimate) 18002014 (http:/ / www. minneapolisfed. org/ community_education/ teacher/ calc/ hist1800. cfm).
Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved February 27, 2014.
[8] F. B. Farquharson et al. Aerodynamic stability of suspension bridges with special reference to the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. University of
Washington Engineering Experimental Station, Seattle. Bulletin 116. Parts I to V. A series of reports issued since June 1949 to June 1954.
[9] Billah, K.Y.R. and Scanlan, R. H. "Vortex-Induced Vibration and its Mathematical Modeling: A Bibliography", Report No.SM-89-1.
Department of Civil Engineering. Princeton University. April 1989

[10] Theodore von Karman with Lee Edson. The wind and Beyond.Theodore von Karman: Pioneer in Aviation and Pathfinder in Space. Little
Brown and Company, Boston, 1963. Page 213
[11] Steven Ross, et al. "Tacoma Narrows 1940." In Construction Disasters: Design Failures, Causes, and Prevention. McGraw Hill, 1984, pp.
216239,.
[12] Tacoma Narrows Bridge Aftermath A New Beginning: 1940 1950 (http:/ / www. wsdot. wa. gov/ tnbhistory/ Connections/
connections4. htm#4)
[13] University of Washington Special Collections (http:/ / www. lib. washington. edu/ specialcoll/ exhibits/ tnb/ page5. html)
[14] Othmar H. Ammann, Theodore von Krmn and Glenn B. Woodruff. The Failure of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge, a report to the
administrator. Report to the Federal Works Agency, Washingthon, 1941
External links
Color video of the original bridge's construction and collapse with narration (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=3mclp9QmCGs)
Physics behind the collapse of the bridge (http://www.lightandmatter.com/html_books/3vw/ch02/ch02.html)
failurebydesign.info (http://failurebydesign.info) physics presentation and resources
Photos of the bridge and the new span under construction (http://www.citynoise.org/article/5410)
Tacoma Narrows Bridge (1940) (http://en.structurae.de/structures/data/index.cfm?ID=s0000074) at
Structurae
Josef Malk. Sudden lateral asymmetry and torsional oscillations in the original Tacoma suspension bridge.
Journal of Sound and Vibration. Vol 332, Issue 15, 22 July 2013, p. 3772--3789 (http://www.sciencedirect.
com/science/article/pii/S0022460X13001247)
Historical
1940 Narrows Bridge (http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/tnbhistory/machine/machine2.htm) (1940 bridge
construction) Washington Sate Department of Transportation
History of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (http://www.lib.washington.edu/specialcoll/exhibits/tnb/)
University of Washington Libraries Digital Collection Tacoma Narrows Bridge Collection (http://content.lib.
washington.edu/farquharsonweb/index.html) More than 152 images and text documenting the infamous
collapse in 1940 of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge. Also covers Galloping Gertie's creation, subsequent studies
involving its aerodynamics, and finally the construction of a second bridge spanning the Narrows.
The Tacoma Narrows Bridge Disaster, November 1940 (http://www.enm.bris.ac.uk/research/nonlinear/
tacoma/tacoma.html)
Images of failure (http://www.ketchum.org/bridgecollapse.html)
Information and images of failure (http://www.civeng.carleton.ca/Exhibits/Tacoma_Narrows/)
Official site of the Tacoma Narrows Bridge (http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/TNBhistory/)
Timeline of the bridges (http://www.wsdot.wa.gov/TNBhistory/spanning_time.htm)
Tacoma Narrows Bridge (http://www.nwrain.net/~newtsuit/recoveries/narrows/narrows.htm)
Suspended Animation (http://failuremag.com/feature/article/suspended_animation/) Failure Magazine
(November 2000)
A film clip of the Tacoma Narrows bridge wobbling and eventually, collapsing (http://archive.org/details/
Pa2096Tacoma) is available for free download at the Internet Archive [more]
150

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Resonance

Resonance in particle physics

Electron paramagnetic resonance

Nuclear magnetic resonance

Resonant inductive coupling

Simple harmonic motion

Relativistic BreitWigner distribution

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

Tidal resonance of the Bay of Fundy

The intensity is defined as the square

If the velocity of a wave is

so the resonant frequencies are:

Atomic, particle, and molecular resonance

NMR Magnet at HWB-NMR, Birmingham, UK. In its strong 21.2-tesla

. The formula is further related to

Failure of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Resonance causing a vibration on the International Space Station

Resonance in particle physics

Resonance in particle physics

where is the reduced Planck constant.

A standing wave in a rectangular cavity

If the velocity of a wave is

so the resonant frequencies are:

RF cavities in the linac of the Australian

The cavity magnetron is a vacuum tube with a filament in the center of

An illustration of the electric and magnetic field

In a laser, light is amplified in a cavity resonator that is usually

outside the cavity.

A sport motorcycle, equipped with exhaust

References and notes

So the frequency is related to the properties of the string by the equation

String resonance in music instruments

Resonance of a tube of air

where n is a positive integer (1, 2, 3...) representing the resonance

The first three resonances in an open cylindrical

where d is the diameter of the resonance tube. This equation

where the wavenumber k is

Closed rectangular box

n, and m are the nonnegative

Resonance of a sphere of air (vented)

where: (in meters)

where: (in meters)

Resonance in musical composition

where m is the mass and k is the spring constant.

musical instruments (acoustic resonance).

Resonance may cause violent swaying motions in improperly

Resonance Rings exhibit at California Science

Failure of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge

Collapse of Broughton Suspension Bridge (due to soldiers walking in step)

Electron paramagnetic resonance

Electron paramagnetic resonance

. In the presence of an external

electron's magnetic moment aligns itself

) to the field, each alignment

having a specific energy due to the Zeeman

is the electron's so-called g-factor (see also the Land g-factor).

for the free electron

Electron paramagnetic resonance

depend on the nucleus under study.)

Electron paramagnetic resonance

is the number of paramagnetic centers occupying the upper energy state,

is the temperature in kelvins. At 298 K, X-band microwave frequencies (