UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI

COLLEGE OF ARCHITECTURE AND

ENGINEERING
CIVIL AND CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING

PUBLIC HEALTH ENGINEERING LABORATORY REPORT

NAME

NJOROGE KAGWI MAURICE

REG. No

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WATER QUALITY

INTRODUCTION
The availability of water supply adequate in terms of both quantity and quality is
essential to human existence. Despite being one of the most abundant compounds
found in nature, its quality differs immensely, often with adverse effects on human
life.
The physical, chemical and biological characteristics of water determine of what
quality it is and hence define the limits of its utility in its applications.
Physical Characteristics related to water quality are usually associated with
the appearance of water, its colour and turbidity, temperature, taste and odour
Chemical characteristics evidenced by the reactions the waters partake
such as comparative performance of hard and soft waters in laundry
Biological characteristics are important in their relation to public health and
may also be significant in modifying the physical, chemical characteristics of
water.
Whereas most physical characteristics can be assessed by taste, eye and smell,
biological and chemical characteristics require input of advanced analytical
techniques to determine. Whereas pure water is almost impossible to attain for all
the human population, Indications of quality must meet the required standards for
human consumption. Hence water quality is such a critical area in environmental
health and continues to be a great challenge for scientists and engineers.
Public health engineers must therefore ensure that water supplied to the public is
wholesome (free from disease causing organisms) and palatable (pleasing and
appealing to the senses of the consumer.) and also fit for industrial use and
processes.
Tests must therefore be carried out for control of the treatment processes and also
to assess the quality of water in distribution systems, storage systems and sources.

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a) .PHYSICAL PARAMETERS OF WATER QUALITY:

1. Appearance, taste and odour

These tests can be determined by careful assessment using our senses of sight,
smell and taste.
If water looks coloured and with insects, smells bad, or tastes swampy, people will
instinctively avoid using it, even though it might be perfectly safe from the public
health aspect.
These tests are important since they give preliminary ideas on presence or absence
of other compounds or organisms in water. Appearance, taste, and odor problems in
drinking water are often caused by organisms, organic substances such as algae or
humic compounds, or by dissolved compounds such as iron.
These tests are highly objective and cannot be relied upon to standardize water
quality. However water as used should be free from all impurities offensive to the
senses.
2. COLOR AND TURBIDITY
a. DETERMINATION OF COLOUR
Objective
To determine the colour of a water sample using the Lovibond Nessleriser

INTRODUCTION
Colour can be caused by substances in solution, known as true colour, and by
substances in suspension, mostly organics causing apparent or organic colour. Iron,
copper, manganese, and industrial wastes may also cause colour.
Apparatus
Lovibond Nessleriser set, light shield.
METHOD
A Nessler cylinder was filled with filtered water sample up to the mark. The sample
was then carefully placed to the right-hand compartment of the Lovibond Nessleriser
and a pure distilled sample put on the left compartment.
The colours were then matched against the standard Hazen Disc no NSA.
The point at which the colours seemed to merge (alike) was read and recorded in
degrees Hazen.

RESULTS
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Colour was found to be 40 degrees Hazen
b. DETERMINATION OF TURBIDITY
Objective
To determine the turbidity of a water sample
INTRODUCTION
Turbidity is the measure of light dispersed by the particles suspended in a water
sample. It is a function of both their concentration and nature and is determined
using a turbidimeter.
Turbidimeters are photometers that measure the intensity of scattered light. Opaque
particles scatter light, so scattered light measured at right angles to a beam of
incident light is proportional to the turbidity.
Formazin polymer is currently used as the primary standard for calibrating
turbidimeters, and the results are reported as nephelometric turbidity units (NTU).
Apparatus
Turbidimeter, pipette, measuring cylinders, light shield.
METHOD
The turbidimeter was allowed to warm up to about 110 minutes.
30 mm sample was then pipetted into a clean sample cell.
The sample was then compared with standards to match it to the one that appeared
to have a turbidity closest to it.
The standard chosen was 0-100 FTU
The standard was then inserted into the cell holder assembly and used to
standardize the instrument.
The light shield was used.
After standardisation, the standard was removed and replaced with the test sample.
The light shield was used.
The turbidity value of the sample was read off the 0-100 gauge and recorded in FTU.
RESULTS
The turbidity of sample was recorded as 92 FTU.
DISCUSSION: TURBIDITY AND COLOUR
Water that has drained through swamps, forests, or decomposing organic matter
may contain a brownish or reddish stain due to tannates and organic acids dissolved
from leaves, bark, and plants. Excessive growths of algae or microorganisms may
also cause colour and turbidity.
Colour and turbidity resulting from the presence of organics in water may also cause
taste, interfere with chlorination, induce bacterial growth, make water unusable by
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certain industries without further treatment, foul anion exchange resins, interfere with
colorimetric measurements, limit aquatic productivity by absorbing photosynthetic
light, render lead in pipes soluble, hold iron and manganese in solution causing
colour and staining of laundry and plumbing fixtures, and interfere with chemical
coagulation. Chlorination of natural waters containing organic water colour (and
humic acid) results in the formation of trihalomethanes including chloroform.
Colour and turbidity can be controlled at the source by watershed management.
Involved is identifying waters from sources contributing natural organic and inorganic
Colour and turbidity and excluding them, increasing water flow gradients, using
settling basins at inlets to reservoirs, and blending water.
Coagulation, flocculation, settling, and rapid sand filtration should reduce colour and
turbidity-causing substances in solution to less than 5 units, with coagulation as the
major factor.
Slow sand filters should remove about 40 percent of the total colour. True colour is
costly to remove. Oxidation (chlorine, ozone) or carbon adsorption also reduces
colour.

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b. CHEMICAL TESTS
From the chemical tests, the following information can be gathered:
The possible presence of harmful or disagreeable substances
Potential for the water to corrode parts of the water system
Tendency of water to stain fixtures and clothing
1.SOLIDS
OBJECTIVE
To determine the amount of suspended and settleable solids in a water sample
INTRODUCTION
In water treatment, both dissolved and suspended materials are called solids.
Total solids is any material left in a container after water is lost by
evaporation.
Total solids= dissolved solids+ suspended solid
Suspended solids : The amount of solids retained in a standard filter paper.
Dissolved solids: Are those that are not retained on a filter paper but are
obtained on evaporation of the water sample.
Settleable solids: those that settle out after one hour without disturbance of a
water sample.
Volatile solids: Those that can be volatilized at 5000c normally assumed to be
organic.
Fixed Solids: those that remain after volatile solids are volatized.

APPARATUS
Gooch crucible, filter paper, desiccators, oven, balance, suction pump, measuring
cylinder
METHOD
1.Suspended solids
The Gooch crucible was prepared by inserting the asbestos mat which acts as the
filter. It was then dried at 105oC in an oven and then stored in a desiccator.
Before use, it was weighed on the balance then mounted in a suction pump.
The sample was shaken vigorously and 100ml rapidly transferred to the funnel by
means of a 100ml volumetric cylinder.
The crucible was then carefully removed and dried in the oven to constant weight
(0ne hour).
It was then weighed again with contents.

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RESULTS
Mass of dry filter paper before filtering= 0.169g =169mg
Mass of filter paper after filtering and drying =0.170g=170mg
TOTAL SUSPENDED SOLIDS=
=10mg/l
2. Settleable solids
1 litre of the sample was shaken vigorously and then poured into the imhoff cone.
It was allowed to settle for one hour.
The amount of settleable solids was then read off the graduated marks on the side of
the imhoff cone in ml/l.
RESULTS
The settleable solids were found to be` 6.8 ml/l.
3. Dissolved solids
A 100ml of the sample was put in weighed a dish and carefully evaporated in a
water bath.
The dish and its contents was then reweighed after all water had evaporated.
RESULTS
Weight of empty dish
=55.729g
Weight of dish after evaporation= 55.742g
Mass of dissolved solids
= 55.742-55.729
=0.013g
Therefore, per litre
= 0.013x 10 =0.13g= 130mg/l
TOTAL SOLIDS
Total solids = suspended solids + dissolved solids
From the experiment
Total solids =130mg/l + 10mg/l
= 140mg/l
DISCUSSION
Solids in water can be reduced through proper watershed management. They
contribute immensely to the taste, colour and turbidity of water.
Their content must therefore be allowed at a minimum.
The nature of solids present determines the safety of the water at hand.
Solids are most important in waste water treatment works.

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2. HYDROGEN ION CONCENTRATION, p.H
INTRODUCTION
The pH of a solution is a measure of hydrogen (H+) ion concentration, which is, in
turn, a measure of acidity.
p.H is mathematically expressed, thus
pH =-log10[H+]
Pure water dissociates slightly into equal concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl
ions
H2O -- H+ + OH
An excess of hydrogen ions makes a solution acidic, whereas a shortage of H+ ions,
or excess of hydroxyl ions, makes it basic. The equilibrium constant for this reaction,
K, is the product of H+ and OH- concentrations and is equal to This relationship may
be expressed as
[H+] [OH-] = Kw
where [H+] and [OH-] are the concentrations of hydrogen and hydroxyl ions,
respectively, in moles per litre.
In a neutral solution (pure water) the H+ concentration is such that the pH is 7. As
the H+ concentration increases the pH decreases. For example, if the H+
concentration is the pH is 4, and the solution is acidic. Any solution where the H+
concentration is less than or the pH is greater than 7, would be basic. The pH range
in dilute samples is from 0 (very acidic) to 14 (very alkaline), and in water samples is
rarely below 4 or above 10.
Objective
To determine the p.H of a provided water sample
METHOD (pH meter Method)
75ml sample was carefully placed in a 100ml beaker.
The electrodes of the calibrated meter were then carefully rinsed in distilled water
and wiped. They were then immersed into the beaker with sample.
The selector switch was then switched on and the pH read directly from the
Meter.(Reading was allowed to stabilize)
RESULTS
The pH of the water sample was 8.60
DISCUSSION
The pH meter works by converting ion activity on the electrodes into electrical
signals which can be interpreted to show the pH. pH is important in almost all
phases of drinking water and wastewater treatment. In water treatment as well as in
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disinfection and corrosion control, pH is important in ensuring proper chemical
treatment. Aquatic organisms are sensitive to pH changes, as well as to the actual
pH of the water. Few aquatic organisms tolerate waters with a pH less than 4 or
greater than 10. Acid mine drainage, unregulated acids or bases in industrial
effluents, or atmospheric acid deposition may alter the pH of a water body
substantially and have detrimental effects on aquatic life.
CONCLUSION
The sample had a pH of 8.6, acceptable for consumption.

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3. ALKALINITY
INTRODUCTION
Alkalinity measures the buffering capacity of the water against changes in pH. Water
that has a high alkalinity can accept large doses of acids or bases without altering
then pH significantly. Waters with low alkalinity, such as rainwater or distilled water,
can experience a drop in the pH with only a minor addition of an acid or base.
In natural waters much of the alkalinity is provided by the carbonate and bicarbonate
buffering system.
In actual sense however, alkalinity in water is the sum of carbonates and
bicarbonates, and hydroxides of potassium, sodium, calcium and magnesium in
water.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the alkalinity of water sample using double endpoint method
Apparatus
Pipette, pipette pump, conical flasks, droppers.
Reagents
Phenolphthalein indicator, methyl orange indicator, sulphuric acid, water sample
METHOD
A 100 ml of the water sample was pipetted into a conical flask and three drops of
phenolphthalein indicator added.
The colour turned pink.
The solution was titrated with N50 sulphuric acid and stirred until the solution turned
colourless.
The volume of acid used was recorded.
To the same flask, three drops of methyl orange were added and the yellowish
solution titrated until it turned orange-red in colour.
The total acid used was recorded.
RESULTS
Phenolphthalein indicator endpoint= 5.8ml
Methyl orange indicator end point=17ml
ANALYSIS
Phenolphthalein alkalinity= volume used x 1000/volume of sample
=volume used x 10
= 5.8 x10
=58mg/ l CaCO3
Total alkalinity

= vol of acid usedx1000/volumeof sample

=vol of acid x 10

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=17 x 10
= 170 Mg/l CaCO3
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Alkalinity provides the buffering effect in water which is an important factor in many
water treatment processes.
It also determines the corrosiveness of water.
It is expressed in terms of mg/l of calcium carbonate.

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4. HARDNESS
Introduction
Hardness of water is the measure of waters tendency to consume ordinary soap
without formation of lather, also recognized for scale and scum deposition in boilers,
kettles and hot water plumbing systems.
It is caused by presence of carbonates and bicarbonates of magnesium and calcium
in water (Temporary hardness removable by boiling) and also chlorides and
sulphates of calcium and magnesium, which is called permanent hardness.( not
removable by heating).
Hardness is measured in mg/l CaCO3 just like alkalinity.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the Total hardness and calcium hardness of a water sample
APPARATUS
Pipette, Burette and pump, conical flasks
REAGENTS
Sample of water, Ammonia solution, N/50 EDTA solution,
METHOD
a. TOTAL HARDNESS
50.0 ml of the water sample was titrated into a conical flask, 1 ml ammonia buffer
solution added. One total hardness indicator tablet was then added and crushed with
a glass rod.
The resulting solution was titrated with standard N/50 Ethylene di-ammine tetra
acetic acid (EDTA) with constant stirring until the colour turned from purple to blue.
b. CALCIUM HARDNESS
50.0 ml of the water sample was titrated into a conical flask, 1 ml 4N sodium
hydroxide solution added. One calcium hardness tablet was then added and crushed
with a glass rod.

The resulting solution was titrated with standard N/50 Ethylene di-ammine tetra
acetic acid (EDTA) with constant stirring until the endpoint when 0.1ml addition of
EDTA produced no further colour change.

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RESULTS
Total Hardness
Average vol of acid used= 3.05ml
Total hardness = vol of EDTA x 20
=8.85x20
=177mg/l CaCO3
Calcium Hardness
Calcium hardness
=Average vol of acid used x 20
Average vol of acid used=3.05
=3.05x20
=61mg/l CaCO3
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Water hardness is majorly caused by the presence of calcium and or magnesium
carbonates and bicarbonates in water.
Calcium hardness is one caused primarily by calcium regardless of the salts
associated with it. Similarly, magnesium hardness is caused by the presence of
magnesium salts in water.
Since these are the most significant minerals causing hardness, it is generally
assumed that:
TOTAL HARDNESS = Ca hardness + Mg hardness.

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5. RESIDUAL CHLORINE
INTRODUCTION
Chlorine remains the principal disinfectant and biocide in water treatment works. It is
applies in gaseous form, in solution or even as a powder. Its effectiveness arises
from its high reactivity. However, it is recognised that the use of chlorine as a
disinfectant could also lead to formation of undesirable by products which could
potentially pose health risks as well as undesirable odours and tastes.
WHO has recommended 5mg/l of residual chlorine in domestic waters. There no
evidence however that it causes health risks.
Objective:
To determine the concentration of residual chlorine in a water sample
APPARATUS
Lovibond comparator, disc no 3/2A
Reagents
orthotolidine reagent, sample
METHOD
Two cells were filled with 10ml samples each and to one sample 0.1ml acid
orthotolidine added and the contents well mixed.
The sample turned orange.
The sample was placed in the right compartment and the other clear sample in the
left hand compartment.
The residual chlorine concentration was read by matching the colour standards of
the disc with the colour in the cell after 1 minute and after 5 minutes.
RESULTS
After one minute = 0.4mg/l
After 5 minutes = 0.3mg/l
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The concentration of residual chlorine was determined to be 0.4mg/l after one minute
and 0.3mg/l after 5 minutes.
This water can therefore be used for domestic consumption.

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6. CHLORIDES
Chlorides pose a concern in water as they can affect its applications.
In natural waters, chlorides result from chloride containing rocks and soils with which
the water comes into contact with. In coastal areas, it could result from salty water
intrusion.
In addition, agricultural, industrial and domestic waste waters discharged in surface
waters are a source of chlorides.
OBJECTIVE
To test the content of chlorides in a water sample
APPARATUS
Conical flasks, Pipette, pipette pump
REAGENTS
Potassium chromate solution, silver nitrate solution, sample
METHOD
To 100ml of water sample in a conical flask, 1 ml of potassium chromate solution
was added. The mixture was then titrated with standard silver nitrate solution with
constant stirring until a red precipitate was formed.
The volume of silver nitrate used was recorded.
RESULTS AND CALCULATIONS
Content of chloride in sample (mg/l) = ml of silver nitrate x10
=9.75x 10
=97.5mg/l
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
The concentration of chloride in the water sample was found to be 97.5 mg/l.
The WHO guideline for chloride ion is 250 mg/l. A goal of less than 100 mg/ l is
recommended.
The permissible chloride content of water depends on the sensitivity
of the consumer. Many people notice a brackish taste imparted by 125 mg/ l of
chlorides in combination with sodium, potassium, or calcium, whereas others are
satisfied with concentrations as high as 250 mg/ l.
Irrigation waters should contain less than 200 mg/ l. When the chloride is in the form
of sodium chloride, use of the water for drinking may be inadvisable for persons who
are under medical care for certain forms of heart disease.

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7. IRON
INTRODUCTION
Iron is found in most natural waters where it is dissolved from minerals usually under
conditions of deficient oxygen. It can also be found in treated waters as a result of
pipe corrosion and incomplete removal during treatment.
It can be found in various forms either as a suspension, colloids or even visible
particles.
It imparts a brownish colour and turbidity in water .It can also cause undesirable
tastes in water in high concentrations.
Iron in low concentrations has health benefits to human beings. Its concentration
should however be maintained at between 0.3-0.5mg/l(WHO standards.)
Objective:
To determine the concentration of iron in a water sample
APPARATUS
Separating funnels, Lovibond comparator, disc no 3/11
Reagents
Dil. HCl acid, potassium permanganate solution, amyl acetate alcoholic solution,
ammonium thiocyanate solution
METHOD
To a separating funnel, 5ml of water sample, 1ml of dil. HCl acid followed by two
drops of potassium permanganate solution were added and well mixed.

5ml of ammonium thonate solution and 10ml of amyl acetate alcoholic solution were
then added to the mixture above and shaken vigorously.
The mixture was then allowed to separate out and the lower layer discarded.
The upper layer was then transferred to a comparator cell.
The above was repeated for distilled water sample.
The two cells were then put in the comparator with the blank cell on the left and the
colours produced matched against the standard disc.
RESULTS
Colour matched at 0.002.
Mg/l of Fe = 200x0.002
=0.4mg/l
DISCUSSION ANDCONCLUSION
The concentration of iron was found to be 0.4mg/l which makes the waters iron
content meet the WHO standards.
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8. DISSOLVED OXYGEN(DO)
INTRODUCTION
One of the most important measures of water quality is dissolved oxygen. Oxygen,
although poorly soluble in water, is fundamental to aquatic life. Without free
dissolved oxygen, streams and lakes become uninhabitable to aerobic organisms,
including fish and most invertebrates. Dissolved oxygen is inversely proportional to
temperature.
The saturation value decreases rapidly with increasing water temperature. The
balance between saturation and depletion is therefore tenuous.
The amount of oxygen dissolved in water is usually measured either with an oxygen
probe or by iodometric titration. The latter method is known as the Winkler test.
OBJECTIVE
To determine the concentration of dissolved oxygen in a water sample.
APPARATUS
DO bottles, stoppers, pipette, arlenmeyer flask
REAGENTS
Manganous sulphate solution, alkali-azide-iodide, concentrated sulphuric acid, starch
indicator solution, standard sodium thiesulphate solution 0.025N
METHOD
The sample was collected in the DO bottles by displacing air in them. the stopper
was then replaced back carefully to avoid trapping air bubbles.
The stopper was removed and manganous sulphate followed by alkali-azide-iodide
solution added with the tip of the pipette well below the water level in the bottle.
The stopper was then replaced taking care not to trap any air bubbles.
The contents of the bottle were well mixed several times and the precipitate allowed
to settle.
A thick creamy precipitate was formed.
2mm of conc. sulphuric acid were then added to the bottle. The contents were then
mixed again till all the precipitate was dissolved.
203 mm of the resulting solution was measured and transferred to an arlen meyer
flask.it was titrated against standard sodium thiosulphate solution till the brownish
colour turned pale yellow. 1mm starch indicator was then added and a blue solution
was formed.
Titration was continued till the blue colour disappeared.
RESULTS
Initial volume=9.7ml
Final volume=19.2ml
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Sodium thiosulphate used =9.5ml
CALCULATIONS
Concentration of dissolved oxygen is equal to amount of sodium thiosulphate used.
Therefore,
DO concentration = 9.5 mg/l
DISCUSSION
Dissolved oxygen is essential in aquatic life systems and their survival. Its depletion
would lead to distabilisation of aquatic trophic balance. Its this oxygen that also
allows for organic breakdown through oxidation and hence determining the rate of
decay of these materials.
DO must therefore be present at all times and at sufficient quantities. Its
concentration is affected by temperature, organic matter content available among
others.

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BACTERIOLOGICAL EXAMINATION OF WATER
THE STANDARD PLATE COUNT METHOD
OBJECTIVES:
1. Study of coliform plate counts
2. Determine the concentration of coliforms in a given water sample
INTRODUCTION
The biological characteristics are if fundamental importance in the determination of
water quality.
A large number of infectious diseases can be transmitted in water among them
typhoid and cholera.
Although it would be desired to have water uncontaminated by pathogens,
determining the presence of these microorganisms and whether they are in high
numbers to pose a health risk is a relatively complex procedure since:
a) There are many pathogenic microorganisms each of which requires a specific
detection procedure and
b) Concentration of these microorganisms though large enough to cause health
threat may be so small as to make their detection impossible.
The solution therefore lies in the use of the concept of indicator organisms, which,
though not necessarily directly harmful indicate the possible presence of other
pathogens.
The indicator organisms used are of the coliform group, especially Escherichia Coli
(Faecal coliforms) bacteria associated with the digestive tracts of warm blooded
animals.
They are ideal since they are easily detected, generally harmless and do not survive
long outside their host.
In the plate count experiment, the bacteria that maybe present in the sample are
provided with suitable environment for growth. It is assumed that each colony grows
out of a single bacterium. Thus the number of colonies observed at the end of
incubation period is taken to be the number of bacteria present in the sample used.

PROCEDURE
The bacteria were distributed uniformly in the sample bottle by shaking it vigorously
by quick rotary movements of the wrist.
1 ml of sample was carefully and aseptically transferred to a tube containing exactly
9ml of diluent(quarter strength wringers solution) to make a 1 in 10 dilution sample.
The pipette was the discarded to a disinfectant jar, ensuring it was not reused.
Using a fresh pipette, the 1 in 10 dilution sample was well mixed by withdrawing
about 1ml from the bottom of the tube and ejecting it just above the liquid level
several times.
Using the same pipette used above, 1 ml of the 1 in 10 dilution sample above was
transferred to a second tube of diluent to make a 1 in 100 dilution.
The pipette was discarded and a fresh one used to mix the 1 in 100 dilution formed.
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The provided petri dishes were then well labelled with the group name, sample
source, date, incubation temperature (200 and 370) and dilution factor(0, 1, 2) so that
there was one plate for the sample and each dilution to be incubated in each
temperature.
Into each of two petri dishes 1ml of the sample was pipetted. Similarly 1ml of
quantities of each dilution was pipetted into the petri-dishes taking care of the correct
petri-dishes.
Into each petri dish, sufficient quantities of molten agar held at 45o in a water bath to
a depth of about 3mm was poured. The samples/ dilution were carefully mixed with
the agar.
The agar was allowed to set after which the petri dishes were inverted and
transferred to appropriate incubators.
After 24 hrs, the colonies that had developed at 37 were counted choosing a plate
with 30-300 colonies. After 72 hrs the colonies that had developed in the 20 were
also calculated.
The colour count/ml of each sample was calculated.
RESULTS
Dilution factor 0, colonies = 240 x100 = 240
Dilution factor 1, colonies = 24 x 101 = 240
Dilution factor 2, colonies = 2 x 10 2 = 200
DISCUSSION and CONCLUSION
The presence of faecal coliforms in a water sample does not prove the presence of
pathogens nor does the absence of coliforms ensure the absence of pathogens.
However it indicates that such organisms could be present. If a large number of
faecal coliforms are present, there is a high probability of recent pollution and the
water should not be consumed even though it might be safe.

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