TE312: Introduction to Digital

Telecommunications
Lecture #4
Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

Introduction
Points to be discussed in this lecture
Quantization and Encoding
Uniform Quantization
Non-Uniform Quantization

Bandwidth Requirements for PCM

Introduction
Reading Assignment
Simon Haykin, Digital Communications, John
Wiley & Sons, Inc., 1988, Chapter 5, Sec. 5.1,
Sec. 5.3 and Sec. 5.4.

Quantization and Encoding

The sampled signal m ( nTs ) of the message
signal m ( t ) , band-limited to B Hz is discrete in
time but continuous in amplitude.
Digital representation of m ( t ) requires: (i)
Quantization of the amplitude of a
sampled signal m ( nTs ) .
(ii) Encoding of each quantized sample
value resulting in a pulse code
modulation (PCM) system.

Quantization and Encoding

Amplitude quantization transforms the sample
amplitude m ( nTs ) into amplitude m ( nTs ) taken
from a finite set of possible L amplitudes.
Definition: When quantization of a sample
value m ( nTs ) is independent of sample values
m ( kTs ) , k n , the quantization process is
memoryless and instantaneous.

Quantization and Encoding

m ( nTs )

m (t )
Sampler

Quantizer

m ( nTs )

0110001
Decoder

m ( nTs )

Reconstruction
LPF filter

0110001
Encoder

m ( t )

Quantization and Encoding

The quantization process partitions the
amplitude range of the continuous-valued
samples into L intervals.
th

The l interval I l is determined by decision

levels or threshold levels Dl and Dl +1 i.e.

I l : { Dl < m < Dl +1} , l = 1, 2,..., L

All sample values that fall in I l are represented
by a target level or representation level Tl I l .

Quantization and Encoding

The spacing between two adjacent target
levels (or two adjacent decision levels)
l = Tl +1 Tl is the step size of the quantizer.
Definition: The quantizer is called a uniform
quantizer if l = Tl +1 Tl = for all l . Otherwise

it is a non-uniform quantizer.
Tl
Dl

Tl +1
Dl +1

Il

Dl +2
I l +1

Quantization and Encoding

In PCM system, each quantized sample m ( nTs )
is encoded into an R-bit sequence of binary
digits (bits) called a code word where R = log 2 L .
In binary coding, the l th target level is
represented
by
the
binary
equivalent
b1b2 ...bk ...bR of its ordinal number l 1.
With binary code, there may be a change of
more than one bit for two adjacent target levels
resulting in distorted receiver output due to
channel noise and interference.

Quantization and Encoding

A binary code b1b2 ...bk ...bR can be converted to a
Gray code g1 g 2 ...g k ...g R as follows:

g1 = b1
g k = bk bk 1 , k 2
With Gray code, there is a change of only one
bit for two adjacent target levels.

Uniform Quantization
The quantizer input/output characteristic for a
uniform quantizer is a staircase function which
can be a midtread or midriser.
Quantization process introduces quantization
error.
The input to the quantizer is modeled as a
sample value m of a zero mean random
variable M with pdf f M ( m ) and amplitude range
mmax m mmax .

Uniform Quantization
The quantization step size is given by

2mmax
=
L
Quantization noise q = m m is a sample value
of a zero mean random variable Q with uniform
pdf i.e.

1
- <q<

fQ ( q ) =
2
2
0
otherwise

Uniform Quantization
m ( nTs )

T7
T6
D1

D2

D3

T5

D4

m ( nTs )

T4
D5

T3

D6

D7

D8

T2
T1

m ( nTs )

Uniform Quantization
m ( nTs )

T8
T7
T6
D1

D2

D3

D4

T5

T4

D6

D7

D8

m ( nTs )

T3
T2
T1

m ( nTs )

Uniform Quantization
The variance (average power) of the
quantization noise q2 is obtained as follows

m
m
= q fQ ( q ) dq = q dq =
=
=
/ 2
/ 2
12 3L
3 2

/2

2
q

/2

2
max
2

2
max
2R

The average power of the message signal is

derived as follows
2
m

=
2
m

mmax

mmax

m 2 f M ( m ) dm

Uniform Quantization
The signal-to-quantization noise ratio becomes

3 2R
= 2 2
SNRq =
mmax

2
m
2
q

2
m

m
SNRq = 6.02 R + 20log
+ 4.7 dB.
mmax
A 6 dB improvement in SNRq is gained for each
bit added to represent the samples.

Uniform Quantization
Advantage of a uniform quantizer is that it is
simple to implement and is commonly used.
However, for fixed mmax , the SNRq deteriorates
with the decrease in the message signal
average power.
This is typical in the transmission of speech
signals where the input signals have a wide
variation in power levels.

Non-Uniform Quantization
A non-uniform quantizer maintains a constant
SNRq for a wide range of input power levels.
Weak
signals
are
assigned
more
representation levels (smaller step sizes)
whereas stronger signals are assigned less
representation levels (larger step sizes).
Non-uniform quantization is realized by using
a compressor the output of which is uniformly
quantized.

Non-Uniform Quantization
At the receiver, an expander is used to undo
the effect of the expansion at the transmitter
and the combination of the compressor and
the expander is called a compander.
m ( nTs )

y ( nTs )
Compressor

y ( nTs )

Uniform
Quantizer

x ( m)

y ( t )

y ( nTs )
Reconstruction
LPF

m ( t )
Expander

x 1 ( m )

Non-Uniform Quantization
law companding

y = ymax

ln 1 + ( m / mmax )
ln (1 + )

A law companding

sgn ( m )

A ( m / mmax )
m
1

sgn ( m )
0<
ymax
1 + ln A
mmax A

y=
1 + ln A ( m / mmax )
m

1
sgn ( m )
<
1
ymax
A mmax
1 + ln A

Non-Uniform Quantization

Non-Uniform Quantization
For law companding it can be shown that

3L
= 2
SNRq =

ln (1 + ) F 2
2
m
2
q

F E m
+1
+ 2


M
3L2
3 22 R
2
= 2
(for  1)
ln (1 + ) ln (1 + )

( F = mmax / M )

The law compander maintains a constant

SNRq for a wide range of the input signal power
as compared to the uniform quantizer.

Non-Uniform Quantization

R =8

Bandwidth Requirements of PCM

Let the bandwidth of the base-band message
signal m ( t ) be B Hz.
The signal is sampled at a sampling rate
f s 2 B samples/s.
Let the number of quantization levels for the
n
quantizer be L = 2 where n is the number of
bits per sample. The transmission bit rate
Rb = nf s = 2nB bits/s .

Bandwidth Requirements of PCM

The
minimum
transmission
bandwidth
required for the PCM signal BT = Rb / 2 = nB Hz.
The transmission bandwidth is much larger
than that of the base-band signal.
The quantization error decreases with the
increase in n .
The transmission bandwidth
increase with the increase in n.

requirements