Assignment Title

Excretory System

Submitted To: Mam Seema Yousaf

Submitted By: M Usman Waheed

Roll Number:
13-FS-13
Class: BS Food Science & Nutrition
Subject: Human Physiology
Semester: 3rd
GCUF Layyah Campus

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 2
2. URINARY .............................................................................................. 3
2.1 KIDNEYS ........................................................................................... 4
2.2 EXCETORY PASSAGE ........................................................................... 8
2.3 URINE FORMATION ............................................................................. 9
2.3.1 FILTERATION .................................................................................. 9
2.3.2 REABSORPTION ............................................................................. 10
2.3.3 SECRETION .................................................................................. 10
3. SWEATING SYSTEM .............................................................................. 10
3.1 CAUSES OF SWEATING ....................................................................... 11
3.2 LIFESTLY ADJUSTMENTS OF SWEATING ................................................. 12
3.3 SWEAT GLANDS ............................................................................... 13
4. REFERENCE ....................................................................................... 15

Excretory System

1. Introduction
Excretion is the elimination of metabolic wastes by an organism exchanges
boundaries such as the plasma (Cell) membrane of unicellular organisms or the excretory
tubules (flame cells, nephridia, malpighian, tubules, nephrons) of multicellular organisms.
Being alive requires energy and nutrients. It also results in the production of wastes
that need to be removed. Excretion is any process that gets rid of unwanted products or
waste from the body. The main organs involved in human excretion are our skin, lungs, liver
and kidneys. Our skin excretes salts and water as sweat, and our lungs excrete carbon dioxide
(produced by cellular respiration) when you breathe out. Our liver is involved in breaking
down toxins for excretion, and our kidneys are involved in excreting the unused waste
products of chemical reactions (e.g. urea) and any other chemicals that may be in excess
(including water) so that a balance within our blood is maintained. The key phrase is
elimination of metabolic wastes. As most healthy functioning organs produce metabolic and
other wastes, the entire organism depends on the function of the system; however, only the
organs specifically for the excretion process are considered a part of the excretory system.
As it involves several functions that are only superficially related, it is not usually used
in more formal classifications of anatomy or function. This system consists of specialized
structures and capillary networks that assist in the excretory process. The human excretory
system includes the kidney and its functional unit, the nephron. The excretory activity of the
kidney is modulated by specialized hormones that regulate the amount of absorption within
the nephron.

Excretory System

Our body does the same thing every day. Hidden throughout our body are dangerous
poisons that must be removed in order for it to survive. The process of excretion involves
finding and removing waste materials produced by the body.
The primary organs of excretion are the lungs, kidneys, and skin. Waste gases are
carried by blood traveling through the veins to the lungs where respiration takes place. Dead
cells and sweat are removed from the body through the skin which is part of the
integumentary system.
Liquid waste is removed from the body through the kidneys. Located beside the spine
in our back within our ribcage, the kidneys are small (about 10 centimeters long) reddishbrown organs that are shaped like beans.
During circulation, blood passes through the kidneys in order to deposit used and
unwanted water, minerals, and a nitrogen-rich molecule called urea. The kidneys filter the
wastes from the blood, forming a liquid called urine. The kidneys funnel the urine into the
bladder along two separate tubes called ureters. The bladder stores the urine until muscular
contractions force the urine out of the body through the urethra. Each day, our kidneys
produce about 1.5 liters of urine. All of it needs to be removed from our system. This occurs
through urination.
If our kidneys are diseased and not working properly, the buildup of waste in our
system will eventually lead to death. Some kidney diseases can be treated with medication.
Severe kidney diseases require more intense treatment. One treatment is called dialysis. The
patient's blood is pumped through a dialysis machine which filters the waste from the blood
and returns the clean blood. A dialysis patient has to spend nearly sixty hours each week
attached to the machine.

2. Urinary System
The organs, tubes, muscles, and nerves that work together to create, store, and carry
urine are the urinary system. The primary function of the urinary system is to maintain the
volume and composition of body fluids. Normal cell metabolism leads to the accumulation of
waste products, including carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes, ammonia, etc., throughout
the body. The urinary system help to remove these byproducts from the body in order for
normal function to continue. This role leads to the alternate name for this system the
excretory system. The urinary system maintains the appropriate fluid volume in the body by
regulating the amount of water that is excreted in urine. In doing so, the concentrations of
various electrolytes and normal pH of the blood is also controlled. The major organs of the
urinary system are the kidneys (2), ureters (2), urinary bladder, sphincter muscles (2), and the
urethra. Together, these components of the urinary system maintain the fluid homeostasis of
the body.
Excretory System

The urinary system can be subdivided into two functional groups: kidneys and the
excretory passage. The kidney is the site of urine manufacture, the waste products eliminated
from the bloodstream by the filtration processes that occur within these organs. The ureter,
bladder, and urethra are structures for collecting urine and transporting it from the body.

2.1 Kidneys
The main role of the kidneys is to filter water soluble waste products from the blood
resulting from bodily functions. Thus, it is able to control the flux of ions out of the body and
conserve water. The renal arteries are supplied by the Abdominal aorta, delivering 1.25L/min
of blood to the kidneys for purification. Within these organs, urine is concentrated as the
kidney excretes and reabsorbs electrolytes, amino acids, glucose, and other small molecules
under the influence of local and systemic hormones. The pH of the blood is regulated by
bound acids and ammonium ions. Furthermore, kidneys remove urea from the blood, which
is a nitrogenous waste resulting from the metabolism of amino acids. The product of these
waste products is urine, which is stored in the bladder before excreted from the body.

Excretory System

The kidneys are bean-shaped reddish colored organs which lie in the abdomen,
retroperitoneal to the organs of digestions and around or just below the ribcage. The left
kidney lies slightly superior to the right kidney (which sits under the liver), and is also slightly
longer. Each organ in the human body is roughly the size of a fist, measuring 10-12cm in length,
5-7cm wide, and 2-5cm thick. The blood supply, nerves and lymphatic vessels enter and exit at
the hilum (the indented region). Each kidney is surrounded by the renal capsule, a layer of
collagen fibers that covers the outer surface of the organ, and
peri-nephratic fat which stabilizes the organ. Adrenal glands cap the kidneys on the superior
pole. The kidney itself is constructed of two layers. The cortex is the outer layer and the
medulla is the inner layer. The superficial cortex is lighter in color compared to the medulla.
Within the medulla are a number of conical structures called the medullary pyramids. The base
of these triangular regions faces toward the cortex while the papilla (apex) points inward.
Renal columns segregate the pyramids. Each pyramid of medullary tissue and the cortical
tissue immediately above it is defined as a kidney lobe. Medial to the hilum, the renal pelvis
forms a basin-like structure with radial projections, called major calyces which are further
subdivided into the minor calyces, penetrate the medulla. This duct system collects urine from
the pyramids and drains the fluid into the ureters.
The smallest function unit of the kidney is the nephron, and is where urine is formed
and the composition of the blood is regulated. Nephrons consist of a glomerular capsule
(renal corpuscle) and a tubule system. The glomerular capsule (specifically, the Bowmans
capsule) surrounds a tight twisted knot of capillaries called the glomerulus. The Bowmans
capsule is lined on the inside by visceral epithelial cells called podocytes. These cells have long
processes that cling to the capillary walls to establish size selectivity and offer a huge surface
area for exchange between the blood vessel and nephron. Most nephrons are located within
the cortex, and are thus names cortical nephrons. However, others called juxtamedullary
Excretory System

nephrons, are positioned partially in the medulla. These nephrons have additional capillaries
called the vasa recta that facilitate both reabsorption and secretion.

The tubule system of the nephron carries plasma filtrate from the glomerular capsule
to a collection duct, and is the site of reabsorption and secretion. The tubular structure is lined
by a single layer of simple cells and surrounded by peritubular capillaries. These lining cells
facilitate the reabsorption of water and small molecules from the filtrate into the blood
(through the capillaries), and the secretion of wastes from the blood into the urine (the
filtrate). This is the only place in the body where a capillary network is both supplied (afferent
artery) and drained by (efferent artery) an artery. These high-resistance vessels facilitate the
filtration process. The diameter of both arteries can by regulated in order to control the blood
hydrostatic pressure in the glomerular capillaries, thus adjusting the filtration rate within the
kidneys. Depending on what substances are needed by the body to maintain proper pH and
electrolyte concentration, the reabsorption of filtrate components will vary. Water is
reabsorbed by osmosis, but most substances depend on active transport to select what will
re-enter the bloodstream.

Excretory System

Each nephron is made up of along tubule (very fine tube) that forms a cuplike
structure at one end called the Bowmans capsule. This structure surrounds a cluster of
capillaries called the glomerulus (from an ancient Greek word meaning filter). Blood
containing wastes travels to the glomerulus within each nephron in your kidneys, where the
blood is filtered. Wastes and excess water move into the surrounding Bowmans capsule. As
this waste fluid moves along the tubules, any useful substances are reabsorbed back into
capillaries that are twisted around the tubules, and hence back into circulation. The
remaining fluid becomes urine, which eventually travels in your ureters to your bladder prior
to urination.

Excretory System

Both blood and urine are mostly made up of water. Water is very important because it
assists in the transport of nutrients within and between the cells of the body. The
concentration of substances in blood is also influenced by the amount of water in it. Water
helps the kidneys do their job because it dilutes toxic substances and absorbs waste products
so that they can be transportation out of the body. If you drink a lot of water, more will be
absorbed from your large intestines and your kidneys will produce a greater volume of dilute
urine. If you do not consume enough liquid, you will urinate less and produce more
concentrated urine.

2.2 Excretory Passage

The ureters are muscular tubules that link the kidneys to the bladder. They measure
about 30cm in length and 3mm in diameter. This tubule is composed of an outer layer of
connective tissue (adventitia), a middle layer of smooth muscle cells, and an inner layer of
epithelium (mucosa). There are slight differences in the ureters of males and females to
accommodate reproductive organs. The mechanism transporting urine from the kidneys to
the bladder is peristaltic action, the rhythmic contraction of the smooth muscle cells.

Excretory System

The bladder is composed of bands of three layers of interlaced smooth muscle,

collectively called the detrusor muscle. Voiding the bladder, also called micturition, is
controlled by two sphincter musclesthe internal urethral sphincter and the external
urethral sphincter. When the bladder reaches a volume of roughly 200mL, the stretch
receptors in the bladder wall transmit signals to the CNS. The parasympathetic nervous
system produces reflex contractions of the bladder, and the liquid is forced past the
involuntary internal sphincter muscle into the superior part of the urethra. At this point, a
person feels the need to urinate. The voluntary external sphincter muscle can be relaxed and
the bladder emptied.
The urethra extends from the neck of the bladder to the exterior of the body, and is
the final passageway that urine travels through before exiting the body. The final passageway
for the flow of urine is the urethra. This thin-walled tube is composed of smooth muscle,
connective tissue, and is lined with transitional epithelium.

2.3

Urine Formation

2.3.1 Filtration
As blood courses through the glomeruli, much of its fluid, containing both useful chemicals
and dissolved waste materials, soaks out of the blood through the membranes (by osmosis
and diffusion) where it is filtered and then flows into the Bowman's capsule. This process is
called glomerular filtration

Excretory System

2.3.2 Reabsorption
by definition, is the movement of substances out of the renal tubules back into the blood
capillaries located around the tubules (called the peritubular copillaries). Substances
reabsorbed are water, glucose and other nutrients, and sodium (Na+) and other ions.

2.3.3 Secretion
In this respect, secretion is reabsorption in reverse. Whereas reabsorption moves substances
out of the tubules and into the blood, secretion moves substances out of the blood and into
the tubules where they mix with the water and other wastes and are converted into urine.

3 Sweating System
Sweat is produced by sweat glands in the body, which produce a watery fluid and fluid
containing substances such as proteins and lipids. We sweat from up to 5 million sweat glands
located all over the skin on our body. However, sweating that is triggered by emotions or
stress only happen in certain areas of the body, such as the armpits, palms and head.
When body gets too hot and even sometimes when we get nervous our body can
sweat. The hypothalamus is a part of the brain that regulates your body temperature. When
the hypothalamus gives the signal, the sweat glands in your skin begin to make sweat. Sweat
is also called perspiration and is made from waste in your body. Sweat contains urea, salts,
sugars, and ammonia. It moves from the sweat glad onto the surface of our skin and as the
air moves across your skin the sweat evaporates and cools off our body. If you sweat a lot, we
Excretory System

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will need to make sure to replace the moisture that evaporates from our skin by drinking lots
of water especially on a really hot day.
Sometimes sweat can put off an offensive odor. Other people might notice it and
politely avoid you. To keep from being all by yourself, you may want to use some deodorant
or antiperspirant. These are products that help to keep perspiration and smell to a minimum.
Be sure to check with your parents to help select what is best for you.
Changes in your body temperature, the outside temperature, or your emotional state
can cause sweating. The most common areas of sweating on the body include:

armpits
face
palms of the hands
soles of the feet

Sweating in normal amounts is an essential bodily process. Normal sweating can be

as much as a quart of fluid per day, according to the National Institutes of Health (NIH, 2011).
Lack of sweat or excessive sweating can cause problems. The absence of sweat can be
dangerous because your risk of overheating increases. Excessive sweating may be more
psychologically damaging than physically.
Our body is equipped with an average of three million sweat glands. Eccrine sweat
glands are located all over your body and produce a lightweight, odorless sweat.
Apocrine sweat glands are concentrated in the hair follicles of your scalp, armpits, and
groin. These glands release a heavier, fat-laden sweat that carries a distinct odor. The smell,
referred to as body odor, occurs when apocrine sweat breaks down and mixes with the
bacteria on your skin.
Your autonomic nervous system controls your sweating function. This is the part of
your nervous system that functions on its own, without your conscious control. When the
weather is hot or your body temperature rises due to exercise or fever, sweat is released
through ducts in your skin. It moistens the surface of your body and cools you down as it
evaporates.
Sweat is made mostly of water, but about one percent of sweat is a combination of
salt and fat (NIH, 2011).

3.1 Causes of Sweating

Elevated temperatures are the primary cause of sweating, but you can perspire for
other reasons, too. Anger, fear, embarrassment, anxiety, or emotional stress can make you
break out in sweat.
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Sweating may also be a response to the foods you eat. This type of perspiration is called
gustatory sweating, and can be provoked by:

spicy foods
caffeinated drinks including soda, coffee, and tea
alcoholic beverages

Sweating may also be caused by medication use and certain illnesses, such as:

cancer
fever and fever-reducing drugs
infection
hypoglycemia (low blood sugar levels)
painkillers, including morphine
synthetic thyroid hormones
complex regional pain syndrome (a rare form of chronic pain that usually affects an
arm or leg)
The hormonal fluctuations associated with menopause can also trigger sweating.
Menopausal women often experience night sweats and sweating during hot flashes.

3.2 Lifestyle Adjustments for Sweating

A normal amount of sweating generally does not require medical treatment.
However, you can take steps to make yourself more comfortable and minimize your
sweating:

Wear several light layers of clothing that allow your skin to breathe.
Remove layers of clothing as you heat up.
Wash dried sweat off of your face and body for optimum comfort.
Change out of sweaty clothing to reduce the risk of bacterial or yeast infections.
Drink water or sports drinks to replace fluids and electrolytes lost through
sweating.
Apply an underarm antiperspirant or deodorant to reduce odor and control
sweating.
Remove foods from your diet that increase your sweating.

If illness or medications cause uncomfortable sweating, talk to your doctor about

alternative treatments.

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3.3 Sweat gland

Sweat glands, also known as sudoriferous glands, are distributed over the entire body
surface but are particularly abundant on the palms of hands, soles of feet, and on the
forehead. Its primary function is body temperature regulation.
Sweat is primarily composed of water (99%), various salts and organic compounds in
solution. It contains minute amounts of fatty materials, urea, and other wastes. The
concentration of sodium varies from 3565 mmol/l and is lower in people acclimatized to
a hot environment. The presence of sodium chloride gives sweat a salty taste.
Sweat glands are coiled tubular glands leading directly to the most superficial layer of the
epidermis (outer layer of skin) but extending into the inner layer of the skin (dermis layer).
The two main types of sweat glands are eccrine glands and apocrine glands. Both these
types contain myoepithelial cells (from Greek myo-, "muscle"), specialized epithelial cells
located between the gland cells and the underlying basal lamina. Myoepithelial cell
contractions squeeze the gland and discharge the accumulated secretions. The secretory
activities of the gland cells and the contractions of myoepithelial cells are controlled by
both the autonomic nervous system and by the hormonal mechanisms (men produce
greater volumes of sweat than women).

Eccrine sweat glands are distributed all over the body, but the density varies greatly
according to body regions; the highest density (>250 glands/cm2) is found on soles, palms,
and scalp. Eccrine sweat glands are smaller sweat glands that do not extend into the
dermis. They are coiled tubular glands that discharge their secretions directly onto the
surface of the skin.

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Eccrine glands have three primary functions: thermoregulation, excretion and protection.

For thermoregulation, sweat cools the surface of the skin and reduces body temperature.
For excretion, eccrine sweat glands can also provide a significant excretory route for
water and electrolytes. For protection, these sweat gland secretions aid in preserving the
skin's acid mantle, which helps protect the skin from colonization from bacteria and other
pathogenic organisms.
Apocrine sweat glands are limited to axilla (armpits) and perianal areas in humans and are
larger than eccrine sweat glands. These sweat glands are coiled tubular glands that
produce a viscous, cloudy and potentially odorous secretion. Apocrine sweat glands
discharge in the canals of hair follicles. They begin secreting at puberty; the sweat
produced may be acted upon by bacteria, causing a noticeable odor. Apocrine sweat gland
secretions may also contain pheromones, chemicals that communicate information to
other individuals by altering their hormonal balance.

4 Reference
www.kidneychat.com Kidney Function
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 classes.midlandstech.edu/carterp/Courses/bio211/chap25/chap25.htm
faculty.stcc.edu/AandP/AP/AP2pages/Units24to26/urinary/urinform.htm
www.student.loretto.org/humanbiology/9iv.htm

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