e-Journal Earth Science India, Vol.2 (IV), October, 2009, pp.

276 - 288
http://www.earthscienceindia.info/; ISSN: 0974 - 8350

Active Tectonics in the Outer Himalaya: Dating a

Landslide Event in the Kumaun Sector
Rameshwar Bali1, A.R.Bhattacharya1 and T.N.Singh2
1

Centre of Advanced Study in Geology, University of Lucknow, Lucknow

Department of Earth Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology, Mumbai

Email: rameshbali@rediffmail.com

Abstract
Of the entire Himalayan terrain, the Outer Himalaya is believed to show
excellent signatures of active tectonics. The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) that
separates the Outer and Lesser Himalayas has a recorded history of tectonic activities
in the recent past. The present study incorporates an additional example of a major
landslide event, the Amiyan landslide, associated with the MBT that passes through
the toe of this landslide. The Amiyan landslide is one of the biggest debris slides in the
Central Himalayan region. Two prominent fault scarps running almost transverse to
the MBT have developed during the last 15 years. The slide has been increasing in size
at regular intervals from an earlier 0.02 sq km in 1968 to 0.05 sq km till 1992.
Thereafter, the process of continuous reactivation of the MBT and the formation of
fault scarps has resulted in about 12-fold increase of the slide. Such a topographical
adjustment in response to active tectonics in this segment of the Himalaya suggests
that the Outer Himalaya is possibly a major locale of present-day stress release in the
Himalayan region. The results of this work have significant bearing on the
seismotectonic, environmental, ground stability and the related aspects in the
Himalayan domain.

Introduction
The Himalayan mountain chain has been geologically subdivided (Fig.1) into four
major lithotectonic subdivisions (Gansser ,1964). These are, from south to north, (A) Outer
Himalaya that is broadly constituted of the molassic Siwalik Supergroup of Mio-Lower
Pleistocene ages) and is juxtaposed between two tectonic planes: Himalayan Frontal Thrust
to the south and the Main Boundary Thrust to the north. (B) Lesser Himalaya that exposes
a thick pile of folded Proterozoic sedimentary strata and includes a few outcrops of older
crystalline rocks and is bound by the MBT in the south and Main Central Thrust (MCT) in
the north. (C) Greater or Higher Himalaya constituted of a massive, north-dipping pile of
crystalline-metamorphic rocks the Central Crystalline Zone and is demarcated by the
MCT to its south and the Dar-Martoli Fault or the South Tibetan Detachment to the north.
(D) Tethys Himalaya that includes a thick sedimentary pile of Cambrian to Lower Eocene
ages. Of all these, the Outer Himalaya with a youthful and rugged topography is the
youngest of all and constitutes an important unit of the foreland fold-and-thrust belt of the
Himalaya.

Active Tectonics in the Outer Himalaya: Dating a Landslide Event in the Kumaun Sector: Rameshwar Bali et al.

Fig. 1: Lithotectonic subdivisions of the Himalaya (after Gansser, 1964). The area of study
has been indicated.
The mighty Himalayan mountain chain is believed to have formed as a consequence
of collision of the Indian and the Asian plates during the Tertiary times. The development of
the mountain was episodic in nature that ultimately gave rise to the present-day
morphotectonic setup. The fact that the entire mountain belt is neotectonically active
suggests that mountain building processes continue to be active even today and are often
expressed in the form of earthquakes, landslides, subsidence and uplift of land, etc. Of the
four major lithotectonic subdivisions, the Outer Himalaya is believed to be seismically and
tectonically more active than others. An attempt has been made in this paper to precisely
date a major active tectonic event in a part of the Outer Himalaya in the light of the active
tectonics in this segment. This major event of landslide is associated with a major
geotectonic element of the Himalaya, i.e. the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). The event has
significant bearing, amongst others, on the active tectonics of the Himalaya. As yet,
information on precise dating of neotectonic events in the Himalayan region, in general, is
meagre.
The strong neotectonic behaviour of the Outer Himalaya (see Hodges et al., 2001) is
recently brought out by numerous examples. Several workers (e.g. Nakata, 1989; Yeats
and Lillie, 1991; Yeats et al., 1992; Mukul, 2000; Valdiya, 2001; Malok et al., 2003; Joshi
2004; Philip and Virdi 2006) have shown that the major faults, especially those of the Outer
Himalaya, are presently active. Although this region has experienced only a few major
earthquakes, recurring seismicity of low to moderate magnitudes is a common
phenomenon. Further, landslides, ground uplift and slope instability are very common
features. All these processes are relatively more confined to the vicinity of the MBT, thus
suggesting it to be neotectonically very active.
In the Tista valley of northeast Himalaya, the Precambrian metamorphics of the
Darjeeling hills have been shown to rest over the deformed Sub-Recent alluvial deposits
(Heim and Gansser, 1939). Between Dehradun and Rishikesh, the Palaeozoic Chandpur
phyllite overrides the Sub-Recent Dun gravel at several places (Jalote, 1966). The
movement along the MBT has caused an uplift of the Dun deposits by 290 76 m on the
slopes of the Mussoorie hill (Nossin, 1971). Geodetic measurements carried out at Kalwar
indicate that the Nahan Thrust separating the Lower Tertiary from the Siwalik is very active
the horizontal component of the movement is 0.902 cm/yr towards 1320 E and the rate of
strike-slip motion is 0.038 cm/yr (Sinhwal et al., 1973). Along the Lohit River, in the
northeast Himalaya, the Mishmi Thrust juxtaposes, along the Mishmi Thrust, the Palaeozoic
Mishmi metamorphics against the gravels and sands (Thakur and Jain 1974). Bali et al.,
2003 and Bali, 2005 presented an outline of the neotectonic and morphotectonic evolution
of a part of Garhwal Himalaya and northeastern Kumaun Himalaya respectively.

e-Journal Earth Science India, Vol.2 (IV), October, 2009, pp. 276 - 288
http://www.earthscienceindia.info/; ISSN: 0974 - 8350

The present study brings into light an active tectonic event associated with the
Amiyan landslide located near the MBT in the Kumaun region, and is located at about 4 km
north of Kathgodam.

The Amiyan Landslide

Geological Setting:
The Amiyan landslide is one of the biggest active slides of the Central Himalayan
region. It is located in the Lower Siwalik Formation of the Outer Himalaya (Fig.2). The Main
Boundary Thrust (MBT), that separates the Outer Himalaya from the Lesser Himalayan
sedimentary sequence, follows the Gola River in this area and passes from the toe of the
landslide. The Lesser Himalaya in the Amiyan area is characterized by the occurrence of a
crystalline unit called as the Amritpur granite. The MBT thus separates the Siwalik rocks
(Amiyan landslide zone) of the Outer Himalaya from the Amritpur granite of the Lesser
Himalaya, and here the Gola River follows the MBT for at least 4-5 km (Fig. 2). However, in
the adjoining as well as other parts of the Kumaun-Garhwal Himalaya, the MBT separates
the Siwalik strata from the Krol Group (Bhattacharya, 1983).

Fig. 2: False Colour Composite (FCC) showing the location of the Amiyan landslide.
The dominant lithology of the Amiyan landslide area is sandstone (Fig. 3)
occasionally interbedded with mudstone and siltstone (Pant and Luirei, 2005). The general
dip of the rocks in the landslide area is 4050 towards NE while the slope of the ground is
towards north. The relationship between the dominant dip of the rocks and the slope of the
ground has been shown in the stereoplot (Fig.4). The rocks are affected by a number of
joints, and at least four sets of joints striking 60O, 400, 290O and 80O with different attitudes
are present in the area. The northern face of the slide is rather steep and is represented by
the slide overburden that includes heterogeneous debris constituted of blocks of weathered
sandstones that mostly occur in cobble to pebble sizes, together with rock fragments
occurring in a sandy to clayey matrix (Fig. 5).

Active Tectonics in the Outer Himalaya: Dating a Landslide Event in the Kumaun Sector: Rameshwar Bali et al.

Fig 3: Geological map of the Amiyan landslide area

e-Journal Earth Science India, Vol.2 (IV), October, 2009, pp. 276 - 288
http://www.earthscienceindia.info/; ISSN: 0974 - 8350

Fig 4: Stereoplot showing the relationship between the dip of the dominant lithology and
the slope of the ground surface of the Amiyan landslide

Fig. 5:

Photograph showing the general constitution of the debris material

Geomorphological Features:
The Amiyan landslide measures about 1.8 km from head to toe with a maximum
width of about 0.7 km. The active part of the slide has a perimeter of 4.97 km, and covers
an area of more than 0.62 sq km. The overall slope of the landslide from its head to toe is
moderate. There is a fall in height of about 450 m within a distance of 1.7 km. Most of the
slopes are covered by thick shrubs, forest cover and at places is being used for agricultural
practices.
The general topography of the slide zone is rugged with moderate to steep faces.
Locally dip slopes (Fig. 6) are also developed. Steep ground slopes and river valleys with
steep to sub-vertical walls are characteristic features of the terrain around the landslide.

Active Tectonics in the Outer Himalaya: Dating a Landslide Event in the Kumaun Sector: Rameshwar Bali et al.

Fig. 6: Photograph of the Amiyan landslide showing the dip-slope of the rocks
of the slide area.
Wedge Failure:
A wedge failure is a rapid downward movement of wedge shaped rock block along
the line of intersection of the two discontinuous surfaces forming the wedge. A wedge
failure occurs when the angle of inclination of the line of intersection is greater than the
angle of internal friction but less than the slope face (Hoek and Bray 1981). During wedge
failure, the line of intersection daylights within the slope surface (Waltham 2002). In the
Amiyan slide area, two very prominent N-S trending scarp faces of about 40-50 m length
are developed in the central part of the slide (Fig.7). These mark the presence of two fault
planes running almost normal to the strike of the MBT. These fault scarp faces dipping
towards each other have resulted in the formation of a wedge. The overburden material
marked by thick vegetation cover, has been detached as a result of movement along these
planes and has subsequently moved downslope along the line of intersection (Fig. 7).

Fig. 7: Photograph showing two prominent N-S trending scarp faces in the Amiyan
landslide.

e-Journal Earth Science India, Vol.2 (IV), October, 2009, pp. 276 - 288
http://www.earthscienceindia.info/; ISSN: 0974 - 8350

A prominent geomorphological feature of the slide is the presence of a prominent

drainage or stream (locally called a Nala) that broadly bisects the slide zone (Fig. 3). The
slopes on the eastern side are much steeper as compared to those on the western side of
the Nala. The general profile section (Fig. 8) shows that the slope is characterized by breaks
thus producing at least five distinct flats, marked here has A, B, C, D, E and F. Field
investigation shows that there are two distinct zones that show the development of a
number of tensional cracks running almost E-W, i.e. across the slide.

Fig. 8: General profile section of the Amiyan landslide showing at least five distinct flats
named here as A, B, C, D, and E.

Fig. 9: Terraces along the left bank of the Gola River. A- Distant view, B- A closer look.

Neotectonic Character:
The Main Boundary Thrust (MBT), passing through the toe of the slide is known for
its neotectonic behaviour, mainly in the form of recurring seismicity, landslides,
uplift/subsidence of lands, etc. (see also Nakata 1989; Valdiya 1986, 2001). It appears that
the bulk of the neotectonic activity particularly in the Amiyan slide area is used up in the
initiation, maintenance and recurrence of landslide. The neotectonic behaviour of the area is
also attested by a number of signatures in the form of neotectonic markers and geomorphic
features around the landslide area, some of which are highlighted below.

Active Tectonics in the Outer Himalaya: Dating a Landslide Event in the Kumaun Sector: Rameshwar Bali et al.

(i) In the landslide area, the Gola River shows development of prominent terraces
especially along its left bank (Fig. 9).
(ii) About 6 km upstream of the Amiyan village, a major tributary of the Gola River,
referred to as Lugar Gad, meets near Hairakhan. Here the younger fan deposits covering
the Siwalik sandstone have been uplifted by about 40 m with respect to the Lesser
Himalayan rocks, as evidenced by a prominent scarp face (Fig. 10) at the left bank of the
Gola River at about 8 km downstream of the slide area. Their occurrence indicates that the
area has been subjected to rejuvenation.

Fig. 10: The MBT vertically offsets the Recent fan deposits along the Gola River.
(iii) At Beluwakhan, near Jeolikot, the stream-bed deposit of the
Saulia stream has been uplifted by 30 m as a consequence of reactivation
huge landslide fan at Suriyajala resting on the river terrace of recent
dissected by the MBT such that the toe lying on the Siwaliks is raised 85
the MBT (see Valdiya, 1986, 1992, 2001).

now abandoned
of the MBT. The
origin has been
m higher across

Discussion: Dating the Amiyan Landslide and its Implications

The Amiyan landslide has preserved geomorphic signatures that enable precise
dating of the major landslide event. A detailed geomorphologic analysis has been carried
out mainly to ascertain its precise geomorphic setting. Liss III and PAN data have been
analysed and merged together to get an overall digital view of the slide (Fig. 2). Systematic
contouring has been carried out on 1:2000 to understand the precise and actual
topographical setting of the slide (Fig. 8). The large sale surveyed topographical and
geological maps show the precise location of breaks in slopes, scarp faces, extent and
orientation of the tensional cracks, etc.
The previous records show that the slide activity has increased rather very fast in the
last few decades. The Survey of India toposheet of 1968 shows the slide area to be of 0.02
sq km that increased to 0.03 sq km in 1981 and further to 0.05 sq km in 1992 (Srivastava
et al., 1996). This study shows that the present-day (2005) slide area is 0.62 sq km, i.e. it
has increased by about 12 times during the last 13 years (Fig. 11 A). The progressive
increase of the slide area with time has been plotted in a graph (Fig. 11 B). Significantly,
the tensional cracks present in the landslide zone are not shown in the earlier toposheets
and as such these cracks appear to have developed post-1992.

e-Journal Earth Science India, Vol.2 (IV), October, 2009, pp. 276 - 288
http://www.earthscienceindia.info/; ISSN: 0974 - 8350

One possible interpretation of the graph is that there has been a gradual, but slow,
buildup of stresses (as revealed by the slowly rising part of the graph) approximately from,
say, 1968 or so till possibly 1992 when the stresses were released in the form of a major
landslide or in the form of rejuvenation of some old landslide thus causing an increase of
the slide area. Further, our field study clearly shows the presence of fault-scarp faces in the
central part of the Amiyan slide. These fault-scarp faces have not been recorded in the
Survey of India toposheet of 1968 as well as in the later studies carried out by the
Geological Survey of India (Srivastava et al., 1992). All these evidences obviously imply
that a major landslide or neotectonic activity may have taken place post-1992. It is however
not possible to say whether this increase of the area (by about 12 times) has taken place in
one single event or in pulses or in a progressive manner. But by all means, the period
between 1992 and 2005 marks a major event of active tectonics in the area. This particular
time period could thus be considered to be a major phase of rejuvenation of neotectonic
activity in this part of the Himalaya.

Fig. 11: Quantitative representation of the progressive increase of the area of the Amiyan
landslide during the last 13 years (1992-2005). A- Histograms showing the actual
areas for the years measured. B- Graph showing the trend of increase of the slide
area with time.
In the light of the above data, it appears that the present-day morphotectonic
features of the Outer Himalaya may have developed post-1992 in response to some
neotectonic event. The event has resulted in the subsidence of overburden material
between two N-S striking gravity faults. The overburden material has been continuously
moving down the slope under the action of gravity as well as due to the increase in pore
water pressure during the heavy rainfalls of the monsoon seasons. The present-day Amiyan
landslide with an aerial extant of 0.62 sq km thus appears to be one of the most glaring
examples of reactivation of mass movement activities in response to active tectonics in the
Outer Himalaya.

Active Tectonics in the Outer Himalaya: Dating a Landslide Event in the Kumaun Sector: Rameshwar Bali et al.

From above, it appears that the Amiyan area is a major region of present-day stress
buildup possibly due to plate collision followed by release of these stresses as and when the
strength of the rocks exceeds the external stresses. Recently, Bhattacharya (2005) and
Bhattacharya and Agarwal (2008) have shown that the Siwalik rocks are characterized by
complex thrust geometry, especially in the form of duplex, imricate fan systems, pop-up
structures, snakehead anticlines and snakehead duplexes, fault propagation folds,
antiformal stacks and a variety of related structures. These structures imply that these
rocks are undergoing strong internal deformation that are a reflection of the internal
stresses developed due to persistent plate collision. All these suggest that the Outer
Himalaya is presently under the influence of strong internal stresses. Since the MBT is a
prominent plane of anisotropy of regional scale, it is possible that the bulk or a major part
of the tectonic stresses is being released along this tectonic plane. Precise dating of the
Amiyan event, as presented in this work, thus suggests that the Outer Himalaya
particularly the Main Boundary Thrust - is possibly experiencing prominent tectonic
reactivation and intense release of stresses during the last decade. Whether it is a precursor
to any large-scale earthquake in the region is thus an open question!

Conclusions

Landslides, in general, are initiated by several factors. In the Himalayan region,

majority of them are initiated due to excessive precipitation during the monsoons.
The Amiyan landslide is, however, a glaring example of neotectonically induced
landslide.
In the Amiyan landslide, the two north-south trending fault scarp planes dipping
towards each other have produced a prominent wedge. The overburden slumped
wedge material has slipped northwards under the action of gravity.
The previous records show that the slide initially had a very small slide area (0.05 sq
km) along the Gola River and there were absence of fault scarps till 1992. However,
the present study shows that there has been a sudden geomorphic change (increase)
in the slide area with the appearance of two fault scarp planes post-1992. This
sudden change in geomorphology has also been actually witnessed, confessed and
acknowledged by the local people.
The Amiyan slide zone thus constitutes one of the best documented areas where a
large landslide has resulted as a consequence of active tectonics of the Himalaya. Its
precise date of formation, i.e. 1992, is an addition of knowledge for the Himalayan
region in general.

Acknowledgements: RB and ARB are thankful to Prof. N.L. Chhabra, Head, Centre of Advanced
Study in Geology, University of Lucknow, for providing working facilities. Discussions with Dr. K.K.
Agarwal have been fruitful. Financial assistance to two of us (RB and TNS) from the Department of
Science & Technology, New Delhi, is thankfully acknowledged.

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