Subfields of psychology

Psychology encompasses a vast domain, and includes many different approaches to the study of mental processes and behavior. Below are the
major areas of inquiry that taken together constitute psychology. A comprehensive list of the sub-fields and areas within psychology can be
found at the list of psychology topics and list of psychology disciplines.
Anomalistic psychology is the study of human behaviour and experience connected with what is often called the paranormal, without the
assumption that there is anything paranormal involved.[2] Researchers involved with anomalistic psychology try to provide plausible nonparanormal accounts, supported by empirical evidence, of how psychological and physical factors might combine to give the impression of
paranormal activity when there had been none. Apart from deception or self-deception such explanations might involve cognitive biases,
anomalous psychological states, dissociative states, hallucinations, personality factors, developmental issues and the nature of memory.[3] A
notable researcher in the field of anomalistic psychology is the British psychologist Chris French who set up the Anomalistic Psychology
Research Unit (APRU) in the Department of Psychology at Goldsmiths, University of London.[4]

Main articles: Biological psychology, Neuropsychology, Physiological psychology, Behavioral neuroscience and Cognitive neuroscience

MRI depicting the human brain. The arrow indicates the position of the hypothalamus.
Biological psychology is the scientific study of the biological substrates of behavior and mental states. Seeing all behavior as intertwined with
the nervous system, biological psychologists feel it is sensible to study how the brain functions in order to understand behavior. This is the
approach taken in behavioral neuroscience, cognitive neuroscience, and neuropsychology. Neuropsychology is the branch of psychology that
aims to understand how the structure and function of the brain relate to specific behavioral and psychological processes. Neuropsychology is
particularly concerned with the understanding of brain injury in an attempt to work out normal psychological function. Cognitive
neuroscientists often use neuroimaging tools, which can help them to observe which areas of the brain are active during a particular task.
Main article: Clinical psychology
Clinical psychology includes the study and application of psychology for the purpose of understanding, preventing, and relieving
psychologically-based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development. Central to its practice are
psychological assessment and psychotherapy, although clinical psychologists may also engage in research, teaching, consultation, forensic
testimony, and program development and administration.[5] Some clinical psychologists may focus on the clinical management of patients with
brain injurythis area is known as clinical neuropsychology. In many countries clinical psychology is a regulated mental health profession.

Main article: Cognitive psychology

Cognitive psychology studies cognition, the mental processes underlying mental activity. Perception, learning, problem solving, reasoning,
thinking, memory, attention, language and emotion are areas of research. Classical cognitive psychology is associated with a school of thought
known as cognitivism, whose adherents argue for an information processing model of mental function, informed by functionalism and
experimental psychology.

On a broader level, cognitive science is an interdisciplinary enterprise of cognitive psychologists, cognitive neuroscientists, researchers in
artificial intelligence, linguists, humancomputer interaction, computational neuroscience, logicians and social scientists. Computational models
are sometimes used to simulate phenomena of interest. Computational models provide a tool for studying the functional organization of the
mind whereas neuroscience provides measures of brain activity.
Main article: Community psychology
Community psychology deals with the relationships of the individual to communities and the wider society. Community psychologists seek to
understand the quality of life of individuals, communities, and society. Their aim is to enhance quality of life through collaborative research and
action.

Community psychology makes use of various perspectives within and outside of psychology to address issues of communities, the relationships
within them, and people's attitudes about them. Through collaborative research and action, community psychologists (practitioners and
researchers) seek to understand and to enhance quality of life for individuals, communities, and society. Community psychology takes a public
health approach and focuses on prevention and early intervention as a means to solve problems in addition to treatment. Rappaport (1977)
discusses the perspective of community psychology as an ecological perspective with the person-environment fit being the focus of study and
action instead of attempting to change the person or the environment when an individual is seen as having a problem.
Main article: Comparative psychology
Comparative psychology refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. It is related to disciplines
outside of psychology that study animal behavior such as ethology. Although the field of psychology is primarily concerned with humans the
behavior and mental processes of animals is also an important part of psychological research. This being either as a subject in its own right (e.g.,
animal cognition and ethology) or with strong emphasis about evolutionary links, and somewhat more controversially, as a way of gaining an
insight into human psychology. This is achieved by means of comparison or via animal models of emotional and behavior systems as seen in
neuroscience of psychology (e.g., affective neuroscience and social neuroscience).
Main article: Consulting Psychology
Consulting psychology includes the application of psychology to consulting contexts at the individual, group and organizational levels. The field
specializes in assessment and intervention, particularly in business and organizational applications but also is concerned with the consulting
process used to assess and facilitate change in any area of psychology. Lowman[13] (2002) provides an overview of the field, including the
relevance of individual, group and organizational levels to consulting psychologists.
Main article: Counseling psychology
Counseling psychology seeks to facilitate personal and interpersonal functioning across the lifespan with a focus on emotional, social,
vocational, educational, health-related, developmental, and organizational concerns. Counselors are primarily clinicians, using psychotherapy
and other interventions in order to treat clients. Traditionally, counseling psychology has focused more on normal developmental issues and
everyday stress rather than psychopathology, but this distinction has softened over time. Counseling psychologists are employed in a variety of
settings, including universities, hospitals, schools, governmental organizations, businesses, private practice, and community mental health
centers.
Main article: Developmental psychology
Mainly focusing on the development of the human mind through the life span, developmental psychology seeks to understand how people
come to perceive, understand, and act within the world and how these processes change as they age. This may focus on intellectual, cognitive,
neural, social, or moral development. Researchers who study children use a number of unique research methods to make observations in
natural settings or to engage them in experimental tasks. Such tasks often resemble specially designed games and activities that are both
enjoyable for the child and scientifically useful, and researchers have even devised clever methods to study the mental processes of small
infants. In addition to studying children, developmental psychologists also study aging and processes throughout the life span, especially at
other times of rapid change (such as adolescence and old age). Developmental psychologists draw on the full range of theorists in scientific
psychology to inform their research.
Main article: Educational psychology
Educational psychology is the study of how humans learn in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational interventions, the psychology
of teaching, and the social psychology of schools as organizations. The work of child psychologists such as Lev Vygotsky, Jean Piaget, Bernard
Luskin and Jerome Bruner has been influential in creating teaching methods and educational practices. Educational psychology is often included
in teacher education programs, at least in North America, Australia, and New Zealand.
Main article: Environmental psychology
Environmental psychology is an interdisciplinary field focused on the interplay between humans and their surroundings. The field defines the
term environment broadly, encompassing natural environments, social settings, built environments, learning environments, and informational
environments. Since its conception, the field has been committed to the development of a discipline that is both value oriented and problem
oriented, prioritizing research aiming at solving complex environmental problems in the pursuit of individual well-being within a larger society.

Evolutionary[edit]
Main article: Evolutionary psychology
Evolutionary psychology explores the genetic roots of mental and behavioral patterns, and posits that common patterns may have emerged
because they were highly adaptive for humans in the environments of their evolutionary pasteven if some of these patterns are maladaptive
in today's environments. Fields closely related to evolutionary psychology are animal behavioral ecology, human behavioral ecology, dual
inheritance theory, and sociobiology. Memetics, founded by Richard Dawkins, is a related but competing field[14] that proposes that cultural
evolution can occur in a Darwinian sense but independently of Mendelian mechanisms; it therefore examines the ways in which thoughts, or
memes, may evolve independently of genes.

Forensic[edit]
Main article: Forensic psychology
Forensic psychology applies psychology to legal cases, covering a broad range of practices including the clinical evaluations of defendants,
reports to judges and attorneys, and courtroom testimony on given issues. Forensic psychologists are appointed by the court or hired by
attorneys to evaluate defendants' competency to stand trial, competency to be executed, sanity, and need for involuntary commitment.
Forensic psychologists provide sentencing recommendations, evaluate sex offenders and treatments, and provide recommendations to the
court through written reports and testimony. Many of the questions the court asks the forensic psychologist go ultimately to legal issues,
although a psychologist cannot answer legal questions. For example, there is no definition of sanity in psychology. Rather, sanity is a legal
definition that varies from place to place throughout the world. Therefore, a prime qualification of a forensic psychologist is an intimate
understanding of the law, especially criminal law.
Main article: Health psychology
Health psychology is the application of psychological theory and research to health, illness and health care. Whereas clinical psychology focuses
on mental health and neurological illness, health psychology is concerned with the psychology of a much wider range of health-related behavior
including healthy eating, the doctor-patient relationship, a patient's understanding of health information, and beliefs about illness. Health
psychologists may be involved in public health campaigns, examining the impact of illness or health policy on quality of life and in research into
the psychological impact of health and social care.
Main article: Industrial and organizational psychology
Industrial and organizational psychology (I-O) applies psychological concepts and methods to optimize human potential in the workplace.
Personnel psychology, a subfield of I-O psychology, applies the methods and principles of psychology in selecting and evaluating workers. I-O
psychology's other subfield, organizational psychology, examines the effects of work environments and management styles on worker
motivation, job satisfaction, and productivity
Main article: Legal psychology
Legal psychology is a research-oriented field populated with researchers from several different areas within psychology (although social and
cognitive psychologists are typical). Legal psychologists explore such topics as jury decision-making, eyewitness memory, scientific evidence,
and legal policy. The term "legal psychology" has only recently come into use, and typically refers to any non-clinical law-related r
Main article: Media psychology
Media psychology seeks an understanding of the relationships between mediated communication and the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of
the senders and recipients of the communication. For instance, a media psychologist might determine that depressed individuals are especially
likely to watch television.
Main article: Occupational health psychology
Occupational health psychology (OHP) is a discipline that emerged from health psychology, industrial/organizational psychology, and
occupational health. OHP is concerned with identifying psychosocial characteristics of workplaces that give rise to problems in physical (e.g.,

cardiovascular disease) and mental health (e.g., depression). OHP has investigated such psychosocial characteristics of workplaces as workers'
decision latitude and supervisors' supportiveness. OHP also concerns itself with interventions that can prevent or ameliorate work-related
health problems. Such interventions have important, beneficial implications for the economic success of organizations. Other research areas of
concern to OHP include workplace violence, unemployment, and workplace safety. Two exemplary OHP journals are the Journal of
Occupational Health Psychology and Work & Stress. Two prominent OHP professional organizations are the European Academy of Occupational
Health Psychology and the Society for Occupational Health Psychology.
Main article: Personality psychology
Personality psychology studies enduring patterns of behavior, thought, and emotion in individuals, commonly referred to as personality.
Theories of personality vary across different psychological schools and orientations. They carry different assumptions about such issues as the
role of the unconscious and the importance of childhood experience. According to Freud, personality is based on the dynamic interactions of
the ego, superego, and id.[17] Trait theorists, in contrast, attempt to analyze personality in terms of a discrete number of key traits by the
statistical method of factor analysis. The number of proposed traits has varied widely. An early model proposed by Hans Eysenck suggested that
there are three traits that comprise human personality: extraversion-introversion, neuroticism, and psychoticism. Raymond Cattell proposed a
theory of 16 personality factors. The Big Five personality traits, proposed by Lewis Goldberg, currently has strong support among trait theorists.
Main article: Quantitative psychology
Quantitative psychology involves the application of mathematical and statistical modeling in psychological research, and the development of
statistical methods for analyzing and explaining behavioral data. The term "Quantitative psychology" is relatively new and little used (only
recently have Ph.D. programs in quantitative psychology been formed), and it loosely covers the longer standing subfields psychometrics and
mathematical psychology.
Psychometrics is the field of psychology concerned with the theory and technique of psychological measurement, which includes the
measurement of knowledge, abilities, attitudes, and personality traits. Measurement of these phenomena is difficult, and much research has
been developed to define and analyze such phenomena. Psychometric research typically involves two major research tasks, namely: (i) the
construction of instruments and procedures for measurement; and (ii) the development and refinement of theoretical approaches to
measurement.
Mathematical psychology is the subdiscipline that is concerned with the development of psychological theory in relation with mathematics and
statistics. Basic topics in mathematical psychology include measurement theory and mathematical learning theory as well as the modeling and
analysis of mental and motor processes. Psychometrics is more associated with educational psychology, personality, and clinical psychology.
Mathematical psychology is more closely related to psychonomics/experimental and cognitive, and physiological psychology and (cognitive)
neuroscience.

Main article: Psychology of religion

Psychology of religion and spirituality is the psychological study of religious and spiritual experiences, beliefs, activities, and feelings. This
subfield has existed since modern psychology's early days, and is the focus of Division 36 of the American Psychological Association. William
James (18421910) is regarded by most psychologists of religion/spirituality as the founder of the field, and his Varieties of Religious Experience
is considered to be a classic work in the field. Since 2008, the American Psychological Association has published a journal dedicated to this
subfield, entitled the Psychology of Religion and Spirituality.[18] In recent decades, scholars have increasingly conceptualized religion as a way
of living, rather than merely a belief system or institution.[19] Religion and spirituality are commonly viewed as distinct but overlapping
constructs.[20][21][22] Surveys indicate that large majorities of US adults consider religion and/or spirituality to be very important in their
lives.[23][24] Scientific and psychological interest in the psychology of religion/spirituality has increased substantially in recent decades. The
American Psychological Association now publishes many books on the topic of religion/spirituality.[25] The Association's publications include
the recent (2013) two-volume Handbook of Psychology, Religion, and Spirituality, [26] with Volume One focusing on theory,[27] and Volume
Two focusing on applications.
Main article: School psychology
School psychology combines principles from educational psychology and clinical psychology to understand and treat students with learning
disabilities; to foster the intellectual growth of "gifted" students; to facilitate prosocial behaviors in adolescents; and otherwise to promote
safe, supportive, and effective learning environments. *Social psychology is the study of social behavior and mental processes, with an
emphasis on how humans think about each other and how they relate to each other. Social psychologists are especially interested in how
people react to social situations.

Idyoma, talinghaga, at tayutay sa komunikasyon ng mga Filipino

Posted on 07/28/2008 by Roberto Aonuevo
Ano ang paraan ng komunikasyon ng mga Filipino? Ito ang isa sa maraming tanong na sinasagot ng Pahiwatig: Kagawiang Pangkomunikasyon
ng Filipino (2002) niMelba Padilla Maggay. Hitik umano sa pahiwatig at ligoy ang pakikipag-usap ng mga Filipino, dahil nagmumula sila sa
kulturang may mataas na uri ng pagbabahaginan ng kahulugan, kompara sa mga taga-Kanluran na itinuturing na may mababang konteksto ng
kulturang mababa rin ang antas ng pagbabahaginan ng kahulugan. Bukod ditoy ginagamit ng mga Filipino ang konsepto ng pakikipagkapuwa
na pagturing sa kausap bilang bahagi ng sarilina mauugat sa kulturang mataas ang pagpapahalaga sa ugnayan ng pamayanan.
Habang lumalayo ang agwat ng pagsasamahan ng mga Filipino, ani Maggay, lalong tumataas ang antas ng di-pagkatiyak sa pakikipag-ugnayan sa
isat isa. Halimbawa, gagamit ang mga Filipino ng mga tayutay (figure of speech), bulaklak ng dila (idyoma), at talinghaga (metapora) kung ang
kausap ay itinuturing na ibang tao (i.e., hindi kaibigan, kaanak, o kakilala). Itinuturing na maligoy ang gayong paraan ng komunikasyon,
samantalang nagtatangkang ihayag ang panlabas na anyo ng pakikipag-ugnay at pakikibagay. Pormal ang tono ng pakikipag-usap, at nakatuon
sa pagpapakilala.
Ngunit may kakayahan din ang mga Filipino na magsabi nang tahas, kung ang kausap ay kapalagayang-loob. Ang kapalagayang-loob dito ay
maaaring kaanak, kaibigan, o kasamang matagal nang kakilala at matalik sa loob ng isang tao. Idinagdag ni Maggay na mahilig umano ang mga
Filipino sa malapitang pag-uugnayan, na humihipo at dumadama sa mga tao at bagay-bagay. Kung pagbabatayan naman ang tahas at
magagaspang na banat ng mga komentarista sa radyo, diyaryo, at telebisyon sa ilang personalidad o politiko, ang gayong paraan ng
komunikasyon ay maaaring pagbubukod mismo ng mga taong nanunuligsa sa mga taong tinutuligsa. Ang ugnayan ay maaaring nagiging kami
laban sa kayo, na hindi lamang umaangat sa personalismo, gaya ng isinaad ni Maggay, bagkus kaugnay ng papel ng kapangyarihan at
impluwensiya mula sa dalawang panig.
Mahabang disertasyon naman kung pag-aaralan ang paraan ng komunikasyon ng mga blogistang Pinoy sa cyberspace. Ang mga blogistang Pinoy
ay maaaring isaalang-alang pa rin ang dating anyo ng komunikasyon ng mga Filipino, at ang pagtuturingan ng mga nag-uusap ay hindi bilang
magkakabukod na entidad bagkus matatalik sa kalooban o sirkulo ng blogista. Nalilikha ang pambihirang espasyo sa pagitan ng blogista sa
kapuwa blogista o mambabasa, at sumisilang ang isang uri ng diskursong matalik sa sirkulo nila. Halimbawa, ano ba ang pakialam ng
mambabasa kung nakabuntis ang isang blogista o kayay nagkahiwalay ang dalawang blogistang dating magkasintahan? Makapapasok lamang
sa ugnayan ang mambabasa kung ang pagturing ng mga blogista sa kanilang mambabasa ay para na ring kalahok sa mga pangyayari, at ang
gayong pangyayari ay likha ng konsepto ukol sa pamayanan ng mga Filipinong blogista. Sa ilang Filipino, ang pagsulat ng blog ay pagsangkot
na rin sa madlang mambabasa sa anumang nagaganap sa buhay ng blogista, kaya ang mambabasa ay hindi basta ibang tao bagkus kapuwa
tao na marapat makaalam, makaugnay, at makatuwang sa lahat ng bagay.
Mahalaga ang kapuwa-sa-kapuwang komunikasyon ng mga Filipino. Kung babalikan ang mga pag-aaral ni Iigo Ed. Regalado hinggil sa
talinghaga, kawikaan, at tayutay, mababatid na kumukuha ang mga Filipino noong sinaunang panahon ng mga salitang buhat at kaugnay
sa kaligiran, at ang mga ito ang kinakasangkapan sa paghahambing, pagtatambis, pagtutulad, at panghalili sa mga katangian ng tao na
pinatutungkulan, ngunit ayaw tahasang saktan dahil sa kung ano-anong dahilan. Malimit gamitin noon ang pisikal na anyo ng hayop, isda, ibon,
insekto, halaman, at bagay upang itumbas sa ugali at asal ng tao. Halimbawa nito ang tagong-bayawak na tumutukoy sa madaling makita;
buhay-pusa na mahaba ang buhay; at paang-pato na katumbas ng tamad. Kung minsan, ginagamit ang isang bahagi ng katawan upang
maging metonimiya sa ugali, pananaw, at asal ng isang tao. Maihahalimbawa rito ang taingang-kawali na ibig sabihin ay nagbibingibingihan; mainit ang mata na katumbas ng buwisit o malas na miron sa sugalan; at marumi ang noo na katumbas ng taong may
kapintasan. Heto ang ilan pang tayutay at idyomang tinipon ni Regalado, ang mga kawikaang maaaring nakaiwanan na ng panahon, ngunit
maaaring balikan ng mga Filipino upang ipagunita sa susunod na henerasyon:
Talinghagang
Asong-pungge
Balat-kalabaw
Balat-sibuyas
Basang-sisiw
Buhay-alamang
Buhay-pusa
Bulang-gugo
Buwayang-lubog
Dagang-bahay
Kakaning-itik
Kutong-lupa
Lakad-kuhol

tinumbasan

ng

mga

ng
hayop,
ibon,
isda,
kulisap,
at
halaman
susunod-sunod
sa
dalaga

Matibay
ang
hiya;
walanghiya

maramdamin;
madaling
umiyak

api-apihan;
kalagayang
sahol
sa
hirap

laging
nasusuong
sa
panganib;
hikahos

mahaba
ang
buhay;
laging
nakaliligtas
sa
panganib

buks
ang
palad
sa
paggasta

taksil
sa
kapuwa;
hindi
mabuti
ang
gawa

taksil
sa
kasambahay
api-apihan

bulakbol;
walang
hanapbuhay

mabagal
utusan;
patumpik-tumpik
kapag
inutusan

katangian

Ligong-uwak

hindi
naghihilod
o
gumagamit
ng
bimpo
kapag
naliligo;
ulo
lamang
ang
binabasa.
Maryakapra
(marya-kapra)

babaing
masagwa
o
baduy
magbihis
Mataas
ang
lipad

hambog
Matang-manok

Malabo
ang
paningin
kung
gabi;
Di-makakita
kung
gabi
May
sa-palos
Hindi
mahuli.
Mahirap
salakabin.
Madulas
sa
lahat
ng
bagay.
Nagmumurang
kamatis

nagdadalaga
Nagmumurang
kamyas

bagong
naniningalang-pugad;
bagong
nanliligaw.
Paang-pato

tamad;
makupad;
babagal-bagal
kung
lumakad
Pagpaging
alimasag

walang
laman
Puting-tainga

maramot
Putok
sa
buho

Walang
tiyak
na
ama
nang
isilang
Salimpusa
(saling-pusa)

hindi
kabilang
sa
anumang
panig;
Sangkahig,
sangtuka

Ginagasta
ang
siyang
kinikita.
Tagong-bayawak

madaling
makita
sa
pangungubli
Tawang-aso tawang nakatutuya
Talinghagang
tinumbasan
ng
mga
bahagi
ng
katawan
o
kayay
kilos
ng
tao
Buks
ang
palad

magaang
magbitiw
ng
salapi;
galante;
hindi
maramot
Kadaupang-palad
kaibigang
matalik
Kumindat
sa
dilim

nabigo;
nilubugan
ng
pag-asa
Lawit
ang
pusod

balasubas
Ligaw-tingin

torpe;
hindi
makapagsalita
sa
nais
ligawan
Mababang-luha

iyakin;
bawat
kalungkutan
ay
iniiyak
Mabigat
ang
dugo

kinaiinisan
Magaan
ang
bibig

palabati;
magiliw
makipagkapuwa
Magaan ang kamay magandang magbuwana mano, kung sa negosyo o sugal; mapagbuhat ng kamay, o madaling manampal o manakit
Mahaba
ang
paa

nananaon
sa
oras
ng
pagkain
ang
pagdating
o
pagdalaw
Mahabang-dila

palasumbungin
Mahabang-kuko
palaumit
Mahigan
ang
kaluluwa

matinding
galit
Mainit
ang
mata

malas
sa
panonood;
nagdadala
ng
kamalasan
kapag
nagmiron
sa
sugalan
Manipis
ang
balt
mapaghinanakit;
madaling
masaktan
kapag
sinabihan
Marumi
ang
noo

taong
may
kapintasan
May
balahibo
ang
dila

sinungaling
May
blat
sa
batok

malas
May
bituin
sa
palad

masuwerte
sa
lahat
ng
bagay,
lalo
sa
negosyo;
mapapalarin
May
kuko
sa
batok

masamang
tao;
di-mapagkakatiwalaan
May
kurus
ang
dila

nagkakatotoo
ang
bawat
sabihin
May
nunal
sa
paa

Lays;
mahilig
maglagalag
May
tala
sa
noo

babaeng
ligawin
o
malimit
suyuin
ng
mga
lalaki
May-sungay

lalaking
di-pinagtatapatan
ng
asawa;
lalaking
kinakaliwa
o
pinagtataksilan
ng
asawa
Nakadikit
ng
laway

tanggalin;
madaling
tanggalin
Namuti
ang
mata

Nabigo
sa
paghihintay;
hindi
dumating
ang
hinihintay
Namuti
ang
talampakan

kumarimot
dahil
naduwag;
tumakbo
palayo
dahil
sa
natakot
o
naduwag.
Nasa
dulo
ng
dila

hindi
masabi-sabi;
hindi
matandaan,
bagamat
alam
na
alam
Naulingan
ang
kamay

nagnakaw;
kumupit
ng
salapi
Puting
tainga

maramot
Sa
pitong
kuba

paulit-ulit
Tabla
ang
mukha

walang
kahihiyan
Taingang-kawali

nagbibingi-bingihan;
kunwariy
hindi
nakarinig.
Walang
butas
ang
buto

malakas
Walang sikmura hindi marunong mahiya
Masasabing mahiligin ang mga Filipino, lalo ang mga sinaunang Tagalog noon, sa paglikha ng mga taguring ambil na naghuhudyat ng
kaugalian, kung lilimiin ang pag-aaral ni Regalado. Ang ambl ay tumutukoy sa salita, parirala, o pahayag na may katumbas na pakahulugang
hindi tuwirang nagsasaad ng orihinal na tinutukoy na ugali o asal o katangian ng tao. Sa Ingles, tinatawag itong personipikasyon at malimit
kasangkapanin sa matalinghagang pamamahayag sa tula. Halimbawa, maaaring wala nang nakaaalam ngayon na ang orihinal na salitang
ganid ay tumutukoy sa malaking asong ginagamit sa pamamaril o pangangaso. Ang ganid ngayon ay hindi ikinakabit sa German Shepherd o

iba pang aso, bagkus sa taong sakim o taong nais lamang kumabig nang kumabig ngunit ayaw maglabas kahit isang kusing. Isa pang
halimbawa ang ampalaya na ginagamit na ambil sa mga tao na napakahirap hingan ng kahit ano, lalo na kung salapi. Bagaman naglaho na
ang ganitong taguri, higit na kilala ang ampalaya ngayon bilang pangontra sa diabetes at alta-presyon. May ibang salita namang nagbabalik
ngayon, at kabilang dito ang limatik na isang uri ng lintang maliit ngunit masidhing manipsip ng dugo. Iniaambil ang salitang ito sa mga tao na
mahilig kumabit sa ibang tao upang manghuthot ng salapi hanggang wakas; o kayay sa mga propitaryong walang habas magpatubo.
Nagbabalik din ang hunyango na isang uri ng hayop na may pakpak, sinlaki ng karaniwang kuliglig, na nakikikulay sa bawat makapitan.
Panukoy ito ngayon sa mga tao na taksil kung hindi man mapagbalatkayo. Usong-uso rin ang balimbing na isang uri ng punongkahoy na ang
bunga ay may limang mukha o panig. Tumutukoy ito sa taong kung sino ang kaharap ay siyang mabuti, at idinagdag dito ang isa pang
kahulugang tumutukoy sa politikong palipat-lipat ng partido.

Retorika

Ayon kay Sebastian(2007), ito ay isang mahalagang kaalaman ng pagpapahayag na kung saan ay tinukoy kung maganda o kaakit-akit ang
pagsususlat at pagsasalita. Maaari rin itong tawagin bilang pagaaral o kahusayan ng isang indibidwal sapagpili ng mga salitang gagamitin sa
pagsulat o pagsasalita.

Galing sa salitang rhetor (Salitang Griyego) na nangangahulugang guro o mahusay na oradr/mananalumpati

Susi sa mabisang pagpapahayag na nauukol sa kaakit-akit, kaiga-igaya at epektibong pagsasalita o pagsulat.

Pag-aaral kung paano makabubuo ng isang kaisipan sa pamamagitan ng mga piling salita at wastong ayaw-ayaw ng mga ito upang
maiangkop sa target ng awdyens at matamo ng manunulat ang kanyang layunin.

Ang kasanayang ito ay natututunan o napagaaralan

Ang isang taong may kahusayan sa retorika ay kadalasan nagkakaroon ng isang magandang impresyon sa kaniyang mga audience o
tagapakinig. Halimbawa na lamang ay ang paborito mong awtor ng libro tagapagbalita sa telebisyon. May kasanayan sila na kung
saan sila ay ating hinahangaan at maging tinatangkilik ng mga tagapanood.Samakatuwid, ang layunin ng retorika ay maging kaakit
akit at epektibo ang isang pahayag.

Bilang isang sining

Tulad ng awit ang retorika ay may roon ding sining o ibat ibang paraan o estilo na nalinawan sa ating isipan, damadamin at mambabasa.
Isang Kooperativong sining
Hindi maaring gawin ng nagiisa. Sa pamamagitan nito nagbubuklod ang isang tagapagsalita at tagapakinig sa iisan ideya.

Isang pantaong sining

Dahil sa ang wika ay midyum ng retorika, paslita man o pasulat. Dahil dito, ito ay pagaari ng tao ang retorika ay isa ring siniong at pantao.

Isang Temporal na sining

Ito ay nababatay sa panahon.Ang gumagamit nito ay nangungusap sa lenggwhae ngayon at hindi bukas o kahapon.

Isang limitadong sining

Marami ang hindi ito kayang gawin. Ang retorika ay mayroong sukdulan o hangganan. Dahil maaring imahinasyon lamang ang gamitin sa
sining na ito.

Isang may kabiguang sining

Hindi lahat ay may kagalingan sa paghawak ng wika. Ito ay likas na komplikado dahil sa mga tuntunin na pababago bago. Sa iba ito ay
nagiging frustrating na karanasan.

Isang nagsusupling na sining

Ito ay dumadami. Ang isang manunulat ay nagsusulat ng isang ideya sa isipan at nagsusupling ng isang akda. At patuloy tuloy na napapasa ang
kaalaman sa kaniyang kaisipan.
Saklaw ng retorika
1.

Lipunan

2.

pilosopiya

3.

wika

4.

iba pang larangan

5.

sining

Gampanin

Nagbibigay daan sa komunikasyon

Ano man an gating naiisip, nadarama ay maari nating ipahayag sa pasalita o pasulat na mauunawan ng ibang tao.

Nagdidistrak

Dahil sa ating pakikining o pagbabasa ng mga akda tayo ay nadidistrak at nadadala sa ibang dimesyon na kung saan nakakalimutan natin ang
tunay na suliranin ng ating buhay.

Nagpapalawak ng pananaw

Sa ating pakikinig o pagbasa maaaring may natututunan tayong bagong kaalaman na mahalaga. Gaya ng nabanggit, ang retorika ay
nagsusupling dahilan upang lumawak ang pananaw natin

Nagbibigay ngalan,

Ang mga bagay sa paligid natin ay dumating ng walang leybel. Dahil sa retorika, halimbawa, ang kamera ay nagging Kodak, ang toothpaste ay
nagging colgate.

Nagbigay-kapangyarihan
Dahil sa retorika, napakaraming tao ang nagging prominente at makapangyarihan. Isa sa mga mahuhusay na na pulitiko o mananumpalati. Si
Ninoy Aquino ay isang mahusay na peryodista noong Ikalawang pandigmaang pandaigdig. Ang matatalinong ideya, malalalim na
pananampalataya at idyolohiya na naipahayag sa pamamagitan ng retorika ay pinagmulan din ng kapangyarihan at kalakasan.
Unformatted Document Excerpt
KASAYSAYAN NG RETORIKA Sinasabing nagsimula ang retorika bilang isang sistema ng pakikipagtalo sa Syracuse, isang isla sa Sicily noong
ikalimang siglo bago dumating si Kristo. Makaraang bumagsak ang kanilang pamahalaang diktaturyal, ang mga mamamayan dooy binigyang
pagkaka dumulog at ipagtalo sa hukuman ang kanilang karapatan sa mga lupang inilit ng nakaraang rehimen, Ang marunong na si Corax ,
isang tagaroon, ang nagpanukala sa mga tuntunin ng paglalahad ng kanilang argumento. Ayon sa kanya, upang makuha ang simpatiya ng mga
nakikinig kailanagan ang maayos at sistematikong pagpapahayag ng mga katwiran. Nakasentro ang kanyang pamamaraan sa talumpati na
kakikitaan ng limang mahahalaganag elemento: ang proem o introdusyon; ang salaysay o kasaysayang historical; ang mga pangunahing
argumento; mga karagdagang pahayag o kaugnay na argumento; at ang konklusyon. Naibento nila nag retorika sa layuning makahikayat at
mapunuan ang anumang pagkukulang sa mga konkretong katibayan. Makikita agad natin dito na sadyang ginagamit ang retorika sa pag- apila

sa emosyon at di gananong binibigyang diin ang katumpakan at kalakasan ng argumento. Ayon pa sa mga sophist (katawagan sa pangkat ng
matatalinong tao noon), ang retorikay angkop sa pagtatamo ng kapangyarihang political sa pamamgitan lamang ng kanilag pagpapahalaga sa
paksangipinaglalaban at estilo sa pagbigkas. Maaring binabatikos naman ito ni Socrates (c. 470399 B.C.) sa pagsasabing walang hangad ang
mga sophist maliban sa kabayarang kanilang tinatanggap sa pagtuturo at ang kanilang lubhang pagbibigay diin sa retorika bilang sining ng
pakikipagtalo at hindi sustansya ng talumpati. Ang ganitong pamamaraan, banta pa niya, ay nagtuturo lamang sa mga estudyanteng palabasin
ang kasamaan ng isang mabuting adhikain. Kinikilalang pinakama-impluwensyang retorisyan noon si Isocrates (c. 436-338 B.C.). Nagtatag siya
ng sariling paaralang bagtuturo ng istilo ng pananalumpati batay sa maindayog at magandang pagkakatugma ang mga salita sa paraang
tuluyan o prosa. ..
ources in a society. It includes the combination of the various institutions, agencies, entities (or even sectors as described by some authors) and
consumers that comprise the economic structure of a given communityScarcity is the fundamental challenge confronting all individuals and
nations. We all face limitations... so we all have to make choices. We can't always get what we want. How we deal with these limitationsthat
is, how we prioritize and allocate our limited income, time, and resourcesis the basic economic challenge that has confronted individuals and
nations throughout history.
But not every nation has addressed this challenge in the same way. Societies have developed different broad economic approaches to manage
their resources. Economists generally recognize four basic types of economic systemstraditional, command, market, and mixedbut they
dont completely agree on the question of which system best addresses the challenge of scarcity.
A traditional economic system ishere's a shockershaped by tradition. The work that people do, the goods and services they provide, how
they use and exchange resources all tend to follow long-established patterns. These economic systems are not very dynamicthings dont
change very much. Standards of living are static; individuals dont enjoy much financial or occupational mobility. But economic behaviors and
relationships are predictable. You know what you are supposed to do, who you trade with, and what to expect from others.
In many traditional economies, community interests take precedence over the individual. Individuals may be expected to combine their efforts
and share equally in the proceeds of their labor. In other traditional economies, some sort of private property is respected, but it is restrained by
a strong set of obligations that individuals owe to their community.
Today you can find traditional economic systems at work among Australian aborigines and some isolated tribes in the Amazon. In the past, they
could be found everywherein the feudal agrarian villages of medieval Europe, for example.
In a command economic system or planned economy, the government controls the economy. The state decides how to use and distribute
resources. The government regulates prices and wages; it may even determine what sorts of work individuals do. Socialism is a type of
command economic system. Historically, the government has assumed varying degrees of control over the economy in socialist countries. In
some, only major industries have been subjected to government management; in others, the government has exercised far more extensive
control over the economy.
The classic (failed) example of a command economy was the communist Soviet Union. The collapse of the communist bloc in the late 1980s led
to the demise of many command economies around the world; Cuba continues to hold on to its planned economy even today.
In market economies, economic decisions are made by individuals. The unfettered interaction of individuals and companies in the marketplace
determines how resources are allocated and goods are distributed. Individuals choose how to invest their personal resourceswhat training to
pursue, what jobs to take, what goods or services to produce. And individuals decide what to consume. Within a pure market economy the
government is entirely absent from economic affairs..
A mixed economic system combines elements of the market and command economy. Many economic decisions are made in the market by
individuals. But the government also plays a role in the allocation and distribution of resources.

Rude"
Saturday morning jumped out of bed
And put on my best suit
Got in my car and raced like a jet
All the way to you
Knocked on your door with heart in my hand
To ask you a question
'Cause I know that you're an old-fashioned man, yeah
Can I have your daughter for the rest of my life?
Say yes, say yes 'cause I need to know
You say I'll never get your blessing 'til the day I die
Tough luck, my friend, but the answer is 'No'
Why you gotta be so rude?
Don't you know I'm human too?
Why you gotta be so rude?
I'm gonna marry her anyway
Marry that girl
Marry her anyway
Marry that girl
Yeah, no matter what you say
Marry that girl
And we'll be a family
Why you gotta be so
Rude
I hate to do this, you leave no choice
Can't live without her
Love me or hate me we will be boys
Standing at that altar
Or we will run away
To another galaxy, you know
You know she's in love with me
She will go anywhere I go
Can I have your daughter for the rest of my life?
Say yes, say yes 'cause I need to know
You say I'll never get your blessing 'til the day I die
Tough luck, my friend, 'cause the answer's still 'No"
Why you gotta be so rude?
Don't you know I'm human too?
Why you gotta be so rude?
I'm gonna marry her anyway
Marry that girl
Marry her anyway
Marry that girl
No matter what you say
Marry that girl
And we'll be a family
Why you gotta be so
Rude
Rude
Can I have your daughter for the rest of my life?
Say yes, say yes 'cause I need to know
You say, I'll never get your blessing 'til the day I die
Tough luck, my friend, but 'No' still means 'No'!
Why you gotta be so rude?

Don't you know I'm human too?

Why you gotta be so rude?
I'm gonna marry her anyway
Marry that girl
Marry her anyway
Marry that girl
No matter what you say
Marry that girl
And we'll be a family
Why you gotta be so
Rude
Why you gotta be so
Rude
Why you gotta be so rude?
The snow glows white on the mountain tonight
Not a footprint to be seen
A kingdom of isolation
And it looks like I'm the queen

The wind is howling like this swirling storm inside

Couldn't keep it in, heaven knows I've tried
Don't let them in, don't let them see
Be the good girl you always have to be
Conceal, don't feel, don't let them know
Well, now they know

Let it go, let it go

Can't hold it back anymore
Let it go, let it go
Turn away and slam the door
I don't care what they're going to say
Let the storm rage on
The cold never bothered me anyway

It's funny how some distance makes everything seem small

And the fears that once controlled me can't get to me at all
It's time to see what I can do

To test the limits and break through

No right, no wrong, no rules for me
I'm free

Let it go, let it go

I am one with the wind and sky
Let it go, let it go
You'll never see me cry
Here I stand and here I stay
Let the storm rage on

My power flurries through the air into the ground

My soul is spiraling in frozen fractals all around
And one thought crystallizes like an icy blast
I'm never going back, the past is in the past

Let it go, let it go

And I'll rise like the break of dawn
Let it go, let it go
That perfect girl is gone
Here I stand in the light of day
Let the storm rage on
The cold never bothered me anyway