Caltrans Tackles The Merge: Tour The World'S Largest

| February March 2007 |
Volume 25 Number 1
CalTrans tackles The Merge

Geogrid reinforcement is key for huge Interstate widening project
Tour the world's largest
PVC membrane installation
Designer's Forum:
Examining the case
for the embossed
geomembrane
Final Inspection:
Geosynthetics,
the Army Corps,
and Katrina
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| February March 2007 |

Volume 25 | Number 1
| On Site |
20
20 | On the cover
Construction of the retaining walls and traffic lanes at
the Interstate 5/805 Merge
in San Diego. See page 20.
Cover design by Kari Pederson.
Project Showcase
International Achievement Award winner:

CalTrans tackles The Merge
Geogrids are crucial in this five-year freeway project
nearing completion in San Diego
26
Tour the largest PVC membrane installation

By Dominic Berube, Patrick Diebel, Andre Rollin,
and Timothy D. Stark
At the desolate Salar de Atacama in Chile, massive
evaporation ponds are used in mining operations
34
Liner integrity/leak-location survey:

The significance of boundary conditions
By Ian D. Peggs
Case history examines survey of new landfill
40
26 | Leak-detection testing is completed

for this geomembrane installation.
Geosynthetics February March 2007
Editorial
Letters/Updates
You are the best
Thank you and thanks again

Geosynthetics wins gold award
Update: Geocells and horse trails
12
Designers Forum
46
Geosynthetic Institute
47
Panorama
50
55
Calendar
Junction-strength requirements
for roadway design and construction
By Barry R. Christopher
Confused about requirements for geogrids? Read on.
| In Situ |
Using structured geomembranes

in landfill closure designs
By Ronald K. Frobel
A survey of GSI surveys
GMA-Mexico offers courses

New ASCE officers
PBS debuts Design Squad
Advertiser Index
40 | An examination of junction
strength requirements.
| Final Inspection |
56
Geosynthetics, the Army Corps, and Katrina

By Andrew M. Aho
GMA members see and hear about progress
in New Orleans
6 | Professor Gene Wood of Clemson University

checked out a trail in the Clemson Experimental Forest.
Coming Next Issue | Retaining walls | Pavement separation | Mining | Landfill update |
www.geosyntheticsmagazine.info
| Editorial |
You are the best
EDITORIAL ADVISORY COMMITTEE*

Melody A. Adams
Shaw Environmental Inc., USA
Andrew Aho
GMA, USA
This is the time of year when media outlets are

wont to deliver a series of best ofs from the year
just passedthe best of this, the best of that. Please
| Ron Bygness, Editor
allow us to join in.
+1 651 225 6988
How about the best project using geosynthetic rwbygness@ifai.com
materials? Check out the massive, five-year-long,
highway-rebuilding project in Southern California on page 20. This report describes
the top prizewinner from the annual International Achievement Awards for 2006an
expansion of the Interstate 5/805 weave in northern San Diego. See how geosynthetically reinforced retaining walls allowed construction of additional traffic lanes,
plus truck-specific bypasses, totalling up to 23 lanes wide at some points near the
infamous junction that locals call simply The Merge.
Another best of for this current year: The Geosynthetics-2007 Conference and
Trade Show in Washington, D.C. The Jan. 16-19 event promoted geosynthetic solutions for the environment, transportation, and homeland securitya 3-in-1 show
that highlighted many of the best products, best applications, and best services from
the geosynthetics world.
And our magazineknown just over a year ago as GFR, now Geosyntheticsreceived a best of in 2006: Best Technical Article. With the help of a gifted
engineer and writer (Enrique lvarez) and a talented graphic designer (Heidi Hanson), Geosynthetics won a gold award for its June/July 2006 package titled Back
to the beach in Mexico: Shoreline restored with geotextile tubes as submerged
breakwaters. See page 6.
Finally, our best to all of you this new year! And when you have a best of yourself, please let us know. Featuring your technical expertise, geosynthetics projects,
and case histories helps to keep us your best source for geosynthetics news.
Sam R. Allen
TRI/Environmental, USA
Richard J. Bathurst
Royal Military College, Canada
Witty Bindra
Permathene Pty. Ltd., Australia
David A. Carson
U.S. EPA, USA
Daniele A. Cazzuffi
CESI S.p.A.
Oscar R. Couttelanc
GMA, Mexico
Ronald K. Frobel
R.K. Frobel & Associates, USA
Stephan M. Gale
Gale-Tec Engineering Inc., USA
Han-Yong Jeon
INHA University, Korea
Robert M. Koerner
The Geosynthetic Institute, USA
Robert E. Mackey
S2L Inc., USA
Kent von Maubeuge
Naue GmbH, Germany
Jacek Mlynarek
SAGEOS, Canada
Dhani Narejo
GSE Lining Technology Inc., USA
Roy J. Nelsen
ErosionControlBlanket.com Inc., USA
Jim Olsta
CETCO, USA
Ian D. Peggs
I-Corp International, USA
Greg N. Richardson
G.N. Richardson & Associates Inc., USA
Marco A. Snchez
ML Ingeniera, Mexico
Mark E. Smith
Vector Engineering, Peru
L. David Suits
NAGS, USA
Gary L. Willibey
Advanced Drainage Systems, USA
Aigen Zhao
Tenax Corp., USA
Geosynthetics (formerly GFR) is an international, bi-monthly publication for civil engineers, contractors and government agencies in need of
expert information on geosynthetic engineering solutions. Geosynthetics
presents articles from field professionals for innovative, exemplary practice.
*The Editorial Advisory Committee reviews selected

papers, case histories, and technical editorial copy in
its areas of expertise. Individual advisors do not review
every submission. Statements of fact and opinion are
the authors responsibility alone, and do not imply
the viewpoints of Geosynthetics, its Editorial Advisory
Committee, editors, or the association.
| Geosynthetics encourages your contributions of case histories, photos, and field tips. For submittal guidelines, contact
Ron Bygness at 800 225 4324 or +1 651 225 6988; e-mail: rwbygness@ifai.com.
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| Letters/Update |
Thanks and
thanks again!
Geosynthetics wins gold award
To the editor:
I just read the October/November 2006 edition of Geosynthetics. Thanks for your coverage of the recent U.S. Army
Corps of Engineers/Steve Stockton presentation to your Geosynthetic Materials Association Executive Council.
Also, thanks for GMAs support of the Water Resources
Development Act of 2006. It is good to know that organizations
like yours are supporting this important Act.
Thanks again for a great magazine!
Scott Stoddard
Intermountain Rep/Civil Engineer
Corps of Engineers
Bountiful, Utah
Geosynthetics magazine was recently cited with a Gold

Award/Best Technical Article for the story and graphics in the
June/July 2006 issue titled Back to the beach in Mexico.
Back to the beach in Mexico: Shoreline restored with geotextile tubes as submerged breakwaters was originally written
by Enrique lvarez, Ramiro Rubio, and Herbert Ricalde. The
article was organized and edited by Geosynthetics editor Ron
Bygness. Heidi Hanson was the graphic designer for the package, which included 14 photos and 3 schematic diagrams.
Referring to the 1st-place article and graphics in Geosynthetics, the judges said: Article contains many facts, formulas, diagrams, pictures, references, etc., that are relevant to its
audience. The articles intent was to explain how a new method
of beach restoration works. It used clear language, pictures,
and schematics to explain the process. Though the article is
written for engineers and other industry professionals, aside
from the formulas, it was relatively easy to understand
Well done. The article makes a strong case for the use of
colorful tables, providing visual proof and scientific data that
supports effectiveness.
Magazines produced by the Industrial Fabrics Association
International(IFAI), which includes Geosynthetics, were honored Nov. 2, 2006, at the 10th annual Minnesota Magazine &
Publications Association (MMPA) Excellence Awards. IFAIs
magazines were entered in the Trade Associationsunder30,000 circulation category and won a total of two gold, two
silver, and two bronze awards.
Horses and the land:

Geosynthetics help to improve riding trails
Professor worries animal that helped tame America labelled as enviro outcast
By Tom Lollis
| Erosion-control trail building was

featured in the February/March
2006 issue of Geosynthetics.
Clemson University professor Gene Wood has two great

passionshorses and the land.
He hopes the two are never
separated because of a dispute
over natural resources.
The horse is burned into
the American psyche, said
Wood, a forest wildlife ecologist. The horse carried the pioneer westward and provided,
along with the mule, horsepower on the farm.
No longer the beast of
burden it once was, the horse
today is used for recreation. About 45% of the nations 9.2

million horses are used for that purpose.
Probably a higher percentage of the 93,000 horses in
South Carolina are for pleasure, primarily for trail riding,
he said.
Thats where trouble begins.
We take these 1,000-pound animals that are bred, raised,
and cared for as livestock, but thought of as pets, and use them
on portions of the landscape that we have reserved for natural
resource conservation purposesin places like national and state
forests, Wood said.
In his opinion too many riders dont know what a horse can
do to the land.
Of all the non-motorized trail usershikers, mountain bicyclists, and horsesthe horse is the hardest on the trail, he said.
| Original article written by Tom Lollis of the Clemson University Extension Service; edited for Geosynthetics
magazine by Ron Bygness.
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| Update |
Photos 1 and 2 by Diane Palmer/Clemson PSA Media Relations
Photos 1 and 2 | Professor Gene Wood of Clemson University checked out a trail in the
Clemson Experimental Forest.
Over time trail riders often leave behind gullies, eroded stream banks, silted
streams, angry land managers, and environmentalists calling for a ban on horses
on wildlands.
It doesnt have to be that way, according to Wood, who owns five horses and
enjoys a good trail ride himself.
We can preserve the ecological integrity of the forest and use our horses
out there for recreation at the same time,
he said.
The keys are well-designed, wellconstructed, and well-maintained
trails along with appropriate behavior
by horse riders.
Farmers learned to plow on the contour to reduce erosion. Trails should fit the
contour of the land as well, he said.
One technique tested on the Clemson
trail systemand elsewhere around the
countryis the use of geosynthetic materials such as geotextiles and geocells
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| Update |
Photo 3
drainage. Photo 4: And then trail completion with cover aggregate and horizontally
installed water-bar timbers.)
Wood has been figuring out the details since the early 1990s by working
with the 100 miles of shared-use trails
in the Clemson Experimental Forest
and organizing national and regional
trail conferences.
Photos 3 and 4 courtesy of Tom Letizia (Meredith Brothers Inc.) and the Geauga Park District
filled with gravel. These materials help

hold the aggregate in place so it wont
be displaced by horse hooves.
(For example, photos 3 and 4 show trail
construction in the Geauga Park District in
Ohio, as described in the Feb./Mar. 2006
issue of Geosynthetics magazine. Photo 3:
Installation of 6-in. geocells directly on the
trail to promote reinforcement and proper
Finally he has put what he has learned

into a bookRecreational Horse Trails
in Rural and Wildland Areas.
Funded by the Federal Highway Administrations Recreational Trails Program with funds channeled through the
American Horse Council to Clemson
University, the book will be published
by the USDA-Forest Service Missoula
Technology and Development Center
(MTDC) as a public property.
The book is expected to be available
free on the MTDC Web site this year.
Hard copies will also be made available
for free by the USDA-Forest Service.
Wood teaches the basics of ecology in
the first chapter, showing horse owners
that soil is not just dirt.
Soils vary in sensitivity.
In some situations you can use the
horse a lot without damaging anything,
he said. If a trail has little or no stone
10
| Update |
Photo 4
University hosted the National Conference on Horse Trails in Forest Ecosystems. From that event, Wood developed
a plan for an annual Southeastern Equestrian Trails Conference.
It was hosted by Clemson from
2000 to 2002, then rotated among other
Southern states. It will return to South
Carolina in 2008.
Reference
Shepard, Kathy, Happy Trails: Erosion
control and effective drainage, Geosynthetics, February/March 2006
(Vol. 24, No. 1), pp. 26-29.
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in it, and its muddy, riding a horse at a

fast pace will destroy that trail.
Woods book contains advice on proper
trail construction. The worst trail is one
that goes straight up a down a slope, a
fall-line trail. It will always turn into a
gully. he said.
Wood also said that to protect the natural resources riders should not ride up
and down streambeds. They should stay
off stream banks as much as possible.
He encourages land managers to learn
how to construct appropriate stream
crossings for horses for hydration.
Wood believes that the key to preserving the privilege of riding on public lands is for horse users to become
as sophisticated about natural resources
as organizations such as Ducks Unlimited
and the National Wild Turkey Federation.
Wood has been spreading his message
nationwide since 1998 when Clemson
11
| Designers Forum |
Using structured geomembranes in final

solid-waste landfill closure designs
By Ronald K. Frobel, MSCE, P.E.
Introduction
Slope failures on final cover systems for solid-waste landfills have been well-documented during the past 20 years
with many failures of note within the past three years. Sliding
failures have occurred despite known geotechnical reasons for
failures and known design methods to avoid slope failures.
Many of these failures occur at interfaces with the geosyntheticsmost notably at the geomembrane/geotextile interface or
geomembrane/soil interface.
Early failures in the 1980s prompted manufacturers to develop
and provide an alternative geomembrane with a textured surface
that increases frictional characteristics and thus increases the factor of safety against sliding failures. However, the most common
type of texturing manufactured by the blown-film coextrusion
process (HDPE and LLDPE) has proven less than acceptable in
both surface frictional values and quality of sheet (inconsistency
in asperity height, textured surface, and cross-roll friction values).
Deficiencies in quality and lower-than-expected asperity height
have led to recent slope failures (Sieracke, 2005).
Structured or embossed HDPE and LLDPE geomembranes
have been available to the civil engineering community and
landfill owners and designers for more than 10 years. Their use
in final closure designs has been steadily increasing, especially
during the past five years, as owners and designers discover
and demand the consistently high quality textured and/or
structured characteristics of this type of geomembrane due to
the unique manufacturing process that incorporates flat-die
extrusion and embossed calendars.
This paper will focus on the structured or embossed geomembrane concept and manufacturing process, as well as presenting comparative properties for consideration in design.
Figure 1 | Flat-die calendaring manufacture

(smooth-sheet production)
Surface texturing methods for

HDPE and LLDPE
The following paragraphs will briefly describe and discuss

the two primary surface texture methods in use currently in
North America. Other methods such as surface impingement
are available mostly outside of North America and will not be
discussed in this paper.
12
Structured (embossed) geomembrane texture

During the flat-die manufacturing process for geomembranes, a hot extruded polymer sheet is run between two counter-rotating hot embossing rollers that contain uniform struc-
Figure 2 | Flat-die molded textured surface

(surface-friction profile)
tural die shapes to form a molded or embossed structured

or textured surface that is an integral part of the sheet without
affecting the core thickness. This method has been in use for
more than 20 years and was designed to overcome problems of
non-uniformity, variable area coverage, variable peaks and valleys, variable thickness, and reduction in mechanical properties
that are commonly found with the coextrusion process.
| Ron Frobel is the owner/principal, R.K. Frobel & Associates Consulting Engineers, Evergreen, Colo. He is a member of
Geosynthetics magazines Editorial Advisory Committee.
The Designers Forum column is refereed by Greg Richardson, Ph.D., P.E., of G.N. Richardson & Associates, www.gnra.com.
Figure 3 | Flat-die molded structured surface

(drain-surface profile)
Figure 1 is a photo illustrating the production method, and

Figures 2 and 3 provide examples of the surface texture generated by the flat-die molded surface manufacturing process. A
major advantage of structuring is the ability to create very different surface textures on the upper and lower geomembrane sheet
surfaces, thus customizing the specific application (i.e., drainage
on top and aggressive friction surface on the bottom).
Coextrusion geomembrane texture

During the blown-film coextrusion process, molten polymer is
extruded in two or three layers through concentric ring dies that are
up to 10m (32.8 ft.) in circumference. The outer and inner dies are
used to produce layers that can be textured or roughened by introducing and allowing nitrogen gas to escape. The texture is formed
Figure 4 | Coextruded surface texture (blown-film process)
by the shearing action of the extruder breaking bubbles formed

by the cooling of the blowing agent (nitrogen gas) as it expands.
This process is known to be highly variable from manufacturer to
manufacturer and even within a single roll or across a roll width.
Although the texture cannot be separated or peeled off, the
critical mechanical characteristics of the sheet (i.e., tensile
stress, strain, tear, and multiaxial response) are substantially
reduced due to the introduction of peaks and valleys or surface
imperfections that are not found on a smooth sheet. Additionally, non-uniformity of core thickness and even the method
used to determine thickness has been questionable and is often
a debate in CQA acceptance testing.
Figures 4 (above) and 5 (p. 14) provide examples of the surface texture generated by the process.

13
| Designers Forum |
coextruded textured geomembranes exhibit large post-peak strength loss against
geotextiles due to geotextile fiber tearing, pullout, and shear orientation.
In addition to geotextile fiber/texture
interaction, the texture itself may comb
(lay over) causing greatly reduced post
peak shear strength (Stark and Richardson, 2000). But embossed surface
textures exhibit higher interface shear
strength and lower post-peak strength
loss at lower normal stresses commonly
found in landfill closure designs.
Figure 5 | Coextruded surface texture (blown-film process)
Comparative properties
for design considerations
In addition to the noted differences in

surface texturing methods and noted inconsistencies from roll to roll or within
rolls on coextruded textured geomembranes as discussed above, the following considerations should be examined
during design and ultimate selection of
a textured geomembrane.
14
Potential for mechanical

properties reduction
Reduced mechanical properties of a
required sheet thickness due to a texturing
process such as coextrusion must be considered, especially for the long term where
increasing stresses due to subsidence or
localized settlements will occur and affect
the out-of-plane (multiaxial) response as
well as seam strengths under stress.
Reduced tensile strength and strain to
rupture under load will also occur due to
increased susceptibility to environmental
stress cracking again due to the introduction of notches or imperfections caused by
the coextrusion process. Using the flat-die
extrusion process, the geomembrane mechanical tensile, elongation and other properties are closer to the values of smooth
sheet and do not change from roll to roll as
imperfections or thickness variations are
not introduced during manufacture.
Interaction at the shear surface
Depending on the project design requirements (i.e., steep slopes, seismic
response, construction, and service loading) the peak and large displacement
(post-peak) interface strengths must be
taken into consideration. For example,
according to Stark and Richardson
(2000) and Richardson and Theil (2001),
Design Consideration
Constructability with geotextile surfaces

Some designs require the field placement of a textured geomembrane directly
on a geosynthetic clay liner (GCL) or
placement of a geonet composite or geotextile directly over the textured geomembrane surface. This requires interfacing a
nonwoven geotextile with the textured
surface. The Velcro effect or hookand-loop adhesion to a coextruded tex-
Coextruded
Embossed
Consistent Thickness (cross roll)
No
Yes
Consistent Texture (cross roll)
No
Yes
Consistent Asperity Heights
No
Yes
Asperity Heights >15 mil
No
Yes
Consistent Shear Testing (cross roll)
No
Yes
Yes
No
Texture Combing during Shear
Yes
No
Post Peak Reduction in Shear Strength
Yes
Yes
Easily Placed with Geotextile Surfaces
No
Yes
Increased QC and CQA Costs
Yes
No
Effect on Multiaxial Stress-Strain

(Settlement/Subsistence)
Table 1 | Summary of Comparative Properties for Design Considerations
| Designers Forum |
tured surface is often problematic during
field placement and requires very careful
positioning or the use of a slip sheet.
Embossed geomembrane surfaces, on
the other hand, allow positioning of geotextiles and geocomposites without major
difficulty. Quantifying of the hook-andloop phenomenon has been the subject
of extensive testing and, in particular,
testing the effects on interface shear and
the textured surface during shear (Hebeler, G. L., et.al., 2005; Giroud, J. P.,
2004; Frost, J. D., et.al., 2002).
Geomembranes manufactured with
textured surfaces by embossing provide
consistent uniform quality texture that
will supply the requisite interface shear
strength without the detrimental effects of
the coextrusion-blown film manufacturing
process. Additionally, as regards CQA field
testing and laboratory conformance testing,
structured or embossed textured geomembranes will provide a consistent value from
roll to roll and across the roll width, thus
providing requisite design reliability.
This is not the case for coextruded,

blown-film, textured geomembranes
where the consistency of the texturing both across the roll and roll to roll
should be a concern to the engineering
community What good is direct shear
testing if the material provided is not
consistent with respect to texturing?
(Sieracke, 2005).
Table 1 is a summary of several design considerations that should be addressed when selecting a textured geomembrane to enhance slope stability
factors of safety.
Quality measurements
To properly determine the quality and
specification conformance of a blown
film coextruded texture, multiple locations of discrete measurements must be
made using two mechanical test methods,
namely ASTM D 5994 Test Method
for Measuring the Core Thickness of a
Textured Geomembrane and GRI Test
Method GM 12 Asperity Measurement
of Textured Geomembranes Using a

Depth Gage.
Due to the non-uniform surface, many
discrete locations across a full roll width
must be tested and averaged with maximum and minimum values. The testing
technician tries to obtain the lowest core
thickness and the highest asperity height
by adjusting measurement locations
primarily based on observation. Both
methods have proven to be problematic
and have led to numerous conflicts between manufacturer and specifier (G.R.
Koerner and R.M. Koerner, 2005).
Alternative methods to determine
these elusive properties have been the
subject of several studies and papers
(G.R. Koerner and R.M. Koerner, 2005;
Yesiller, N.,2005). Structured or embossed geomembrane surfaces (textures), on the other hand, are consistent in both core thickness and asperity
height due to the manufacturing process. Thus, multiple measurements to
determine average or minimum values

15
| Designers Forum |
are not necessary in QC and CQA testing for structured geomembranes.
Large-scale, direct-shear
performance testing
The interface strength of contact surfaces and in particular interface frictional
strength must be determined for the geomembrane/geotextile and geomembrane/
soil combinations using project specific
geosynthetics, site specific soils materials, expected loading conditions, moisture/density conditions, etc. Mostly, these
surface friction determinations are made
by experienced personnel in an accredited
geosynthetics laboratory using a largescale, direct-shear box in general accordance with ASTM D 5321 Standard Test
Method for Determining the Coefficient
of Soil and Geosynthetic or Geosynthetic
and Geosynthetic Friction by the Direct
Shear Method (ASTM, 2006).
This testing has become an essential
part of the design process as well as
CQA programs that qualify materials
for construction. The surface texture
consistency is extremely important in
this regard and must not change significantly within a roll or from roll to roll.
In fact, this has been problematic for
coextruded textures that may be tested
only once on a sample from the manufacturer vs. what is actually installed in
the field and has led to failures due to
lower than expected shear strength. If
the textured surface of the material actually received in the field is questionable,
it is recommended that performance
tests be carried out on roll goods that
are received on-site to verify requisite
interface shear properties.
16
Asperity height
Additional to the requirement for a
consistent textured surface, the minimum
value of asperity height must be considered (assuming it can be accurately
measured). Current specification requirements call for a minimum of 10 mils and
reflects GRI Standard GM 13 and 17.
However, 10 mils may be considered
insufficient for many applications and
should be increased to a minimum of at
least 15 mils to compensate for known
lower values that will be encountered in
the coextruded manufacturing process.
Figure 6 | Bottom embossed structured or spike surface
Both coextruded and structured geomembranes can meet the 15-mil minimum.
Types of structured/
embossed textures
There are generally three types of
structured surfaces available to the design
engineer for MSW closure applications:
General slope applications against
soils and geotextiles25-mil asperity
height
Aggressive slope applications with

integral drainage175-mil asperity
height
For general slope applications on
slopes of 3H:1V or less, the embossed
textured material (refer to previous in
Figure 2). provides consistent interface
shear values against a variety of soil
types. Table 2 illustrates the interface
shear values that can be expected with
various soil types as well as a nonwoven
geotextile. As with all slope designs,
Cap Loading ConditionsASTM D 5321

Material
Peak
Adhesion
LD
Adhesion
Efficiency
Coarse Sand
34
65 psf
32
15 psf
92%
Lean Clay
37
110 psf
32
30 psf
97%
Silty Sand
32
55 psf
28
10 psf
100%
NW GT
32
80 psf
17
80 psf
NA
Notes: LD = Large Displacement; NW GT = Nonwoven Geotextile on Geonet

Composite
Cap Loading = 250, 500, 1000 psf; Saturated Conditions
Table 2 | Representative Interface Shear ValuesEmbossed Texture
| Designers Forum |
8 oz/sy Nonwoven Geotextile over 145-mil Drain Stud Profile
Normal Load
Gradient
Transmissivity
Flow Rate
(psf)
(i)
(m/s)
(gpm)
250
0.25
1.19E-03
1.44
250
0.33
1.11E-03
1.77
250
0.50
9.77E-04
2.36
Table 3 | 100 Hour Transmissivity Test Results
large scale performance testing is encouraged using site specific soils and
moisture/loading parameters. Aggressive
or steeper slope applications are possible with the structured spike (bottom)
surface as shown in Figure 6.
Integral top surface drainage

Structured geomembranes are also
manufactured to provide an integral top
surface drainage by incorporating a 145mil stud profile. The top surface of the
stud profile is overlain with a nonwoven
geotextile for retention of drainage soil
placed on top of the structure. Under normal load, the geotextile will intrude into
the drain space as with geonet composites. The transmissivity of the drain layer
is similar to geonet composites under cap
loading conditions without the require-
ment for a geonet composite resulting in

substantial cost savings per acre.
Additionally, the potential for lower
than designed interface shear values of
a geonet composite against a textured
surface is eliminated. The geotextile,
once embedded into the stud profile, provides for excellent interface shear values
against overlying soil with efficiencies
greater than 95%. Figure 7 shows a typical structured geomembrane stud profile
placed on a cap prior to geotextile and
soil cover placement.
Based on project specific laboratory conformance testing incorporating
site soils, transmissivity values of the
drain stud profile with a nonwoven geotextile and soil/cap loading conditions
range from 1.1E-03 to 3.6E-03m2/s at
a gradient of 0.33. Table 3 illustrates
transmissivity test values for a cap loading condition after 100 hours testing
under load. The nonwoven geotextile
initially intrudes into the drain structure
during increasing normal load similar to
geonet composites.
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| Designers Forum |
Figure 7 | Structured drain profile on a slope prior to geotextile/cover soils placement
Summary
Structured or embossed HDPE and

LLDPE geomembranes are not new to
the geosynthetics industry and design
engineers and, in fact, have been used
in a variety of civil engineering applications for more than 10 years. Their
18
use in MSW closure applications has

been steadily increasing during the past
5 years. The advantages of this type of
textured or structured geomembrane are
many, including:
Integral texture or structure embossed within the sheet
Customized texture or structure top

and/or bottom sheet surfaces
Consistent texture, structure and
core thickness from roll to roll or within
a roll
Consistent and reliable interface
shear properties from roll to roll or
within a roll
Consistent mechanical and multiaxial strain properties
Steep slope applications potential
(aggressive spike profile surface)
Integral surface drainage potential
(drain stud profile surface)
Cost-effective in QCA cost reductions (both field and laboratory)
Cost-effective alternative to geonet
composite placed over a textured sheet
(structured drain profile)
It must be emphasized that project
specific specifications and performance
testing regarding required performance
characteristics for a textured geomembrane is the design engineers responsibility. The design engineer must be aware
of the differences in the available types
| Designers Forum |
of textured materials and develop design
specifications and CQA plans that will
ultimately satisfy project requirements
regardless of the material supplied.
References
American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM), 2006.
ASTM D 5321 Standard Test Method for Determining the Coefcient
of Soil and Geosynthetic or Geosynthetic and Geosynthetic Friction by
the Direct Shear Method, Vol 04.13,
Geosynthetics, ASTM Annual Book
of Standards, ASTM, West Conshohocken, Pa.
American Society for Testing and Materials International (ASTM), 2006,
ASTM D 5994.
Standard Test Method for Measuring
the Core Thickness of a Textured Geomembrane, Vol 04.13, Geosynthetics,
ASTM Annual Book of Standards,
ASTM, West Conshohocken, Pa.
Geosynthetic Research Institute (GRI),
2004. GRI Test Method GM 12,
Asperity Measurement of Textured Geomembranes using a Depth
Gage, GRI Test Methods and Standards, Geosynthetic Institute, Philadelphia.

Frost, J. D., Evans, T. M., Hebeler, G.
M. and Giroud, J. P., 2002. Inuence of Wear Mechanisms on Geosynthetics Interface Strengths,
Proceedings of the 7th International
Conference on Geosynthetics, Nice,
France, September, 2002, Vol. 4, pp.
1325-1328.
Giroud, J. P., 2004. Quantitative Analysis of the Impact of Adhesion Between Geomembrane and Geotextile
on the Stability of Soil-Geosynthetic
Systems on Slopes, J. P. Giroud Inc.
Technical Note, 2004.
Hebeler, G. L., J. D. Frost, A. T. Myers,
2005. Quantifying hook and loop interaction in textured geomembranegeotextile systems, Geotextiles and
Geomembranes International Journal, Vol. 23, pp. 77-105.
Koerner, G. R. and R. M. Koerner, 2005.
Ultrasonic Thickness Testing of Textured Geomembranes, Proceedings
Geo-Frontiers 2005, ASCE.
Richardson, G. N. and Theil, R. S.,
2001. Interface Shear Strength: Part
1Geomembrane Considerations,
Geotechnical Fabrics Report (GFR),
Vol. 19, No. 5, IFAI, Roseville, Minn.,
pp. 14-19.
Sieracke, M. D., 2005. Geosynthetic
Manufacturing Concerns from a
Consultants Perspective, Proceedings GRI/NAGS Conference, Las Vegas, December, 2005.
Stark, T. D. and Richardson, G. N.,
2000. Flexible Geomembrane Interface Strengths, Geotechnical
Fabrics Report (GFR), Vol. 18, No. 3,
IFAI, Roseville, Minn., pp. 22-26.
Richardson, G. N. and Theil, R. S.,
2001. Interface Shear Strength: Part
1Geomembrane Considerations,
Geotechnical Fabrics Report (GFR),
Vol. 19, No.5, IFAI, Roseville, Minn.,
pp. 14-19.
Yesiller, N., 2005. Core Thickness and
Asperity Height of Textured Geomembranes: A Critical Review, Geotechnical Fabrics Report (GFR), Vol.
23, No. 4, IFAI, Roseville, Minn., pp.
14-16.

19
Project Showcase
From the 2006 International Achievement Awards for Geosynthetic Projects

All photos courtesy of TenCate Geosynthetics
IAA Award of Excellence

TenCate Geosynthetics
Pendergrass, Ga., USA
Geosynthetic-reinforced plantable wall system

Interstate 5/805 widening project
San Diego County, Calif.
| The lower one-third portion of the massive retaining wall for the Interstate 5/805 bypass lanes is seen here. The wall was built last fall.
Five-year CalTrans freeway project

is nearing completion in San Diego
Introduction
20
In an effort to reduce traffic congestion and improve safety

conditions in northern San Diego, the California Department
of Transportation (CalTrans) is adding lanes and creating a
truck bypass at the Interstate 5/805 junction. A unique portion
of this project is the construction of a plantable, geosyntheticreinforced retaining wall that transforms a simple slope into a
vertical face that supports additional lanes of the reconstructed

freeway.
A two-phased building system allows the attachment of a massive retaining wall, with layers of engineered fill wrapped with
high-strength, woven geogrid, to a concrete facing system that
protects the exposed geosynthetic while a polypropylene geotextile holds loose plantable topsoil to facilitate vegetative growth.
| Information provided from the IAA competition entry forms; Ron Bygness, editor of
Geosynthetics, also contributed to this article.
The Merge
There were days when traffic on the Interstate 5/805 junction in Sorrento Valley north of San Diego was backed up for
literally hours. CalTrans estimated that more than 261,000
vehicles passed through this mother of all bottlenecksknown
locally as The Mergeevery weekday.
That is why a $190 million road-improvement projectthe
most expensive ever in San Diego Countyhas been in progress
for five years and will be completed this year. At it widest point,
the reconfigured freeway will consist of an unheard-of, football
field-wide 23 lanes: seven conventional lanes and four bypass
lanes in each direction, plus a northbound carpool lane.
The Merge is one of the busiest Interstate segments in the
country, and it serves as the major entryway into San Diego
from the northern part of the county as well as Orange County
| A quarter-mile stretch of geogrid reinforcement awaits final

inspection from CalTrans officials before it is covered with
compacted fill.
| Fill is placed over the geogrid reinforcement.

21
Project Showcase
and Los Angeles. Reconstruction on
the roadway began in 2002. By 2005,
new northbound lanes opened. The new
southbound lanes will open this year.
Traffic on The Merge doubled in the
past 15 years. And CalTrans estimates
say it will double again in about another
10 yearsa total of more than half a million vehicles on average each weekday.
Building the wall
To support these new lanes of traffic,

CalTrans engineers designed a huge geosynthetic-wrapped retaining wall with
a massive concrete basket system at its
face. This two-part method allows the
construction of a retaining wall, with
layers of engineered fill and highstrength, woven geogrid attached to a
concrete facing system that protects the
22
geosynthetic exposed at the face and

holds loose plantable topsoil to facilitate
vegetative growth.
The concrete facing portion of the
wall has tiers of headers that extend into
the geosynthetically reinforced backfill
and stretchers that extend between headers to form the front face of the wall.
These stretchers, with the help of nonwoven geotextile-bridged gaps between
the stretchers, hold in loose topsoil so
that vegetation will grow easily at the
face of the wall.
The tremendous soil forces generated
behind the concrete tiers are sustained by
layers of geogrids that extend up behind
the stretchers and then back into the backfill. The end result is a massive, near-vertical retaining wall more than 65 ft. high
that will be completely vegetated.
Geosynthetics
CalTrans required extensive laboratory testing of the geosynthetic materials
before they could be approved for use in
this project. Aggressive installation damage testing was performed to demonstrate
their resistance to damage when exposed
to sharp angular rock under heavy loads.
Creep testing (how much a geosynthetic will stretch under a century of sustained loading) was also performed on
all the geosynthetic materials required to
hold soil loads in the foundation and the
retaining wall. The geosynthetics chosen
for use on this project were manufactured out of high-tenacity polyester that
demonstrated high creep resistance and
long-term durability.
The construction of this 65-ft.-high
structure proved problematic from sev-
| Concrete stretchers, lined with filter geofabric, contain loose topsoil for growth of vegetation at the face of the retaining wall.
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23
Project Showcase
eral sources. CalTrans set stringent requirements for the geosynthetic-wrapped

facing of the wall. It also required high
compaction of the fill, even adjacent to
the geosynthetic-wrapped face, to limit
any differential settlement that may point
load sections of the concrete stretchers.
Further, the geogrid was cut to fit
around each concrete header. The contractor had to develop a system to keep
the geosynthetic-wrapped face square,
achieve proper compaction adjacent to
the geosynthetic face, and keep the geosynthetic extremely tight and in place
during the entire process.
Maintaining high soil compaction
within the geosynthetic-wrapped sections
proved particularly challenging on this
project. The contractor developed a set
of wood forms that held the geosynthetic
square and in place while compacting the
fill adjacent to the geosynthetic face. Only
hand-held compaction equipment would
fit between the headers, which slowed
production significantly and made achieving compaction even more difficult.
24
Once the compaction was completed,

the wood forms were removed to reveal
a densely compacted geosynthetic-lined
face that was completely square and almost hard as stone that was then subject
to approval by on-site CalTrans personnel. This tedious process of wrapping
fabric between the headers was repeated
in 5-in.(0.13m) vertical increments in the
lower section of the wall and increased
to as much as 19-in.(0.5m) vertical increments at the top of the wall.
CalTrans officials approved each compacted, geogrid-wrapped section.
Completion
The foundation of the plantable geosynthetics-reinforced retaining wall also used
geosynthetic reinforcement. Two layers of
geogrid were placed within a gravel blanket to form a reinforced foundation mattress (geosynthetics helped keep the gravel
from spreading laterally while under load)
to support the retaining wall structure with
minimal differential settlement. The entire
blanket was wrapped in geotextile.
When all the dust settled, approximately 1 million yds.2 of geosynthetics

were used to construct this project. The
total wall face is more than 200,000 ft.2
(18,581m2) with heights of up to more
than 65 ft. (21m) and a length of more
than 3,000 ft. (938m). The project consumed a total of more than 815,000 yds.2
(681,422m2) of geogrid products.
Project Highlights
Owner: California Department of

Transportation
Location: Interstates 5/805 junction,
San Diego County, Calif.
Project duration: 20022007
Manufacturing: TenCate Geosynthetics
Geogrid: Mira Miragrid 10XT, 7XT,
5XT, 3XT
Nonwoven geotextile: Mira 140NC
Editors Note:
The Industrial Fabrics Association International (IFAI) invites entries for its 2007
International Achievement Awards competition. For more information about the
IAAs, contact Christine Malmgren, +1 651
225 6926, cmmalmgren@ifai.com.
25
Massive mining evaporation ponds

constructed in Chilean desert
| The Salar de Atacama in Chile is the site of the largest PVC geomembrane
installation in the worldmore than 16 million m2 utilized in mining operations
since 1996.
By Dominic Berube,1 Patrick Diebel,2 Andre Rollin,3 and Timothy D. Stark4
Photos courtesy of Solmax International unless cited
26
Photo 1 | In constructing the evaporation ponds, after the PVC liner is deployed, electrical leak-detection tests are done (see page 32).
| 1International Sales Manager, Solmax International, 2801, Boulevard Marie-Victorin, Varennes, Quebec Canada J3X 1P7, (800)
571-3904 ext. 206, e-mail: dberube@solmax.com
2
Technical Director, Canadian General Tower, 52 Middleton, P.O. Box 160, Cambridge, Ontario N1R 5T6, Canada, 519-623-1630,
e-mail: PDiebel@cgtower.com
3
Director, Solmers International, 1471, boul, Lionel-Boulet, Bureau 22, Varennes, Quebec Canada J3X 1P7, 514453-6998,
e-mail: andre.rollin@sympatico.ca
4
Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Illinois, 205 N. Mathews Ave., Urbana, IL 61801, 217-333-7394,
e-mail: tstark@uiuc.edu
0207GS_26_45.indd
26
4/3/07
5:07:43 PM
Photos 2a and 2b | Air-channel testing of the field seaming (see
page 31).
Sociedad Quimica y Minera de Chile S.A. (SQM), with

headquarters in Santiago, Chile, is one of the worlds largest
producers of specialty fertilizers, iodine, lithium, and other
industrial chemicals. Many of the components of those products are extracted from the geomembrane-lined salar ponds
operated by SQM.
In 2004, SQM began increasing its production of potassium
chloride with the addition of two 300,000m2 evaporation ponds
in the salar region, where operational and environmental concerns dictated the use of an impervious geomembrane system.
Where in the world?
The process
The Salar de Atacama is located at the foot of the Andes

Mountains (68 24 South, 23 30 East) at an elevation of
7,000 ft. (2,130m) in northern Chile, covering an area of
approximately 1,800 mi.2 (3,000km2). This area is near the
Atacama Desert, one of the driest regions in the world. The
site is situated near Chiles borders with Bolivia and Argentina.
One of the most mineral-rich stretches of the Atacama region
is known as the Salar de Atacama.
The Atacama Desert is a sun-drenched, virtually rainless
plateau at the foot the Chilean Andes. The Salar de Atacama
is an ancient seabed underlain by large reservoirs of liquid
brine that is home to the worlds third-largest expanse of
salt flats.
SQM has two production facilities at the salar. To mine the

potassium and lithium salts, large amounts of brine are pumped
to the surface by wells. The pumped brine is conveyed via
canals and directed into the large, lined evaporation ponds.
Clouds rarely form or persist over this region, and the area is
extremely windy, providing an ideal environment to evaporate
the large amounts of water required to deliver the brine into
the ponds.
As a first step in the extraction process, a number of large
pre-concentration ponds are constructed where, by taking
advantage of the evaporation process, a portion of the sodium
chloride in the brine is allowed to precipitate as an undesirable by-product.
The largest PVC geomembrane installation in the world is

so immense that it can be seen from an orbiting space shuttle.
The site is in the arid and isolated Atacama Desert region
in northern Chile where these membrane applications helped
create huge salar (salt) evaporation ponds. This is a project
that extracts natural resources through evaporation and crystallization of naturally occurring brine solutions and develops
them into products such as sodium nitrate, potassium nitrate,
potassium sulfate, and other specialty blends.
27
Photo courtesy of Patrick Diebel
Photo 3 | A brine-filled evaporation pond at the Salar de Atacama in northern Chile. This photo shows one of the ponds filled with
brine and undergoing evaporation. A pumping station in the brine-filled pond is shown in foreground. In the background are piles of
extracted sodium chloride salt, with the Andes Mountains in the far background of this shot.
28
After a residence time, the now-concentrated brine is pumped into production ponds where the dry salt-mineral
produced is mechanically removed and
stockpiled.
Some of the important salts precipitating from the brine are: sodium chloride,
potassium (often used for fertilizer), lithium, and boric acid as a by-product. SQM
is a leader in production of salts used in
fertilizers and provides 35% of the worlds
lithium, a component for batteries, pharmaceuticals, and sapphire glasses used in
jewelry and aeronautics applications.
Potassium and lithium are produced in
different ponds via a three-stage process.
The product is mechanically routed to
an on-site, chemical-processing facility
where the desired minerals are extracted.
Then the extremely concentrated brine
is pumped to a fourth-stage pond for

recovery of boric acid.
The underground brine is recharged,
albeit at a reduced rate, by the melting
snowcaps in the surrounding mountains.
As the recharge water flows through the
underground bedrock it dissolves the
minerals in the sediment of the ancient
seabed forming the concentrated brine.
The concentrated brine is then pumped to
the ground surface and contained in the
ponds lined with PVC geomembranes.
Photo 3 shows one of the ponds filled
with brine and undergoing evaporation.
After the water evaporates, the ponds
are carefully mucked out, with the salts
acting as a protection layer so the liner
system is not damaged. For example,
the bottom salt layer protecting the liner
is sodium chloride in the ponds where
sodium chloride is precipitating, potassium in ponds where potassium is forming, and lithium in the lithium production
ponds. After the salts have been partially
removed, the pond can be refilled and
used repeatedly.
Holes in the geomembrane are extremely detrimental because the brine
can flow out and return to the subsurface
reservoirs. Not having holes in the geomembrane is important because it takes
approximately one year to yield about
1m of salt, i.e., one year to evaporate a
typical pond. Thus, losing brine and having to restart the process after patching a
liner hole is time-consuming, costly, and
reduces the annual production quantity.
In addition, holes in the geomembrane
are difficult to detect because of the presence of muck, so it is imperative that the
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29
Chile Ponds
a
Photos 4a, 4b, 4c | A new evaporation pond, with the final liner installation completed
(a), the pond in preparation for the brine (b), and brine filling the pond (c).
30
geomembrane have excellent chemical

resistance and resistance to pinholes in
manufacturing, fabrication, deployment,
and use. The properties that PVC has
high elongation and the tendency to drape
around any protrusions on the compacted
layer underneath the linerhelps minimize the occurrence of small holes and
brine loss.
Photos 4a-c show the evolution of an
evaporation pond, with the final liner installation completed (a), the preparation
for the brine to fill (b), and the gradual
filling of the pond with brine (c).
These geomembranes are a likely
choice for this application even though
it is a harsh environment. The membranes are durable and offer excellent
chemical resistance to the salts, which
is important because of the long-term
exposure of the geomembranes to the
brine. PVC geomembranes also exhibit
smaller wrinkles than some other geomembranes when installed because of a
lower expansion coefficient, higher subgrade/geomembrane interface strength,
flexibility (Photos 4 and 5).
This is especially significant in this
particular application because the smaller
wrinkles result in substantial intimate
contact between the geomembrane and
subgrade and the protective salt layer.
The benefit of intimate contact is a reduction in the lateral flow from a hole or
leak in the geomembrane.
Liner system design

and installation
The evaporation ponds have average
dimensions of 10 ft.(3m) deep, 1,000
ft.(300m) wide, and 3,000 ft.(1,000m)
long. The liner system of the first ponds
consists of compacted soil PVC geomembrane. The current liner system utilizes
nonwoven geotextile over a compacted
natural salt layer PVC geomembrane.
To reduce field seaming in this harsh
environment, the PVC geomembrane
was fabricated into panels at the factory,
a controlled environment that is more
suitable for high-quality seaming than
on-site at the salar. The panels are typically about 50 ft.(15m) wide and 1,000
ft.(300m) long when shipped to the site.
Thus, the only field seaming required
is the seaming of the panels. The panel
Chile Ponds
size is usually limited by an allowable
field handling weight, so a typical panel
weighs about 6,600 lbs.(3,000kg).
The PVC geomembrane is fieldseamed using a solvent or thermal fusion. With the thermal fusion method,
a hot-wedge or hot-air welder is used.
Thermal fusion is now the recommended
technique because the produced seam
can be air-channel tested if a dual-track
weld is performed.
Testing of field seams

and completed liner
A dual-track field seam was specified by SQM as the primary seaming
method for the pond linings that were
installed in 2004. Given the high cost of
pumping and storing the brine, a seaming
process that allowed the testing of the entire length of the field seams, instead of
isolated areas with destructive samples,
was sought. This resulted in the use of
dual-track welds and air-channel testing
of the field seam (Photos 2a, 2b).
The air-channel testing of PVC field

seams has gained popularity and provides
a number of advantages over destructive
testing of seams. One advantage is that the
air-channel pressure can be used to verify
the seam peel strength specified by the
PVC Geomembrane Institute (PGI 2004)
of 2.6 N/mm (15 lbs./in.), using the sheet
temperature and a relationship presented
by Stark et al. (2004) and shown in Figure
1 (page 32). This relationship is incorporated into the new ASTM Standard Test
Method D7177 (ASTM 2005) for air-channel testing of PVC field seams. Thus, if the
air-channel holds the required pressure,
the frequency of destructive sampling and
testing is less.
The harsh desert environment produced sheet temperatures in excess of
158F (70C), making air-channel testing
a challenge. Sheet temperatures greater
than 158F (70C) are particularly
challenging because the relationship
between the air-channel pressure and
the geomembrane sheet temperature for
the PGI-specified seam peel strength of
Photo 5 | A 3.28-million-ft.2 (1-million-m2)

pond lined with PVC geomembrane
filling with brine.
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31
Chile Ponds
Figure 1 | Relationship between sheet temperature and required air-channel
pressure to achieve seam peel strength of 2.6 N/mm (15 lbs./in.) from Stark
et al. (2004)
32
2.6 N/mm (15 lbs./in.) in ASTM D7177

extends to a sheet temperature of 120F
(48C), as seen in Figure 1.
Testing is currently being conducted to
overcome this limitation. In the interim,
the relationship shown in Figure 1 (i.e.,
the relationship between air-channel pressure and geomembrane sheet temperature
included in ASTM D7177) is extended
to cover the range of sheet temperatures
encountered on this project. Thus, the
air-channel pressure required for the PGIspecified seam peel strength of 2.6 N/mm
(15 lbs./in.) is about 60 kPa (9 psi) for a
sheet temperature of 158F (70C).
Another advantage of air-channel testing of field PVC geomembrane seams is
the flexible nature of these geomembranes
that allows the inflated air-channel to
expand like an inflated bicycle tube. This
allows a visual examination of the entire
inflated seam and identification of any
seam defects even though the seam may
pass the required air-channel pressure.
These defects are usually visible on the
outside of the air channel in the form of
an aneurysm. The flexible nature permits
the inspection of the air-channel as the air
pressure migrates along the entire seam.
If a defect is encountered, the inflation
process will usually cease in the vicinity
of the defect. This allows the entire length
of field seam to be inspected and tested
using the air-channel test procedure.
The project specifications initially required destructive field-seam tests every
1,000 ft. (300m) of field seam, but allowed
the destructive samples to be obtained from
the anchor trench and not on the production liner based on successful air-channel
test results. This destructive sampling is
significantly less frequent than traditional
destructive tests that are conducted every
500 lineal feet (150 lineal meters) of field
PVC geomembrane seam. The elimination of destructive samples from the production liner is noteworthy and should be
adopted in other applications.
After the field seams are tested and
approved, the integrity of the PVC geomembrane was also tested using electrical leak-location methods (Photo 1,
page 26) to ensure the exposed geomembrane is defect free to protect the pumped
brine. Electrical leak-location methods
are readily used for these geomembranes
and can locate extremely small defects.
Chile Ponds
Summary
The evaporation ponds in the Salar
de Atacama region in northern Chile
are lined with PVC geomembranes and
they have performed well in this harsh
environment. In addition, the use of a
geomembrane-facilitated installation
of a liner system in this dry and windy
environment has suceeded because of the
reduction in field seams due to the use of
prefabricated panels.
The use of dual-track, thermal-fusion
welds to create the field seams facilitated
testing of the entire length of the field
seam and omission of destructive tests
on the completed liner with air-channel
testing. Further, the use of prefabricated
panels and fewer field seams resulted in
completing the liners quicker than using
7m-wide geomembrane sheets, and that
expedited the initiation of the evaporation
process and generation of revenue. An average of 325,000 ft.2 (30,000m2) of PVC
geomembrane was deployed, welded, and
tested on a daily basis.
SQMs Salar de Atacama evaporation
ponds represent the largest PVC geomembrane installation in the world to date with
more than 16 million m2 of geomembrane
installed and utilized since 1996.
Acknowledgments
PVC manufacturer:
Canadian General-Tower Ltd.
Panels fabricator and installer:
Solmax International Inc.
QA/QC and electrical leak detection:
Solmers International Inc.
References
In manufacturing our products

With our clients
With the environment
Transparent like water
SKAPS Industries
SKAPS INDUSTRIES is the
Geosynthetic
Leader
leading manufacturer in the eld of

geosynthetics and offers wide array of
products for civil and environmental
applications in the U.S. and abroad.
We offer the following

products:
Nonwoven Geotextile
Woven Geotextile
Drainage Geonet
Drainage Geocomposite
SKAPS Industries is committed to meet the supply
demands of the largest orders under most rigourous
delivery schedules; to exceed industry standards by
implementing stringent quality control measures;
and to ensure utmost customer satisfaction.
ASTM D 7177, 2005, Standard test

method for air-channel testing of
eld PVC Geomembrane Seams,
American Society for Testing and
Materials, West Conshohocken, Pa.,
USA.
PVC Geomembrane Institute (PGI),
2004, PVC Geomembrane Material
Specication 1104, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL, www.pvcgeomembrane.com, January 2004.
Stark, T.D., Choi, H., and Thomas, R.W.,
2004, Low Temperature Air Channel Testing of Thermally Bonded PVC
Seams, Geosynthetics International
Journal, Industrial Fabrics Association International (IFAI), Vol. 11, No.
6, December, pp. 481-490.
That is how we want our company
SKAPS Industries
335 Athena Dr., Athens, GA 30601
706-354-3700 (Ph.)
706-354-3737 (Fax)
www.skaps.com
0207GS_26_45.indd
33
4/3/07
33
5:06:17 PM
Case History
Liner integrity/leak-location survey:

The significance of boundary conditions
By Ian D. Peggs
Introduction
A geoelectric integrity survey was requested on a new landfill cell with the following lining system from the top down:
18 in. sand
Geotextile/geonet/geotextile composite (geocomposite)
Primary geomembrane
Geosynthetic clay liner (GCL)
Geomembrane (rub sheet)
Geocomposite
Secondary geomembrane
Prepared subgrade
There was no sand above the primary geomembrane in half
of the cell, which was on a slope. There was a berm along the
low edge, along with a sand layer below the primary GCL.
It was determined that a successful survey could not be performed on this lining system.
Following are the detailed procedures taken to confirm
that an effective survey could not be performed. These details, in turn, identify some of the parameters that need to be
considered, and actions that need to be implemented, during
both the design and construction phases of a lining system
to ensure that if a geoelectric survey is required, it can be
satisfactorily performed.
For instance, while it makes technical sense to encapsulate
a GCL, it may make it impossible to perform an electrical
integrity survey because there must be sufficient moisture in
the GCL and access to the GCL.
An analogy is measuring the surface elevation gradients on

pond water with a whirlpool at a large leak. Away from the
whirlpool (leak), the gradient is essentially zero with a little
background noise from ripples on the surface. As the dipole
probe enters the whirlpool, the gradient increases to a maximum when the leading electrode is directly above the leak (in
the center of the whirlpool).
As the survey probe continues to move, the gradient becomes zero when the probe electrodes are equidistant astride
the hole. The gradient reaches another maximum, but of the
opposite sign to the previous one, when the trailing electrode
is over the hole. As the probe climbs out of the whirlpool, the
gradient returns to the zero background level. This characteristic up/down/up signal can occur only at a hole. The survey
identifies such signals and locates the center of the leak midway between the two peak signals.
Survey procedure and observations

In a double lining system, the current return electrode is
usually placed down the side slope riser pipe into the second-
Basis of electrical surveys
34
The survey technique is based on the assumption that the

geomembrane is an electrical insulator. Consequently, the
boundary conditions for a successful survey are as follows:
A conductive medium above the geomembrane
A conductive medium through the holes being located
A conductive medium directly underneath the geomembrane
No electrical connection between the media above and
below the geomembrane other than through the holes to
be located
An electric potential is applied between a current injector
electrode placed in the medium above the geomembrane and
a current return (ground) electrode in the medium below the
liner. Current flows only through holes in the liner. A dipole
(two-electrode) probe is then used to measure the potential
gradients on the surface of the overlying medium (sand, in this
case) and identifies the steep characteristic gradients associated
with a leak.
Figure 1 | Locations of pre-installed current return electrodes
(1 and 2). There was no sand over the geocomposite in the upper
half of the cell.
ary sump where it activates the conductive medium under the

primary geomembrane. Thus, this conductive medium must
be continuous from the secondary sump to wherever in the
primary liner there might be a hole.
Since there was no secondary sump in the new cell, we
previously arranged for two plate electrodes to be placed in
contact with the GCL during construction of the lining system
connected to wires that would exit the primary geomembrane
in the anchor trench. The electrodes were placed halfway down
the longer west slope ~180 ft. from each end of the ~750 ft.long cell, shown here in Figure 1.
| Ian D. Peggs, Ph.D., P.E., and president of I-Corp International Inc., is a member of the Geosynthetics Editorial Advisory Committee.
Case History
Figure 2 | Locations of calibration hole (3) and injector electrode (4).
Figure 3 | Location (5) of new current return electrode attached
To calibrate the equipment that would define the spacings

of the orthogonal grid pattern used for surveying, a ~0.25in.-diameter hole was made in the primary geomembrane at
a location 250 ft. southabout halfway up the sand-covered
area of the west slope, as shown in Figure 2. The origin of the
coordinate grid was in the northeast (bottom right) corner of
the cell. Damp sand was placed in the calibration hole, a little
water was added, the geocomposite was replaced over the hole
and wetted, and the sand cover was replaced to reproduce the
condition of the original primary liner.
A potential of 250 VDC was applied between an electrode
in the sand (see 4 in Figure 2) ~200 ft. to the south of the hole
and the previously installed current return electrode to the south
(1). A survey traverse was made for +/- 50 ft. in a north/south
(left/right) direction directly over the calibration hole, but a
characteristic leak signal was not obtainedthe signal was
constant. The applied potential was increased to 500 V, but still
no leak signal was generated.
In both cases, the current registered on the power supply
was a very low 1 mA (the lowest scale reading). Normally this
would be in the region of 20 to 50 mA. For instance, in a survey
on a 3-acre cell at another site during the previous two days the
current was 35 mA at 450 VDC. A low current would typically
indicate that there are no leaks in the liner, but it should still be
possible to clearly see the calibration hole.
Discussions with site personnel revealed that the two current return plate electrodes had been installed with different
types of cushion protection between the plate and the GCL.
The southerly one was cushioned with geocomposite and the
northerly plate was cushioned with GCL.
The former could insulate the GCL from the plate precluding the required good electrical contact. To determine whether
this was a factor in not seeing the calibration hole, the south
electrode was disconnected and the connection was made to
the north electrode. However, the resulting calibration traverse
was again unsuccessful in indicating the leak.
Factors that could lead to the lack of a signal at the calibration hole were considered:
1. Poor connections between current return plate electrodes
and GCL
2. Insufficient conductivity within the GCL along the bentonite layer, which was too dry
3. Insufficient conductivity across the geocomposite
The conductivity of the sand was not in question.
To address item 3, a water truck was used to soak the exposed geocomposite along the top edge of the sand so that the
water would drain under the sand and wet the geocomposite
above the hole. The leak still was not identified.
To address item 1, a long-strip electrode was clamped to the
GCL through a hole made in the geomembrane about 50 ft. to
the west of the calibration hole (Figure 3).
A strip of the GCLs upper geotextile was cut and folded
back to expose the bentonite powder over an area about 2 in.
wide by 8 in. long. Strip electrodes were placed over the bentonite and under the GCL and clamped together at each end
of the exposed strip. The assembly was wetted to assure good
contact and good local conductivity. With an applied potential
of 500 VDC, the current was still indicating 1 mA and the hole
still was not seen when surveyed. This implied that the GCL
was insufficiently conductive.
To further address this concern (item 2 above), a 500 VDC
potential was applied between the strip electrode (5) and the
north current return electrode (2) on the GCL, a distance of ~80
ft. Thus, current would flow only through the GCL. The power
supply still showed a current of only 1 mA. To ensure that
the ammeter on the power supply was functioning correctly,
the current was measured with a multimeter on the microamp
scale. As should have occurred, the current did increase with
applied potential but reached only about 6 A at 500 VDC.
This very low current clearly confirmed that the GCL was
insufficiently conductive.
Further discussions revealed that the primary geomembrane
over the east berm was constructed with sand underneath
the GCL. Therefore, the GCL may have extracted moisture
from the sand to make it adequately conductive, to the extent
that it may be possible to survey the complete berm geomembrane and the associated pipe penetration boots. This
was attempted.
Another calibration hole was placed in the primary geomembrane about 75 ft. to the south of the previous calibration
hole (3), and halfway up the west side of the berm, as shown
in Figure 4 (6). The GCL below the hole was not wetted
and the hole was filled with damp sand. The geocomposite
was placed back over the hole but was not wetted. Sand was
replaced over the geocomposite and compacted by foot.
Thus, the lining system over the calibration hole was in the
same condition as the rest of the primary liner over the rest
of the berm.
directly to the GCL.
35
Case History
Figure 4 | Locations of berm calibration hole (6), berm injector electrode (7), and
berm current return electrode (8).
The injector electrode (7 in Figure

4) was placed on the sand cover about
100 ft. to the south of the calibration
hole. The current return electrode (8 in
Figure 4) was placed in the sand under
the geomembrane (through a hole in the
geomembrane) adjacent to the injector
electrode. At 500 VDC, the current flow
remained at the 1 mA reading and the
calibration hole again could not be seen.
Therefore the GCL had not absorbed
sufficient moisture from the underlying
sand to make it conductive.
36
The berm calibration hole (6) was uncovered and water was poured through
the hole to wet the GCL. The underside
of the geocomposite was wetted, placed
over the hole, and the top of the geocomposite was thoroughly wetted. The
sand was replaced and foot-compacted.
At an applied potential of 500 VDC,
the current flow increased to 11 mA. A
detailed survey traverse was made for
10 ft. across the calibration hole.
As shown in Figure 5, the up/down/
up characteristic leak signal was ob-
Figure 5 | Characteristic leak signal

across berm calibration hole.
tained, but it was not very large. The

signal due to the hole became significant only about 2 ft from the hole. On
the positive potential side of the hole,
the measured peak voltage (48 mV)
barely exceeds three times the background signal (~15 mV) as required by
ASTM D7002, Standard Practice for
Electrical Methods for Locating Leaks
in Geomembranes Covered with Water
or Earth Materials.
Case History
There are few other options for locating leaks in the primary geomembrane.
Blowing smoke between the liners and
observing where it rises out of the geomembrane has been attempted, but not
very successfullyone can never be sure
just how far the smoke penetrates under

the geomembrane.
Pulling a vacuum on the leak-detection
system and using a sensitive microphone
above the liner to listen for the noise of
air being drawn into a leak has also been
done. However, since this cell is connected
to adjacent lining systems, the volume to
evacuate would be unmanageable.
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The calibration surveys and test

measurements showed that the GCL
under the primary geomembrane did
not have the required conductivity to
complete an electrical circuit between
a hole in the primary geomembrane and
the current return electrode attached to
the GCL some distance away from the
hole. Even where the GCL was underlaid with sand on the berm, there was
insufficient moisture in the bentonite of the GCL to make it conductive.
Thus, it was not possible to perform an
electrical integrity survey on the primary geomembrane.
As demonstrated, it would be necessary to wet and hydrate the GCL under
the geomembrane and to wet the geocomposite above the geomembrane in
order to perform an effective survey. The
latter can be done by rain or by using a
water truck, but the former cannot be
done without removing and reinstalling
the geomembrane.
While wetting the geocomposite and
the liner from above will cause some
water to penetrate any leaks, the area of
wetted GCL will remain very small (only
at the leaks). While this will provide a
conductive path through the GCL to the
sand, it may or may not be sufficient to
provide an adequate signal during a subsequent surveythe current flow is a
function of the cross-sectional area of the
wetted path. Previous surveys with only
a geocomposite between primary and
secondary geomembranes have proven
that one cannot rely on the leaking water
to provide an adequately conductive pathway under the primary geomembrane.
In this case, it certainly will not be adequate in the areas where the liner is not
underlain by sand. Therefore, for an effective survey the complete GCL should be
uniformly wetted. This is impractical after
construction. During construction, however, as has frequently been done, the GCL
could be irrigated with about four passes of
a water spray just before the geomembrane
is placed. Similarly, a new geocomposite
primary leachate collection layer can be
wetted before a sand cover is placed over
it. However, geocomposites are rarely a
problem after they have been soaked for
some time with leachate in service.
Alternative methods
for leak detection
W W W
Discussion
37
Case History
When water is actively passing through
a leak and draining through a mineral
layer under the geomembrane, a measurable potential low can be generated at the
entrance to the leak flow channel. But the
topography of this cell would not allow
it to be flooded to generate active leaks.
This approach would only work where
there is sand under the GCL.
Perhaps the method with the most potential for success in this case would have
been to insert a lighter-than-air tracer gas
along the secondary leachate collection
pipe and to monitor its emission through
any leaks in the liner using a sensitive gas
analyzer. This is done very effectively
on landfill caps with the readily available methane and carbon dioxide gases. It
would probably be necessary to pass the
tracer gas through a long hose previously
inserted in the LDS pipe. The hose would
be drawn along the pipe as the survey is
performed above the liner and above the
location of the end of the hose where the
gas is emitted. The holes that are presently
in the liner could be used for calibration
purposes and to assess the feasibility of
such an approach.
Maximize your
companys exposure!
| Letters
to the edit
or |
Retaining
By Bob
Barrett
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38
9:24:59
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Summary
In preparing for a conventional geoelectric-applied potential liner integrity
survey as the final stage of liner installation CQA, it was found (as the result
of several different calibration attempts)
that an effective survey could not be performed on the primary liner. The GCL
under the geomembrane was not adequately conductive.
Calibration could be successfully
achieved only where the GCL was underlain by sand, and then only by thoroughly wetting the GCL through the
hole and by wetting the overlying geocomposite. It would not be practical to wet the complete GCL as would
likely be required where it is underlain
by sand, and as would be essential where it
is placed on the 30-mil-thick rub sheet.
This survey demonstrates the need to
consider the structural requirements for an
effective geoelectric liner-integrity survey
during the design and construction phases
of the lining system. Plan ahead with the
four boundary conditions in mind.
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39
Junction-strength requirements
for roadway design, construction
By Barry R. Christopher
Introduction
Currently many engineers are confused about junctionstrength requirements for geogrids used in roadway base reinforcement and subgrade stabilization applications, primarily
because of commercialism of junction strength requirements.
Some promotional efforts recommend relatively high junction
strength, while others dismiss junction strength altogether.
Confusing?
At least one local public agency specifies a junction strength
for one type of geogrid and states that it is not required for
another type. Adding to the confusion are the methods of reporting junction strength.
Junction strength is usually defined in terms of the ultimate
junction strength (i.e., the force required to rip the junction
apart), as measured by the Geosynthetics Research Institute
GRI GG2 procedure.
However, junction strength is also often reported in terms
of force per width of the material, which is obtained by dividing the force applied to the junction by the nominal aperture
opening, or efficiency, which is the ultimate junction strength
divided by the strength of the rib.
Adding to the confusion are the

methods of reporting junction strength.
40
Regardless of which definition is used, the specification of

ultimate junction strength is applicable in relation to quality
control and meeting minimum constructability requirements.
Pavement performance is evaluated based on serviceability
(i.e., permanent deformation, a.k.a. rutting, over the life of the
pavement) as opposed to a failure state and, correspondingly,
the low-strain modulus of the geogrid is most important for
reinforced base applications. Junctions are required to provide
geogrid interaction at these low strains and, thus, junction stiffness or modulus is required for design.
The stiffness of the junction is related to the ability of the
junction to transfer stress at low strains. However, the junction
stiffness requirements have not been defined and a test method
is not available that allows for an evaluation of junction stressstrain characteristics.
While the ultimate junction strength is not necessarily related to its junction stiffness, it is related to construction survivability (i.e., the ability to resist orthogonal ribs from being
ripped off of the geogrid during construction). The key issue
is: How strong does the junction need to be (and the geogrid
material, for that matter) to survive the level or harshness of
the anticipated construction activities?
The key issue is: How strong does the

junction need to be (and the geogrid,
for that matter) to survive the level or
harshness of the anticipated
construction activities?
Relatively low strength junctions are typically required

to survive construction (GMA, 1998). In pavement test sections reported in the literature (e.g., see references reviewed
in GMA, 1998 and Berg et.al., 2000), several of which have
been observed by the authors, geogrid junction failure has not
been reported during exhumation of the geogrid following
traffic loading. However, there have been reports of junction
failures during construction (although the conditions resulting
in these problems have not been well documented) and it is
still prudent to specify minimum construction survivability
junction strength for quality control and to preclude junction
failure during adverse construction conditions.
The correct technical approach is to base junction strength
on: (1) Design requirements in terms of stiffness at working
loads pertinent to the permanent strain levels expected in the
reinforcement; (2) Construction requirements in terms of
strength required to survive the anticipated construction conditions; and (3) Requirements that the rib transverse to the load
is challenged through its junction strength.
This paper provides a review of technical literature to establish those requirements. Based on this review, recommendations are provided to establish sound and reliable minimum
requirements based on field trials and research, as outlined in
the paper.
| Barry Christopher is an independent geotechnical engineering consultant specializing in reinforced soil

and other ground improvement technologies. He has authored numerous technical papers including design
manuals for the U.S. Federal Highway Administration (FHWA).
Junction strength for construction

Junction strength for roadway construction is essentially
the minimum strength required to maintain the integrity of
the geogrid during shipment and placement. During roadway
construction operations, the geogrid experiences relatively high
levels of localized load as aggregate material is placed, spread,
and compacted on top of the reinforcement.
During placement, the aggregate pushes down on the geogrid
(providing confinement) and out (developing interlock, which
is key to its performance). Provided proper construction
techniques are used, some level of aggregate cover will be
maintained on the geogrid during construction, meaning the
junctions of the geogrid are under a state of confinement due
to the aggregate.
For construction, the junction strength specification is
typically and appropriately based on the standard junction
strength quality control test, Geosynthetics Research Institute
GRI GG2. For example, the American Association of State
and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) references this test
in AASHTO 4E-SR Standard of Practice Guidelines for Base
Reinforcement.
The GRI-GG2 test procedure involves gripping the cross
member of a geogrid rib on both sides of the junction with a
clamping device and gripping the other end of the geogrid rib
(i.e., in the principal loading direction) with another clamp.
Load is applied to the two clamps until rupture of the junction
occurs. Depending on how the gap between the clamps (i.e.,
over the junction) is machined, the junction may experience a
restricted to small amount of out-of-plane rotation and peeling
during loading.
Grab tests involving peeling of the junction (either by machine or hand) should not be performed, as these tests allow for
unrestricted out-of-plane rotation without any constraint of the
junction and, thus, do not represent conditions seen in the field.
Recommended values for construction survivability based on
performing tests using GRI-GG2 are reported in the literature.
Based on a literature review of 19 geogrid studies involving
installation survivability, the Geosynthetic Materials Association (GMA) recommends a minimum junction value of only
35N (8 lbs.) for construction, as obtained from the GRI-GG2
test (GMA White Paper 1).
Conversation with several state agencies indicated that

they have increased this value to 110N (25 lbs.), based on
their own experience with construction that was more aggressive than anticipated. Other state and local agencies have
specified even higher values, on the order of 270N (60 lbs.)
or more, based on specific products and reportedly due to
it would appear that an unbiased,

minimum value should be established
to assure that junctions are not ripped
off during construction and for quality
control.
junction problems with other products (albeit, with anecdotal

background and no reported conditions, e.g., aggregate type,
truck loading, lift thickness, subgrade strength, etc., that
resulted in these problems).
Considering the number of agencies specifying a junction-strength requirement and the order of magnitude range
of requirements specified, it would appear that an unbiased,
minimum value (similar to construction requirements for geotextiles) should be established to assure that junctions are not
ripped off during construction and for quality control.
A conservative value should be developed by the industry
that will allow products to be used in any application without
concern. On projects where construction is not anticipated to
be severe, or on projects where field trials and monitoring can
be performed, leeway should be given to using products with
lower junction strengths, as is currently done for geotextiles in
AASHTO M288-05 (AASHTO, 2005).
41
Requirements
Geosynthetic Design and Construction
Guidelines (Holtz et. al., 1998).
Junction strength
design requirements
42
The junction integrity can, and

should, be evaluated through installation damage assessment tests, using
the procedure in ASTM D 5818 Standard Practice for Obtaining Samples of
Geosynthetics from a Test Section for
Assessment of Installation Damage
and performed by an independent laboratory (as routinely performed for other
geosynthetic reinforcement applications). Installation damage assessment
tests are field trials conducted with simulated field conditions (e.g., granular
base materials placed over the geogrid
and trafficked by placement and compaction equipment).
A concise sampling and testing regime is used to obtain reduction factors for design properties of interest
(e.g., design strength and, in this case,
junction strength and integrity). Both
strength reduction factors and any
junction failures that occur during the
test should be reported, such that the
design engineer can assess the suitability of the geogrid for the specific
application conditions.
An alternative to relying on tests is
to have the contractor construct a test
pad to demonstrate that the placement
technique does not damage the geosynthetics as recommended by the FHWA
Junction requirements for actual performance of the geogrid in roadways are

currently under evaluation by a number
of researchers, and, as of today, standard requirements have not been clearly
established (other than through product
specific empirical based designs). During
the operational life of the roadway, the
geogrid experiences relatively small levels of dynamic load from traffic. These
loads result in dynamic strains, which
accumulate and thus result in a permanent strain in the geogrid with increasing
traffic levels.
The accumulated in-service tensile
strain in the geogrid has been measured
in laboratory and full-scale model studies at a maximum of approximately
2% (Berg et.al., 2000), and is consistent with field measurements in roads.
The strength of the reinforcement at 2%
strain (i.e., the 2% secant modulus) is
also often specified as a design strength
value for the geogrid (Berg et.al., 2000
and AASHTO 4E). Therefore, Kupec et.
al. (2004) argued that the strength at 2%
strain should also be the basis for the
junction strength.
Considering that the soil interaction
with the junction results in the stress in
the geogrid, this would appear to be a
logical argument. But a standardized test
to evaluate the junction modulus does not
exist. The current junction-strength test
(GRI GG2) does not provide a method to
evaluate the stress-strain characteristics
of a junction.
In addition, the conventional test
does not provide confinement on the
junction and, to the contrary, allows
the junction to rotate and thus sets up a
peeling type failure in biplanar products
(e.g., woven and welded geogrids). In
the application, the roadway layers (aggregate and asphalt concrete) above the
geogrid provide a level of confinement
to the geogrid junctions as these loads
are applied and the failure is more of a
shear mode.
Kupec et.al. (2004) modified the existing GRI GG2 test with a special set
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Requirements
junction, this method could be used
to determine the in-soil response of
the junction to in-plane loading and
provide the basis for comparison with
simplified lab tests. This procedure is
currently under evaluation by ASTM
Committee D35.
Recommendations
the stiffness of the junction. While inplane stiffness may be important, the test
method does not provide a direct junction strength or modulus value.
A test is required that will evaluate
the stress that can be transferred by the
junction to the ribs in the geogrid at a
design strain value (e.g., 2%). The test
should simulate field
conditions and either
But a standardized test to evaluate
minimize out-of-plane
the junction modulus does not exist. rotation or even evaluate direct shear of the
junction. To modify
Indeed, if the junction must trans- the existing junction strength tests or defer the load to the geogrid, the junction velop a new test, the in-soil performance
strength at 2% strain may also be an ap- of the junctions should be evaluated for
propriate value for design. This assumes direct comparison or even be directly
that the junction is more flexible than the used for the design value if correlageogrid and, thus, eliminates the influ- tions with a simple lab index test cannot
ence that the junction itself has on the be established.
strain in the geosynthetic. Therefore, the
A pullout test has been suggested
influence of the junction on the geogrid as a method to simulate the ultimate
modulus should also be evaluated.
shear that develops when a wheel
Optimally, a test should measure the pulls on the restraining geogrid (lostrain in the junction and the rib, to ob- cated adjacent to the wheel, Perkins
tain a 2% strain value resulting from et.al., 2004). By using the modified
both deformation of the junction and pullout procedure recommended by
strain in the rib to which the stress is Perkins et.al.(2004) for pavement apbeing transferred. Rotational stiffness is plications and instrument the geogrid
often quoted as a method to demonstrate to evaluate the characteristics of the
of clamps that did not allow rotation of

the junction and compared the strength
obtained at the failure of the junction to
the strength at the 2% strain value in the
geogrid. However, it could be argued
that the junction strength value should
be based on junction strength required to
achieve a 2% strain in the geogrid.
44
In the interim, the following approach

is recommended:
1. Use a conservative minimum
junction strength that should be established industry-wide through data from
full-scale installation damage tests in
accordance with ASTM D 5818 and
documenting the integrity of junctions.
For soft-soil applications, a minimum
of 150mm (6 in.) of cover aggregate
shall be placed over the geogrid and
a loaded dump truck used to traverse
the section a minimum number of
passes to achieve 100mm (4 in.) of
rutting. A photographic record of the
geogrid after exhumation shall be provided, which clearly shows that junctions have not been displaced or otherwise damaged during the installation
process. This information will allow
the establishment of junction survivability requirements in the future for
the range of geogrid materials. (This
was essentially the method used to
establish the minimum survivability
requirements for geotextiles in AASHTO M288-05.
2. For empirical methods, junction strength is not related to design
but only to the characteristics of
the geogrid(s) used in the laboratory
or field trials to establish the traffic
benefit ratio. Alternatively, continue
the proprietary practice based on
field trials, experience and productspecific data.
3. For mechanistic-empirical design,
see Perkins et. al. (2004) for a discussion of design input values and support research to calibrate these input
requirements.
4. Continue to use geogrids with
confidence that most any geogrid
will provide some level of improved
performance; albeit not necessarily
the optimum.
References
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AASHTO (2005) Standard Specications for Transportation Materials

and Methods of Sampling and Testing (25th ed.), American Association
of State Highway and Transportation
Ofcials, Washington, D.C.
AASHTO (2005) Standard Specications
for GeotextilesM 288, Standard
Specications for Transportation Materials and Methods of Sampling and
Testing (25th ed.), American Association of State Highway and Transportation Ofcials, Washington, D.C.
ASTM D 5818 (2004) Standard Practice for Obtaining Samples of Geosynthetics from a Test Section for
Assessment of Installation Damage,
Annual Book of ASTM Standards,
Section 4, Construction, Volume
04.13 Geosynthetics, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, Pa.
Berg, R.R., Christopher, B.R. and
Perkins, S. (2000) Geosynthetic
Reinforcement of the Aggregate
Base/Subbase Courses of Pavement
Structures, prepared for American
Association of Highway and Transportation Ofcials Committee 4E,
prepared by the Geosynthetic Materials Association (GMA), 176 p.
Geosynthetics
Research
Institute
(2005) GRI Test Method GG2 Individual Geogrid Junction Strength,
Geosynthetic Research Institute,
Folsom, Pa. (http://www.geosynthetic-institute.org).
GMA (1998) White Paper 1: Geosynthetics in Pavement Systems ApplicationsSection One: Geogrids;
and Section Two: Geotextiles, prepared for AASHTO by the Geosynthetic Materials Association (formerly the IFAI Geotextile Division),
www.gmanow.com
Perkins, S.W., Christopher, B.R.,
Cuelho, E.L., Eiksund, G.R., Hoff, I.,
Schwartz, C.W., Svan, G. and Watn,
A, (2004) Development of Design
Methods for Geosynthetic Reinforced Flexible Pavements, report
prepared for the U.S. Department
of Transportation Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, D.C.,
FHWA Report Reference Number
DTFH61-01-X-00068, 263p.
Kupec, J., McGown, A. and Ruiken, A.
(2004) Junction Strength Testing for
Geogrids, Proceedings of the Conference EuroGeo 2004, Munich, Germany, pp. 717-722.
45
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| Geosynthetic Institute |
Overview of GSIs surveys

By Bob Koerner
It appears to this writer that any
forward looking decisionsbusiness
or otherwiseshould be made on
the basis of factual information from
the past. My son sent an E-mail to me
stating: Without data, yours is just another opinion!
One step further in gathering this data
is that the information is obtained via
surveys. This brief note presents our
past and ongoing surveys, all of which
emphasize the use (or nonuse) of geosynthetic materials.
Liners and covers

In the landfill liner and cover area, we
conducted our first survey of U.S. State
Environmental Protection Agency regulations in 1993 (GRI Report #11). This
was followed by two subsequent parallel surveys, one in 1998 (GRI Report
#21) of U.S. states and the other in 1999
(GRI Report #23) of national regulations
worldwide. This dual reporting of U.S.
state regulations and worldwide country
regulations is currently being updated
by Jamie Koerner, with reports due in
early 2007.
Roadways
In the highway/transportation area,
we conducted our first survey on behalf of the Federal Highway Administration in 1989. This was followed by
a survey in 1992 (GRI Report #7) on
state-by-state specifications on using
geotextiles in separation, reinforcement,
filtration, drainage, paving fabrics, and
silt fences.
Our most-recent survey in 2006 (GRI
Report #31) tracked the adoption and use
of the AASHTO M288-05 specification
among the 50 state highway departments
in the United States.
Somewhat related in this general
category was our survey of retaining
wall costs in 1998 (GRI Report #20).

The result of this survey indicated that
geosynthetically reinforced retaining
walls are the least costly of all retaining wall systems (gravity, crib/bin,
metallic-reinforced, and geosyntheticreinforced). This was our most widely
used and referenced report, at least to
our knowledge.
Materials
Regarding geosynthetic material
quantity usage, we have conducted
HDPE and LLDPE geomembrane surveys annually from 1998 to 2004, and
geonet/geocomposite surveys annually
from 1999 to 2004. These product usage
surveys, however, are best obtained and
conducted by the Geosynthetic Materials
Association (GMA) and their efforts in
this regard are ongoing.
Coming up
Our next surveys will focus on assessing geosynthetic usage and/or regulations in large-scale agriculture and
aquaculture businesses. (Note that these
particular topics will be the focus of the
GRI-21 Conference at GeoAmericas in
Cancun, Mexico, in March of 2008.) Of
course, federal, state, and regional regulations will be an integral part of these
future surveys.
In closing, the GRI reports noted
above are available free for members and
associate members, and for a nominal
charge for non-members. Please contact
us for more information.
| Geosynthetic Institute, 475 Kedron Ave., Folsom, PA 19033-1208 USA; +1 610 522 8440;
Fax 610 522 8441; E-mail robert.koerner@coe.drexel.edu
| Panorama |
GEO news and notes from around the world

GMA-Mexico
offers classes
The Mexico office of the Geosynthetic Materials Association designed
and delivered two courses last fall. One
was for the Mexican Armys Departament of Engineering; the other with open
enrollment for civilian engineers and
academics.
The military engineers were very receptive last September to see new materials and tools to use in finding solutions
in their jobs, said Oscar Couttolenc of
GMA-Mexico. They even asked me if we
could organize a second course, focusing
the topics on designing with geosynthetics, once they already know the main
applications and products, he said.
The second course in Mexico was
held last November at the Universidad de
las Americas in the state of Puebla.
Geosynthetic materials and their applications in civil engineering was a
two-day class. Its objective was to inform and update civil engineers, especially those working in geotechnical,
hydraulics, and environmental areas,
Couttolenc said.
The class emphasized technological
advances, construction procedures, designing criteria, and current applications
of geosynthetic materials used as a confident instrument in construction and
maintenance .
There were 42 participants in this class,
including 30% students, 30% professors,
and 40% civil engineers from private
companies and government offices.
Mountain route
flowing now
New officers for ASCE

The American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE) installed newly elected
officers to its board last October.
The new board representatives include:
William F. Marcuson III, Ph.D., P.E.,
Hon.M.ASCE, director emeritus of the
Geotechnical Laboratory at the Waterways Experiment Station in Vicksburg,
Miss., was installed as ASCE president.
David G. Mongan, P.E., F.ASCE,
president of Whitney, Bailey, Cox &
Magnani, LLC in Baltimore, Md., was
installed as president-elect of ASCE.
Mongan will assume the role of board
president in the fall of 2008.
Thomas R. Walther, P.E., F.ASCE,
highway commissioner for Eau Claire
County, Wis., will represent Sections and
Branches in Region 3.
Region 4 Robert I. Smith II, deputy
director of logistics and engineering
at Fort Jackson in South Carolina, will
represent Sections and Branches in
Region 4
Thomas M. Rachford, Ph.D., P.E.,
F.ASCE, vice president and corporate
quality officer at Gannett Fleming Engineers and Planners in Camp Hill,
Pa., will represent ASCEs seven Institutes (Architectural Engineering Institute
(AEI), Coasts, Oceans, Ports and Rivers
Institute (COPRI), Construction Institute (CI), Environmental & Water Resources Institute (EWRI), Geo-Institute
(GI), Transportation & Development
Institute (T&DI) and Structural Engineering Institute (SEI)).
Eriks V. Ludins, P.E., a member of
the Bridge Engineering Division of the
city of St. Paul Public Works Department
in St. Paul, Minn., will represent Sections and Branches in Region 3.

Findlay G. Edwards, Ph.D., P.E.,
associate professor at the University
of Arkansas in Fayetteville, and David
F. Garber, P.E., P.L.S., F.ASCE, president of Garber-Chilton Engineers and
Land Surveyors Inc. in LaGrange, Ky.,
will represent Sections and Branches in
Region 4.
Jack Furlong, P.E., project manager
with Halff Associates Inc. in Dallas, and
Jeanette Walther, P.E., P.T.O.E., traffic and transportation project manager
at Bohannan Huston Inc. in Albuquerque, N.M., will represent Sections and
Branches in Region 6.
Michael J. Barton, P.E., P.T.O.E.,
senior traffic engineer at Henningson,
Durham and Richardson Inc. in Tucson, and Robert J. Russell, P.E., M.B.A.,
F.ASCE, engineering director at the
Northern Nevada Regional Transportation Commission in Reno, will represent
Sections and Branches in Region 8.
Mark Creveling, P.E., CEO of Simon
Wong Engineering in San Diego, will
represent Sections and Branches in
Region 9.
Founded in 1852, ASCE represents
more than 140,000 civil engineers worldwide and is Americas oldest national
engineering society. For more information, visit www.asce.org.
ECTCs updated
technical manual
now available
A revised and updated guidance document by the Erosion Control Technology
Council (ECTC) is now ready for industry professionals.
Titled A Technical Guidance Manual: Terminology, Index & Performance
Testing Procedures for Rolled Erosion
Control Products, can be found on
ECTCs Web site, www.ectc.org under
the Testing category in the Documents & Tools section.
The document was originally developed by the ECTC to aid in the unwww.geosyntheticsmagazine.info
Traffic on Highway 330 through

Californias San Bernardino Mountains
returned to near normal last fall after
CalTrans reopened the route to motorists following three months of detours
and closures.
The route between Highland and Running Springs had been closed off and on
while a $7.5 million slope stabilization
project in two locations was completed.
Two primary components of the project were a 25-ft.-high rock wall, constructed with the help of 4-ton boulders, and a 150-ft. embankment with a
geogrid/geotextile covering below the
highway. This cover plus the curving
embankment redirect water below the
roadway, while the rock wall at the bottom prevents erosion, said a CalTrans
representative.
47
| Panorama |
derstanding and use of the most recent
terminology, index/physical property
test methods, and performance research
for RECPs. It also was intended to assist engineers, geologists, soil scientists,
landscape architects, contractors, and
research facilities within the erosion control industry in the selection of RECPs.
The new document continues with these
efforts and includes bench scale testing
information. It also contains updates to
all ASTM standards to reflect the current
state of practice.
For more information about ECTC or
the updated guidance document, contact
Laurie Honnigford at +1-651-554-1895,
E-mail laurie@ectc.org, or visit www.
ectc.org.
Pinning milfoil
to the mat
The latest effort to foil further growth
of milfoil on a pond in Litchfield, Maine,
has taken the form of layers of black,
geotextile mats.
A diver has placed the mats like carpet

on the bottom of Upper Pleasant Pond
in an area where a group of variable-leaf
water milfoil plants was already marked
off by buoys. The mats are made of a geotextile fabric and are held down by reinforcing rods that are placed into sleeves.
Plants under the mat die from lack of
sunlight and slits in the fabric allow gases
from decay to escape to the surface.
The plan is to also install mats near a
public boat landing this spring to other
sites if they prove successful.
Membrane seams
addressed in new
ASTM standard
The increased use of geomembranes
as barrier materials to restrict liquid migration created a need for a test method
to evaluate the quality of geomembrane
seams produced by tape methods.
ASTM International Committee D35
on Geosynthetics has met this need
with the approval of the new standard
D 7272, Test Method for Determining

the Integrity of Seams Used in Joining
Geomembranes by Pre-manufactured
Taped Methods. The standard is under
the jurisdiction of Subcommittee D35.10
on Geomembranes.
Jeff PanKonie, senior sales engineer for Firestone Specialty Products,
noted that the new Test Method D 7272
more accurately addresses the unique
characteristics of taped seams. He
added that D 7272 will become a reference for engineers designing projects
with taped seams, as well as for contractors who can use the standard for
field testing.
Test Method D 7272 was developed to
be used with most taped seams, whether
the membrane is reinforced or nonreinforced. The standard also has allowances
for seam width, since seams can vary
greatly with taped products dependent
on the manufacturer and the types of
membrane and taped seam.
Interested parties are invited to participate in the standards developing ac-
| The Reference Section |
Rock Slope Engineering

Civil & Mining
Item #22104
48
(12/2004, soft cover, 431 pages)

This extensively updated version
of the classic text, Rock Slope
Engineering by Hoek and Bray,
deals comprehensively with the
investigation, design and operation
o f ro c k s l o p e s. I nve s t i g at i o n
methods include the collection and
interpretation of geological and
groundwater data, and determination of rock strength properties,
including the Hoek Brown rock mass strength criterion. Slope
design methods include the theoretical basis for the design of
plane, wedge, circular and toppling failures, and design charts are
provided to enable rapid checks of stability to be carried out. New
material contained in this book includes the latest developments
in earthquake engineering related to slope stability, probabilistic
analysis, numerical analysis, blasting, slope movement monitoring
and stabilization methods.
Barrier Systems for Waste

Disposal Facilities
Item # 22105
(8/2004, hardcover, 600 pages)
This book deals with the design of barrier
systems which separate waste from the
surrounding environment and which are
intended to prevent contamination of
both groundwater and surface waters.
The authors discuss all key aspects of the
design of barrier systems, including leachate collection, natural
barriers such as clayey aquitards, clay liners, geomembrane and
composite liners, providing a state-of-the-art work of reference
of great value to engineers and environmentalists alike. This
retitled second edition of Clayey Barrier Systems for Waste
Disposal has been fully revised and updated, with new chapters
on geomembranes and geosynthetic clay liners as well as a number
of new chapters.
To order, visit www.geosyntheticsbookstore.com;

call 800 207 0729, +1 651 225 6913; or e-mail bookstore@ifai.com
| Panorama |
tivities of Subcommittee D35.10. ASTM
International standards are available for
purchase from Customer Service (phone:
610/832-9585; service@astm.org) or at
www.astm.org.
For further technical information,
contact Jeff PanKonie, Firestone Specialty Products, Indianapolis, Ind.
(phone: 317/575-7238; PankonieJeff@
firestonesp.com).
Committee D35 meets Jan. 31-Feb. 2,
2007, at the January Committee Week in
Costa Mesa, Calif. For membership or
meeting information, contact Christine
Sierk, manager, Technical Committee Operations, ASTM International (phone: 610832-9728; E-mail: csierk@astm.org).
Design Squad TV
show coming on PBS
Design Squad, a PBS live-action
series, will debut this year. Produced as an
educational initiative, its goal is to excite
kids about engineering while making it
engaging and fun at the same time.
Design Squad is a new reality competition show consisting of two teams of

high-school students (ages 16-19) who
use their everyday problem-solving skills
to design, construct, and test whimsical
machines and innovative products for
actual clients. In each episode, teens
undertake real-world engineering challengesfrom designing a summer sled
for L.L. Bean to making an automatic
soccer ball machine for the MLS pro soccer New England Revolution teamand
score points for their abilities at creative
thinking and meeting project demands.
These challenges ultimately lead to the
top two scorers battling for the grand
prize, a $10,000 scholarship from the
Intel Foundation.
In addition to the television series,
Design Squad is collaborating with
engineering organizations and informal educators to increase students
knowledge and foster a positive image
of engineering, often called the stealth
profession because most people do not
fully understand it. Through after-school
programs, museums, and outreach events

nationwide, Design Squad will present
engineering concepts and hands-on activities in an accessible and fun way.
The series premiere on PBS, and related events, will kick off during National
Engineers Week, Feb. 18-24, 2007.
For more information, visit the preview
Web site at: pbskids.org/designsquad.
Correction
The number of geosynthetics pioneers recognized at 8-ICG in Yokohama,
Japan, last fall was printed incorrectly in
the October/November 2006 issue.
The corrected complete sentence
should read: The opening ceremonies of
the 8th International Conference on Geosynthetics on Sept. 19, 2006, featured a
speech by Dr. J. P. Giroud on the history
of the IGS, followed by the introduction
of 16 pioneers who were in attendance at
8-ICG in Yokohama.
An unanswered question can

stop your business in its tracks.
The GMA Techline will put you back in the fast lane.
The Geosynthetic Materials Association (GMA) is pleased
to provide the GMA Techline, a resource for technical
questions about geosynthetics.
Dont second guess, get expert advice.
E-mail GMAtechline@ifai.com for fast, free and direct
answers to your technical questions.
GMA serves as the central resource for information regarding

geosynthetics and provides a forum for consistent and accurate
information to increase the acceptance and to promote the correct
use of geosynthetics. Visit www.gmanow.com for more information.
Geosynthetic
GMAtechline@ifai.com
49
| Calendar |
12-16 February
IECA Environmental Connection, Reno
Environmental Connection 07, IECAs
annual conference and expo (the expo is
Feb. 13-15), is your connection to the erosion and sediment control industry.
Quality education combined with a
world-class expo makes this event a must
for: contractors, developers, engineers,
consultants, regulators, inspectors, government agencies, landscape architects,
manufacturers, educators, and students.
Twenty full-day training courses are
offered, addressing topics such as wind
erosion, construction-site management,
and NPDES regulations and compliance.
PHDs and CEUs are available.
More than 50 case studies and technical
papers will be presented, providing original research and proven techniques to help
you stay ahead in a competitive market.
More than 160 vendors will show participants the latest products and technology
available in the largest expo dedicated to
erosion and sediment control. The expo
floor is a great place to see the latest in products, services, and technologies.
The EC07 event expects more than
2,300 attendees to network with for increased exposure, business opportunities,
and resources.
Note: Environmental Connection 2007
is the only time you can earn your IECA
Trained credits at one event.
EC07 expo: Feb. 1315, 2007, RenoSparks Convention Center, Reno, Nev.
For more information: International
Erosion Control Association, 3001 S.
Lincoln Ave. Suite A, Steamboat Springs,
CO, 80487 USA; phone: 970-879-3010;
fax: 970-879-8563; E-mail: ecinfo@ieca.
org; www.ieca.org.
18-21 February
50
Geo-Congress/2007, Denver
Geo-Denver 2007 at The Adams
Mark in Denver, Colo., will provide professionals and students in all specialty
fields with information about innovative
and emerging technologies needed to
advance geotechnical engineering and
related disciplines. The congress will
involve consulting engineers, general
contractors, sub-contractors, owners,
as well as educators, researchers and
students. The planned congress schedule includes short courses, workshops,
plenary lectures, mini-symposia, panel

discussions, and technical sessions in all
fields of geotechnical engineering and
related geo-professions.
Also planned are extensive exhibits,
diverse field demonstrations and preand/or post-congress events, including
field trips. The scope of the congress
is broad based with direct participation
from all 26 Geo-Institute Technical Committees in the development of the program and technical activities.
For more information: www.geocongress.org; The Geo-Institute of the ASCE,
1801 Alexander Bell Dr., Reston, VA
20191-4400; 800-548-2723 (voice), 703295-6350 (voice), 703-295-6351 (fax).
22-23 February
Highway Bridge Design and
Strengthening Using LRFD, Las Vegas
The purpose of this seminar is to concentrate on the fundamentals of LRFD
(Load and Resistance Factor Design) for
highway bridge design and strengthening.
The LRFD approach is broken down
into its basic components and a detailed
explanation is provided on how and why
each component was developed. The
course will provide a practical introduction to the many new technologies
advanced in the LRFD Specifications,
including the limits states design philosophy, the use of notional live load
models, and the application of structural
reliability methods to achieve a more
uniform level of safety in bridges.
LRFD live load models, load factors,
distribution factors, load combinations,
and design provisions for steel and concrete bridges will be reviewed and illustrated, with detailed design examples
with step-by-step explanations.
For more information, including costs,
U.S. and Canada toll-free: 800 488 4775.
5-6 March
Improving Public Works Construction
Inspection Skills, Course #H639
Allentown, Pa.
This course will be conducted March
5-6 in Allentown.
Among the topics covered: contracts and
specifications, soils fundamentals, water and
sewer construction, concrete and asphalt
pavement construction, geosynthetics applications, and erosion-control techniques.
The course instructors are professional

engineers dedicated to providing an interactive learning experience, aiding participants
in solving problems, and understanding
situations applicable for the participants.
Participants can earn Continuing Education Units (CEU), and Professional
Development Hours (PDH).
The fee covers course notebook and
other materials, break refreshments,
lunches, and certificate.
Course fee: $695. For more information or to register: 608 262 1299; 800
462 0876; epd.engr.wisc.edu.
7-8 March
Maintaining Asphalt Pavements,
Course #H625
Allentown, Pa.
This course will be conducted March
7-8 in Allentown.
Among the topics covered: asphalt
pavement performance; pavement evaluation, construction, and treatment; crack
sealing, patching, and parking lots.
Participants can earn Continuing Education Units (CEU), and Professional
Development Hours (PDH).
The fee covers course notebook and
other materials, break refreshments,
lunches, and certificate.
Course fee: $695. For more information or to register: 608 262 1299, 800
462 0876; epd.engr.wisc.edu.
13-14 March
9-10 October
Exploring Plastics Extrusion course;
Multilayer Structures course: Rapra
one-day and a half-day courses
Shawbury, England
Course overview: Products containing
multiple layers of polymers are becoming more common, especially in applications where barrier properties, strength,
weight, or cost are an issue. This course
will look at the wide range of properties
that can be obtained, the production processes to achieve them and the practical
extrusion technologies used.
Who will benefit? Technical managers, marketing personnel, production
managers, and process engineers working within the polymer processing industry; technical sales personnel working
for materials or machinery suppliers;
quality, technical service, or purchasing
STAND OUT
from the competition
IECA provides the targeted training you need

for todays critical soil and water issues
Webinars
IECA Publications
In-House Training
Online Resources
IECA connects you

with other professionals
Government
Designers/Specifiers
Contractors/Builders
IECA boosts your credibility

with your peers and your customers
Get IECA Trained

Visit our website
for more information
ANNUAL CONFERENCE & EXPO
EC07 February 12-16, 2007

Reno, Nevada USA
EC08 February 18-21, 2008

Orlando, Florida USA
Learn how IECA can help you stand out at www.ieca.org/StandOut
Join Today! www.ieca.org

800.455.4322
970.879.3010
| Calendar |
personnel in industries that use multilayer structures in their products; designers and others involved in product
development who want to gain a greater
understanding of the properties derived
from the processing methods for achieving multilayer structures.
Course content: processing technologies, polymer selection, product design,
properties of various barrier polymers,
forming multilayer polymer melts, line
layouts, quality and process control,
possible faults and troubleshooting.
Objectives: Understanding the benefits and cost implications with multilayer structures, understanding the polymer properties needed to provide barrier
resistance, making informed choices
when purchasing equipment, identifying the equipment required to produce
multilayer structures, and recognizing
the faults in multilayer products from
extrusion processes.
Tutors: Dr. Peter Cox, B.Sc. (Eng),
DIC., C.Eng., MI Mech.E., FIMPeter
Cox Associates; and John Colbert, I.
Mech. E.John Colbert Extrusions
Fees: 495 ($630 U.S.) plus VAT,
with discounts available for companies
registering 2 delegates (10%) or 3 or
more delegates (15%); 10% discount
for anyone registering for both the Exploring Plastics Extrusion training
course as well as the Multilayer Structures course.
For more information: www.rapra.net.
To register: contact the Training Department at: training@rapra.net; +44 (0) 1939
250383.
26-29 March
52
GEMMS 2007: Zero Downtime

The Grand Hyatt, Singapore
The Global Executive Mining Maintenance Summit (GEMMS) 2007 is a
four-day conference and workshop tailored for maintenance practitioners in
the mining industry. The event includes:
professional training from world recognized experts, case-study learning experiences, and one-on-one maintenance
plan consultations.
The 2007 event features the strategies
and latest techniques used by the worlds
most successful mining companies, academics and consultants regarding their
approaches to achieving maximum costwww.geosyntheticsmagazine.info
savings and productivity. It also includes

a Strategic Maintenance Forum led by
four international mine maintenance consultants who will help you streamline
your own maintenance plan.
This year, GEMMS is held in conjunction with the Asia Mining Congress,
which is attended by more than 300 mining CEOs, CIOs and COOs, Asias regulators and leading industry players.
For more information and to register,
please call customer service: +65 6322
2700; E-mail: lynn.chew@terrapin.com;
www.terrapinn.com
Host contact information:
Terrapinn Pte. Ltd.
Lynn Chew
1 Harbourfront Place
#18-01 Harbourfront Tower 1
Singapore 098633
Phone: (65) 6322 2729
Fax: (65) 6271 8057
E-mail: lynn.chew@terrapin.com
www.terrapinn.com
29 April2 May
Fifth Annual International Greening
Rooftops for Sustainable Communities
Conference, Awards, and Trade Show,
Minneapolis
Cohosted with the city of Minneapolis, this conference is organized by Green
Roofs for Healthy Cities (GRHC) a notfor-profit industry association working
to promote the green roof industry in
North America.
The 2007 conference will consist of
plenary and specialized sessions focused
on three main topic areas:
1. Policies and Programs to Support
Green Roofs
2. Green Roof Design and Implementation
3. Research and Technical Papers on
Green Roof Performance
The 2007 full registration package
includes:
Access to more than 50 presentations
by green roof industry leaders
Free pass to the trade show featuring more than 75 exhibitors showcasing
green roof products and services
Access to the Exhibitor Presentation
Theatre and Poster Sessions
One copy of the official conference
proceedings CD-ROM featuring the peerreviewed speaker papers (retail value $75)
One invitation to the Awards of Excellence Luncheon (May 1)

Online registration will be available
through this site: greenroofs.org.
All delegates at the 2007 conference
will receive a complimentary, one-year
individual membership in Green Roofs
for Healthy Cities, effective June 1,
2007. This membership entitles delegates to a host of benefits, including a
two-line description on the searchable
online membership database, membership listing in the Members Directory
Conference CD-ROM, a $25 discount on
CD-ROM conference proceedings from
the 2003 Chicago, 2004 Portland, 2005
Washington, and 2006 Boston conferences, and a hardcopy subscription to
the semiannual Green Roof Infrastructure Monitor publication highlighting
the latest technical, policy, and product developments in green roof infrastructure, presented by Green Roofs for
Healthy Cities
Conference and trade show location:
Hyatt Regency Minneapolis Hotel.
Trade show: The trade show is open
free of charge to all delegates, including
those individuals with one-day passes.
Trade-show only passes will also be available for purchase independently.
For more information: www.greenroofs
.org.
12-13 June
Nanopolymers 2007,
First International Conference
Berlin, Germany
Rapra Technology will conduct the
first international Nanopolymers Conference in Berlin June 12-13, 2007. Nanotechnology is already making a major
impact on new product introductions
throughout the world via many industry
sectors. These new products are based
on the material property changes that
may be achieved by incorporation of
ingredients, at the nanoscale, into polymeric systems.
Although nanoparticulate carbon
black has been used in vehicle tires for
decades, it is only recently that other
nanoparticulate ingredients have been
dispersed in plastics to provide new
materials that are lighter weight and as
strong as metals. The textiles industry
and the sporting goods industry are also
They don't call us Geosynthetics for nothing.

We're the complete industry
expert offering topics on:
Roads & bridges
Erosion control
Landscape architecture
Water management
Retaining walls
50% off price!
and much, much more!
Introductory offer Subscribe today and SAVE!

30 /Year U.S.A.
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Phone ____________________________________ Fax _____________________________________________

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Signature ____________________________ Date_______________
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55486-2108
Offer ends March 31, 2007. Please allow
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valid for new subscribers only.
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53
| Calendar |
introducing nanotechnology based products, and it is estimated that there are
now more than 700 nano-based products
on the market.
The main nano ingredients being
dispersed in polymeric systems are especially organoclays, nanoparticulate
inorganics, and carbon nanotubes.
Register before April 12 to take advantage of the special Early Bird Discount registration fee:
Companies sending one or two delegates850 per delegate before April
12; 1050 per delegate after April 12.
Companies sending three or more delegates750 per delegate before April
12; 950 per delegate after April 12.
For more information: www.berlintourist-information.de/index.en.php
Contact the conference department
by telephone: +44(0)1939-250383; or
E-mail: conferences@rapra.net
Please send reservation inquiries to:
Sharon Garrington via E-mail: conferences@rapra.net
20-22 June
51st Annual Construction Specifications
Institute (CSI) Show and Convention
Baltimore Convention Center
Baltimore, Md.
CSIs staff, task teams and committees
have reviewed hundreds of education
proposals in an effort to find the best
technical and professional development
presentations for The CSI Show 2007.
The good news is that the pool of potential candidates was outstanding this
year. Among the sessions and tracks offered in June: Specifications & Design;
Sustainability; Professional Development
& Leadership; Contract Documents; and
Building Information Modeling.
CSI is also revamping some of the
exhibit hall features, including addition
of a Product Education area, free E-mail
stations, and membership and certification features in the CSI booth.
Convention and lodging registration
will open March 2007.
Host contact information:
Construction Specifications Institute (CSI)

99 Canal Center Plaza, Suite 300
Alexandria, VA 22314
Phone: 703 684 0300; 800 689 2900
Fax: 703 684 8436
E-mail: csi@csinet.org
www.csinet.org
25-29 June
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
Infrastructure Systems Conference
Marriott Renaissance Center, Detroit
The Future of Engineering in a Complex World is the subtitle for this USACE
event in Detroit in June.
The conference will address the Corps
12 Actions for Changea set of directions
that the Corps will focus on to transform
its priorities, processes, and planning.
These actions fall within the themes: comprehensive systems approach, effective
and transparent communication, and reliable public service professionalism.
To register or for more information,
go to: www.usaceiscconf.org.
Geosynthetic Materials Association

Our Mission:
The Geosynthetic Materials Association
serves as the central resource for
information regarding geosynthetics
and provides a forum for the correct
use of geosynthetics.
Objectives:
GMA actively identifies, assesses, analyzes, and acts
upon market growth opportunities and issues that affect
its member companies. The activities of the association
are proactive in nature and center on five areas:
Engineering support
54
Business development
Education
Government relations
Geosynthetics industry recognition
Geosynthetic
For more information: Geosynthetic Materials Association

Phone: +1 651 225 6907 or 800 636 5042
E-mail: membership@ifai.com Web site: www.gmanow.com
To l e a r n m o r e a b o u t G M A v i s i t
w w w. g m a n o w. c o m
| Advertisers Index |
| When you contact an advertiser in this issue, please tell them that you saw their ad in Geosynthetics. For advertising rates and
information call Sarah Hyland at 800 319 3349
Agru America
800 373 AGRU
www.agruamerica.com . . . . . . . . . Cv2
GMA Member
Huesker Inc.
800 942 9418
www.hueskerinc.com . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
GMA Member
Raven Industries Inc

800 635 3456
www.rufco.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
GMA Member
American Wick Drain Corporation

800 242 WICK
www.americanwick.com. . . . . . . . . . 32
GMA Member
Atarfil S.L.
+34 958 43 92 00
www.atarfil.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
GMA Member
Contech Earth Stabilization Solution, Inc.

800 338 1122
www.contechess.com . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
SKAPS Industries
706 354 3700
www.skaps.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
GMA Member
Brockton Equipment/Spilldam Inc.

800 699 2374
www.spilldam.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Burke Environmental Products
800 669 7010
www.burkeind.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Carlisle SynTec Inc.
800 4 SYNTEC
www.carlislegeomembranes.com . . 17
CETCO
+1 847 392 5800
www.cetco.com/lt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
GMA Member
DEMTECH Services Inc
888 324 WELD
www.demtech.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Engepol Ltda
+55 11 4166 3060
www.engepol.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Layfield Geosynthetics &

Industrial Fabrics Ltd.
888 225 4436
www.geosyntheticbarriers.com . . . . 19
GMA Member
Solmax International, Inc.

800 571 3904
www.solmax.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
GMA Member
Leister Process Technologies

800 241 4628
www.leister.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
SRW Products
800 752 9326
www.srwproducts.com . . . . . . . . . . 45
LG Chem America Inc.

+1 201 266 2533
www.lgchem.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Strata Systems Inc.

800 680 7750
www.geogrid.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cv3
GMA Member
Lock & Load

877 901 9998
www.lock-load.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Maccaferri Inc.
800 638 7744
www.maccaferri-usa.com. . . . . . . . . 31
GMA Member
Naue GmbH & Co. KG
+49 5743 41-0
www.naue.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Permathene Ltd.
+64 (0)9 968 8888
www.permathene.com . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Fiberweb
800 284 2780
www.typargeotextiles.com . . . . . . . . 9
GMA Member
Plastic Welding Technologies

800 635 6693
www.pwtworld.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Firestone Specialty Products Co.

800 428 4442
www.firestonesp.com . . . . . . . . . . . 10
GMA Member
Propex
888 319 7773
www.geotextile.com/strongerroads . 1
GMA Member
Tenax Corp.
800 356 8495
www.tenaxus.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . Cv4
GMA Member
TenCate Geosynthetics
800 685 9990
www.mirafi.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
GMA Member
TRI/Environmental, Inc.
+1 512 263 2101
www.GeosyntheticTesting.com . . . . 18
GMA Member
Trelleborg Building Systems AB
+1 46 370 481 00
www.trelleborg.com/rubber_membranes
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Watersaver Co. Inc.
800 525 2424
www.watersaver.com . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
| The Geosynthetic Materials Association is directed by the needs of the North American geosynthetics
industry. It serves as the central resource for information regarding geosynthetics and provides a forum
for consistent and accurate information to increase the acceptance and to promote the correct use
of geosynthetics.
Visit www.gmanow.com, Contact: Andrew Aho amaho@ifai.com, 800 636 5042.
GEOAMERICAS 2008
The First Pan American Geosynthetics Conference & Exhibition.
March 2-5 2008
Hilton Cancn Beach & Golf Resort, Boulevard Kukulcan Km 17, Zona HoteleraCancn, Quintana Roo, Mexico 77500
For more information go to www.geoamericas.info
55
| Final Inspection |
GMA members see,

hear about Army Corps
progress in New Orleans
By Andrew Aho
56
Last October, I accompanied a

GMA delegation that traveled to
New Orleans to meet with members of the New Orleans District
office of the U.S. Army Corps
of Engineers. Our discussion
included about a dozen engineers
at their just-reopened facility in
the city.
I was struck by the sense of
| Andrew Aho, Managing
urgency and the sense of purpose
Director, Geosynthetic
that was palatable in the buildMaterials Association
ing. Everyone seemed stressed
but mission-focused. The critical
mission: rebuild the levees and protection system for New
Orleans and the surrounding area. All the projects were on a
fast track, of course, in an effort to provide defenses against
the next storm.
During our meeting, John Bivona, chief of this districts
geotechnical branch, reviewed levee projects that incorporated
geotextiles and geogrids. He said the Army Corps had much
praise for geosynthetic materials used in this construction.
Further, he said that by incorporating geosynthetics the
Army Corps was able to make the levees higher and stronger
without expanding the footprint or base that is often immediately adjacent to streets or buildings. Bivona also said geosynthetic materials helped stabilize the poor soils encountered in
the rebuilding projects and said they are used as a substitute for
good fill that is hard to find in the New Orleans area.
The Army Corps provided GMA with a map and a list of
the more than 160 rebuilding and reinforcement projects that
they were overseeing. They also provided GMA with a list of
consulting firms that are working with the Corps. The engineers urged members of the GMA delegation to contact the
design and consulting firms working in New Orleans to educate
them about the advantages of using geosynthetic products in
their projects.
The Army Corps has made tremendous progress repairing
and protecting New Orleans. The task before them seems
daunting. And although many of the employees suffered
personal losses themselves, they are not intimidated. Their
professionalism and dedication should be recognized and
appreciated by all of us.
Photos courtesy of Brent Christenson
| Contact the Geosynthetic Materials Association (GMA) at: +1 651 225 6907; 800 636 5042;
Fax +1 651 631 9334; Web site www.gmanow.com

Caltrans Tackles The Merge: Tour The World'S Largest

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| February March 2007 |

CalTrans tackles The Merge

Tour the world's largest

PVC membrane installation

The Best of Both Worlds!

combines both high interface shear

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| February March 2007 |

International Achievement Award winner:

Tour the largest PVC membrane installation

Liner integrity/leak-location survey:

26 | Leak-detection testing is completed

Geosynthetics February March 2007

You are the best

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Using structured geomembranes

A survey of GSI surveys

GMA-Mexico offers courses

Geosynthetics, the Army Corps, and Katrina

6 | Professor Gene Wood of Clemson University

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Clemson University professor Gene Wood has two great

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