Fly Ash Handling: Challenges and Solutions

By Jayant Khambekar, Ph.D. and Roger A. Barnum, Jenike & Johanson, Inc,
USA
Fly ash is a general name used for the residual products of combustion that rise
with flue gases. More than 100 million tons of fly ash is produced in the United
States every year; most coming from the combustion of coal in power plants.
Nearly half of this fly ash is reused for purposes such as producing cement.
Chemically and physically, fly ash can have many forms depending upon the type
of fuel burned and handling methods. A typical fly ash contains a significant
amount of silicon dioxide and calcium oxide, which make it frictional and abrasive.
Usually, fly ash has a fine particle size distribution with most less than 100 microns.
Given the fine particle size, frictional nature and high temperature, fly ash can be a
difficult material to handle reliably.
In this article, we will look at various types of flow problems that can occur in fly
ash handling and storage systems, including arching, ratholing, flow rate limitations
and flooding. We will describe a proven, scientific method that can be used to
characterize flow properties of fly ash. Also, we will describe various options to
handle fly ash reliably in a deaerated mode as well as in a fluidized state. This
discussion will apply to handling of fly ash in precipitator or baghouse hoppers as
well as in storage silos.
Challenges
In a typical fly ash handling system, the material that is generated as a result of
combustion is captured by an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) or a baghouse before
the flue gases reach the stack. These ESPs and baghouses generally have
multiple pyramidal hoppers at the bottom, in which the ash is collected by gravity
and then is transferred to a storage silo. These storage silos generally have
provisions for a truck load-out to carry the fly ash for disposal or reuse. As a result
of the frictional nature and fine particle size distribution, fly ash handling systems
often experience problems if they are designed without following a prudent

engineering approach. In the following, we first describe the common flow

problems that can occur when handling and storing fine dry fly ash [3, 4, 6].
No-flow from hopper or silo outlet
This condition can result either from arching (also known as bridging) or ratholing.
Arching occurs when an obstruction in the shape of an arch or a bridge forms over
the outlet as a result of the material's cohesive strength. When fly ash forms a
stable arch above the outlet, discharge is prevented and a no-flow condition
results. Fig. 1 on page 46 shows an example of an arching problem.

Ratholing occurs when material empties out through a flow channel above an
outlet. As the level of fly ash in the flow channel drops, a resistance to further flow
into this channel occurs due to the material's cohesive strength. No further material
discharge occurs from the outlet, resulting in a no-flow condition. Fig. 2 on page 46
shows an example of ratholing. The pyramidal shape of typical ESP or baghouse
hoppers makes potential arching and ratholing problems worse.

When flow obstructions switch/interchange between arches and ratholes, erratic

flow results. In a typical erratic flow problem, an arch formed over a hopper outlet
may fail due to an external force, such as vibrations transmitted to the hopper, and
then material flow will resume until the flow channel has emptied out. This will
result in the formation of a rathole preventing material discharge. The rathole can
collapse due to a similar external force and the falling material often gets
compacted over the hopper outlet and again forms an arch resulting in no-flow.
Flow rate limitation
The permeability of fly ash is typically very low due to its fine particle size
distribution. As a result, when deaerated, fly ash provides a considerable
resistance to the flow of air or other gases (simply referred to as air in this paper).
During discharge from a silo or hopper outlet, air counter-flow through the fly ash
bed provides an opposing force to gravity. This air ingress occurs as a result of the
natural expansion of the ash bed within the hopper as it flows, or simply due to
leakage from the conveying system below. As a result, fly ash hoppers and silos
are limited in terms of the maximum discharge rates that they can provide by
gravity alone. This behavior increases the time required to fill the trucks as well as
to empty out the storage silos. This situation can cause further problems when
sufficient storage capacity is not available for newly collected fly ash due to slow
unloading from the storage silo.
Flooding or uncontrolled flow
As a fine powder, fly ash can behave like a fluid when sufficient air is present.
Flooding can result, particularly when the handling rate is too high to allow
sufficient time for the entrained air to escape. In this case, the fly ash may become
fluidized and flush through the outlet unless the feeder can contain it. Flooding not
only creates a challenge in metering the discharge, but can also lead to serious
environmental, health and safety concerns.
Fig. 3 shows an example of the impact of fly ash flooding. In this case, the material
became aerated when a rathole developed in the silo, and then collapsed, resulting
in a rapid and uncontrolled discharge through a screw feeder, emptying the entire
contents of the silo through the building wall in a matter of minutes or seconds.
Figure 3 Jenike Shear Tester

Structural problems

As a result of the collapse of ratholes and the formation of arches, sudden dynamic
forces acting on the silo shell can result in structural damage. Also, the
development of eccentric flow channels within the silo, particularly due to multiple
or offset outlets, can result in non-uniform loading along the outer walls, that may
cause wrinkling or buckling of the silo.
Wear
The presence of a significant portion of silicon dioxide makes fly ash very abrasive
and frictional. As a result of material sliding and impacting within the handling
equipment, wall surfaces undergo tremendous wear. This often results in the need
for frequent patching and replacement.
Dust generation
Dust can be encountered when air currents have sufficient velocity to capture and
move fine particles. Dusting can particularly occur at transfer points where the air
entrained in the powder is suddenly expelled, carrying these finer particles with it.
Dust generation also occurs when local air currents have sufficient velocity to pick
up particles from the surface of a pile. Dust by itself is a nuisance and, more
importantly, it can result in safety concerns including the health effects of operator
exposure and the potential for explosions. Hence, OSHA has a strong policy for
controlling dust generation.
Other problems
Agglomerated lumps of fly ash and foreign materials can create flow problems,
especially when handling fly ash with airslides or aerated bin bottoms. These
lumps are usually too large and heavy to remain in suspension, and settle on the
membranes. This can cause the fluidizing air to short circuit and channel through
fly ash, thus allowing the surrounding material to deaerate. Such conditions often
lead to flow rate limitations or incomplete discharge.
In addition, the pneumatic conveying lines carrying fly ash from the ESP or
baghouse hoppers to storage silos also experience plugging, conveying rate
limitations, as well as pipeline wear issues.
Fly ash can contain excess unburned carbon. When stored in an aerated bin, the
injected air can provide sufficient oxygen for combustion to take place, resulting in
an unsafe condition.
The material handling challenges and flow problems described in this section are
related to how fly ash flows through a hopper or silo. Hence, before looking at the
solutions for these problems, it is important to understand the fundamentals of the
flow of bulk materials.
Bulk Material Flow
Many flow problems are related to how a bulk material flows within a hopper or a
silo. As shown in Fig. 4, there are two primary flow patterns that can develop
during material discharge: funnel flow and mass flow.

In funnel flow, during discharge, only a portion of the material is in motion while the
remainder is stationary. Thus, an active flow channel forms above the hopper
outlet, with stagnant material at the periphery. If the bulk solid has sufficient
cohesive strength, the stagnant material will not slide into the flow channel,
resulting in the formation of a stable rathole. In addition to reducing the live storage
capacity, funnel flow can result in caking and exacerbate particle size segregation.
Often times, shallow hoppers result in funnel flow discharge. Pyramidal hoppers,
which have shallow valley angles, commonly discharge in funnel flow. These
valleys can also serve as hang-up points due to rough welds and the high surface
area, promoting material buildup.
In mass flow, all of the material is in motion whenever any is withdrawn from the
hopper. Material from the center as well as the periphery moves towards the outlet.
Mass flow hoppers provide a first-in-first-out flow sequence, eliminate stagnant
material, and provide a steady discharge with a consistent bulk density and a flow
that is uniform and well-controlled. Requirements for achieving mass flow include
sizing the hopper outlet large enough to prevent arching and ensuring the hopper
walls are sufficiently smooth and steep enough to promote flow along them.
A third type of flow pattern, called expanded flow, can develop when a mass flow
hopper (or hoppers) is placed beneath a funnel flow hopper. The lower mass flow
hopper is designed to activate a flow channel in the upper funnel flow hopper,
which is sized to prevent the formation of a stable rathole. The major advantage of
an expanded flow discharge pattern is the savings in headroom. Particularly for
large structures, a configuration consisting of a funnel flow hopper above a mass
flow hopper results in a significantly lower overall height, compared to a mass flow
hopper only. This approach not only reduces capital cost, but also facilitates
retrofitting existing hoppers and silos by minimizing the additional headroom
requirement. The mass flow hopper beneath the funnel flow hopper still has the
benefits of discharging material with a consistent bulk density.

Which flow pattern develops in a silo is a function of the flow properties of the
material being handled within it.
Flow properties of bulk materials
Several critical flow properties influence a material's handling characteristics.
Cohesive strength of a material determines its potential for forming a stable arch or
rathole. This property is measured as a function of consolidating pressure;
moisture content, temperature and storage time at rest also need to be considered
as conditions for testing. Information obtained from these tests is used to calculate
minimum outlet dimensions for hoppers and silos to prevent arching and ratholing.
Wall friction between a material and a hopper wall surface has a critical influence
on the resulting discharge flow pattern. Wall friction is measured as a function of
consolidating pressure, and also should consider moisture content, temperature
and storage time at rest. Information obtained from these tests is used to
determine hopper angles required to achieve mass flow.
Cohesive strength and wall friction tests are performed using a Jenike Shear
Tester, shown in Fig. 3, in accordance with ASTM standard D 6128 [7].
Compressibility of a material measures the change in its bulk density as a function
of consolidating pressure. It is used to determine the capacity of storage equipment
such as silos and hoppers, and to calculate material flow-induced loads. It also
provides information necessary to determine outlet sizes and mass flow hopper
angles.
Permeability of material measures its resistance to the flow of air through a bed of
particles. It is particularly important when material contains a significant portion of
fines. The data obtained from this test is used to calculate critical, steady-state
discharge rates of the material in a deaerated state as a function of outlet size and
consolidating pressure. Discharge rates attempted above these critical values can
result in two-phase (air:solid) flow problems, such as limitations and flooding
described earlier in this paper [8].
Aeration can be used to overcome discharge rate limitations. To design a storage
system with an aerated discharger, the superficial airflow rates and supply
pressure requirements need to be determined. These are established by running a
fluidization test. In this test, a fluidization column is filled with the bulk material and
air is permeated through a membrane and into the column. Different membrane
types can be used, depending on the application, ranging from relatively
inexpensive polyester to high-temperature duty sintered metals. Plotting air flow
versus pressure drop allows the designer to determine the minimum requirements
for the air supply system. The state of aeration must be considered as part of the
design basis, as to whether the entire hopper contents will be fluidized or whether
just a portion near a silo outlet will be in this state. Discharge controlling devices
such as feeders and gates must perform in a manner that supports the desired
state.
Measurement of a material's angle of repose can aid in estimating storage
capacity, along with use of compressibility (bulk density) test data. However, this
test has little value in characterizing material flow, even though it is often used for
this purpose.
If a material is pneumatically conveyed, its minimum conveying velocity should be
understood to prevent plugging (a risk if it is moved too slowly) and excess pipe

wear (a risk if it is moved too quickly). Pneumatic conveying tests can be used to
gather this data, recognizing the influences of line pressure and size.
All these tests must be run at conditions representing the actual handling
environment, particularly material moisture content, storage time at rest and
temperature.
Designing a Reliable System
When properly designed, a handling system can provide reliable flow for
challenging materials, whereas poorly designed equipment may not be able to
handle even the most free-flowing materials. The key to reliable system
performance is to ensure that the design takes into account flow and other relevant
properties of the materials involved, in this case fly ash.
Selecting the appropriate flow pattern is critical for a reliable storage system.
Funnel flow is suitable only for coarse, free-flowing, non-degrading bulk materials
where segregation is not important. Furthermore, funnel flow discharge is prone to
ratholing, and it exacerbates arching tendency of materials. For materials like fly
ash, mass flow is recommended due to their cohesiveness and ability to cake with
time. Expanded-flow designs are used for large storage volumes or when limited
headroom prevents the use of a mass flow design.
When an existing handling system is not performing well, it can be modified to
improve reliability, even in the presence of limitations due to space, time and
budget.
In order to ensure mass flow, the hopper walls must be steep and smooth enough,
as per the results provided by wall friction tests, to ensure that fly ash flows along
the sloping walls of the hoppers and silos. In addition to this requirement, the outlet
must be sized large enough to prevent cohesive arching as well as to achieve the
desired steady-state discharge rate. Rathole formation is not possible in mass flow,
which is a significant advantage.
Many fly ashes can be handled very well in an aerated state. Fluidization test
results can be used to set superficial air velocity and the expected pressure drop
for the air supply system. These tests can also be used to gage the ability to reaerate the material after stoppage periods or in the presence of large storage
heads. When aerated, the internal friction and wall friction of the material reduce
considerably, thus avoiding cohesive arching and ratholing. This behavior can
allow the use of shallow converging sections in the area of the aerating membrane
and smaller outlet sizes for achieving reliable flow. Aerated fly ash can also
achieve very high discharge rates. In large aerated storage silos, only the material
close to the discharger's membrane becomes fluidized, whereas in smaller bins,
such as blow tanks, the entire contents can reach this state.
In addition to hopper and silo design, feeder design is also critical for ensuring
reliable flow. The type of feeder most suited for a given application depends upon
the flow characteristics of the fly ash, flow pattern selected, and site-specific
requirements such as material handling conditions, available space, and flow rate
control. Of primary concern is the containment of fly ash when it becomes aerated.
Rotary valves are suitable for handling aerated fly ash and when a pressure seal is
required between the storage and conveying systems. For a rotary valve to
withdraw fly ash uniformly from the entire outlet, there must be a sufficiently tall

vertical spool piece between the rotary valve and the hopper. Also, it is important to
provide venting when feeding into a positive pressure environment.
Double dump valves are also commonly used to handle fly ash, and can handle
high air pressure differences. In the actuating sequence for the two valves, first, the
top valve opens, allowing the chamber between the two valves to fill with fly ash,
after which the top valve is closed. This space can then be pressurized or
evacuated as needed. Next, the bottom valve is opened, discharging the fly ash to
the downstream process. Using a double dump valve arrangement results in a
batch or pulsing flow.
Moderate flow rate control and hopper area recovery can be achieved when
handling aerated fly ash by using airslides. Screw feeders can be used for handling
deaerated fly ash; however, caution must be exercised in the design and operation
of the system, since a screw feeder will not hold back material that is aerated.
A conveying system for fly ash must also be designed properly. Often times,
pneumatic conveying systems are used to transfer fly ash from the collection
hoppers to the storage silos. While the equipment used for pneumatic conveying
has advanced significantly over the years, it is still not uncommon to encounter
problems with insufficient conveying capacity, plugging, erosive wear in elbows
and buildup in the line, particularly when emissions control systems are changed
(such as after the introduction of an acid or mercury capturing sorbent system,
which will increase the quantity of ash generated). A pneumatic conveying system
must be designed based on required minimum conveying velocities to avoid
pluggages, while providing the needed air pressure and flow rate to move the
material through the line [5]. In these situations, the pipeline diameter can be used
as a design variable, with step increases made over the line length to minimize
conveying velocities to reduce line wear while increasing the line's capacity.
Following the approaches outlined in this paper can improve the performance of
existing systems, as well as ensure new systems are designed in a manner that
results in reliable fly ash flow.
Footnotes
1 Moisture must be avoided in a dry handling system, since many fly ashes are
hygroscopic and will react with water. If moisture is inadvertently added, caking,
agglomeration and build-up can occur. Fly ashes are well known for their
cementitious properties and are often used in low strength concrete mixes.
2 A valley forms at the intersection of two adjacent hopper walls. The valley angle
is always shallower than the angles of the wall surfaces that surround it.
References
[1] Jenike, A.W.: "Storage and Flow of Solids, University of Utah Engineering
Experiment Station, Bulletin No. 123", November 1964.
[2] Carson, J. W.: Toward a Better Understanding of the Storage and Flow of Bulk
Materials. Proceedings of Bulk 2000, London, Oct. 29-31, 1991.
[3] Barnum, R.A., Hossfeld, R.J., Khambekar, J., Geisel, K., (2009). "Improving
Plant Performance by Retrofitting Coal Bunkers at Mt. Storm, presented at 2009
Power-Gen International Conference in Las Vegas, NV, USA.
[4] Khambekar, J., Rulff, M., Cabrejos, F., (2009). "Improving Storage and Handling
of Ores in Mining and Processing Applications", Mining Engineering, October 2009,
Vol. 61, No. 10.

[5] Khambekar, J., Maynard, E. P., (2011). "How to Reliably Feed Material into
Your Pneumatic Conveying System", Powder and Bulk Engineering, July 2011,
Volume 25, No.7.
[6] Khambekar, J., Barnum, R. A., Geisel, K., (2009). "Dominion Addresses
Generating Problems due to Fuel Handling at Mt. Storm", Coal Power Online
Journal, March/April 2009.
[7] American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM), Standard D-6128.
[8] Baxter, Thomas, Prescott, James K. and Barnum Roger "The Effect of Particle
Size Distribution Upon Adverse Two-Phase Flow, presented at m3: An International
Conference on the Role of Materials Science and Engineering in Drug
Development, Reykjavik, Iceland, May 20-23rd, 2007
Authors:
Dr. Jayant Khambekar (jkhambekar12@jenike.com) is Power Industry Specialist
and Mr. Roger Barnum(rbarnum12@jenike.com) is a Senior Consultant at Jenike &
Johanson. Jenike & Johanson is a specialized engineering firm focusing on
providing reliable bulk solids flow.