9.welding Bonding Permanent Joints

Chapter 9
Welding,
Bonding, and
the Design of
Permanent
Joints
ME
Copyright The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display.
91
Welding Symbols
92
Butt and Fillet Welds
93
Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion
94
Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending
95
The Strength of Welded Joints
96
Static Loading
97
Fatigue Loading
98
Resistance Welding
99
Adhesive Bonding
ME
Overview
- A weldment is fabricated by welding together a collection of metal shapes, cut to

particular configurations.
- During welding, the several parts are held securely together, often by clamping
or jigging.
- The welds must
be precisely
specified on
working drawings,
and this is done by
using the welding
symbol as
standardized by the
American Welding
Society (AWS).
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Welding Symboles
- The arrow of this symbol points to the joint to be welded.

- The body of the symbol contains as many of the following elements as are
deemed necessary:
Reference line
Arrow
Basic weld symbols as in Fig. 9-2
Dimensions and other data
Supplementary symbols
Finish symbols
Tail
Specification or process
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Welding Symboles
- Figures 93 to 96 illustrate the types of welds used most frequently by

designers.
- For general machine elements most welds are fillet welds, though butt welds
are used a great deal in designing pressure vessels.
- The parts to be joined must be arranged so that there is sufficient clearance for
the welding operation.
- Since heat is used in the welding operation, there are metallurgical changes in
the parent metal in the vicinity of the weld. Also, residual stresses may be
introduced because of clamping or holding or, sometimes, because of the order
of welding.
- Usually these residual stresses are not severe enough to cause concern; in
some cases a light heat treatment after welding has been found helpful in
relieving them. When the parts to be welded are thick, a preheating will also be
of benefit.
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Welding Symboles
Fillet welds. (a) The number indicates the leg size; the arrow should point only to one
weld when both sides are the same. (b) The symbol indicates that the welds are
intermittent and staggered 60 mm along on 200-mm centers.
The circle on the weld symbol indicates

that the welding is to go all around.
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Welding Symboles
Butt or groove welds:

(a) square butt-welded on both
sides
(b) single V with 60o bevel and root

opening of 2 mm
(d) Single bevel
(c) double V
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Welding Symboles
Special groove welds:

(a) T joint for thick plates;
(b) U and J welds for thick plates;
(c) corner weld (may also have a bead

weld on inside for greater strength but
should not be used for heavy loads);
(d) edge weld for sheet metal

and light loads.
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Welding Symboles
91
Welding Symbols
92
93
94
95
96
Static Loading
97
Fatigue Loading
98
Resistance Welding
99
Adhesive Bonding
ME
Overview
Figure 97a shows a single V-groove weld

loaded by the tensile or compression force F,
the average normal stress is
hl
where h is the weld throat and l is the length of the weld.

- Note that the value of h does not include the reinforcement. The reinforcement
can be desirable, but it varies somewhat and does produce stress concentration at
point A.
- If fatigue loads exist, it is good practice to grind or machine off the reinforcement.
ME
The average stress in a butt weld due to shear

loading (Fig. 97b) is
hl
- For a typical transverse fillet weld as

shown, from a free body at angle the
forces on each weldment consist of a normal
force Fn and a shear force Fs.
- Summing forces in the x and y directions
gives
Fs F sin
Fn F cos
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- Using the law of sines for the triangle in the

figure yields
t
h
2h
sin 45 sin 135 cos sin
- Solving for the throat length t gives
h
t
cos sin
- The nominal stresses at the angle in the weldment, and , are

Fs Fs F sin cos sin F

sin cos sin 2
A tl
hl
hl
Fn Fn F cos cos sin F

cos2 sin cos
A tl
hl
hl
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- The von Mises stress at angle is
3
2
2 12
2
2 12
F
2
2
cos sin cos sin sin cos
hl
- The largest von Mises stress (differentiating the equation (f)) occurs at = 62.5
with a value of
2.16F
hl
- The corresponding values of and are

= 1.196F/(hl) and
= 0.623F/(hl)
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- The maximum shear stress can be found by differentiating the equation (d)
with respect to and equating to zero.
- The stationary point occurs at = 67.5 with a corresponding
max = 1.207F/(hl)
ME
and
= 0.5F/(hl)
- A model of the transverse fillet weld of Fig. 98 is easily constructed for

photoelastic purposes and has the advantage of a balanced loading condition.
- Norris constructed such a model and reported the stress distribution along the
sides AB and BC of the weld. An approximate graph of the results he obtained is
shown as Fig. 910a. Note that stress concentration exists at A and B on the
horizontal leg and at B on the vertical leg. Norris states that he could not
determine the stresses at A and B with any certainty.
- Salakian presents data for the stress distribution across the throat of a fillet
weld (Fig. 910b).
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Stress distribution in fillet

welds:
(a) stress distribution on
the legs as reported by
Norris;
(b) distribution of
principal stresses and
maximum shear stress as
reported by Salakian.
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- The most important concept here is that we have no analytical approach that
predicts the existing stresses.
- The geometry of the fillet is crude by machinery standards, and even if it were
ideal, the macrogeometry is too abrupt and complex for the methods.
- The approach has been to use a simple and conservative model, verified by
testing as conservative. The approach has been to
Consider the external loading to be carried by shear forces on the
throat area of the weld. By ignoring the normal stress on the throat, the shearing
stresses are inflated sufficiently to render the model conservative.
Use distortion energy for significant stresses.
Circumscribe typical cases by code.
ME
- For the model, the basis for weld analysis or design employs
F
1.414 F
0.707hl
hl
which assumes the entire force F is
accounted for by a shear stress in the
minimum throat area.
- Note that this inflates the maximum estimated shear stress by a factor of
1.414/1.207 = 1.17.
- Further, consider the parallel fillet welds shown in this Figure, where, as in
Fig. 98, each weld transmits a force F. However, in the case of this Figure,
the maximum shear stress is at the minimum throat area and corresponds to
Eq. (93).
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Under circumstances of combined loading we

Examine primary shear stresses due to external forces.
Examine secondary shear stresses due to torsional and bending moments.

Estimate the strength(s) of the parent metal(s).
Estimate the strength of deposited weld metal.

Estimate permissible load(s) for parent metal(s).
Estimate permissible load for deposited weld metal.
ME
91
Welding Symbols
92
93
94
95
96
Static Loading
97
Fatigue Loading
98
Resistance Welding
99
Adhesive Bonding
ME
Overview
- The figure illustrates a cantilever of

length l welded to a column by two
fillet welds.
- The reaction at the support of a
cantilever always consists of a shear
force V and a moment M.
- The shear force produces a primary
shear in the welds of magnitude
V
A
where A is the throat area of all the welds.

- The moment at the support produces secondary shear or
torsion of the welds, and this stress is given by the equation
Mr

J
where r is the distance from the centroid of the weld group to the point in the weld
of interest and J is the second polar moment of area of the weld group about the
centroid of the group.
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- When the sizes of the welds are

known, these equations can be solved
and the results combined to obtain
the maximum shear stress.
- Note that r is usually the farthest

distance from the centroid of the
weld group.
- The figure shows two welds in a
group. The rectangles represent the
throat areas of the welds.
- Weld 1 has a throat thickness t1 = 0.707h1, and weld 2 has a throat thickness t2 =
0.707h2. Note that h1 and h2 are the respective weld sizes. The throat area of both
welds together is
A A1 A2 t1d t2b
- This is the area that is to be used in equation of the primary shear.
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- The x axis in the figure passes through

the centroid G1 of weld 1. The second
moment of area about this axis is
t1d 3
Ix
12
- Similarly, the second moment of area
about an axis through G1 parallel to the y
axis is
dt13
Iy
12
- Thus the second polar moment of area of
weld 1 about its own centroid is
t1d 3 dt13
J G1 I x I y
12 12
- In a similar manner, the second polar moment of area of weld 2 about its centroid is
JG2
ME
bt23 t2b3
12 12
- The centroid G of the weld group is

located at
A1 y1 A2 y2
A1 x1 A2 x2
x
y
A
A
- From the figure, we see that the

distances r1 and r2 from G1 and G2 to G,
respectively, are
12
2
r1 x x1 y 2
2 12
r2 y2 y x2 x
- Using the parallel-axis theorem, we find the second polar moment of area of the
weld group to be
J J G1 A1r12 J G 2 A2 r22
- This is the quantity to be used to calculate secondary shear. The distance r must
be measured from G and the moment M computed about G.
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- The reverse procedure is that in which

the allowable shear stress is given and
we wish to find the weld size. The usual
procedure is to estimate a probable weld
size.
- The quantities t13 and t23 which are the
cubes of the weld thicknesses, are small
and can be neglected.
- Setting the weld thicknesses t1 and t2 to
unity leads to the idea of treating each
fillet weld as a line.
- The resulting second moment of area is then a unit second polar moment of area Ju.
- The advantage of treating the weld size as a line is that the value of Ju is the same
regardless of the weld size.
ME
- Since the throat width of a fillet weld is 0.707h, the relationship between J and
the unit value is
J 0.707hJ u
in which Ju is found by conventional methods for an area having unit width.
- Table 91 lists the throat areas and the unit second polar moments of area for the
most common fillet welds encountered. The example that follows is typical of the
calculations normally made.
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ME
ME
ME
b = 56 mm
d = 190 mm
= 10.4 mm
= 95 mm
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ME
ME
A rA
B rB
C rC
D rD
ME
= (2 + 2)1/2
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91
Welding Symbols
92
93
94
95
96
Static Loading
97
Fatigue Loading
98
Resistance Welding
99
Adhesive Bonding
ME
Overview
- A rectangular cross-section
cantilever welded to a support at
the top and bottom edges.
- The shear force produces a
primary shear in the welds of
magnitude
V
A
where A is the total throat area.

- The moment M induces a throat shear stress component of 0.707 in the welds.
- Treating the two welds of Fig. 917b as lines we find the unit second moment of
area to be
bd 2
Iu
2
ME
- The second moment of area I,

based on weld throat area, is
bd 2
I 0.707hI u 0.707h
2
- The nominal throat shear stress is now found to be
Mc
Md 2
1.414M
I
0.707hbd 2 2
bdh
- The model gives the coefficient of 1.414, in contrast to the predictions of Sec.
92 of 1.197 from distortion energy, or 1.207 from maximum shear.
- The second moment of area is based on the distance d between the two welds. If
this moment is found by treating the two welds as having rectangular footprints,
the distance between the weld throat centroids is approximately (d + h). This
would produce a slightly larger second moment of area, and result in a smaller
level of stress.
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- This method of treating welds as a line does not interfere with the conservatism
of the model. It also makes Table 92 possible with all the conveniences that
ensue.
Bending
Properties
of Fillet
Welds
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Bending Properties of Fillet Welds (continued)
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Bending Properties of Fillet Welds (continued)
ME
91
Welding Symbols
92
93
94
95
96
Static Loading
97
Fatigue Loading
98
Resistance Welding
99
Adhesive Bonding
ME
Overview
- The matching of the electrode properties with those of the parent metal is usually
not so important as speed, operator appeal, and the appearance of the completed
joint. The properties of electrodes vary considerably, but this Table lists the
minimum properties for some electrode classes.
- It is preferable, in designing welded components, to select a steel that will result in
a fast, economical weld even though this may require a sacrifice of other qualities
such as machinability.
Minimum Weld-Metal Properties
ME
- All steels can be welded, but best results will be obtained if steels having a
UNS specification between G10140 and G10230 are chosen. All these steels
have a tensile strength in the hot-rolled condition in the range of 410 to 480
MPa.
- One of the best standards to use is the American Institute of Steel Construction
(AISC) code for building construction.
- The permissible stresses are based on the yield strength of the material instead
of the ultimate strength, and the code permits the use of a variety of ASTM
structural steels having yield strengths varying from 230 to 340 MPa.
- Provided the loading is the same, the code permits the same stress in the weld
metal as in the parent metal. For these ASTM steels, Sy = 0.5Su.
ME
- This Table lists the formulas specified by the code for calculating these
permissible stresses for various loading conditions.
- The factors of safety implied by this code are easily calculated.
- For tension, n = 1/0.60 = 1.67. For shear, n = 0.577/0.40 = 1.44, using the
distortion-energy theory as the criterion of failure.
Stresses permitted by the AISC code for weld metal
*The
factor of safety n has been computed by using the distortion-energy theory.

Shear stress on base metal should not exceed 0.40S of base metal.
y
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- It is important to observe that the electrode material is often the strongest material
present.
- If a bar of AISI 1010 steel is welded to one of 1018 steel, the weld metal is
actually a mixture of the electrode material and the 1010 and 1018 steels.
- The weld metal is usually the strongest, do check the stresses in the parent metals.
- The fatigue stress-concentration factors listed in Table 95 are suggested for use.
These factors should be used for the parent metal as well as for the weld metal.
Fatigue Stress-Concentration Factors, Kfs
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Allowable steady-load information and minimum fillet sizes.
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91
Welding Symbols
92
93
94
95
96
Static Loading
97
Fatigue Loading
98
Resistance Welding
99
Adhesive Bonding
ME
Overview
ME
Static Loading
Fillet weld 50 mm long on both sides
1015 hot rolled base metal
Table 9-4
h = 10 mm
l = 50 mm
Eq. 9-2
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Static Loading
Eq. 9-1
Table 9-4
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Static Loading
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Static Loading
Table A-20
Table 9-4
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Static Loading
75*4
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Static Loading
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Static Loading
Eq. 8-56
Table 9-3
Weld metal: E70, Sut = 70 kpsi
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Static Loading
Weld metal
Eq. 9-3: assumed that F is
accounted by a shear stress
in the minimum throat area
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Static Loading
Base metal
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Static Loading
Table 9-4
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Static Loading
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Static Loading
Stresses in welded joints

in bending
r = d/2
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Static Loading
Eq: 5-21
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Static Loading
AISI 1018 HR steel
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Static Loading
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Static Loading
91
Welding Symbols
92
93
94
95
96
Static Loading
97
Fatigue Loading
98
Resistance Welding
99
Adhesive Bonding
ME
Overview
- In fatigue, the Gerber criterion is best; however, the Goodman criterion is in

common use.
- Recall, that the fatigue stress concentration factors are given in Table 95. For
welding codes, see the fatigue stress allowable in the AISC manual.
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Fatigue Loading
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Fatigue Loading
ka = aSutb
ME
288
Fatigue Loading
completely reversed
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Fatigue Loading
ME
Fatigue Loading
Type 1 Table 9-1
repeatedly applied
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Fatigue Loading
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Fatigue Loading
91
Welding Symbols
92
93
94
95
96
Static Loading
97
Fatigue Loading
98
Resistance Welding
99
Adhesive Bonding
ME
Overview
- The heating and consequent welding that

occur when an electric current is passed
through several parts that are pressed
together is called resistance welding.
(a) Spot welding; (b) seam welding.
- Spot welding and seam welding are forms of resistance welding most often used.
- The advantages of resistance welding over other forms are the speed, the accurate
regulation of time and heat, the uniformity of the weld, and the mechanical
properties that result. In addition the process is easy to automate, and filler metal
and fluxes are not needed.
- Seam welding is actually a series of overlapping spot welds, since the current is
applied in pulses as the work moves between the rotating electrodes.
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Resistance Welding
- Failure of a resistance weld occurs either by shearing of the weld or by tearing of

the metal around the weld.
- Because of the possibility of tearing, it is good practice to avoid loading a
resistance-welded joint in tension.
- Thus, for the most part, design so that the spot or seam is loaded in pure shear.
- The shear stress is then simply the load divided by the area of the spot.
- Because the thinner sheet of the pair being welded may tear, the strength of spot
welds is often specified by stating the load per spot based on the thickness of the
thinnest sheet.
- Somewhat larger factors of safety should be used when parts are fastened by spot
welding rather than by bolts or rivets, to account for the metallurgical changes in
the materials due to the welding.
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Resistance Welding
91
Welding Symbols
92
93
94
95
96
Static Loading
97
Fatigue Loading
98
Resistance Welding
99
Adhesive Bonding
ME
Overview
- The use of polymeric adhesives to join components for structural, semi-structural,

and nonstructural applications has expanded greatly in recent years as a result of
the unique advantages adhesives may offer for certain assembly processes and the
development of new adhesives with improved robustness and environmental
acceptability.
- The increasing complexity of modern assembled structures and the diverse types
of materials used have led to many joining applications that would not be possible
with more conventional joining techniques.
Diagram of an
automobile body
showing at least 15
locations at which
adhesives and
sealants could be used
or are being used.
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Adhesive Bonding
- Adhesives are also being used either in conjunction with or to replace

mechanical fasteners and welds. Figure 924 illustrates the numerous places
where adhesives are used on a modern automobile. Indeed, the fabrication of
many modern vehicles, devices, and structures is dependent on adhesives.
- In well-designed joints and with proper processing procedures, use of adhesives

can result in significant reductions in weight.
- Eliminating mechanical fasteners eliminates the weight of the fasteners, and
also may permit the use of thinner-gauge materials because stress concentrations
associated with the holes are eliminated.
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Adhesive Bonding
- The capability of polymeric adhesives to dissipate energy can significantly

reduce noise, vibration, and harshness (NVH), crucial in modern automobile
performance.
- Adhesives can be used to assemble heat-sensitive materials or components that
might be damaged by drilling holes for mechanical fasteners.
- They can be used to join dissimilar materials or thin-gauge stock that cannot be
joined through other means
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Adhesive Bonding
Types of Adhesive
- There are numerous adhesive types for various applications. They may be
classified in a variety of ways depending on their chemistry (e.g., epoxies,
polyurethanes, polyimides), their form (e.g., paste, liquid, film, pellets, tape), their
type (e.g., hot melt, reactive hot melt, thermosetting, pressure sensitive, contact), or
their load-carrying capability (structural, semi-structural, or nonstructural).
- Structural adhesives are relatively strong adhesives that are normally used well
below their glass transition temperature; common examples include epoxies and
certain acrylics. Such adhesives can carry significant stresses, and they lend
themselves to structural applications.
- Contact adhesives, where a solution or emulsion containing an elastomeric
adhesive is coated onto both adherends, the solvent is allowed to evaporate, and
then the two adherends are brought into contact. Examples include rubber cement
and adhesives used to bond laminates to countertops.
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Adhesive Bonding
Types of Adhesive
- Pressure-sensitive adhesives are very low modulus elastomers that deform easily
under small pressures, permitting them to wet surfaces. When the substrate and
adhesive are brought into intimate contact, van der Waals forces are sufficient to
maintain the contact and provide relatively durable bonds. Pressure-sensitive
adhesives are normally purchased as tapes or labels for nonstructural applications,
although there are also double-sided foam tapes that can be used in semi-structural
applications.
- As the name implies, hot melts become liquid when heated, wetting the surfaces
and then cooling into a solid polymer (the glue guns in popular use).
- Anaerobic adhesives cure within narrow spaces deprived of oxygen; such

materials have been widely used in mechanical engineering applications to lock
bolts or bearings in place.
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Adhesive Bonding
This Table presents important strength properties of commonly used adhesives.
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Adhesive Bonding
Stress Distributions
- Good design practice normally requires that adhesive joints be constructed in
such a manner that the adhesive carries the load in shear rather than tension.
Bonds are typically much stronger when loaded in shear rather than in tension
across the bond plate.
- Lap-shear joints represent an important family of joints, both for test specimens
to evaluate adhesive properties and for actual incorporation into practical designs.
- Generic types of lap joints that commonly arise are illustrated in Fig. 925.
- The simplest analysis of lap joints suggests the applied load is uniformly
distributed over the bond area.
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Adhesive Bonding
Common types of lap joints used in

mechanical design:
(a) single lap

(b) double lap
(c) Scarf
(d) Bevel
(e) Step
(f ) butt strap
(g) double butt strap

(h) tubular lap.
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Adhesive Bonding
Joint Design
Design to place bondline in shear, not peel. Beware of peel stresses focused at
bond terminations. When necessary, reduce peel stresses through tapering the
adherend ends increasing bond area where peel stresses occur, or utilizing rivets at
bond terminations where peel stresses can initiate failures.
Where possible, use adhesives with adequate ductility. The ability of an adhesive
to yield reduces the stress concentrations associated with the ends of joints and
increases the toughness to resist debond propagation.
Recognize environmental limitations of adhesives and surface preparation
methods. Exposure to water, solvents, and other diluents can significantly degrade
adhesive performance in some situation, through displacing the adhesive from the
surface or degrading the polymer. Certain adhesives may be susceptible to
environmental stress cracking in the presence of certain solvents. Exposure to
ultraviolet light can also degrade adhesives.
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Adhesive Bonding
Joint Design
Design in a way that permits or facilitates inspections of bonds where possible. A
missing rivet or bolt is often easy to detect, but debonds or unsatisfactory adhesive
bonds are not readily apparent.
Allow for sufficient bond area so that the joint can tolerate some debonding
before going critical. This increases the likelihood that debonds can be detected.
Having some regions of the overall bond at relatively low stress levels can
significantly improve durability and reliability.
Where possible, bond to multiple surfaces to offer support to loads in any
direction. Bonding an attachment to a single surface can place peel stresses on the
bond, whereas bonding to several adjacent planes tends to permit arbitrary loads to
be carried predominantly in shear.
Adhesives can be used in conjunction with spot welding. The process is known as
weld bonding. The spot welds serve to fixture the bond until it is cured.
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Adhesive Bonding
This Figure presents examples of improvements in adhesive bonding.
Design
practices that
improve
adhesive
bonding.
(a) Gray load

vectors are to
be avoided as
resulting
strength is
poor.
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Adhesive Bonding
Design practices that

improve adhesive bonding.
(b) Means to reduce peel

stresses in lap-type joints.
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Adhesive Bonding

9.welding Bonding Permanent Joints

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Chapter 9

Butt and Fillet Welds

Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion

Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending

The Strength of Welded Joints

- A weldment is fabricated by welding together a collection of metal shapes, cut to

- The arrow of this symbol points to the joint to be welded.

- Figures 93 to 96 illustrate the types of welds used most frequently by

The circle on the weld symbol indicates

Butt or groove welds:

(b) single V with 60o bevel and root

(d) Single bevel

Special groove welds:

(b) U and J welds for thick plates;

(c) corner weld (may also have a bead

(d) edge weld for sheet metal

Butt and Fillet Welds

Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion

Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending

The Strength of Welded Joints

Figure 97a shows a single V-groove weld

where h is the weld throat and l is the length of the weld.

Butt and Fillet Welds

The average stress in a butt weld due to shear

- For a typical transverse fillet weld as

Butt and Fillet Welds

- Using the law of sines for the triangle in the

sin 45 sin 135 cos sin

- Solving for the throat length t gives

- The nominal stresses at the angle in the weldment, and , are

Butt and Fillet Welds

- The von Mises stress at angle is

- The corresponding values of and are

Butt and Fillet Welds

Butt and Fillet Welds

- A model of the transverse fillet weld of Fig. 98 is easily constructed for

Butt and Fillet Welds

Stress distribution in fillet

Butt and Fillet Welds

Butt and Fillet Welds

Butt and Fillet Welds

Under circumstances of combined loading we

Examine secondary shear stresses due to torsional and bending moments.

Estimate the strength of deposited weld metal.

Estimate permissible load for deposited weld metal.

Butt and Fillet Welds

Butt and Fillet Welds

Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion

Stresses in Welded Joints in Bending

The Strength of Welded Joints

- The figure illustrates a cantilever of

where A is the throat area of all the welds.

Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion

- When the sizes of the welds are

- Note that r is usually the farthest

- This is the area that is to be used in equation of the primary shear.

Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion

- The x axis in the figure passes through

Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion

- The centroid G of the weld group is

- From the figure, we see that the

Stresses in Welded Joints in Torsion

- The reverse procedure is that in which