Port Planning & Development Guide

Port Planning & Development
CONTENTS
OBJECTIVE............................................................................................................... 2
PORT....................................................................................................................... 2
PORT PLANNING ....................................................................................................... 2
PORT PLANNING AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL.................................................................... 3
National Port Policy ................................................................................................ 3
PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL (LOCAL LEVEL) ................................... 4
Port Development and Master Planning ..................................................................... 4
Long-Term Planning ............................................................................................... 5
Medium-Term Planning ........................................................................................... 5
PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL.................................................................... 6
Phases of Port Development .................................................................................... 6
FACTORS AFFECTING PORT PLANNING......................................................................... 6
TRAFFIC FORECAST & HINTERLAND............................................................................. 7
SITE / LOCATION RELATED FACTORS .......................................................................... 7
Wind.................................................................................................................... 7
Waves.................................................................................................................. 8
Tide ..................................................................................................................... 9
Draft (Draught) ....................................................................................................10
Harbour Layout ....................................................................................................11
CARGO & SHIP RELATED FACTORS .............................................................................14
Ship Features.......................................................................................................14
Ship Types...........................................................................................................14
Shipping Terminology............................................................................................14
Ship Length .........................................................................................................15
Ship Cross-section ................................................................................................15
Ship Movements ...................................................................................................16
Type of Ships depending upon the Cargo..................................................................16
Types of Terminals based on Cargo they handle ........................................................18
PORT STRUCTURES ..................................................................................................19
Classification........................................................................................................19
Port Components ..................................................................................................20
Breakwater ..........................................................................................................20
Wharf / Quay / Jetty .............................................................................................20
HYDRAUGRAPHIC SURVEYS AND CHARTS....................................................................20
FAQs ......................................................................................................................22
QUESTIONS ............................................................................................................23

OBJECTIVE
To provide basic information of Port Planning & Development so as to gain suitable
understanding regarding the topic of Port Planning.
PORT
A port is a facility for receiving ships and transferring cargo to and from them. They are
usually situated at the edge of an ocean or sea, river, or lake. The terms "port" and "seaport"
are used for ports that handle ocean-going vessels, and "river port" is used for facilities that
handle river traffic, such as barges and other shallow draft vessels.
PORT PLANNING
Effective port planning is essential to support the primary role of the port which is to
facilitate trade.
Good planning will ensure that the port has the appropriate infrastructure to meet trade
demands, that cargo can be moved efficiently between ship and shore, that the necessary
transport linkages are available to assist the movement of the various cargoes through the
transport chain, and that all this can be done in a sustainable, safe and efficient manner.
Planning for the Port has two distinct elements, namely, planning within and external to the
port boundary. There are also many aspects to port planning, including port facility, land use,
transport, heritage and buffer zone planning.
Within the port boundary it is essential that the ports major facilities, such as wharves,
jetties, shipping channels, land areas, internal road and rail connections, are planned in a
manner that supports trade growth within a sustainability context.
Externally, it is important that land uses around the port are compatible with port operations
and that there are good road and rail transport corridors that link with the port. The
transport corridors have to be designed to carry the forecast transport volumes, and need to
have compatible land uses around them which will not constrain their use.
Moreover, following things are to be kept in mind while carrying out Port Planning:
Primary traffic forecasts
Handling technology and berth occupancy studies

Layout plans
Conceptual designs
Environmental appraisals
Cost estimates
Financial and economic analysis
Successful port construction requires careful planning based on detailed reconnaissance.

Reconnaissance continues until actual occupation. Planning may appear complete before
occupation, but last-minute enemy action may necessitate a major change in plans.
Port development can refer either to the creation of a new port or to the expansion of an
existing one, usually aimed at increasing its capacity or upgrading port operations. The issue
of port development is examined at three different levels:
PORT PLANNING
National Level
Local Level
Terminal Level
PORT PLANNING AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL

National Port Policy
Until recently, ports in many countries have usually been developed as part of local port
development programs. Such programs normally do not take into consideration the
corresponding plans of other ports within the country, a factor that would have resulted in
better coordination for increased national benefit. Indeed, in many cases, instead of
attempting to achieve mutual complementing of aims, undue competition tends to develop
between ports within the same country. In government owned ports this situation can result
in uneconomical investment of national capital in competing projects, and moreover, in loss
of opportunities to attract a portion of international maritime traffic.
The competitive tendencies relate to the foreign trade of the country, foreign goods in
transit, and goods being transshipped: the international flows that evidence potential for
development as opposed to internal transports, which have more-or-less preset movement
patterns. These trade flows can be defined as follows:
Foreign trade flows relate to the exports and imports of a country, and consequently,
have their origin or destination in that country.
Goods in transit are those goods in international flow whose land transport leg uses the
territory of the country and one of its ports.
Goods being transshipped, where both origin and destination are located outside the
country but both of whose transport modes are marine. Consequently, in this flow only
the specific ports of the country are used, not overland transport.
The latter two flows in general make up the target of the competition between ports in a
country.
Given that major ports constitute integral elements of the transport network of a country, it
is evident that some sort of framework for centralized coordination of port development
efforts is required at a national level. A significant service that such coordination would
produce refers to determination of the most suitable ports for attracting transit or
transshipment movement on a national level. This acquires particular significance nowadays,
where such cargo movement is conducted mainly in containers, and the corresponding port
installations are very costly.

In more general terms, the existence of a national port policy could broadly define the role of
each port in a country, so that in the context of the national economy, the available funding
can be employed as productively as possible. Depending on a countrys development and its
tendency for privatization, the allocation of roles to each port may be conducted in such a
manner as to permit a large percentage of these ports to be released from national
coordination and to undertake their own development.
The main quantity that may be affected by a suitably implemented national port policy lies in
international cargo flow. Consequently, the initial and basic step in formulating a countrys
port system includes the determination of those ports that will undertake to serve the flows
of foreign trade, transshipment, or transit. These flows operate more-or-less independently
of one another, and thus for simplification of the analysis, may be studied individually.
The basic criteria to be considered in developing a proposition as to the roles of a countrys
ports may be classified into the following four groups:
1. The national and regional development policies of the country
2. The transportation infrastructure of the hinterland and its prospects
3. Existing port capacity and potential for development
4. Cargo forecasts for each port
After each of the three independent international flows has been examined, the findings
should be pooled, to define the core of the countrys port system. Thus, the role of each port
that participates in international cargo flow will be specified and the basic cargo throughputs
can be determined. Considering these throughput values, and factoring in the national flows,
master plans can be drawn up for individual ports.
Apart from international cargo flow, other aspects of the overall port development study are
usually examined. Although these are not of primary significance in the formulation of the
core of a national port system, they do have a role in evaluation of the main subsystems and
in developing the final proposal. Such aspects include:
Special bulk cargoes, such as coal, cement, petroleum products, grains
Industrial ports
Shipbuilding and ship repair
Free zones
Coastal shipping
Passenger movement
PORT PLANNING AT THE INDIVIDUAL PORT LEVEL (LOCAL LEVEL)
Port Development and Master Planning
The master plan of a port allocates the land within the port to the various uses required,
describes the projects needed to implement the plan, and gives an indicative implementation
scheme by development phase. These phases are related directly to the projected port traffic
which has to be monitored closely. When in due course a decision is reached to proceed with
implementation of a development scheme, this should be integrated smoothly with, or derive
from, the master plan for the port. Therefore, it is important that a master plan exist, and
drafting one should be among the primary concerns of port management. Of course, a
variety of continuously varying factors have a bearing on such a plan, ranging from statistical
data on port traffic to international treaties. For this reason, the plan should be revised
regularly, at least every five years. Moreover, if during the design of a particular
development phase the need arises for a review of the plan, this should be conducted
concurrently, if possible, to ensure compatibility with the other functions and operations of
the port. However, the lack of a master plan at a particular port should not delay the making
of decisions for small-scale immediate improvement, although it is recommended that at the
first opportunity an effort should be made to draft a master plan for the port.

Long-Term Planning
In the event that a national ports plan does not exist, the consultant should proceed with
drafting a master plan, after studying the following components of long-term planning:
1. The role of the portin particular:
The servicing of its inland area as regards foreign trade
The support that the port may offer to the regions commercial and industrial
development
The attraction of transiting and transshipment traffic
2. The responsibility of the port for the construction of both port and land works. Frequently,
more than one agency becomes involved: for example, when a port area is serviced by a
railroad.
3. The land use in the area and the potential for expansion of the port. It is important that
there be general agreement between interested parties over the proposed expansions
and land use so that the resulting master plan meets with wide acceptance.
4. The policy for financing the port development, which may be formulated on the basis of
its own resources and/or through a state grant.
In general, in modern port development the basic requirement is for large expanses of land
to ensure productive operation of the individual terminals. Therefore, a careful examination
of point 3 assumes particular importance.
Medium-Term Planning
As stated, each port development scheme should be incorporated in the master plan and
should proceed to implementation following the results of an appropriate feasibility study.
The latter study should refer individually to each independent section of the overall
development proposal, such as a container terminal or a bulk cargo terminal. Thus, under a
positive but reduced yield from the overall proposal, the risk of concealment of a
nonproductive section is avoided. The drafting of a port development plan calls for the
conduct of the following special studies:
1. Analysis of the functionality of the port as regards the services offered in conjunction with
capacity
2. Designs, with budgets
3. Operational design, with budget
4. Financial and financing study
In large port development projects it is customary to reexamine the organization and
management of the port operating agency and to recommend organizational improvements
on a small or larger scale. It is possible that many of the ports in a country do not warrant a
development effort beyond maintenance of existing structures or appropriate modification,
such as to serve fishing vessels or pleasure craft. Such modifications are nowadays met quite
frequently, since old ports, traditionally being part of the core of their town, cannot easily
incorporate large land expanses needed in modern port layouts. Also, environmental and
social issues do not allow in many cases major expanses of an old port site. The requirement
that the citizenship should be granted free access to the waterfront of their city is gradually
being respected by more and more authorities. Nevertheless, the problem of what to do with
the old port installations is a complex one, where both the needs of the local community and
the benefits of the relevant port authority should be accommodated. As noted above a
common trend is to change the character of a past commercial port into a marina or fishing
vessels refuge. There are also examples (London, Marseille, etc.) where old ports were
completely refurbished into commercial or recreational zones, some of them arousing
controversial discussions among town-planners.
Moreover, since ports interact in many ways with the surrounding township, port master
planning should take into account, apart from strictly engineering issues, such aspects as
social, economic, and environmental constraints and should easily fit within the relevant
town and regional plans. This frequently calls for a compromise between the requirements of
the port and the local authorities.

PORT PLANNING AT THE TERMINAL LEVEL
Phases of Port Development
The course of development of a port or port terminal usually undergoes phases, which also
indicate its age. Evolution from a traditional break-bulk cargo port to a specialized unitized
cargo port may be gradual. However, it is distinguishable into qualitative changes that take
place in specific periods throughout the overall life of the port. These phases are as follows:
Phase 1: Traditional General Cargo Flow. A port with break-bulk or packaged bulk cargo
terminals, such as for bagged grains or petroleum in barrels.
Phase 2: Break-Bulk Cargoes. When breakbulk cargo flow exceeds an economically
acceptable limit, these cargoes are transported in bulk form and the port develops a special
bulk cargo terminal. At the same time, the breakbulk berths are increased, to accommodate
the higher demand.
Phase 3: Unit Loads. Unit loads start being carried on conventional vessels in small
quantities in units such as palettes, containers, or packaged lumber. At the same time,
break-bulk cargo flows, particularly those of bulked breakbulk cargoes, start diminishing to
levels that require separation of cargo terminals for various cargo categories.
Phase 4: Multipurpose Terminal. Unitized cargoes on specialized vessels start appearing
in quantities that do not yet require development of a specialized terminal. Thus, a
multipurpose terminal is created in which break-bulk cargo traffic is diminished, although
unitized cargo is also handled. At the same time, the specialization of dry bulk cargo
terminals continues.
Phase 5: Specialized Terminal. With an increase in unit loads beyond certain levels,
specialized cargo terminals are created for handling containers, packaged lumber, and RoRo. The multipurpose terminal of phase 4 is converted into a specialized terminal, with the
addition of specialized cargo handling equipment. Break-bulk general cargo is reduced
further. It should be noted that in normal situations, the transition from phase 3 to Phase 5
should progress through phase 4, so as to provide an opportunity to the port to increase
unitized cargo traffic to volumes that will enable economically feasible development of a
specialized terminal in phase 5. Moreover, in the event that a port has entered phase 3 of its
development, care should be taken to avoid creating additional general cargo berths.
FACTORS AFFECTING PORT PLANNING
The main factors affecting the Port Planning are:
1. Traffic & Hinterland
2. Site / Location Related Factors
Wind
Wave
Tide
Draft
Harbour Layout
3. Cargo & Ship Related Factors
Type of Cargo
Type of Ships
Type of Terminals
4. Port Structures
TRAFFIC FORECAST & HINTERLAND

The Hinterland of a port comprises of the area within which it enjoys not only comparative
but also an absolute advantage over other ports in terms of costs and ease of movements.
The western sea-board of India, on its north has the flourishing major port of Mumbai, the
major port of Kandla and Gujarat state ports in between. It is difficult to define the
boundaries of the ports economic hinterland. For zoning of hinterland, generally a study for
alternative modes of transport, say a rail route distance study is made.
Geographically, say, for a port in south Gujarat, the hinterland extends from Rajasthan, to
Delhi, parts of UP and Madhya Pradesh, Haryana and Punjab. With port facilities on the coast
of south Gujarat, preferably an all weather deep draught port, some of the traffic originating
from central and southern Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab and UP,
presently going to Kandla and Mumbai could be available at such a port.
Traffic forecasts should be made based on the available data of the growth rates, and the
known methods of forecasting. The traffic forecasting is very essential for efficient port
planning as it is necessary to provide sufficient port facilities for present and future traffic
that passes through the port. According to the Manual prepared by the United Nations
Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD) Secretariat, the main objectives of
forecasting are:
To assess the kind and quantity of commodities that is likely to be generated in the
hinterland.
To ascertain the extent to which cargoes could be transformed as maritime cargo, that
would pass through the port.
To estimate the types of ships and their arrivals to lift the cargo.
SITE / LOCATION RELATED FACTORS
Wind
Air in motion is wind. For specifying wind both direction and speed should be stated. The
direction is taken to be that from which the wind blows. If it is stated that the wind direction
is NNW, it means that the wind blows from the North-North-West.
The speed of wind is expressed, in maritime works, in knots. A nautical mile is the length of
one minute of arc of a meridian, and it varies slightly in different latitudes; the value
accepted by the Admiralty is 6080 ft. (or 1852 m).
Therefore, one knot = 6080 feet per hour
= 1.152 miles per hour
= 1.852 km per hour
Before instrumental meteorology, the speed of wind was estimated by its effects. In 1805,
Admiral Beaufort, of the British Navy, devised a scale of wind force, widely known after his
name. This scale has figures, 0 to 12, and higher numerals are indicative of higher speeds.
In common parlance, the descriptive phrases, calm, slight breeze, strong breeze, etc.
are being used. Table below gives the phrases along with the corresponding Beaufort scales.
Approximate velocities of winds are also given.
Description of
Wind
Clam
Light
Slight Breeze
Gentle Breeze
Moderate Breeze
Fresh Breeze
Strong Breeze
Beaufort No.
Velocity (mph)
Velocity (kmph)
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
5
10
15
21
27
1.6
3.2
8
16
24
34
43

Moderate Gale
Gale
Strong Gale
Whole Gale
Storm
Hurricane
7
8
9
10
11
12
35
42
50
59
68
Greater than 75
56
67
80
95
110
Greater than 120
Waves
When wind blows over water, it exerts a drag
on water surface, and water by virtue of its
fluidity gets disturbed, giving rise to waves.
Such waves are referred to as wind waves or
storm waves. They cause most of the damage
to the sea coast. There is another type of
waves created by earthquakes or other
tectonic disturbances on the sea bottom.
Referred to as tsunamis, they have caused
spectacular
damages
at
times,
but
fortunately, major tsunamis do not occur
frequently.
The different types of waves are
(1) Deep sea waves
(2) Shallow water waves
(3) Translatory waves
(4) Ripples or capillary waves.
In the first three types, gravity is the major force acting and is called gravity waves. In the
last type, the important force is surface tension and these waves are necessarily of very
short length and of small height.
When local strong winds blow towards the shores, the waves generated will reach in nearly
the form in which they are generated. The waves, under these conditions, are steep, that is
the wavelength is 10 to 20 times the wave height. Such waves are called Seas.
When waves generated long distance away, they may travel through hundreds or even
thousands of miles of calm areas before reaching the shore. It means that waves decay and
short steep waves are eliminated, and only relatively long low waves reach the shore. Such
waves have length from 30 to more than 500 times the wave height, and are called Swell.
The figure below shows the Motion of a Particle in Deep Water Wave & Shallow Water Wave.
Motion of a particle in an ocean wave.
A = At deep water. The orbital motion of fluid
particles decreases rapidly with increasing depth
below the surface.
B = At shallow water (ocean floor is now at B). The
elliptical movement of a fluid particle flattens with
decreasing depth.
1 = Propagation direction.
2 = Wave crest.
3 = Wave trough.

Tide
Standing on the shore we observe an unending train of
waves approaching and striking the shore. Apart from
undulations of the waves, it is observed that the
general water level rises and falls, approximately in a
period of twelve hours and twenty five minutes. This
rise and fall of the sea level is known as the
phenomenon of Tides.
The height of the tide is the vertical distance, at any
moment, between the water level and the chart datum.
It is further observed that much higher water
levels and also much lower water levels, occur
at about the time of new and full moons. These
are known as Spring Tides. Water levels
which occur about seven days from new and
full moons are moderate and are called Neap
Tides.
High Water of a tide at a place refers to the
highest level reached by the water surface in
Tide Producing Force
one oscillation. An oscillation covers a complete
cycle of high water and low water. The phrases
High Water Spring, High Water Ordinary Spring Tide (HWOST), etc. refers to the highest
water level of the corresponding tides at a given place.
Low Water refers to the lowest level of water in one oscillation. The phrases Low Water
Spring, Low Water Ordinary Spring Tide (LWOST), etc. refers to the lowest water level of the
corresponding tides at a given place.
Mean Sea Level at a place is the
average value in all states of
oscillations, i.e. the average level
taken up by the sea.
The range of tide is the difference
of elevation between consecutive
high and low tides.
If the height of the tide above
datum
is
calculated
for
any
particular time, it has only to be
added to the charted depth of water
to get the depth at that time. If the
height is negative it must be
subtracted from the depth.
Tides
are
generated
by
the
differential in gravitational pull by
the sun and by the moon. As the
motions of the earth, the moon and
the sun are periodic; tides are
periodic movements in the level of
the surface of the sea due to the
periodical forces of the moon and
the
sun.
Tidal
streams
in
consequence are the periodical

movements of the water, generally horizontal, in the sea, due to the periodic forces. But
currents are the non-periodic movements of water, also generally horizontal, and some of
these may be permanent and others may be temporary. They may be due to different
temperatures or prevalent winds or other similar causes.
Tides with a period of about a day are called Diurnal Tides; those with a period of about half
a day are called Semi-diurnal Tides. Normally, the tides are semi-diurnal and the average
interval, between corresponding tides on successive days, is 24 hours 51 minutes. Some
tides are same as semidiurnal except high and low tide levels vary; these are called Semidiurnal mixed Tides.
Mean Tide Level (M.T.L.) is the average value of
all the heights of high and low waters over a
period. It must not be confused with Mean Sea
Level (M.S.L.), which is the average level taken up
by the sea. The two values will only agree if the
tidal curve is perfectly symmetrical. Mean Tide
Level is obtained in the field more easily than
Mean Sea Level, and from fewer observations. For
this reason, it is sometimes used in calculations
instead of M.S.L. Either term is replaced at times
by the expression Mean Level (M.L.).
When tides are mainly semi-diurnal in character
the values of Mean Higher High Water (M.H.H.W.)
and Mean Lower Low Water (M.L.L.W.) are often
referred to instead of M.H.W.S. and M.L.W.S.
Mean Higher High Water is the mean of higher of
the two daily high waters experienced over a
period. Mean Lower Low Water is the mean of the
lower of the two daily low waters experienced over
a period of time.
Mundra Port Tide - December 2008

Sunday
Monday
Tuesday
Wednesday
Thursday
Friday
Saturday
30-Nov
H0317 5.8
L0929 2.4
H1450 4.6
L2101 0.8
01-Dec
H0350 5.8
L1003 2.4
H1523 4.5
L2131 1.0
02-Dec
H0423 5.7
L1040 2.4
H1600 4.4
L2205 1.1
03-Dec
H0458 5.6
L1123 2.4
H1642 4.2
L2242 1.4
04-Dec
H0535 5.4
L1212 2.3
H1732 4.1
L2327 1.6
05-Dec
H0616 5.3
L1309 2.1
H1836 4.0
FQtr 12-06
L0027 1.9
H0702 5.2
L1408 1.6
H1955 4.1
07-Dec
L0146 2.3
H0756 5.1
L1505 1.5
H2121 4.5
08-Dec
L0311 2.6
H0857 5.1
L1559 1.2
H2236 5.1
09-Dec
L0426 2.6
H1000 5.1
L1650 0.8
H2336 5.7
10-Dec
L0531 2.5
H1100 5.0
L1739 0.5
11-Dec
H0028 5.8
L0629 2.4
H1156 5.1
L1828 0.3
Full 12-12
H0116 6.1
L0722 2.2
H1249 5.2
L1916 0.1
13-Dec
H0202 6.3
L0813 2.1
H1340 5.2
L2004 0.1
14-Dec
H0248 6.4
L0904 2.0
H1430 5.2
L2052 0.2
15-Dec
H0333 6.4
L0955 1.9
H1522 5.1
L2141 0.4
16-Dec
H0418 6.3
L1048 1.8
H1615 5.0
L2231 0.7
17-Dec
H0503 6.1
L1143 1.7
H1710 4.8
L2324 1.1
18-Dec
H0549 5.8
L1242 1.6
H1813 4.5
LQtr 12-19
L0022 1.6
H0637 5.5
L1342 1.4
H1925 4.4
20-Dec
L0130 2.2
H0728 5.3
L1443 1.4
H2052 4.4
21-Dec
L0247 2.7
H0826 5.0
L1541 1.3
H2219 4.7
22-Dec
L0407 2.9
H0929 4.9
L1635 1.2
H2326 5.2
23-Dec
L0520 2.9
H1031 4.6
L1722 1.2
24-Dec
H0016 5.2
L0621 2.9
H1126 4.5
L1804 1.1
25-Dec
H0056 5.4
L0708 2.7
H1212 4.5
L1842 1.0
26-Dec
H0131 5.6
L0748 2.6
H1253 4.5
L1916 0.9
New 12-27
H0203 5.7
L0822 2.5
H1331 4.6
L1949 0.9
28-Dec
H0235 5.8
L0854 2.4
H1407 4.6
L2020 0.8
29-Dec
H0305 5.9
L0925 2.3
H1442 4.6
L2052 0.9
30-Dec
H0335 5.9
L0955 2.2
H1517 4.6
L2123 0.9
31-Dec
H0404 5.9
L1026 2.0
H1554 4.6
L2155 1.1
01-Jan
H0434 5.8
L1054 1.9
H1632 4.6
L2227 1.3
02-Jan
H0501 5.7
L1129 1.7
H1716 4.6
L2305 1.5
03-Jan
H0534 5.6
L1210 1.4
H1807 4.6
L2351 2.0
Draft (Draught)
10

The draft (or draught) of a port is the vertical distance between the waterline and the
seabed. Draft determines the maximum size of ship or boat which can be safely navigated.
The draft of any port determines the size of vessel it can accommodate.
Harbour Layout
A harbour is a place where ships may shelter from the weather or are stored. Harbors can be
man-made or natural. A man-made harbor will have sea walls or breakwaters and may
require dredging. A natural harbor is surrounded on most sides by land.
Harbors and ports are often confused. A port is a man-made coastal or riverine facility where
boats and ships can load and unload. It may consist of quays, wharfs, jetties, piers and
slipways with cranes or ramps.
Various alternates are possible for the port construction and development. The table below
shows benefits of various alternates.
Alternates Possible
Coastal Natural
Coastal Breakwaters
Coastal Tide
River Basins
Benefits
Higher Natural Draft.
Depth increment
possible
Calm Harbour
More Draft
Depth Increment
possible
Calm Harbour
Less Sedimentation
No sedimentation
Calm Harbour
Losses
High current and wave velocities.
Sedimentation Problems.
Regular Dredging required.
High construction cost.
Sedimentation Problem.
Regular Dredging required.
Dependent on Tidal Cycle.
Gates are to be Constructed.
Proper Operational Qualification is
required.
Less Draft.
River should be perennial.
Erosion Problems.
11

River Tides
River Natural
Combination of Coastal
Tides and River Basins.
No sedimentation.
No sedimentation
Calm Harbour
Canal or Lake
Calm Harbour
Used for inland trade
Open Roadstead
Higher Natural Draft.

Depth increment
possible
Very less
sedimentation.
Coastal Natural
Coastal Tide Gates
River Tide Gates
Coastal Breakwater
River Natural
Functional difficulty in monsoon.

Same as River Basin.
Less Draft.
River should be perennial.
Erosion Problems.
Functional difficulty in monsoon.
High construction cost.
Sedimentation Problem.
Proper Operational Qualification is
required.
High current and wave velocities.
Proper access has to be provided.
River Basins
Canal or Lake
Open Roadstead
12

Features of Harbour
Main function of a harbour is to accommodation for vessels seeking repairs or the transfer of
cargo and provides safe and suitable refuge, supplies, refueling passengers.
In a harbour there are a variety of elements such as entrance approach channel, breakwater,
wharves, jetties, locks and dry docks, depending on the necessity of these. Such elements
can be of different types.
Harbour Entrance: The entrance to a harbour is usually more exposed to waves as
compared to the harbour itself. Due to this, depth and width required at the entrance are
more than those required in the channel. The width of entrance also depends upon density of
traffic and number of entrances, besides the navigational requirements and the degree of
protection the channel has and what is desired within the harbour. The entrance should be
wide enough for navigational requirements and so as to avoid dangerous tidal currents. It
should not, however, be too wide to increase wave height within harbour.
Approach Channel: Ideally, the depth of water naturally available in the entire harbour
area should be sufficient for navigation of design vessel at all the times. When such ideal
conditions do not prevail, a channel with sufficient depth and width must be dredged to
provide for a passage of ships between the harbour entrance and the docks. The alignment
and the dimensions of channel determined after considering factors involved in channel
design. The terminology, approach channel, is used for the dredged fairway through which
ships proceed from the open sea to the harbour basin. The portion of channel which lies
beyond the harbour entrance in the open sea is called an outer channel. The portion lying
between the harbour entrance and harbour basin is called inner channel. The inner channel is
protected from storms and waves by natural configurations or by breakwaters.
Turning Basin: It is the area required for maneuvering the ship when it goes to or leaves
the berth, so that a ship can leave head-on. The size of the turning basin primarily depends
on the design vessel. It should preferably be designed to have a ship turn under continuous
headway without help of a tug. This means that the turning basin should be large enough to
permit a free turning.
Sheltered Basin: It is the area protected by shore and breakwaters. In this basin are
located other elements of harbour including area for anchorage of vessels.
Locks and Locked Basin: Locked basin is an enclosed basin wherein a number of vessels
can be berthed and has an entrance which is controlled by lock gate(s). The water within
locked basin can be independent of outside water level changes.
Harbour Planning
The harbour area required depends on the number and size of ships to be accommodated at
one time in the harbour. It also depends on the length and width needed for movement of
ships to and from berths and the type of cargo being carried. The harbour should not, at the
same time, be too big to generate waves within.
In order that the harbour is useful for operating and dispatching ships, the water depth in the
entrance, approach channel and harbour basin should be sufficient even at the lower low
water spring tide. If, however, this type of working is either not required or if it amounts to
excessive capital and maintenance dredging a compromise condition for ship working has to
be thought of. Normally, then, the ships are planned to be navigated near high tide and the
berth basins are deepened to ensure floatation of ships at all stages of the tides.
Of great importance is the positioning i.e. locationing and alignment of various elements like
entrance, approach channel, turning basin, breakwater, wharves or jetties and docks
catering to the requirements of the vessels in order to ensure easy maneuverability and
adequate navigational facilities.
13

CARGO & SHIP RELATED FACTORS
Ship Features
Harbour is meant for ships, and port is planned and equipped to handle ship cargo. As ships
have increased in size and also have become far more expensive, the harbour planning and
port equipment should aim at most expeditious handling of cargo. Shipping has enormously
expanded and harbours and ports have correspondingly gained in importance.
Ship Types
Trade-wise, a ship is a liner or a tramp. A ship travelling between definite ports and having
particular departure and arrival date is termed a liner. A ship designed to carry no specific
type of cargo and travels anywhere in the world is a cargo tramp, or simply a tramp.
Function-wise, a ship is a dry cargo vessel or a tanker. A tanker carries oil or other liquid in
bulk; oil being the most usual cargo. That carrying oil is termed oil tanker. Designwise, in dry
cargo ships, there are two broad classifications of General cargo vessel and Bulk carrier. The
first term, general cargo vessel, is self-explanatory. The bulk carrier is a vessel built to carry
cargoes such as ore, coal, clinker, grain and sugar in large quantities. That built to carry coal
is a collier; it is usually much smaller than the usual range of bulk carriers, being used
mainly for coastal trading.
Sometimes, a combination vessel is built. As for example an OBO, one built to carry Ore in
Bulk or Oil.
Lloyds Register of Shipping in World Fleet Statistics, gives information on World Fleet trading
commercially. Lloyds classify types of ships, depending on the functions, in:
1. Oil tankers
2. Liquefied gas carriers
3. Chemical tankers
4. Bulk/Oil carriers
5. Ore and bulk carriers
6. General cargo carriers
7. Container Ships
8. RO-RO Cargo Carriers
9. Refrigerated Cargo Carriers
10. Other Vessels
Shipping Terminology
Shipping has its phraseology which the port and harbour engineer has to know. Otherwise, it
creates confusion amongst non-maritime persons. The size of a ship is given in terms of its
gross registered tonnage, which is actually a measurement of internal space. The word
tonnage, thus, misleads those who are not acquainted with the shipping terminology.
Gross Registered Tonnage (GRT): It is the total measured internal cubic capacity of a ship
expressed in units of 2.83 cu. m. (or 100 cu. ft.). In 1967 the Tonnage Rules were
completely revised in an attempt to improve the safety of ships. But, a registered ton,
representing 100 cubic feet of volume was not changed even with the introduction of SI
units.
Net Registered Tonnage (NRT): It is the carrying capacity of a ship expressed in units of 2.83
cu. m. (or 100 cu. ft.). It is ascertained according to Government regulations and is the
space intended for revenue earning, It is arrived at by deducting from the gross internal
cubic capacity (i.e. GRT) the volume of crew living space, engine room, machinery, fuel and
provisions.
Deadweight Tonnage (DWT): It is the carrying capacity of a ship, by weight, in units of 1016
kg (2240 lb). It is the weight in units of 1.016 tonnes of cargo, stores, fuel, passengers, crew
and provisions carried by the ship when loaded to her maximum summer load line. It is the
14

difference between the displacement when loaded to the load line and displacement when
light.
Displacement Tonnage (DT): It is the actual weight of the ship in units of 1.016 tonnes. It is
the weight of water she displaces when afloat and may be either loaded or light.
Displacement, loaded, is the weight, in units of 1.016 tonnes, of the ship and its contents
when fully loaded with cargo, to the plimsoll mark or the load line. Displacement, light, is the
weight, in units of 1.016 tonnes, of the ship without cargo, fuel and stores. When not
otherwise stated, displacement tonnage (DT) refers to displacement loaded.
Ship Length
Ship Cross-section
15

Ship Movements
Type of Ships depending upon the Cargo

Bulk carriers are cargo ships used to transport bulk cargo
items such as ore or food staples (rice, grain, etc.) and
similar cargo. It can be recognized by the large box-like
hatches on its deck, designed to slide outboard for loading. A
bulk carrier could be either dry or wet. Most lakes are too
small to accommodate bulk ships, but a large fleet of lake
freighters has been plying the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence
Seaway of North America for over a century.
Container ships are cargo ships that carry their entire load
in
truck-size
containers,
in
a
technique
called
containerization. They form a common means of commercial
intermodal freight transport. Informally known as "box
boats," they carry the majority of the world's dry cargo.
Most container ships are propelled by diesel engines, and
have crews of between 20 and 40 people. They generally
have a large accommodation block at the stern, directly
above the engine room.
Tankers are cargo ships for the transport of fluids, such as
crude oil, petroleum products, liquefied petroleum gas,
liquefied natural gas and chemicals, also vegetable oils, wine
and other food - the tanker sector comprises one third of the
world tonnage.
16

Reefer ships are cargo ships typically used to transport
perishable
commodities
which
require
temperaturecontrolled transportation, mostly fruits, meat, fish,
vegetables, dairy products and other foodstuffs.
Roll-on/roll-off ships are cargo ships designed to carry
wheeled cargo such as automobiles, trailers or railway
carriages. RORO (or ro/ro) vessels have built-in ramps which
allow the cargo to be efficiently "rolled on" and "rolled off"
the vessel when in port. While smaller ferries that operate
across rivers and other short distances still often have builtin ramps, the term RORO is generally reserved for larger
ocean-going vessels.
Coastal trading vessels, also known as coasters, are
shallow-hulled ships used for trade between locations on the
same island or continent. Their shallow hulls mean that they
can get through reefs where sea-going ships usually cannot
(sea-going ships have a very deep hull for supplies and
trade etc.).
Ferries are a form of transport, usually a boat or ship, but
also other forms, carrying (or ferrying) passengers and
sometimes their vehicles. Ferries are also used to transport
freight (in lorries and sometimes unpowered freight
containers) and even railroad cars. Most ferries operate on
regular, frequent, return services. A foot-passenger ferry
with many stops, such as in Venice, is sometimes called a
waterbus or water taxi. Ferries form a part of the public
transport systems of many waterside cities and islands, allowing direct transit between
points at a capital cost much lower than bridges or tunnels. Many of the ferries operating in
Northern European waters are ro/ro ships.
LNG carrier is a ship designed for transporting Liquefied
Natural Gas (LNG). Liquefied natural gas or LNG is natural gas
that has been converted to liquid form for ease of storage or
transport. Liquefied natural gas takes up about 1/600th the
volume of natural gas at a stove burner tip. It is odorless,
colorless, non-corrosive, and non-toxic. When vaporized, it
burns only in concentrations of 5% to 15% when mixed with
air. Neither LNG, nor its vapor, can explode in an unconfined
environment.
Cruise ships are passenger ships used for pleasure voyages,
where the voyage itself and the ship's amenities are
considered an essential part of the experience. Cruising has
become a major part of the tourism industry, with millions of
passengers each year as of 2006. The industry's rapid growth
has seen nine or more newly built ships catering to a North
American clientele added every year since 2001, as well as
others servicing European clientele. Smaller markets such as
the Asia-Pacific region are generally serviced by older tonnage
displaced by new ships introduced into the high growth areas.
Tugboat is a boat used to maneuver, primarily by towing or
pushing other vessels (see shipping) in harbours, over the
17

open sea or through rivers and canals. They are also used to tow barges, disabled ships, or
other equipment like towboats.
Barge is a flat-bottomed boat, built mainly for river and canal
transport of heavy goods. Most barges are not self-propelled
and need to be moved by tugboats towing or towboats
pushing them. Barges on canals (towed by draft animals on
an adjacent towpath) contended with the railway in the early
industrial revolution but were outcompeted in the carriage of
high value items due to the higher speed, falling costs, and
route flexibility of rail transport.
Types of Terminals based on Cargo they handle
Container Terminal
A container terminal is a facility where cargo containers
are transshipped between different transport vehicles,
for onward transportation. The transshipment may be
between ships and land vehicles, for example trains or
trucks, in which case the terminal is described as a
maritime
container
terminal.
Alternatively
the
transshipment may be between land vehicles, typically
between train and truck, in which case the terminal is
described as an inland container terminal.
Dry Bulk Terminal
A Dry Bulk Terminal is a facility where dry cargo, such
as coal, iron ore, fertilizers, etc., is handled. This cargo
is mainly hinterland cargo. There are separate terminals
for Coal, Iron Ore, etc. which are dedicated for single
commodity only.
LNG Terminal
The LNG receiving terminal receives liquefied natural gas
from special ships, stores the liquid in special storage
tanks, vaporises the LNG, and then delivers the natural gas
into a distribution pipeline. The receiving terminal is
designed to deliver a specified gas rate into a distribution
pipeline and to maintain a reserve capacity of LNG.
RO-RO Terminal
Roll-on/roll-off (RORO or ro-ro) terminal is designed to
transport wheeled cargo such as automobiles, trucks, semitrailer trucks, trailers or railroad cars. This is in contrast to
lo-lo (lift on-lift off), which use a crane to load and unload
cargo.
Oil Terminal
An Oil Terminal is an industrial facility for the storage of oil
and/or petrochemical products and from which these
products are usually transported to end users or further
storage facilities. An oil depot typically has tankage, either
above ground or underground, and gantries for the
discharge of products into road tankers or other vehicles
(such as barges) or pipelines. Oil Terminals are usually
situated close to oil refineries or in locations where marine
tankers containing products can discharge their cargo.
Some depots are attached to pipelines from which they
18

draw their supplies and depots can also be fed by rail, by barge and by road tanker
Break Bulk Terminal
A Break Bulk Terminal is a facility where cargo, such as
pipes, plates, coils, scrap, etc., are handled. This cargo is
mainly hinterland cargo. Such cargo takes more time to
handle as they take larger area for storage.
PORT STRUCTURES
Classification
Port Structures
Protection Work
On-shore
Loading/Unloading
Structures
Shore
Protection
Work
Breakwaters
Gravity Type
Sheet Pile
Diaphragm wall
Open Pile Structures
Off-shore
Loading/Unloading Structures
19

Port Components
Breakwater
Container Staking Area

Tug Boat
Quay wall
Gantry Crane
Ship
Wharf Wall
Jetty
Container Staking Area
Breakwater
Breakwaters, also called bulkheads, reduce the intensity of
wave action in inshore waters and thereby reduce coastal
erosion. They are constructed some distance away from the
coast or built with one end linked to the coast. The
breakwaters may be small structures, placed one to three
hundred feet offshore in relatively shallow water, designed to
protect a gently sloping beach. Breakwaters may be either
fixed or floating; the choice depends on normal water depth
and tidal range.
Wharf / Quay / Jetty
A wharf is a landing place or pier where ships may tie up and
load or unload. A wharf is a fixed platform, commonly on
pilings. They often serve as interim storage areas with
warehouses, since the typical objective is to unload and
reload vessels as quickly as possible. Where capacity is
sufficient a single quay constructed along the land adjacent to
the water is normally used; where there is a need for more
capacity many wharfs will instead be constructed projecting
into the water, as with the well known collection of wharfs.
HYDRAUGRAPHIC SURVEYS AND CHARTS
The depths of water, and, hazards to navigation noticed during hydrographic surveys are
reproduced on a map constructed to serve the needs of a mariner. The map also includes the
adjacent land area, emphasizing outstanding shore features and must include all artificial
aids to navigation. Such a map is usually referred to as a nautical chart,
In mariners language, the phrase sea mile, or nautical mile, is often used. The sea mile is
defined as being the length of an arc on the earth that subtends a minute of latitude at the
centre. It is, therefore, intimately connected with the radius of curvature in the meridian. A
20

sea mile is least on the equator and greatest at the poles. The Admiralty had standardized it
at 6080 feet. Now, in metric units, the International Nautical Mile equals 1852 metres.
The surface of the earth is spheroidal and the measurements and observations are to be
recorded on a flat sheet of paper. This cannot be done without introducing some degree of
distortion. But, the distortion can be limited and controlled by the choice of the projection
formula which is used to effect the conversion. A projection is simply a means of
representing the earths spheroidal surface on a plane. Numerous types of projections have
been devised, each with a particular purpose in view, but the two most useful in navigation
are the Mercator and the Gnomonic. A third, Polyconic, is used for large scale charts.
Gerhard Kramer (Mercator) published his well-known world map in 1569, on the projection
which bears his name. His was the first real attempt to base a map on a mathematical
projection. In it meridians and parallels are represented by straight parallel lines intersecting
one another at right angles. The meridians being equally spaced on this form of projection,
the intervals between the parallels of latitude are increased proportionately, varying with the
secant of the latitude, to compensate for the actual convergence of the meridians on the
earth.
Mercator projection has the advantages of simplicity of construction, convenience in plotting
positions from the border divisions and that, on it alone, a course can be laid off from any
meridian or Compass rose within its border. The greater advantage, however, and which is
responsible for its worldwide use for nautical charts, is that any straight line drawn on it, in
any direction, is a rhumb me. A rhumb line cuts all meridians at the same angle, and is a line
followed by a ship sailing on one course. Theoretically at least, a ship on such a course will
pass all features along that line exactly as they are charted. This is a great advantage in
extensive coastal navigation.
Mercator projection has the disadvantages of exaggerating areas appreciably, seriously
where an extensive north or south area is included, and of constantly changing scale with
latitude.
The gnomonic is a perspective projection upon a tangent plane, the projecting lines radiating
from the centre of the sphere. Obviously, only small areas can be represented on this
projection. But, what is of special value to seamen is that any line of sight, or a part of great
circle, is represented by a straight line on this projection. Thus all plotted bearings, either
visual or radio, are straight lines, and by it a mariner can readily determine the shortest
route between any two points.
In a harbour survey, which has a limited area, the surface of the earth, for all practical
purposes, is a plane surface. For an area, with about 20 km radius from a point, the errors
introduced by assuming earth to be flat will be less than those of measurement of angles and
distances. The chart so prepared can be considered as a small scale gnomonic chart.
In the Polyconic projection each parallel is constructed with radius as though it were the
standard parallel of a simple conical projection, but with different centres, so that the
distances apart of the parallel, where they cut the central meridian, are correctly
represented. Each parallel is then correctly divided into units of longitude. The meridians
project as curves. The scale along the central meridian only is correct. This projection is used
by the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey. In slightly modified forms, in which the meridians
project as straight lines, the polyconic projection is used for 1:1 million scale International
Maps and for most large scale Admiralty Charts.
21

FAQs
1. What is Port?
A port is a facility for receiving ships and transferring cargo to and from them. They are
usually situated at the edge of an ocean or sea, river, or lake.
2. Which are the governing factors for Port Planning?
The main factors affecting the Port Planning are:
1. Traffic & Hinterland
2. Port Structures
3. Site / Location Related Factors
Wind
Wave
Tide
Draft
Harbour Layout
4. Cargo & Ship Related Factors
Type of Cargo
Type of Ships
Type of Terminals
3. List the type of waves.
1. Deep sea waves
2. Shallow water waves
3. Translatory waves
4. Ripples or capillary waves
4. Which are the types of ship depending upon the Cargo?
1. Bulk Carrier
2. Container Ships
3. Tankers
4. Reefer
5. Roll-on/Roll-off
6. Coastal Trading Vessels
7. Ferries
8. Cruise Ships
9. LNG Carriers
10. Tugs
11. Barges
5. Which are the types of terminals depending upon the cargo they handle?
1. Container Terminal
2. Dry Bulk Terminal
3. Break Bulk Terminal
4. RO-RO Terminal
5. LNG Terminal
6. Oil / Liquid Terminal
22

QUESTIONS
1. Define Port. What are its major components?
2. Explain with Schematic Diagram Factors to be considered while Port Planning
3. What is Tide & how it generates?
4. Enlist & Draw various ship movements.
5. Give Definition of the following:
1.) GRT
2.) DT
3.) DWT
4.) NRT
6. Explain in brief basic types of ships & terminals.

7. Write a short note on Traffic Forecast & Hinterland.
23

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