Alternative Classical Mechanics IV

Alejandro A. Torassa
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
(2014) Buenos Aires, Argentina
atorassa@gmail.com
- version 1 This paper presents an alternative classical mechanics which is invariant
under transformations between reference frames and which can be applied
in any reference frame without the necessity of introducing fictitious forces.
Additionally, a new principle of conservation of energy is also presented.

The Inertial Reference Frame

The inertial reference frame S is a reference frame fixed to a system of particles, whose
origin coincides with the center of mass of the system of particles. This system of particles
(referred from now on as the free-system) is always free of external and internal forces.
The inertial position r a , the inertial velocity v a and the inertial acceleration a a of a
are as follows:
particle A relative to the inertial reference frame S,
.
r a = (ra )
.
v a = d(ra )/dt
.
a a = d 2 (ra )/dt 2

where ra is the position of particle A relative to the inertial reference frame S.

The New Dynamics

[1] A force is always caused by the interaction between two particles.
[2] The resultant force Fa acting on a particle A of mass ma produces an inertial
acceleration a a according to the following equation: a a = Fa /ma
[3] This paper considers that not all forces obey Newtons third law (in its strong form
or in its weak form)
1

The Definitions
For a system of N particles, the following definitions are applicable:
Mass

.
M = i mi

Linear Momentum

.
P = i mi v i

Angular Momentum

.
=
L
i mi r i v i

Work

R
.
W = i 12 Fi d r i = i 1/2 mi (vi )2

Kinetic Energy

.
K = i 1/2 mi (vi )2

Potential Energy

R
.
U = i 12 Fi d r i

Lagrangian

.
L = K U

The Principles of Conservation

The linear momentum P of an isolated system of N particles remains constant if the
internal forces obey Newtons third law in its weak form.
P = constant

d(P)/dt
= i mi a i = i Fi = 0

of an isolated system of N particles remains constant if the

The angular momentum L
internal forces obey Newtons third law in its strong form.
= constant
L

d(L)/dt
= i mi r i a i = i r i Fi = 0

The mechanical energy E of a system of N particles remains constant if the system is

only subject to conservative forces.
.
E = K + U = constant

E = K + U = 0

The Transformations
The inertial position r a , the inertial velocity v a and the inertial acceleration a a of a
particle A relative to a reference frame S, are given by:
r a = ra R
v a = va (ra R) V
a a = aa 2 (va V) + [ (ra R)] (ra R) A
where ra , va and aa are the position, the velocity and the acceleration of particle A relative
to the reference frame S. R, V and A are the position, the velocity and the acceleration of the
center of mass of the free-system relative to the reference frame S. and are the angular
velocity and the angular acceleration of the free-system relative to the reference frame S.
The position R, the velocity V and the acceleration A of the center of mass of the
free-system relative to the reference frame S, and the angular velocity and the angular
acceleration of the free-system relative to the reference frame S, are as follows:
.
M = Ni mi
.
R = M 1 Ni mi ri
.
V = M 1 Ni mi vi
.
A = M 1 Ni mi ai

=. I1 L
=. d( )/dt
.
I = Ni mi [|ri R|2 1 (ri R) (ri R)]
.
L = Ni mi (ri R) (vi V)
where M is the mass of the free-system, I is the inertia tensor of the free-system (relative to
R) and L is the angular momentum of the free-system relative to the reference frame S (the
free-system of N particles must be three-dimensional, and the relative distances between
the N particles must be constant)
3

The Equation of Motion

From the third transformation it follows that the acceleration aa of a particle A of
mass ma relative to a reference frame S, is given by:
aa = Fa /ma + 2 (va V) [ (ra R)] + (ra R) + A
where Fa is the resultant force acting on particle A ( a a = Fa /ma )

Observations
The alternative classical mechanics of particles presented in this paper is invariant
under transformations between reference frames and can be applied in any reference frame
without the necessity of introducing fictitious forces.
This paper considers, on one hand, that not all forces obey Newtons third law (in its
strong form or in its weak form) and, on the other hand, that all forces are invariant under
transformations between reference frames (F 0 = F )
Additionally, from the equation of motion it follows that a reference frame S is inertial
when ( = 0 and A = 0) and that it is non-inertial when ( 6= 0 or A 6= 0)

Bibliography
D. Lynden-Bell and J. Katz, Classical Mechanics without Absolute Space (1995)
J. Barbour, Scale-Invariant Gravity: Particle Dynamics (2002)
R. Ferraro, Relational Mechanics as a Gauge Theory (2014)
A. Torassa, General Equation of Motion (2013)
A. Torassa, Alternative Classical Mechanics (2013)
A. Torassa, A Reformulation of Classical Mechanics (2014)
A. Torassa, A New Principle of Conservation of Energy (2014)
4

Appendix
For a system of N particles, the following definitions are also applicable:
Angular Momentum
Work
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
Lagrangian

.
0 =
L
i mi (ri r cm ) (vi v cm )
R
.
W 0 = i 12 Fi d(ri r cm ) = i 1/2 mi (vi v cm )2
.
K 0 = i 1/2 mi (vi v cm )2
R
.
U 0 = i 12 Fi d(ri r cm )
.
L0 = K 0 U 0

where r cm and v cm are the inertial position and the inertial velocity of the center of mass
R
R
of the system of particles. i 12 mi a i d(ri r cm ) = i 12 mi (ai a cm ) d(ri r cm ) = i 1/2 mi (vi v cm )2
0 of an isolated system of N particles remains constant if the
The angular momentum L
internal forces obey Newtons third law in its strong form.
0 = constant
L
0 )/dt = i mi (ri r cm ) (ai a cm ) = i mi (ri rcm ) a i = i ri Fi = 0
d(L
.
0 =
L
i mi (ri r cm ) (vi v cm ) = i mi (ri rcm ) [ vi (ri rcm ) vcm ]
The mechanical energy E 0 of a system of N particles remains constant if the system is
only subject to conservative forces.
.
E 0 = K 0 + U 0 = constant
E 0 = K 0 + U 0 = 0
.
K 0 = i 1/2 mi (vi v cm )2 = i 1/2 mi [ vi (ri rcm ) vcm ]2
R
R
.
U 0 = i 12 Fi d(ri r cm ) = i 12 Fi d(ri rcm )
where rcm and vcm are the position and the velocity of the center of mass of the system of
particles relative to a reference frame S, and is the angular velocity of the free-system
relative to the reference frame S. If the system of particles
is isolated and if the
internal
R
R
forces obey Newtons third law in its weak form then: i 12 Fi d(ri rcm ) = i 12 Fi dri
5

The New Principle of Conservation of Energy

- versions 1 & 2 For a system of N particles, the following definitions are also applicable:
Work

R
.
W = i 12 Fi d r i + 1/2 Fi r i = K

Kinetic Energy

.
K = i 1/2 mi v i v i + a i r i

Potential Energy

R
.
U = i 12 Fi d r i + 1/2 Fi r i

where r i = ri rcm , v i = vi vcm , a i = ai acm , ri , vi and ai are the position, the

velocity and the acceleration of the i-th particle, rcm , vcm and acm are the position,
the velocity and the acceleration of the center of mass of the system of particles, mi is
the mass of the i-th particle, and Fi is the resultant force acting on the i-th particle. If
the system of particles is isolated
and if the internal
forces
law




R2
R 2 obey Newtons third
in its weak form then: i 1 Fi d r i + 1/2 Fi r i = i 1 Fi dri + 1/2 Fi ri
The new principle of conservation of energy establishes that if a system of N
particles is only subject to conservative forces then the mechanical energy E of the
system of particles remains constant.
.
E = K +U = constant

E = K +U = 0

The new principle of conservation of energy is invariant under transformations

between reference frames since the kinetic energy K, the potential energy U and the
mechanical energy E of a system of N particles are invariant under transformations
between reference frames ( F 0 = F | m 0 = m | r 0 = r | v 0 v 0 + a 0 r 0 = v v + a r )
The new principle of conservation of energy can be applied in any reference
frame without the necessity of introducing fictitious forces and without the necessity
of introducing additional external variables ( such as , R, V, S , etc. )

Alternative Classical Mechanics IV

Alejandro A. Torassa
Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 License
(2014) Buenos Aires, Argentina
atorassa@gmail.com
- version 2 This paper presents an alternative classical mechanics which is invariant
under transformations between reference frames and which can be applied
in any reference frame without the necessity of introducing fictitious forces.
Additionally, a new principle of conservation of energy is also presented.

The Dynamic Reference Frame

The dynamic reference frame S is basically a reference frame that can be used to obtain
kinematic quantities (such as dynamic position, dynamic velocity, etc.) starting primarily
from dynamic quantities (such as force, mass, etc.)
The dynamic position r a , the dynamic velocity v a and the dynamic acceleration a a of
are as follows:
a particle A of mass ma relative to the dynamic reference frame S,
. RR
r a =
(Fa /ma ) dt dt
. R
v a = (Fa /ma ) dt
.
a a = (Fa /ma )
where Fa is the resultant force acting on particle A.

The New Dynamics

[1] A force is always caused by the interaction between two particles.
[2] The resultant force Fa acting on a particle A of mass ma produces a dynamic
.
acceleration a a according to the following equation: a a = Fa /ma
[3] This paper considers that not all forces obey Newtons third law (in its strong form
or in its weak form)
1

The Definitions
For a system of N particles, the following definitions are applicable:
Mass

.
M = i mi

Linear Momentum

.
P = i mi v i

Angular Momentum

.
=
L
i mi r i v i

Work

R
.
W = i 12 Fi d r i = i 1/2 mi (vi )2

Kinetic Energy

.
K = i 1/2 mi (vi )2

Potential Energy

R
.
U = i 12 Fi d r i

Lagrangian

.
L = K U

The Principles of Conservation

The linear momentum P of an isolated system of N particles remains constant if the
internal forces obey Newtons third law in its weak form.
P = constant

d(P)/dt
= i mi a i = i Fi = 0

of an isolated system of N particles remains constant if the

The angular momentum L
internal forces obey Newtons third law in its strong form.
= constant
L

d(L)/dt
= i mi r i a i = i r i Fi = 0

The mechanical energy E of a system of N particles remains constant if the system is

only subject to conservative forces.
.
E = K + U = constant

E = K + U = 0

The Transformations
The dynamic position r a , the dynamic velocity v a and the dynamic acceleration a a of
a particle A relative to a reference frame S, are given by:
r a = ra + r S
v a = va + S ra + v S
a a = aa + 2 S va + S ( S ra ) + S ra + a S
where ra , va and aa are the position, the velocity and the acceleration of particle A relative
to the reference frame S. r S , v S , a S , S and S are the dynamic position, the dynamic
velocity, the dynamic acceleration, the dynamic angular velocity and the dynamic angular

acceleration of the reference frame S relative to the dynamic reference frame S.

The dynamic position r S , the dynamic velocity v S , the dynamic acceleration a S , the
dynamic angular velocity S and the dynamic angular acceleration S of a reference
are as follows:
frame S fixed to a particle S relative to the dynamic reference frame S,
. RR
(F0 /ms ) dt dt
r S =
. R
v S = (F0 /ms ) dt
.
a S = (F0 /ms )

1/2
.
S = (F1 /ms F0 /ms ) (r1 r0 )/(r1 r0 )2 
.
S = d( S )/dt
where F0 and F1 are the resultant forces acting on the reference frame S in the points 0
and 1, r0 and r1 are the positions of the points 0 and 1 relative to the reference frame S
and ms is the mass of particle S (the point 0 is the origin of the reference frame S and the
center of mass of particle S) (the point 0 belongs to the axis of dynamic rotation, and the
segment 01 is perpendicular to the axis of dynamic rotation) (the vector S is along the
axis of dynamic rotation)

The Equation of Motion

From the third transformation it follows that the acceleration aa of a particle A of
mass ma relative to a reference frame S, is given by:
aa = Fa /ma 2 S va S ( S ra ) S ra a S
.
where Fa is the resultant force acting on particle A ( a a = Fa /ma )

Observations
The alternative classical mechanics of particles presented in this paper is invariant
under transformations between reference frames and can be applied in any reference frame
without the necessity of introducing fictitious forces.
This paper considers, on one hand, that not all forces obey Newtons third law (in its
strong form or in its weak form) and, on the other hand, that all forces are invariant under
transformations between reference frames (F 0 = F )
Additionally, from the equation of motion it follows that a reference frame S is inertial
when ( S = 0 and a S = 0) and that it is non-inertial when ( S 6= 0 or a S 6= 0)

Bibliography
D. Lynden-Bell and J. Katz, Classical Mechanics without Absolute Space (1995)
J. Barbour, Scale-Invariant Gravity: Particle Dynamics (2002)
R. Ferraro, Relational Mechanics as a Gauge Theory (2014)
A. Torassa, General Equation of Motion (2013)
A. Torassa, Alternative Classical Mechanics (2013)
A. Torassa, A Reformulation of Classical Mechanics (2014)
A. Torassa, A New Principle of Conservation of Energy (2014)
4

Appendix
For a system of N particles, the following definitions are also applicable:
Angular Momentum
Work
Kinetic Energy
Potential Energy
Lagrangian

.
0 =
L
i mi (ri r cm ) (vi v cm )
R
.
W 0 = i 12 Fi d(ri r cm ) = i 1/2 mi (vi v cm )2
.
K 0 = i 1/2 mi (vi v cm )2
R
.
U 0 = i 12 Fi d(ri r cm )
.
L0 = K 0 U 0

where r cm and v cm are the dynamic position and the dynamic velocity of the center of mass
R
R
of the system of particles. i 12 mi a i d(ri r cm ) = i 12 mi (ai a cm ) d(ri r cm ) = i 1/2 mi (vi v cm )2
0 of an isolated system of N particles remains constant if the
The angular momentum L
internal forces obey Newtons third law in its strong form.
0 = constant
L
0 )/dt = i mi (ri r cm ) (ai a cm ) = i mi (ri rcm ) a i = i ri Fi = 0
d(L
.
0 =
L
i mi (ri r cm ) (vi v cm ) = i mi (ri rcm ) [ vi + S (ri rcm ) vcm ]
The mechanical energy E 0 of a system of N particles remains constant if the system is
only subject to conservative forces.
.
E 0 = K 0 + U 0 = constant
E 0 = K 0 + U 0 = 0
.
K 0 = i 1/2 mi (vi v cm )2 = i 1/2 mi [ vi + S (ri rcm ) vcm ]2
R
R
.
U 0 = i 12 Fi d(ri r cm ) = i 12 Fi d(ri rcm )

where rcm and vcm are the position and the velocity of the center of mass of the system
of particles relative to a reference frame S, and S is the dynamic angular velocity of the
reference frame S. If the system of particles Ris isolated and if the
internal forces obey
R
Newtons third law in its weak form then: i 12 Fi d(ri rcm ) = i 12 Fi dri
5