WHAT IS LOGIC?

Logic
From Greek word LOGOS study, reason or discourse
It is SCIENCE and ART of CORRECT REASONING
SCIENCE systematized body of truths and principles governing correct thinking
ART teaches how to make a good argument
CORRECT THINKING when it conforms to a pattern or to rules, involving analysis, definition, classification,
comparison and contrasts;
WHAT LOGIC IS
Logic is the study of the methods and principles used to distinguish correct reasoning from incorrect reasoning
NOT the science of reasoning
NOT the science of the laws of thought
Students of logic study methods for testing the correctness of reasoning of different kinds; and detecting errors,
fallacies or mistakes in reasoning
A STUDENT OF LOGIC ASKS THE FOLLOWING:
Does the conclusion reached follow from the premises used or assumed?
Do the premises provide good reasons for accepting the conclusion drawn?
NOTE:
If the premises do provide adequate grounds for accepting the conclusion, if asserting the premises to be true does
warrant asserting the conclusion also to be true, then the reasoning is correct.

Otherwise it is incorrect.

APPEAL TO EMOTION VS LOGICAL ARGUMENT

The appeal to emotion sometimes is more persuasive than logical argument, and in some contexts it may be more
appropriate as well.
But where judgments that must be relied upon are to be made, it is correct reasoning that will in the long run prove to
be the most solid foundation
Therefore, to efficiently distinguish correct thinking and use it (for our legal career), it is imperative that we study the
methods and techniques of logic.
BRANCHES OF LOGIC
1. FORMAL LOGIC
Concerned with the aspect of form which has something to do with the correctness or sequence or the following of
rules
Ex. All men are mortal. But Pedro is a man. Therefore, Pedro is mortal.
2. MATERIAL LOGIC
Concerned with the aspect of subject matter or content of truth of the argument
Ex. A ruler is 12-inch long. President GMA is a ruler. Therefore, President GMA is 12-inch long.

ESSENTIAL OPERATIONS OF THE

INTELLECT Mental Operations
Simple apprehension

Products

Examples

Concept
The representation of an object by
the intellect through which man
understands or comprehends a thing

Judgment

Proposition
A special type of sentence,
enunciation of truth or falsity

Reasoning

Agreement or disagreemnt

As to intention e.g. understanding

what the thing is according to what it
is in reality
Ex. A dog is an animal.
As to abstraction that which cannot
be perceived by the senses
Ex. Beauty in a woman
Ex. Every monkey is an animal.
No Monkey is a human.
Some monkeys are brown.
Some monkeys are not brown.
Arguments

WHAT ARE PROPOSITIONS?

Propositions are the building blocks of every argument
It is something that may be asserted or denied, which can be true or false
It is an essential feature of propositions that they are either true or false thus every proposition is either true or
false
Examples
Cabanatuan City is already qualified to be a highly urbanized city.
Cabanatuan City is not yet ready to be a highly urbanized city.

PROPOSITIONS
The same proposition can be used, in different contexts, to make very different statements.
Ex. The president of the Philippines is a child of a former president of the Philippines.
(True under the Presidency of PNOY & GMA, False under FVR)
Simple Propositions
Our previous examples are all simple propositions, asserting only one proposition per sentence.

COMPOUND PROPOSITIONS
They are those containing other propositions within themselves
Example
The British were at the gates of Hamburg and Bremen and threatening to cut off Germany from occupied Denmark.
(Compound propositions which do not assert the truth of their components)
Alternative (or disjunctive) propositions: neither of the two components is asserted, only the compound either-or
Example
Circuit Courts are useful, or they are not useful.
Hypothetical (or conditional) propositions: only the if-then proposition is asserted by the hypothetical or conditional
statement is asserted
Propositions are the building blocks with which arguments are made

INFERENCE AND ARGUMENTS

The term inference refers to the process by which one proposition is arrived at and affirmed on the basis of one or
more other propositions accepted as the starting point of the process.
An argument is any group of propositions of which one is claimed to follow from the others, which are regarded as
providing support or grounds for the truth of that one.
For an argument to be present, it must have a structure meaning there must be a premise and conclusion

THE PREMISE AND THE CONCLUSION

The conclusion of an argument is the proposition that is affirmed on the basis of the other propositions of the
argument, and these other propositions, which are affirmed (or assumed) as providing support or reasons for
accepting the conclusion, are the premises of that argument.
The simplest kind of argument consists of just one premise and a conclusion that is claimed to follow from it, or to be
implied by it.

POSITION OF THE CONCLUSION

Premise and conclusion, in that order, may each be stated in a separate sentence.
Example
The Philippines is a net energy importer. Therefore, it is a mathematical certainty that our country as a whole is better
off with lower prices for oil.
It may precede the statement of the single premise.

Example
The FDA should stop all cigarette sales immediately. After all, cigarette smoking is the leading preventable cause of
death.

ARGUMENTS: NOTES TO REMEMBER

Every argument, whether simple or complex, consists of a group of propositions of which one is the conclusion and
the others are the premises offered in its support
It should be emphasized that while every argument is a structured cluster of propositions, not every structured
cluster of propositions is an argument.
IS THERE AN ARGUMENT HERE?

The passage of the Responsible Parenthood Bill signals not only a new chapter in our agenda of inclusive
growth; it also begins a process of healing for the wounds that may have been opened by an often feisty
democracy. We are confident that positive, meaningful engagement between the different branches of
government will continue.
HOW ABOUT HERE?

Considering that banks can only act through their officers and employees, the fiduciary obligation laid down
for these institutions necessarily extends to their employees. Thus, banks must ensure that their employees
observe the same high level of integrity and performance for it is only through this that banks may meet and

comply with their own fiduciary duty. It has been repeatedly held that a banks liability as an obligor is not
merely vicarious, but primary since they are expected to observe an equally high degree of diligence, not only
in the selection, but also in the supervision of its employees. Thus, even if it is their employees who are
negligent, the banks responsibility to its client remains paramount making its liability to the same to be a
direct one.

RECOGNIZING CONCLUSIONS AND PREMISES

It is essential for the complaint to show on its face what are claimed to be the fraudulent corporate acts if the
complainant wishes to invoke the courts special commercial jurisdiction. This is because fraud in intracorporate controversies must be based on devises and schemes employed by, or any act of, the board of
directors, business associates, officers or partners, amounting to fraud or misrepresentation which may be
detrimental to the interest of the public and/or of the stockholders, partners, or members of any corporation,
partnership, or association, as stated under Rule 1, Section 1 (a)(1) of the Interim Rules. The act of fraud or
misrepresentation complained of becomes a criterion in determining whether the complaint on its face has
merits, or within the jurisdiction of special commercial court, or merely a nuisance suit.

RECOGNIZING CONCLUSIONS AND PREMISES

Petitioners were illegally dismissed as they were not afforded substantive and procedural due process. To
justify the dismissal of an employee on the ground of serious misconduct, the employer must first establish
that the employee is guilty of improper conduct, that the employee violated an existing and valid company rule
or regulation, or that the employee is guilty of a wrongdoing. In the instant case, Biomedica failed to even
present a copy of the rules and to prove that petitioners were made aware of such regulations.
CONCLUSION INDICATORS
Therefore
Hence
Thus
So
Accordingly
In consequence
Proves that
As a result
For this reason
It follows that
In conclusion

PREMISE INDICATORS
Since
Because
For
As
Follows from
As shown by
As indicated by
The reason is that
In view of the fact that
RECOGNIZING ARGUMENTS

Due process, as a constitutional precept, does not always and in all situations require a trial-type proceeding.
It is satisfied when a person is notified of the charge against him and given an opportunity to explain or defend
himself. In administrative proceedings, the filing of charges and giving reasonable opportunity for the person
so charged to answer the accusations against him constitute the minimum requirements of due process. More
often, this opportunity is conferred through written pleadings that the parties submit to present their charges
and defenses. But as long as a party is given the opportunity to defend his or her interests in due course, said

party is not denied due process. Since petitioner was given the opportunity to defend himself from the
charges against him, as in fact he submitted a Counter-Affidavit with the PAGC, though he failed to comply
with the order for the submission of position paper, he cannot complain of denial of due process.
ARGUMENTS BY DEDUCTION
A deductive argument involves the claim that its premises provide conclusive grounds for its conclusion
If claim is warranted, the reasoning in deductive argument is correct and we call that argument to be VALID.
If the claim cannot be sustained, the reasoning of a deductive argument is incorrect and we call the argument
INVALID.
Example
If Socrates is human, then Socrates is mortal. Socrates is human. Therefore Socrates is mortal.

ARGUMENTS BY INDUCTION
On the other hand, in inductive argument, the premises are not claimed to give conclusive grounds but only to
provide some support for the conclusion.
It may be evaluated as being better or worse, stronger or weaker, according to the degree of support given to their
conclusions.
The higher the degree of probability that its premises confer on its conclusion, the greater the merit.
Example:

Socrates is human and mortal. Plato is human and mortal. Einstein is human and mortal. It is therefore probably true
that all humans are mortal.

DISTINCTION: DEDUCTION VS. INDUCTION

Rests essentially upon the strength of the claims made by arguments of the two types about the relations between
their premises and their conclusions.
A deductive argument is one whose conclusion is claimed to follow from its premises with absolute necessity, not
being a matter of degree and not depending in any way on whatever else may be the case
An inductive argument is one whose conclusion is claimed to follow from its premises only with probability, this
probability being a matter of degree and dependent upon what else may be the case.

VALIDITY AND TRUTH

Truth and falsity apply to statements about the world.
Validity and invalidity apply to arguments in which inferences are drawn from some propositions to other
propositions.
TAKE NOTE:
An argument may be valid while one or more of its premises is not true.

PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE RELATIONS BETWEEN TRUTH AND VALIDITY

I. Some valid arguments contain only true propositions true premises and a true conclusion:

All mammals have lungs. All whales are mammals. Therefore, all whales have lungs.
II. Some valid arguments contain only false propositions:
All four-legged creatures have wings. All spiders have four legs. Therefore all spiders have wings.
III. Some invalid arguments contain only true propositions all their premises are true and their conclusions are true
as well.
If I owned all the gold in the Philippines, then I would be wealthy. I do not own all the gold in the Philippines.
Therefore I am not wealthy.

PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE RELATIONS BETWEEN TRUTH AND VALIDITY

IV. Some invalid arguments contain only true premises and have a false conclusion.
If Mr. Marcos owned all the gold in the Philippines, then Mr. Marcos would be wealthy. Mr. Marcos does not own all
the gold in the Philippines. Therefore Mr. Marcos is not wealthy.
V. Some valid arguments have false premises and a true conclusion.
All fishes are mammals. All whales are fishes. Therefore all whales are mammals.
VI. Some invalid arguments also have false premises and a true conclusion
All mammals have wings. All whales have wings. Therefore all whales are mammals.

PRINCIPLES CONCERNING THE RELATIONS BETWEEN TRUTH AND VALIDITY

VII. Some invalid arguments contain all false propositions false premises and a false conclusion.
All mammals have wings. All whales have wings. Therefore all mammals are whales.

These seven examples make it clear that there are valid arguments with FALSE CONCLUSIONS, as well as invalid
arguments with TRUE CONCLUSIONS.
Hence, it is clear that the truth or falsity of an arguments conclusion does not by itself determine the validity or
invalidity of an argument.
Moreover, the fact that an argument is valid does not guarantee the truth of its conclusion.

MATRIX OF ARGUMENTS INVALID ARGUMENTS

TRUE CONCLUSION
FALSE CONCLUSION
TRUE PREMISES
Example III
Example IV
FALSE PREMISES
Example IV
Example VII
WHY USE DIAGRAM IN ANALYZING ARGUMENTS
Diagramming facilitates understanding of an arguments structure.
Diagramming helps to see points of attack in criticizing an argument.

HOW DO WE DO IT?
Number the constituent propositions in the order of their occurrence in the passage, enclosed in circles, then let the
numbers appear in the diagrams, rather than the full sentences in which they are stated.

Put brackets around each proposition, with its circled number either above it or directly in front of it.
Place the conclusion below its premise, using the circled numbers. And use an arrow pointing at the conclusion.
EXAMPLE
[There must be simple substances,] [because there are composites. ]
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