Concordia University

Department of Electrical and

computer Engineering
ELEC 6481
Lecture 4
Design of the controller
(Course notes)

Approach based on Bode Plots

The main goal is to choose and tune a controller that
adjusts the loop transfer function to an ideal gain vs.
frequency profile (below). The cross-over frequency
(bandwidth) can be chosen as 10 to 20 % of the switching
frequency of the converter and the phase margin from 45
to 60.
Gain(db)
-40 db/dec
-20 db/dec

-40 db/dec

The ideal gain vs. frequency profile

At the low frequency range, there is a high gain to minimize the steady state error.
At medium frequencies, around the cross-over frequency,
maintain a gain slope of 20 dB/dec, to ensure enough
phase margin.
At the high frequency range, there is a very small gain, to
minimize the influence of the switching harmonics and
overall noise.

Common controllers
P (Proportional): Transfer function, Bode plot
and implementation with operation amplifier
(opamp).
Rf

Gain(db)
Ri

Phase
K=

Rf
Ri

(a)

(b)

(c)

Common controllers
PI (Proportional plus Integral): No steady-state
error. Reduces phase margin. This can be dealt
with by proper selection of .
Gain(db)

Rf
Ri

K PI

1+ s
s

+
Phase
0

KP + KI / s
K PI

0.1/ 1/ 10/

K
= K P , = P
KI

K PI =

Rf
Ri

= Rf C

-90

( ) = 90o + tan 1 ( )

Common controllers
PD (Proportional plus derivative): Increases the
bandwidth (faster response) and increases PM. But
amplifies harmonics and noise.
Gain(db)

Ci

Rf

Ri
-

0.1/ 1/ 10/

K P (1 + s )

Phase
90

KP + KDs
K
= P
KD
(a)

KP =

Rf
Ri

= Ri Ci

(b)

(c)
1

( ) = tan ( )

Common controllers
PI k-factor (Type 2): Additional pole attenuates harmonics and simplifies the calculation of the parameters. The
phase angle at m is always < 0. Function of the K factor.
C2
Gain(db)

K PI

Gain(m)= Kpi

1+ s
1
s 1 + s Tp

1/Tp

1/

+
Phase
0

K PI

R2 C1
=
R1 (C1 + C2 )

1
= K m
Tp

= R2 C1

C C
Tp = R2 1 2
C1 + C2

-90

m = K

C1

R2
R1

= -90 + boost.
(0 < boost < 90 )

boost

K = tan
+ 45o
2

Common controllers
PI controller type 3: Presents 2 poles and 2 zeros. The
phase angle at m can be either positive or negative and is
a function of the K factor.
2

K PI (1 + s )
s (1 + sTP ) 2

R3

Gain(db)
2

C3

R2

C1

R1
-

Z = = m
K
1

1
P =
= K m
TP

(m) = -90 + boost. (0 <boost< 180 )

boost

+ 45o
K = tan
4

Design steps
Plot the frequency response (Bode plot) of the Plant, with
feedback elements. Identify the gain slope of the Plant at:
low frequencies, crossover frequency and high frequencies.
This will allow you to choose the type of controller.
If, at low frequencies, the gain is constant or the gain slope is
only 20 dB/dec, use a controller with an I element (PI, PI
type 2, PI type 3 or PID).
If, at high frequencies, the gain is smaller than 40 dB/dec
one needs to add 20 dB/dec, to attenuate the high frequency
noise, thus use either a PI type 2 or type 3.
The slope of the plant at the crossover frequency (-20 or -40
dB/dec) suggests the use of a type 2 and type 3 PI respective
ly so that the desired 20 dB/dec is achieved there.

Design steps
From the phase of the plant at the crossover frequency and
the desired value for the Phase margin, one calculates the
required phase angle for the controller. This allows the
calculation of the K factor for the modified PI controllers or
of the zero of the PI or PID controllers.
The gain of the controller is calculated so that one can make
the gain of the compensated (with the controller)loop transfer
function equal to zero at the crossover frequency. It means
that the gain of the controller has to be the inverse of the
plant at that frequency.
If a computer is not available to provide the values for gain
and phase, one has to calculate directly from the transfer
functions. Review frequency response plots, section 8.2, Dorf

Example: Buck dc-dc converter

Main parameters:
Vd_0 = 12 V, Vo_0 = 6 V,
D0 = 0.5 V, VST = 10 V,
fsw = 20 kHz, L = 25 H,
C = 625 F, R = 1 ,
RESR 0
G (s) =

vd _ 0
v ST

(1 L C )
2
) s + (1 L C )
s + (1
RC

Gain (dB)

Phase ()

Design steps: Choice of controller

The design specifications for the controller
are: PM = 45 at fx = 4 kHz.
From the Bode plot of the plant, obtains:
|G(fx)| = 0.136, or -17.32 dB and (G(fx))
= -175.9.
Recall that the cutoff frequency of the LC
filter is 1.27 kHz. Slope of gain is -40 db at
the selected cross-over frequency.
Use a PI type 3 controller.

Design of the PI type 3 controller

It has to present a phase lead of 41 ((GC(fx))
= PM - (180+(G(fx))) and a gain of 7.35
(17.32 dB) at the crossover frequency.
Boost angle calculated as 131 and K = 4.6.
x = 25132 rad/s, = 183 s & Tp = 8.6 s.
Calculate |GC(fx)| with KPI = 1
Obtain KPI from: 20 log KPI = - (|GC(fx)|
+|G(fx)| ) = 1.6.

Controller and compensated LTF

Gain (dB)
Controller

Compensated LTF

Phase ()
Controller

Compensated LTF

Summary: Controller parameters

fx = 4 kHz

Kpi

Tp

PM = 45

1.6

184s

8.7s

PM = 60

1.1

267s

6s

fx = 2 kHz

Kpi

Tp

PM = 45

0.316

313s

20.3s

PM = 60

0.231

429s

14.8s

Tests in the time domain (PSIM)

Time domain response (2kHz/60)

Time domain response (2kHz/45)

Time domain response (4kHz/60)

Time domain response (4kHz/45)

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Time domain response (4kHz/45)

Capacitor with an ESR = 0.1

An extra zero appears in the transfer
function of the output filter at 2.5 kHz.
R
L C ( R + RESR )
(1 + s C RESR )
G 2( s ) =
R
v ST 2 ( L + C R RESR )
s +
s+
L C ( R + RESR )
L C ( R + RESR )
vd _ 0

Therefore, the slope of the plant at the

desired crossover frequency is 20 db/dec
and one can use a PI type 2 controller.

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Bode plot of the plant

Gain (dB)

Phase ()

Design of the PI type 2 controller

For the plant one obtains: |G(fx)| = 0.228,
or -12.84 dB and (G(fx)) = -108.65,
Should present phase -26.35: ((GC(fx)) =
PM - (180+ (G(fx)))) and a gain of 4.386,
or 12.84 dB at the crossover frequency.
Boost angle calculated as 63.6 and K = 4.4.
x = 25132 rad/s, = 184 s & Tp = 10 s.
The factor KPI is calculated so that |GC(fx)|
= 4.386, or 12.84 dB .

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Controller and compensated LTF

Gain (dB)

Controller

Compensated LTF

Phase ()

Controller

Compensated LTF

Time domain response (RESR = 0.1)

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Time domain response (RESR = 0.01)

Bode plot for RESR = 0.01

Gain(dB)

PI_2
Plant

CLTF

PM = ?
GM = ?
Phase(o)

CLTF

Plant
PI_2

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Obtaining the frequency response of

a plant using a circuit simulator
PSIM and PSpice can be used to run a frequency sweep yielding a Bode plot.
Actually, the design of the controller can be
done using the circuit simulator.
In some cases, the circuit with switching ele
ments can be used directly. If not, one
should be able to obtain an average equivalent model for the switching power poles.

Average model for switching power poles

Unidirectional switching power poles: Current is unidirectional. A current and a voltage port can be identified.

I vp = D I cp
Equations: Vcp = D Vvp and
Averaged-switch model: Controllable dc transformer.
Averaging of the PWM function for a ramp carrier.

D = Vc /Vr , 0 Vc Vr , for instantaneous values : d (t ) = vc (t )

1
Vr

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Implementation of the dc transformer

Based on controllable current and voltage sources.
Similar to the implementation of converters with switching
functions but without the switching. Control variables (d(t)
and vc(t)) are dc quantities.
VP1
Nvp=1

common

TWO_PORT1
CP1
Ncp

CP1

VP1
-V(%IN)*I(Eout)
Ncp

V(%IN) * V(VP1, common)

Ncp

in

Eout
in

+
-

out
wrt ground

+
-

GAIN = 1

common
Ncp

Average model for switching power poles

Bi-directional switching power poles: Used in voltage
source converter legs(dc-dc and dc-ac). Carrier is triang.
Averaged-switch model: Controllable dc transformer.

v AN (t ) = d (t ) vd (t), id (t ) = d (t ) i A (t ), 0 d (t ) 1,

For the PWM block with a triangular carrier:

d (t ) = 0.5 + 0.5 vmod (t ), - 1 vmod (t ) 1

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Average models for other dc-dc

converters

Obtaining the Bode plot with PSIM

1) Define an ac sweep source, 2) place ac sweep
probes and 3) place the .ACSWEEP element and
define its parameters.

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Bode plot

Bode plot with the ESR

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