KERALA SCHOOL OF ASTRONOMY

AND
DEVELOPMENT OF CALCULUS

M.D.SRINIVAS
CENTRE FOR POLICY STUDIES
mdsrinivas50@gmail.com

BACKGROUND TO THE DEVELOPMENT

OF CALCULUS (c.500-1350)
Zero, infinitesimals and infinity
Background
1) The concept of pra - ntimantra of opaniad.
2) The concept of lopa in Pini, abhva in Nyya and nya in
Bauddha philosophy.
3) nya as symbol in Chanda Stra (VIII.29) of Pigala (c.300BC)
Brahmagupta (c.628) on the mathematics of zero. The notion of
taccheda.
Bhskara II (c.1150) on the notion of khahara or ananta

Zero, infinitesimals and infinity

Bhskarcrya, while discussing the mathematics of zero in Llvat, notes
that when further operations are contemplated, the quantity being
multiplied by zero should not be changed to zero, but kept as is. Further,
when the quantity which is multiplied by zero is also divided by zero, then
it remains unchanged. He follows this up with an example and declares
that this kind of calculation has great relevance in astronomy.
What is the number which when multiplied by zero, being added to half of
itself multiplied by three and divided by zero, amounts to sixty-three?

[ - ]

Zero, infinitesimals and infinity

Bhskara, it seems, had not fully mastered this kind of "calculation with
infinitesimals" as is clear from some of the examples he considers in
Bjagaita, while solving quadratic equations by eliminating the middle
term (ekavara-madhyamharaa).

[ ]

[{0 (x + (x/2)}2 + 2 {0(x + (x/2))}]/ 0 = 15.

Bhskara in his Vsan just cancels out the zeroes and obtains x = 2.

Irrationals and iterative approximations

Background
1) ulva-stra approximation for square-root of 2.
2) ulva-stra approximation for .
Square-root algorithm in ryabhaya (Gaita 4) of ryabhaa
(c.499). rdhara (c.850) on approximation of square-roots (Triatik
46).
Nryaa Paita (c.1356) on approximating square-roots by the
solutions of varga-prakti (Bjagaitvatasa 88).
Approximate value of (accurate to four decimal places) in
ryabhaya (Gaita 11). Successive approximations perhaps by
doubling of the circumscribing square, octagon etc. doubling, and
cutting of corners (explained in Yuktibh and Kriykramakar).

Second-order differences and interpolation in computation of

Rsines
Computation of Rsine-table (accurate to minutes in a circle of
circumference 21,600 minutes) by the method of second-order
Rsine-differences in ryabhaya (Gtik 12, Gaita 12) of
ryabhaa (c.499).
Bj = Rsin (jh)
j = Bj+1 - Bj
j+1 - j = - Bj [(1 - 2)/ B1]
Bj / B1
Second-order interpolation formula for finding arbitrary Rsine
values in Khaakhdyaka (c. 665) of Brahmagupta.
Rsin (jh+) = Bj + (/h) [(1/2)(j + j+1)(/h)(j-j+1)/2]
= Bj + (/h)(j+1 + j)/2 + (/h)2 (j+1 - j)/2
= Bj + (/h) j+1 + (/h) ((/h)-1) (j+1 - j)/2

Summation of infinite geometric series

The geometric series 1 + 2 + ... 2n is summed in Pigalas
Chanda-stra (c.300 BCE). Pigala also gives an algorithm for
evaluating a positive integral power of a number in terms of an
optimal number of squaring and multiplication operations.
Mahvrcrya (c.850), in his Gaita-sra-sagraha gives the
sum of a geometric series.
Vrasena (c. 816), in his Commentary Dhaval on the
akhagama, has made use of the sum of the following
infinite geometric series in his evaluation of the volume of the
frustum of a right circular cone:
1/4 + (1/4) 2 + ...

(1/4) n + .... = 1/3

Ttklika-gati: Instantaneous velocity of a planet

Approximate formula for velocity (manda-gati) in terms of
Rsine-differences was given by Bhskara I (c.630) and he also
comments on its limitation (Laghu-bhskarya 2.14-15).
True velocity (sphua-manda-gati) in terms of Rcosine (as the
derivative of Rsine) is given Laghu-mnasa (2.7) of Mujla (c.
932) and Mah-siddhnta (3.15) of ryabhaa II (c. 950).
Bhskara II (c.1150) discusses the notion of instantaneous
velocity (ttklika-gati) and contrasts it with the so-called true
daily motion. He also evaluates the manda-gati and ghra-gati
(Vsan on Siddhnta-iromai 2.37-39).
Bhskara II notes the relation between maximum equation of
centre (correction to displacement) and the vanishing of velocity
correction (Vsan on Siddhnta-iromai, Gola 4.3).

Ttklika-gati: Instantaneous velocity of a planet

[ .- ]

[ . ]

Surface area and volume of a sphere

In ryabhaya (Gaitapda 7), the volume of a sphere was
incorrectly estimated as the product of the area of a great circle
by its square-root.
Bhskarcrya II (c.1150) has given the correct relation between
the diameter, the surface area and the volume of a sphere in his
Llvat.

In his Vsan commentary on Siddhnta-iromaiBhskara has

also presented justifications for these results. The surface area is
obtained by adding the areas of the sectors into which the
surface of the sphere is divided by a number of great circles
drawn at equal distance. Volume of the sphere evaluated by
summing the volumes of pyramids with apex at the centre.

NRYAA PAITA ON VRASAKALITA (c.1350)

ryabhaya, gives the sum of the sequence of natural numbers
1 + 2 + ... + n = n(n+1)/2
As also the result of first order repeated summation:
1.2/2 + 2.3/2 + ... + n(n+1)/2 = n(n+1)(n+2)/6
ryabhaas result for repeated summation was generalised to arbitrary
order by Nrayaa Paita (c.1350):

THE KERALA SCHOOL OF ASTRONOMY (c.1350-1825)

Kerala traces its ancient mathematical traditions to Vararuci. There are
speculations that ryabhaa hailed from Kerala. In the classical period,
there were many great Astronomer-Mathematicians in Kerala such as
Haridatta (c.650-700), Devcrya (c.700),
Govindasvmin (c.800),
Sakaranryaa (c.850) and Udayadivkara (c.1100). However it was
Mdhava of Sagamagrma (near Ernakulam) who pioneered a new
School of Astronomy and Mathematics
Mdhava (c.1340-1425): Vevroha, Sphuacandrpti, and a few tracts
are all that is available apart from citations in later works.
Paramevara of Vaasseri (c.1360-1455), a disciple of Mdhava:
Dggaita, Goladpik, and commentaries on Sryasiddhnta,
ryabhaya, Mahbhskarya, Laghubhskarya, Laghumnasa and
Llvat and Siddhntadpik on Govindasvmins commentary on
Mhabhskarya.

THE KERALA SCHOOL OF ASTRONOMY (c.1350-1825)

Nlakaha Somayj of Tkaiyr (c.1444-1555), student of Dmodara son
of
Paramevara:
Tantasagraha,
ryabhayabhya,
Golasra,
Candracchygaita, Siddhntadarpaa, Jyotirmms and Grahasphunayane Vikepavsan.
Jyehadeva of Parakroa (c.1500 - 1610), student of Dmodara: GaitaYukti-Bh (c. 1530 in Malaylam), Dkkaraa.
Citrabhnu (c.1475-1550),
Ekaviatipranottara.

student

of

Nlakaha:

Karamta,

Sakara Vriyr of Tkuaveli (c.1500-1560), student of Citrabhnu:

Karaasra, commentaries Kriykramakar (c.1535) on Llvat, Yukti-dpik,
Kriykalpa (in Malaylam) and Laghuvivti on Tantrasagraha.
Acyuta Pirai (c.1550-1621), student of Jyehadeva and teacher of
Nryana Bhatiri: Sphuanirayatantra, Karaottama, Rigola-sphuanti,
Malayalam commentary on Vevroha and a few tracts.
The school continued to flourish till early nineteenth century. Some of the
important works are Karaapaddhati (c.1700?) of Putumana Somayj and
Sadratnaml of Sakaravarman (c.1774-1839).

NLAKAHA ON THE IRRATIONALITY OF

One of the main motivations of the mathematical work of the Kerala
school is paridhi-vysa sambandha, obtaining accurately the relation
between the circumference of a circle. ryabhaa (c.499) had given the
following approximate value for :

[ ]
One hundred plus four multiplied by eight and added to sixty-two
thousand: This is the approximate measure of the circumference of a circle
whose diameter is twenty-thousand.
Thus, according to ryabhaa, 62832/20000=3.1416
Nlakaha Somayaji in his ryabhaya-bhya, explains that only the
approximate value is given as the traditional methods for the evaluation of
involve square-roots:

NLAKAHA ON THE IRRATIONALITY OF

Later, Nlakaha states that the ratio of the circumference to the diameter
of a circle cannot be expressed as the ratio of two integers exactly.
?

...

"Why then has an approximate value been mentioned here instead of the
actual value? This is the explanation. Because the actual value cannot be
expressed. Why? Given a certain unit of measurement in which the
diameter has no fractional part, the same measure when applied to
measure the circumference will certainly have a fractional part. ...Thus
when both are measured by the same unit they cannot both without
fractional parts. Even if you go a long way (by choosing smaller and
smaller units of measure) a small fractional part will remain. The import
[of sanna] is that there will never be a situation where both are integral."

NLAKAHA ON THE SUM OF INFINITE GEOMETRIC SERIES

Vrasena (c. 816), had made use of the sum of the following infinite
geometric series
1/4+(1/4)2+(1/4)n+.=1/3
This is proved in the ryabhaya-bhya by Nlakaha Somayj, who
makes use of this series for deriving an approximate expression for a small
arc in terms of the corresponding chord in a circle. Nlakaha begins his
discussion of the sum of the infinite geometric series by posing the issue
as follows:

?
"The entire series of powers of 1/4 adds up to just 1/3. How is it
known that [the sum of the series] increases only up to that [limiting
value] and that it actually does increase up to that [limiting value]?"

NLAKAHA ON THE SUM OF INFINITE GEOMETRIC SERIES

Nlakaha obtains the sequence of results
1/3 = 1/4 + 1/(4.3)
1/(4.3) = 1/(4.4) + 1/(4.4.3)
1/(4.4.3) = 1/(4.4.4) + 1/(4.4.4.3)
and so on, from which he derives the general result
1/3 - [1/4 + (1/4)2 + ... + (1/4)n] = (1/4n)(1/3)
Nlakaha then goes on to present the following crucial argument to
derive the sum of the infinite geometric series: As we sum more terms, the
difference between 1/3 and sum of powers of 1/4 (as given by the right
hand side of the above equation), becomes extremely small, but never
zero. Only when we take all the terms of the infinite series together do we
obtain the equality
1/4 + (1/4)2 + ... + (1/4)n + ... = 1/3
Nlakaha uses the above series to prove the following relation
between the capa (arc), jya (Rasine and sara (Rversine) for small arc:
Capa [(1+1/3) ara2 + Jy2 ]1/2

BINOMIAL SERIES EXPASION

In obtaining the accurate relation between circumference and diameter, the
binomial series expansion plays an important role.
Given three positive numbers a, b, c, with b < c. we have the identity

Now substituting for (b-c)/b on the right from the equation and iterating
we get after m

If we set [(b-c)/c] = x, the above is the well-known binomial series

BINOMIAL SERIES EXPASION

The derivation of the binomial series as well as the other results that we
discuss are found in Gaita-Yukti-Bha and Kriykramakar.
As regards the binomial series they note that there is no logical end to the
process of iterations and that one may stop after having obtained results to
the desired accuracy when the later terms will only get smaller and
smaller. They also note that the latter will happen only when (b-c) < c
(which is the condition for the convergence of the binomial expansion).

SUM OF INTEGRAL POWERS OF NATURAL NUMBERS

The derivation of the Mdhava series for also involves estimating, for
large n, the value of the sama-ghta-sakalita
Sn(k)=1k + 2k + ... n k
Explicit formulae were given by ryabhaa for k = 1, 2 and 3.
Sn(1)=1+2+...n=n(n+1)/2
Sn(2)=12+22+...+n2=n(n+1)(2n+1)/6
Sn(3)=13+23+...+n3=[1+2+...+n]2=[n(n+1)/2]2
Gaita-Yukti-Bh and Kriykramakar derive the following estimate for
the general sama-ghta-sakalita:

Sn(k)=1k+2k++nk nk+1/(k+1)forlargen
They also give an estimate for the repeated summation (vra-sakalita)

Vn(1)=1+2+3+...+n=n(n+1)/2
Vn(k)=V1(k1)+V2(k1)++Vn(k1)nk+1/[(k+1)!]forlargen

MDHAVA SERIES FOR

The following verses of Mdhava are cited in Yuktibh and
Kriykramar, which also present a detailed derivation of the relation
between diameter and the circumference:

The first verse gives the Mdhava (Leibniz) series

MDHAVA SERIES FOR

Mdhava also gave the cap-karaa series (Gregory Series) giving the cpa
(arc) associated with any jy (Rsine) [It is also noted that we must ensure
that numerator < denominator in each term]:

MDHAVA SERIES FOR

By using the capkaraa seires for an arc equal to one-twelfth of the
circumference (30), Mdhava gets a different series (later discovered by
Abraham Sharp) for the ratio of the circumference to the diameter:

For an arc s which is one-twelfth of the diameter

END CORRECTION TERMS

The Mdhava series for the circumference of a circle (in terms of odd
numbers p = 1, 3, 5, ...)

C=4d[11/3+....+(1)(p1)/21/p+...]

is an extremely slowly convergent series. In order to facilitate

computation, Mdhava has given a procedure of using end-correction
terms (antya-saskra), of the form

In fact, the famous verses of Mdhava, which give the relation between
the circumference and diameter, also include the end-correction term
C=4d[11/3+....+...+(1)(p1)/21/p
+(1)(p+1)/2{(p+1)/2}/{(p+1)2+1}]

END CORRECTION TERMS

Mdhava has also given a finer end-correction term

C=4d[11/3+....+...+(1)(p1)/21/p
+(1)(p+1)/2[{(p+1)/2}2+1]/[{(p+1)2+5}{(p+1)/2}]
To Mdhava is attributed a value of accurate to eleven decimal places
which is obtained by just computing fifty terms with the above correction.

MDHAVA CONTINUED FRACTION FOR

Both Yuktibh and Kriykramar give a derivation of the end correction
terms given by Mdhava, which involve a careful estimate of the error
involved in terms of inverse powers of comparison of the odd number p.
By carrying this process further, we find that the end-correction term 1/ap
can be expressed as a continued fraction:

Using the above correction term for p = 1, we get what may be called the
Mdhava continued fraction for :

2/(4)=2+12/2+22/2+32/2+...

Brouncker Continued Fraction (1656)

TRANSFORMED SERIES FOR

Adding and subtracting the end-correction terms, we can write the
Mdhava series for in the form:

By choosing different correction terms we get different transformed series

many of which are also converge faster than the Mdhava (Leibniz) series.
If we choose what may be termed the zero-th order correction divisor,
ap = 2p+2, we get the series

TRANSFORMED SERIES FOR

If we choose the first-order correction divisor given by Mdhava,

then we get the series

Yuktibh and Kriykramar do not discuss the transformed series when

we use the more accurate correction divisor given by Mdhava. We can
easily see that it involves the seventh powers of the odd numbers.

A HISTORY OF APPROXIMATIONS TO
Approximation to

Accuracy
(Decimal
places)
1

Method Adopted

Rhind Papyrus - Egypt

(Prior to 2000 BCE)
Babylon (2000 BCE)

256/81 = 3.1604

Geometrical

25/8 = 3.125

Geometrical

ulva Stras (Prior to

800 BCE)

3.0883

Geometrical

Jaina Texts (500 BCE)

(10) = 3.1623

Geometrical

Archimedes (250 BCE) 3 10/71 < < 3 1/7

Ptolemy (150 CE)

3 17/120 = 3. 141666

Lui Hui (263)

3.14159

Polygon doubling
(6.24 = 96 sides)
Polygon doubling
(6.26 = 384 sides)
Polygon doubling
(6.29 = 3072 sides)

Tsu Chhung-Chih
(480?)

355/113 = 3.1415929
3.1415927

6
7

ryabhaa (499)

62832/20000 = 3.1416

Polygon doubling
(6.29 = 12288
sides)
Polygon doubling
(4.28 = 1024 sides)

A HISTORY OF APPROXIMATIONS TO
Approximation to
Mdhava (1375)
Al Kashi (1430)
Francois Viete (1579)
Romanus (1593)
Ludolph Van Ceulen
(1615)
Wildebrod Snell
(1621)
Grienberger (1630)
Isaac Newton (1665)
Abraham Sharp (1699)
John Machin (1706)
Ramanujan (1910,
1914) Gosper (1985)
Kondo, Yee (2010)

2827433388233/9.1011
= 3.141592653592
3.1415926535897932
3.1415926536
3.1415926535.....
3.1415926535.....
3.1415926535.....
3.1415926535.....
3.1415926535.....
3.1415926535.....
3.1415926535.....

Accuracy Method Adopted

(Decimal
places)
11
Infinite series with
end corrections
16
Polygon doubling (6.227 sides)
9
Polygon doubling (6. 216
sides)
15
Polygon doubling
32
Polygon doubling
(262
sides)
34
Modified polygon doubling
(230 sides)
39
Modified polygon doubling
15
Infinite series
71
Infinite series for tan-1 (1/ 3)
100
Infinite series relation
/4 = 4 tan-1 (1/5)tan-1 (1/239)
17
Modular Equation
Million
5 Trillion Modular Equation

A HISTORY OF EXACT RESULTS FOR

Mdhava (1375)

/4 = 1 1/3 + 1/5 1/7 + ...

/ 12 = 1- 1/3.3 +1/32.5 1/33.7 +...
/4 = 3/4 + 1/(33-3) 1/(53-5) + 1/(73-7) - ...
/16 = 1/(15+4.1) -1/(35+4.3) +1/(55+4.5) - ...
Francois Viete (1593) 2/ = [1/2] [1/2 + 1/2(1/2)] [1/2 + 1/2(1/2+1/2(1/2))]...
(Infinite product)
John Wallis (1655)
4/ = (3/2)(3/4) (5/4)(5/6)(7/6)(7/8)... (Infinite product)
William Brouncker
(1658)
Isaac Newton (1665)

4/ = 1+ 12/2+ 32/2+ 52/2+ ... (Continued fraction)

= 3 3 /4 + 24 [1/3.8 1/5.32 1/7.128 1/9.512...]

James Gregory (1671) tan-1(x) = 1 x/3 + x2/5 - ...

Gottfried Leibniz
(1674)
Abraham Sharp
(1699)
John Machin (1706)

/4 = 1 1/3 + 1/5 1/7 + ...

/ 12 = 1- 1/3.3 +1/32.5 1/33.7 +...
/4 = 4 tan-1 (1/5) - tan-1 (1/239)

Ramanujan (1910, 1914)

RAMANUJANS SERIES FOR

One of Ramanujan's early papers is on the Modular equations and
approximations to . Though published later from London in 1914 (QJM
1914, 350-372), it is said to embody so much of Ramanujans early Indian
work. Here is a sample of his results:

Ramanujan also notes that the last series "is extremely rapidly convergent".
Indeed in late 1980s, it blazed a new trail in the saga of computation of

MDHAVA SERIES FOR RSINE AND RVERSINE

The jy or bhuj-jy of an arc of a circle is actually the half the chord
(ardha-jy or jyrdha) of double the arc. In the figure below, if r is the
radius of the circle, jy (Rsine), koi or koi-jy (Rcosine) and ara
(Rversine) of the cpa (arc) EC = s= r, are given by:
jy(arcEC)=Rsin(s)=CD=r sin
koi(arcEC)=Rcos(s)=OD=rcos
ara(arcEC)=Rvers(s)=ED=rrcos

NLAKAHAS DERIVATION OF RYABHAA RELATION FOR

SECOND ORDER SINE DIFFERENCES
We consider a given arc of arc-length s, which is divided into n equal arcbits. If s = r, then the j-th pia-jy Bj and the corresponding koi-jy
Kj, and the ara Sj, are
Bj=Rsin(js/n)=rsin(j/n)=rsin(js/rn)

[Cj Pj in the Figure]

Kj=Rcos(js/n)=rcos(j/n)=rcos(js/rn) [Cj Tj in the Figure]

Sj=Rvers(js/n)=r[1cos(j/n)]=r[1cos(js/rn)][Pj E in the Figure]

RYABHAA RELATION FOR SECOND-ORDER SINE-DIFFERENCES

Let M j+1 be the mid-point of the arc-bit CjCj+1 and similarly M j the midpoint of the previous (j-th) arc-bit. We shall denote the pia-jy of the arc
EMj+1 as Bj+1/2 and clearly Bj+1/2 = Mj+1Qj+1. The corresponding
Kj+1/2 = Mj+1Uj+1 and Sj+1/2 = EQj+1. Similarly, Bj-1/2 = MjQj, Kj-1/2 = MjUj and
Sj-1/2 = EQj. The full-chord of the arc-bit s/n may be denoted . Then a
simple argument based on trairika (similar triangles) leads to the
relations for Rsine and Rcosine differences

j=Bj+1Bj=(/R)Kj+1/2
Kj1/2Kj+1/2=(Sj+1/2Sj1/2)=(/R)Bj
Hence we have the ryabhaarelation for the second order differences in
the form derived by Nlakaha

j+1j = (Bj+1Bj)(BjBj1)=(/R)2Bj=(21)Bj/B

MDHAVA SERIES FOR RSINE

Yuktibhasa and Yuktidipika give the derivation of this and the Rversine
series by dividing the arc s into a large number n of equal parts and using
the relations between second-order Rsine differences (khaajyntara) and
the Rsines of arcs ns/j (piajys)

MDHAVA SERIES FOR RVERSINE

The verses giving the Rsine and Rversine series also note that the method
of obtaining accurate approximations to Rsine and Rversine values as
encoded in the mnemonics (also due to Madhava) Vidvn etc and Stena
etc, indeed follow from these series.

NLAKAHAS FORMULA FOR INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY

Instead of basing the calculation of instantaneous velocity on the
approximate form of manda-correction, Nlakaha Somayj uses the
exact form of the manda correction

=m+Sin1[(r0/R)(1/R)Rsin(m)]

Nlakaha gives the correct formula for the correction to the mean
velocity in his treatise Tantrasagraha.

Nlakaha gives the derivative of the second term above in the form
[{(r0/R)Rcos(m)}/{R2(r0/R)2Rsin2(m)}1/2][(d/dt)(m)]

ACYUTAS FORMULA FOR INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY

Acyuta Pirai in his Sphuaniraya-tantra gives the Nlakaha formula
for the instantaneous velocity. He also discusses an alternative prescription
for manda-correction due to Mujla (c.932) given by
=m+[(r/R)Rsin(m)]/[R(r/R)Rcos(m)]
Acyuta notes that in this model the manda-correction also depends on the
hypotenuse and hence the correction to the mean velocity is given by:





This gives the derivative of the second term above as
[{(r/R)Rcos(m)}{(r/R)Rsin(m)}2/{R(r/R)Rcos(m)}]
x [1/{R(r/R)Rcos(m)}] [(d/dt) (m)]